Chapter III Water and Soil Conservation

Chairperson - Father Hermann Bacher,

Chairman - WOTR, Ahmednagar
Co-ordinator - Dr.Prashant Nichal,
Director Soil Conservation & Watershed Management

Water and soil conservation and management so as to capture

and conserve every drop of water and to produce more crop and
income per drop of water and to preserve soil health in a manner
that farm productivity can be enhanced in perpetuity
INTRODUCTION:
The focus of this report is to work out a strategy so as to conserve and manage
both water and soil to enhance production as well as to provide sustainable
livelihood opportunities to the people, especially for those who are dependent
upon rainfed agriculture as their mainstay.
Maharashtra, the second largest state in
India, both in area as well as in
population, has very limited assured
irrigation capacity and around 84% of its
agricultural land is rainfed. Besides
this, the soil is of poor quality and the
degraded land consists of 42.50% of the
total area. Around 159 lakhs hectares
of area is drought-prone.

Major Concern- Resource Poverty

Limited assured irrigation capacity
Poor quality soil & degraded land
(42.50%)
Very large drought prone area
( 159 lakh Ha.)

Given this resource poverty, the best possible strategy is to conserve whatever
resources are available, whether it is soil or rainwater and create judicious
utilization of these.
In this context experience shows that watershed
development and management works as a good strategy to increase the
productivity of the land and the biomass base for other related agro-based
activities like dairy, etc.
This large-scale watershed development envisages activities on a war footing
giving priority to the most degraded areas first, but trying to cover the entire
rainfed land resources. This concept paper is an attempt to work out a strategy
to undertake this enormous task and sharing it with policy makers and like
minded individuals, organizations and govt. line departments.

49

STATUS OF RESOURCES IN MAHARASHTRA IN RELATION TO THE

WATERSHED PROGRAMME
Land Utilization Statistics of Maharashtra
Geographical details
Geographical area
Area under forests
Land not available for cultivation
a) Barren and uncultivated land
b) Land put to non agricultural uses
Other uncultivated land
a) Culturable waste land
b) Permanent pastures and grazing land
c) Land under miscellaneous tree crops and
groves
Fallow lands
a) Current Fallows
b) Other Fallows
Cropped Area
a) Net area sown
b) Area sown more than once
Gross Cropped Area

Area in 100
Hectares
3,07,583
53,655
17,015
12,387
8,882
13,405
2,219
11,319
11,385
1,77,316
44,231
2,21,547

(Source:- The Citizens Fifth Report-1999)

Annual Average RainfallEast Maharashtra

Marathwada
West Maharashtra
Some part of western Maharashtra
Konkan & Western Ghat

=
=
=
=
=

1000 to 1500 mm.

650 to 800 mm
500 to 750 mm
below 500 mm
2700 to 3000 mm

(Source Agriculture Atlas Maharashtra State 1991 92)

Total Number, Area and Average Size of Operational Holding in

Maharashtra According to Agricultural Census
Sr. Holding
No. Size
(Hectare)
1
2
3
4
5

Below 0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-3.0
3.0-4.0

Number of
operational
holdings
(In hundred)
16,672
16,075
27,276
13,969
7,289

Area of operational
holdings
(In 100 hectares)
4119
12057
39833
33689
25108

50

Average size
of holdings
(hectare)
0.25
0.75
1.46
2.41
3.44

6
7
8
9
Total

4.0-5.0
5.0-10.0
10.0-20.0
Above 20.0

4,469
7,241
1,530
176
94,697

19864
48700
19749
6129
2,09,248

4.44
6.73
12.91
34.82
2.21

(Source: - The Citizens Fifth Report-1999)

Area Under Principal Crops, Production and Yield Per Hectare in

Maharashtra (1999-2000)
(Area in thousand hectares / Production in hundred tonnes / Yield per
hectare in kilogram)
Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Crops
Rice
Wheat
Jowar
Bajra
Tur
Gram
Cotton
Groundnut
Sugarcane
Tobacco

Area
1,520
1,049
5,191
1,736
1,041
933
3,254
540
686
9

Production
Yield per hectare
25,588
1,683
14,361
1,369
46,926
904
17,340
653
8,681
834
6,000
643
5,269
162
5,721
1,059
5,31,404
90,053
110
1,196
(Source:- The Citizens Fifth Report)

Area Irrigated by Various Sources in Mahrashtra State

In 1000 hectares

Area irrigated

a) Wells
1,400
b) Other sources
1,168
c) Net area
2,568
d) Gross area
3,374
Intensity of irrigated cropping
131
Gross cropped area through irrigation
21,897
Percentage of gross irrigated area to gross
15.41
cropped area
(Source: - The Citizens Fifth Report-1999)

51

Livestock and Poultry in Maharashtra (1997)

Sr.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Type of livestock
In thousands
Cattle
17,949
Buffaloes
6,484
Sheep and goats
14,716
Other live stock
645
Total live stock
39,793
Sheep and goats per hundred hectares of
1,084
grazing and pasture land
Live stock per hundred hectares of net area
223
cropped
No. of Live stock per lakh of population
50
Total poultry
34,984
(Source: - The Citizens Fifth Report-1999)

Comparison of Agricultural Productivity: National v/s State

Average Productivity Percentage of irrigated area
Kg/Ha.
Nation
State
Nation
State
Food grains
1614
1058
40.5
12.4
Oilseeds
926
891
20.1
10.2
Cotton (lint)
265
173
34.8
3.6
Sugarcane (m.f.)
66.5
80.4
88.5
100
(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; Feb. 2001)

Crop Category

The table reflects less per hectare productivity in the state as compared to
the national average. The main reason for this is less percentage of
irrigated area for cultivation of crops.
Soil Degradation Status in Maharashtra:
Kind of Degradation

Water erosion
Water erosion+
Chemical
deterioration Loss of
nutrients
Chemical
deterioration Salinity
and alkalinity
Total Area

Degree of Degradation (Area in 000 Ha.) Total

Slight

Moderate

Strong

Extreme

Area in
000 Ha.
(%)

463.1
(1.5%)

6245.2
(20.3%)

4485.2
(14.6%)
173.9
(0.6%)

502.7
(1.6%)
129.9
(0.4%)

11696.1
(38%)
303.8
(1%)

169
(0.5%)

1056.6
(3.4%)

887.6
(2.9%)

463.1
7132.8
4659.1
801.6
13028.0
(15.2%)
(2.5%)
(42.5%)
(1.5%) (23.3%)
(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; Feb. 2001)

52

42.5% of the total land is suffering from different degrees of soil degradation and
water erosion is the major contributing factor. The watershed management
should concentrate on these areas where soil is lost through run-off and the
strategy should be to prevent soil erosion while at the same time conserving
surface run-off.
Present Status of Watersheds in Maharashtra:
No. of watersheds (classified by GSDA)
1505
Priority watersheds
793
No. of sub-watersheds
5773
No. of Mini watersheds
9853
No. of Micro-watersheds
44185
Total rainfed villages
35717
No. of micro-watersheds selected
31714
Area available for watershed development
207.38 lakh hectares
Area covered
61.14 lakh hectares
Balance area available for watershed
Development
146.22 lakh hectares
- Incomplete watersheds
50.21 lakh hectares
- New watersheds
96.01 lakh hectares
(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; Feb. 2001)
The strategy for watershed development during the next 25 years will be
based on the extent of area available for development, i.e. 146.22 lakh
hectares, of which 50.21 lakh hectares which is incomplete should be the
first priority.
GENERAL APPROACH FOR WATERSHED DEVELOMENT:

Only locally created institutions that are representative and active can
undertake poverty eradication and sustainable development, in a manner
which, not only improves the economic and social condition of the people, but
also transforms the resource utilization pattern to more sustainable one.

The objective is to prevent soil erosion, increase soil moisture, raise

ground water level, conserve and increase the biomass cover of the
area.
This would result in:
better production of land
would ensure availability of water for protective irrigation and drinking
increase availability of fodder, fuel and fiber

53

It would also help in adopting new cropping patterns since the perception
of risk involved is LOW.
In such a situation multiple crops are possible.

Watershed, being a natural unit where environmental and human claims are
played out, it provides the platform, the agenda and catalyzing impulse that
brings together diverse and competing interests. Thus watershed can be the
unit of intervention for further development of people and their resources.

RATIONALE FOR WATERSHED PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

A watershed is an intricate natural region in dynamic interaction with its
surroundings and its own sub region. It is influenced by humans and the
environment in varied manner according to local situations.
A watershed is a functional unit established primarily by physical
relationships. The impact of human-environment interaction follows the
watershed boundary and not any political boundary. Water flows down the hill
regardless of how people define their political boundaries.
A natural and social boundary such as watershed can enable planners and
managers to consider all inputs, processes and outputs systematically
something essential for a holistic development approach. Such an
approach is also logical from the economic point of view. Not only does the
watershed have a definite determining role in shaping basic economic
potential, it also determines which activities will be internally compatible.
Thus it is better to change the planning approach from the politicaladministrative boundary to micro-watershed / eco-region based approach.
This does not mean that the present day administrative boundary as a
planning unit will be done away with, it may acquire the federative nature What is definitely envisaged is that the watershed concept will be introduced
as integral components in the mainstream of activity. Thus the micro-level
development planning and resource management primarily covering the
resource conservation of land, water and bio-mass and secondarily covering
the resource use through agriculture, forestry, irrigation, hydro power, waste
land development etc. will have a watershed-based approach

54

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES:

TECHNICAL COMPONENTS
Our failure to properly manage the country's basic natural resources of land,
vegetation and water has been a major cause of our impoverishment. The
treatment must be from ridge to valley. There can not be an artificial division of
the forest and non-forest land, as well as private and community lands, while
applying various methods of treatment. Therefore, the issue of degraded and
wastelands has to be taken up to ensure that every drop of water and every
square foot of land is best utilized.
While taking due care of such "wasted" lands, we should not over look the need
to improve the efficiency of even non-degraded lands whether they are under
forest or agricultural cover. It is a matter of concern that even our good forests
are subject to illegal exploitation and that the sustainability of our agricultural
lands is threatened by the over use of irrigation, chemical fertilizer and pesticides,
besides being susceptible to depletion through diversion for other uses. Special
care should be taken to save both these categories of land from degradation.
To save the soil from erosion hazards a number of methods can be adopted.
1) Reducing soil erosion by water: Since water is one of the main agents which
causes soil erosion, measures aimed at preventing soil erosion by water are
also water conservation measures.
Reducing soil erosion by water generally involves the following measures
a)
for controlling and guiding runoff,
b)
reducing the impact of water on soil,
c)
allowing for greater infiltration by slowing down water flows,
d)
improving soil structure.
2) Perennial vegetative cover to control soil erosion The most effective
measures for soil and water conservation is to be create a perennial green
cover over the affected land.
One of the major factors contributing to soil erosion is the force with which
raindrops hits bare soil, loosening it and carrying away a portion of it with the
runoff that it generates. This is called 'splash erosion'. Roots of plants also act as
soil binders and prevent its washing away by rain and flowing water to a great
extent.
3) Vegetative barriers: Live hedges on field bunds, live contour hedges and strip
farming also work towards preventing soil erosion.
4) Agronomic and other measures: Contour farming and ploughing and mulching
also with other treatments like bunds, trenches and waterways help in preventing
soil erosion especially in arable land.
5) Gully erosions can be controlled through gully checks using soil, stones,
vegetation, etc.

55

Rainwater Conservation and Management:

Rainwater management mainly includes the conservation of water especially in
hill slopes, upland, mid land and low lands. Hydrologic components including
interceptions, infiltration, depression storage, overland flow and stream flow need
to be managed scientifically according to the various land situations prevailing in
the state.
The process, in which water enters the surface strata of the soil and moves
downward, towards the water table, is known as infiltration. The capacity of
formation to absorb water is known as its infiltration capacity. It is not a constant
factor and it not only changes with time but also changes with location. Each
factor, which affects infiltration capacity, should be considered to manage for
allowing more and more water to infiltrate in the ground to recharge the water
table.
Strategies of Water Conservation and Management in Arable Lands
Various water conservation practices can be adopted to achieve this objective:
(A) Reducing runoff amount through :
a.
Increased infiltration
b.
Increased time for infiltration
c.
Reducing rain drop impact and intensity
(B) Decreasing runoff velocity by:
a.
Reducing slope gradient
b.
Decreasing slope length
c.
Increasing roughness
(C) Adopting sustainable farming systems like
a.
Low cropping intensity
b.
Use of cover crops
c.
In situ water conservation
The following measures can be adopted for water conservation in arable lands:
A) Preventive measures:
a. Crop management
1. Early planting
2. Adequate stand
3. Crop rotation
4. Multiple cropping
5. Strip cropping
6. Balanced fertilizer application
7. Use of organic farming
8. Agroforestry

56

b. Water conservation through soil management

1. Mulch farming
2. Conservation tillage
3. Rough seed bed
4. Contour cultivation
5. Ridge furrow system of planting
6. Formation of tie ridges
7. Soil Conservation systems
B. Control measures:
a. Slope management through:
i.
Terracing
ii.
Contour bunds
b. Runoff management through:
i.
Surplus water disposal structures
ii.
Grassed Waterways
iii.
Soil Conservation structures
iv.
Rainwater harvesting
Measures for Groundwater Recharge
Groundwater recharge can be defined as the entry into the saturated zone of
water made available at the water table surface, together with the associated flow
away from the water table within the saturated zone (Freeze & Cherry 1979).
Groundwater recharge can take place in two ways (a) natural and (b) man-made
or artificial groundwater recharge.
(a) Natural groundwater recharge
Groundwater recharge that takes place in a natural condition through infiltration is
the natural groundwater recharge and rainfall is the most important source of
natural groundwater recharge. In the major part of Maharashtra, the maximum
fluctuation of ground water levels and the groundwater recharge takes palace
during south-west monsoon. Rainfall infiltration primarily depends upon duration
and intensity of rainfall, soil moisture characteristics, topographic slopes, land use
pattern, agronomic practices, weather conditions preceding, during, and
succeeding rainfall periods, and depth of water table. These conditions further
impose a limit on threshold value of rainfall required to affect groundwater
recharge.
(b) Artificial recharge
Any process by which man fosters the transfer of surface water into the
groundwater system can be classified as artificial groundwater recharge. Artificial
recharge may also be defined as the augmentation of the natural infiltration of
precipitation of surface water into underground formation by appropriate
methods, commonly at rates and in quantities in excess of natural recharge.
The methods of artificial recharge like water spreading such as dikes/checks
across natural channels, soil conservation measures, percolation tanks/ponds
etc.; recharge through pits and wells, induced recharge and accelerate

57

groundwater recharge through increased infiltration into the ground to

replenish/augment groundwater resources. It involves the storage and
conservation of surface water in times of plenty of importation/diversion of
surface water from areas of plenty to augment groundwater recharge.
Induced recharge is an indirect method in which increased recharge is obtained
by locating the means for groundwater abstractions nearer to areas of rejected
recharge or natural discharge e.g., lakes, streams or rivers, etc. It results in
lowering the ground water levels thus inducing more water to enter the ground
from the surface source. The selection of suitable artificial recharge method in
Maharashtra, will depends upon the prevailing hydrological characteristics of
aquifers, sediment in recharge waters, fluctuation in water levels and rate of
discharge. All the aforesaid techniques can be apply in the state of Maharashtra
according to different land and agroclimatic situations.
Watershed Approach for Rain Water Conservation
Watershed management is not merely anti-erosional and anti-runoff
approach but also a comprehensive, integrated approach of land and water
resources management.
The approach is preventive, progressive, corrective as well as curative. Hitherto
wasted land resources could be fruitfully harnessed into productive means
through in situ water and soil conservation which is envisaged under watershed
development. The conditions of land, water and other natural resources in a
watershed and the use that is made of them influence the rate and progress
made in a watershed. The chief objectives of the watershed management are:
A)
Conserving soil & water
B)
Improving the ability of land to hold water thus increasing the
moisture
C)
Rainwater harvesting & recharging
D)
Increasing biomass trees, crops & grasses
Methods of artificial recharge include:
Contour ploughing and other techniques
Contour hedging
Check dams especially in higher grounds
Percolation tanks
Water spreading
Recharge through pits, wells and dug come tube wells
Induced recharge from river flow
Spreading of wasted flows on wastelands
Explosion
(c)
Conservation of Overland Flow
Overland flow, stream head flow and river flow are the erosive components of
rainfall. Overland flow is taken care of by contour techniques of soil and water
conservation. Bunding and compartmentalizing using locally available material of
gully head for raising vegetation is optimal solution of soil and water
conservation.

58

Water Conservation in Nalas and Rivers

Planned approach to develop and conserve the nalas and river waters not only
fills the gap between demand and supply but also solves any complementary
problems on state and national scale as given below;
1. Check the flow during dry season
2. Recharges the groundwater of near by area of bank through dug
wells, dug cum deep tube wells
3. Conserves the soil through reduction of river erosion
4. Increases the soil moisture conditions in near by area
5. Controls the floods & concomitant recurring losses
Harnessing of unutilized river flows is mainly carried out through dams and
reservoirs. The Government has been doing in past in constructing the major
dams under the strain of limited resources. But, it is basic to commence the
harnessing with simple and economical practices like utilizing flood and base
flows, water harvesting, development of fresh waters from tidal rivers and
exploitation of groundwater from canals and command areas, for which the
details are not presented in this paper.
(d)
Surface Water Management
Following major points should be considered for surface water management for
crop production;
Diversion of water forStoring in natural depressions
Bunding in broad valleys with narrow necks
Greening the region
Power generation with small units to cater the needs of the region
Rainwater & groundwater harvesting
Improving drainage system through community participation
Integrated water resources management
In Maharashtra regions the applicable aspects should be followed giving prime
emphasis to rainwater harvesting.
(e)
Rejected Recharge
Huge quantities of the base flows of most of the rivers are let into the ocean. It is
very essential to organize these waters for the listed reasons:
Base flows are available in the lean months of Post-Monsoons
They are major source for greening around the year
Economical means for harvesting & salvaging water resources
Easily usable by simple pumps

59

Productivity-Oriented Hydrological Planning for Watershed Development

It is necessary to minimise unproductive evaporation in a watershed in order to
maximise and optimise productive water use for a watershed.
First, the fullest advantage needs to be taken of all possibilities of in situ soil
storage of moisture as well as of the topographical and geological features to
develop surface and subsurface water storage by reducing the period of
detention in the surface storage. Thus, the water required for summer irrigation
should be derived mainly from sub-surface storage. The period of surface
detention in the field should also be minimised in order to reduce the evaporation
losses from temporary water accumulation in the field and at saturated soil
surface.
Second, the productivity of water utilisation in terms of biomass should be
maximised (in terms of values & quantity) through an optimised biomass
production strategy. This implies that appropriate species of plants and a species
mix are chosen to match the water availability in the root zone. The water
availability in the root zone is determined both directly from utilised rainfall and
also from applied irrigation water.
Third, the optimized plan should first define the run-off areas, the
infiltration/detention and storage areas and adopt appropriate strategies for them.
Generally, watershed planning that does not have such distinction in mind aims
at a uniform policy of suppressing run-off as completely as possible. This often
turns out to be prohibitive in terms of cost, and also results in evaporation from
temporary accumulation and saturated surface in a very large number of
locations. Instead, it is needed to clearly delimit a runoff area, generally the
steeper undulating portions and portion in which soil cover and storage is poor. In
this area, the objective should not be to suppress run-off but rather to minimize
soil erosion while guiding the run-off towards the infiltration and storage areas.
Run-off area, infiltration/detention area, storage area, along with a suitable
cropping pattern or biomass production plan should then be worked out to
minimize evaporation loss.
The next component of hydrological planning would be the evaluation of ground
water storage potential and determination of extent of storage required to
stabilize production. An overall water balance for well-developed watershed can
be worked out by observing the crop areas and the ground water levels through
monitoring of existing wells or specially dug dry trenches or pits. By sampling
farmers fields and through a participatory appraisal, the irrigation water
consumption for various crops can be estimated, and this combined with a study
provides the possibility of arriving at an overall assessment of ground water level.

60

SOCIAL COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

A development action plan should be based on the basic needs of the people.
The following points include the most important factors of watershed
development Building on creativity energy Watershed development is community
development. It creates an environment which facilitates and releases the
dormant energies in interior rural villages. The togetherness and hence the
synergy of the community are harnessed to create a developmental potential
for all the watershed dwellers.
Facilitating role of external agencies Initially the community is not aware
about the complexity and the inter-sectoral linkages of the project. Hence
hand-holding is required and competent institutions with a people-oriented
approach should guide them to take their own responsibility and to develop
their skills and knowledge base. The organization should be a facilitator not
an implementor.
Capacity building - Capacity Building of stake-holders is an essential
component for planning, implementing, maintaining and managing the
developmental initiatives. The releasing of the creativity and energy of the
poor means opening processes in which the poor take the role of an active
subject. If the people are given the responsibilities for their own development
the capacity-building at the village level has taken place . Capacity building
can be through exposure visits to learn from each other, learning-by-doing,
learning and understanding concepts, systems and procedures, hands-on
training and through participatory monitoring of activities. People learning by
doing the work should be the backbone of any capacity building initiative.
Institution building and Responsibility sharing Institutions with clear-cut
authority and responsibility structures are essential for any rural development
activity since the external agencies are just facilitators of processes. In the
context of watershed the Gram Sabha with an executive implementation body,
the Watershed Committee (WC) should be the major institution with the
responsibility of planning, implementation, monitoring and management
including financial authority. Other institutions like Mahila Mandals, Forest
Protection Committees, etc. complement them in terms of social capital
necessary for developmental initiatives.
Community Responsibilities The community should be ready to take up
the responsibilities such as agreeing for social fencing (ban on free grazing in
treated areas, ban on tree felling) besides contributing in cash or kind towards
the partial cost of the project.

61

BEST PRACTICES TO BE ADOPTED FOR SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND WATER

CONSERVATION

Ridge-to-valley conservation including forest area which often falls in the

ridge area or in the upper catchment of the watershed.
Proposed land use and treatment based on land capability and farmers need.
Participatory micro-planning with each individual farmer aimed at blending
traditional and modern technology.
Contribution by the beneficiaries which will become part of a Maintenance
Fund for future care.
Decentralized and in situ conservation, rather than concentrating on major
structures on the drainage line.
Priority for land-based treatments.
Grazing restriction or controlled grazing on treated areas, especially in areas
under afforestation treatment and ban on tree felling.
Financial devolution to the community and Gram Sabha as the final authority.
Representative executive body the Watershed Committee (WC) which is
responsible for planning, implementation, monitoring and maintenance.
Local employment generation through watershed activities so as to create
livelihood means during project implementation.
Self-help promotion of women so as to build social capital and economic
independence and gender integration in project planning and implementation.

PRESENT SCENARIO OF WATERSHEDS IN THE STATE:

State-wise Details of Watersheds Under Different Programs
Schemes
No. of watersheds No. of watersheds No. of
started
completed
watersheds
incomplete
IWDP
22302
7048
15254
NWDPRA
917
646
271
WGDP
97
43
54
RBP
114
59
55
DPAP
856
132
724
Adarsh Gaon
645
100
545
EAS 50%
1582
189
1393
CAPART
78
0
78
IGWDP
116
41
75 (In progress)
Total
26707
8258
18449
(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; 2002)

62

Region-wise Status of Watersheds (in lakh hectares)

Region

Rest of
Maharasht
ra
Marathwa
da
Vidarbha
Total

Geog.
Area

Area
under
cultivation

Area not
available
for
watershed
dev.

Area
available
for
watershed
dev.

Area
treated

Balance
area

47.45
98.47
32.18
66.30
145.92 80.45
(47.44% (45.37%) (47.35%) (47.48%) (52.62%) (45.34%)
)
64.43
46.62
12.39
52.04
16.80
34.24
(20.95% (26.29%) (12.36%) (25.09%) (27.48%) (24.10%)
)
97.23
50.24
40.37
56.86
12.17
44.68
(31.61% (28.34%) (40.29%) (27.42%) (19.90%) (30.56%)
)
307.58 177.31
100.21
207.37
61.15
146.22
(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; 2002)

Region-wise Expenditure since 1991-92: (TOTAL EXPENDITURE: Rs. 2252 Crore)

Rest of Maharashtra

Marathwada

District

District

Expenditure
in Crore Rs.
Thane
101.85
Raigad
49.93
Ratnagiri
38.93
Sindhudurg
22.83
Nashik
123.23
Dhule
66.67
Nandurbar
12.83
Jalgaon
45.77
Ahmednagar
142.71
Pune
132.21
Solapur
197.74
Satara
80.91
Sangli
51.33
Kolhapur
47.11
Total
1134.05
(50.36%)

Aurangabad
Jalna
Beed
Latur
Osmanabad
Nanded
Parbhani
Hingoli

Vidarbha
Expenditure
in Crore Rs.
59.57
92.82
50.32
74.33
148.19
120.05
81.29
7.59

Total

634.16
(28.16%)

District
Buldhana
Akola
Washim
Amravati
Wardha
Yeotmal
Nagpur
Bhandara
Chandrapur
Gadchiroli
Gondia

Total

Expenditure
in Crore Rs.
43.48
52.50
2.96
54.70
26.13
57.75
63.93
58.03
66.40
53.85
3.91

483.55
(21.48%)

(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune; 2002)

63

Region-Wise Specificity and Approaches for Watershed Development:

Region-specific problems:
Sr. Region
Specific Problem
1. Very high soil erosion even though good plantation
1 East
cover
Maharashtra
2.
Intensity of rainfall is very high throughout the rainy
(Vidarbha)

Marathwada and
West
Maharashtra
(Drought Prone
Area)

Konkan

days.
3. Long dry spell between two wet spells.
4. High possibility of fire hazard in forest area, threats to
new regenerating species.
5. Siltation of reservoirs and tank.
6. Specific problem of salinity in Amravati, Akola and
Buldhana districts in a total of 4.69 lakh hectares of
area.
7. Low rainfall.
8. Very little forest cover.
9. Variation and late rainfall.
10. Uneven spread of rainy days.
11. Acute water shortage.
12. Recurring droughts.
13. Overgrazing and deforestation.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Soil erosion along hill slopes

High intensity rainfall.
Cultivation on steep slopes.
Coastal salinity.
Flooding of cultivated lands.

Proposed Land Use & Possible Area Treatments for Different Regions
1. East Maharashtra (Vidarbha)
Land Use
Treatments

Cross section

Crop

0.45 1 sqm

Cultivation

Graded Bunds /Farm Bunds,

Vegetative Bunds
Stone Outlets
Waterways
Farm Ponds
Earthen Gully Plugs

Horti-Pasture

AgroHorticulture

CCT
WAT
Gully Plug
Stone Bunding
Pits, Plantation (Horticulture Plants)
and grass seeding.
Graded Bund /Farm Bund, ,
Vegetative Bunds
Stone outlet
64

0.45 0.60
sqm.
As per site
requirement
1.5 - 2.5
sqm.
0.18
0.36 1
1
0.45 0.60
0.36 0.50
0.45 1 sqm

Maximum unit
per Ha.
250 400 rm.
100 rm.

As per site.
1200 rm.
100 rm
100 rm
600 or on
CCT
250 400 rm.

Pits
Plantation (Horticulture plants)
CCT
WAT
Stone Bunding
Gully Plug
Plantation.
Farm Pond.
LBS
Gabion structure
Vented Check Weir.
Brush Wood Dam

Reforestation

Drainage
Line

1mX1mX1m
0.18
1
0.45 0.60

100 nos.
100 nos.
1200 rm.
300 rm.
100 rm
600 nos.

For the East Maharashtra (Vidarbha) region, where the specific problem of
salinity is observed, salinity control measures have to be adopted which include
application of gypsum, rotovator tilling, sprinkler irrigation, contour vegetative
bunding, drainage trench, farm ponds, nala training, etc.
Marathwada
Land Use

Treatment

Crop

Contour Bund /Farm Bund,

Vegetative Bunds
Stone Out lets
Earthen Gully Plugs

Cultivation

Afforestation

Horti-pasture

Dry land
Horticulture

Drainage
Line

Plantation on bund
WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT)
Plantation
Stone Bund
Gully plug
WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT) / Pits
Plantation (Horticulture plants)
Stone Bund
Gully plug
Grass seeding.
WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT) / Pits
Plantation (Dry land horticulture
plants)
LBS
Cement Gully Plug

65

Cross
Maximum
section
unit per Ha.
0.45 1 sqm 250 400
rm.
1.5 - 2.5
sqm.

As per site.

1
0.18
0.24

300 rm
1200 rm
600 rm

0.45 0.60
1.00
1.00
0.18
0.24

300 rm

0.45 0.60
1.00
1.00
0.18
0.24

300 rm
1200 rm
600 rm
600 nos.
300 rm

300 rm.
1200 rm
600 rm
600 nos.

Nala Bund
Farm Pond
Check Dam
West Maharashtra (Drought Prone Area)
Land Use

Treatment

Cross section

Crop

Contour Bund /Farm Bund,

Vegetative Bunds
Stone Outlets
Earthen Gully Plugs

0.45 1 sqm

Cultivation

Afforestation

Horti-pasture

Dry land
Horticulture

Drainage
Line

Grass seeding on bund

WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT)
Plantation
Stone Bund
Gully plug
WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT) / Pits
Plantation (Horticulture plants)
Stone Bund
Gully plug
Grass seeding.
WAT (Water Absorption Trench)
CCT
RCT (Refilling of CCT) / Pits
Plantation (Dry land horticulture
plants)
LBS
Earthen Gully Plug
Nala Bund
Check Dam

66

Maximum
unit per Ha.
250 400
rm.

1.5 - 2.5
sqm.

As per site.

1
0.18
0.24

300 rm
1200 rm
600 rm

0.45 0.60
1.00
1.00
0.18
0.24

300 rm

0.45 0.60
1.00
1.00
0.18
0.24

100 rm
1200 rm
600 rm
600 nos.
100 rm

100 rm.
1200 rm
600 rm
600 nos.

Konkan and Western Ghat

Land Use

Treatment

Crop
Cultivation
Horticulture

Contour Bund /Farm Bund,

Vegetative Bunds
Pits
Plantation
Gully plug
Brush wood dam
Gabion Structure
Farm Pond
Vented Check Dam

Drainage
Line

Cross
Maximum
section
unit per Ha.
0.45 1 sqm 250 400
rm.
400 nos
400 nos

Besides these measures for soil and water conservation, enhancement of soil
fertility is also a major concern. From a high-cost external input-oriented
agricultural production, to an integrated nutrient management approach for soil
fertility can be thought of with inputs like bio-fertilizer and pesticides, organic
manure, compost, etc.
WATERSHED STRATEGY FOR THE NEXT TWENTY FIVE YEARS
As mentioned earlier, 146.22 lakh hectares of area could be brought under
watershed development. To achieve this goal, major policy decisions are required
in terms of funds, manpower and collaborative strategies. The major issues of
concern are:
Huge requirement of funds
Timely and adequate availability of funds
Large number of untrained field staff
Problems of contribution by beneficiaries
Regional differences and disparities
Role of NGOs in providing technical and social support
Coordination among line departments
For example, if we take just one aspect, i.e. the requirement of funds, with the
present per hectare cost envisaged under different govt. watershed development
programs, i.e. Rs. 6000 per hectare, only the treatment component would work
out to Rs. 8772 crores at the present price. The same is true in terms of the
availability of trained staff (social and technical) with the government and NGOs.
To overcome this, a phasing strategy is required besides convergence of different
centrally and state-sponsored as well as externally assisted developmental
programs. Besides this, priority should be given to the most degraded area
based on ecological indices, demand and satellite information.

67

Basis for Prioritizing Watersheds: (Incomplete watersheds)

Dark and
Grey
watersheds
316707

DPAP
Watershed
s
1188938

Tribal area
watersheds

Other area
watersheds

605720

724568

1281230

70536

812548

46002

352144

Vidarbha

904671

44311

330054

309534

220772

Total

5021634

431554

2331540

961256

1297484

Region
Rest of
Maharashtra
Marathwada

Total
incomplet
e area
2835933

(Source: Commissionerate of Agriculture, GOM, Pune;2002)

Of an area of 146.22 lakh hectares available for watershed treatment, 50.21 lakh
hectares of area which is incomplete should be the first priority. Dark and grey,
DPAP and tribal area watersheds should receive the highest priority. According
to the data available with the Commissionerate of Agriculture, Rs. 2511 crores is
required to complete soil and water conservation work in this area. If we take Rs.
6000 as the per hectare cost as per the present guidelines, it works out to Rs.
3012 crores. Besides this, as per the govt. estimation, an amount of Rs. 480
crore is required to treat 4.69 lakh hectares of saline affected area in East
Maharahstra districts of Amaravati, Buldhana and Akola.
The remaining 96.01 lakh hectares of area should be the next priority for
undertaking soil and water conservation activities. Again within the same, dark
and grey watersheds, DPAP and tribal area watersheds should receive first
priority. At Rs. 6000 per hectare, the total cost to treat this area would work out
to Rs. 5760 crores.
CONCLUSION:
Given the enormity of the task involved in undertaking soil and water
conservation in 146 lakh hectares of area in terms of finance, manpower and
technology, a well thought out plan is required. Areas which urgently require
conservation methods should be prioritized based on a five-year perspective and
resources have to be mobilized for both hardware and software components.
Convergence of different programs related to agriculture, horticulture and soil and
water conservation is required, besides involving different institutions and
agencies both private and public. A master plan is required which takes into
consideration both the micro and macro requirements, but local planning and
implementation should be based on active participation of the stakeholders.

***

68

Executive Summary
The Issue:
To increase the agricultural productivity and sustainable livelihood
opportunities in rainfed areas of rural Maharashtra, through
appropriate soil and water conservation technologies and agronomic
practices.
The Context:
In the state of Maharashtra:

Percentage of the gross irrigated area to gross cropped area is only 15.41
42.5% of geogiaphical area suffers from different kinds of soil degradation.
159 lakh hectares i.e. 52% area is drought prone.
Per hectare productivity of different crops (except sugarcane) is low in the
state as compared to the national average.
146.22 lakh hectares of area requires soil and water conservation
treatments.

Requirements:
Finance:

To treat 146.22 lakh hectares of area through different soil and water
conservation measures and agronomic practices, the financial requirement
is approximately Rs. 8772 crores at the rate of Rs. 6000/hectare which is
the prevalent cost norm.
This calls for convergence of different funding sources and departmental
allocations into a single kitty.

Human Resource:

At the implementation level expertise is required in the fields of

agronomy, engineering, community mobilization, livestock and
livelihood promotion, etc.
Even if a team of 4 persons is envisaged for 5000 hectares of area, total
requirement for 146.22 lakh hectares is around 3000 teams. If a five year
perspective is worked out, 600 teams are required for 29.244 lakh
hectares.
Collaboration and synergies have to be built between different line
departments, private and public institutions and non-governmental
organisations to perform this huge task. Coordination and management
also envisage personnel, policy formulation and institutional restructuring.

69

Capacity Building:
Enormous inputs are required for primary stake holders in awareness
building, concept of watershed management, project implementation and post
project management, institution building, etc.
Inputs and extension services are also required in the areas of sustainable
agricultural practices through low external input, integrated nutrient
management, integrated pest management and other alternative
technologies.
Besides this, the secondary actors/facilitators also require training and
capacity building to facilitate the processes and expected outcomes.
Institutions and expertise have to be identified to cater to the needs of this
capacity building effort.
Policy requirements:
Policies are required in convergence, exploitation and utilization of resources,
approaches and strategies

70