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Beijing
Aviation College
Training Manual
Jet
Aircraft
Maintenance
Fundamentals
Gas Turbine
Fundamentals
JAR-66
Book No:
Lufthansa
Technical Training GmbH
Lufthansa Base Hamburg
Beijing
Aviation College
ATA
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Turbo Jet
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Turbo Fan
Turbo Prop
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Force Equation
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Lesson 1
WHAT IS THRUST
On this test model we will now explore what thrust is.
You can see a small jet engine model which is free to move forward and
backwards.
The engine model is supplied with air by an external compressor. The quantity
of airflow to the engine can be changed by a control valve.
A pointer on the engine shows the generated thrust on a scale below. If the
airflow is constant, and you change the diameter of the jet nozzle the outlet
velocity changes.
If you install different jet nozzles on the engine model, you see what happens
to the thrust if the outlet velocity changes.
The nozzle with a small diameter creates a high outlet velocity and therefore a
high thrust.
A nozzle with a medium diameter creates a medium outlet velocity and therefore a medium thrust.
The nozzle with a large diameter creates a low outlet velocity resulting in a low
thrust.
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HIGH THRUST
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LOW THRUST
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AIR SPEED
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TURBOPROP ENGINE
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TURBOFAN ENGINE
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Bypass Ratio
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Propfan
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Thermodynamic Principles
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OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
ENGINE EFFICIENCIES
On a gas turbine engine the thrust is not the only important parameter.
It is also very important how efficiently the fuel energy can be converted of to
jet velocity and how efficiently this velocity can be used to push the aircraft
forward. This flow diagram shows the typical energy flow of a gas turbine
engine.
The thickness of the arrows shows the percentage of the energy flow.
You can see that the fuel energy that is put into the engine is used mainly for
compression. Another small part is used in the engine intake to make the ram
pressure.
The two energy flows are returned into the energy cycle.
The remaining energy is the part that can be converted into aircraft movement.
Unfortunately, not all of the energy from the working cycle can be converted
into aircraft movement.
A lot of of energy is lost because of the high temperature of the exhaust gas.
This heat can not be converted into kinetic energy. This energy is lost because
of the difference between aircraft speed and exhaust gas velocity. This arrow
shows the energy that is converted into aircraft movement.
You will understand the most important efficiencies of a jet engine if you
compare these energy arrows. For example, the internal efficiency describes
how much of the fuel energy is converted into exhaust gas velocity. In other
words internal efficiency is the kinetic energy divided by the fuel energy.
You can see that the kinetic energy splits into two parts. One part is the
propulsive energy. The other part is the energy loss which is the result of the
difference in aircraft speed and exhaust gas velocities. If you compare these
two energy parts you get the external efficiency.
The external efficiency is also named propulsive efficiency. It shows how much
of the kinetic energy is converted into aircraft movement.
The external efficiency mainly depends on the aircraft speed and the exhaust
gas velocity.
The total efficiency of a gas turbine engine is the product of its internal and its
external efficiency. It shows how much of the fuel energy is converted into
aircraft movement.
Or you can also say that the total efficiency is the propulsive energy divided by
the fuel energy.
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PRESSURE RATIOS
The internal efficiency depends on the combustion temperature and on the
pressure ratio of the working cycle.
The pressure ratio is the pressure relationship between two different areas in
an engine.
The term pressure ratio is usually used to describe the factor by which the
engine compressor increases the incoming air pressure.
The compressor pressure ratio mainly depends on the size and type of the
engine compressor.
On modern aircraft engines compressor pressure ratios of up to 40 to 1 are
possible. This means that the compressor discharge pressure is 40 times
higher than the compressor inlet pressure.
You can see that the compressor pressure ratio can be increased if you add
compressor stages.
The term overall pressure ratio is used on engines with more than one
compressor. It shows the pressure increase over all the compressors.
A high pressure ratio gives the engine more energy at the turbine and jet
nozzle. Therefore high pressure ratios are necessary on aircraft engines.
You can say that the higher the pressure ratio, the better the engine can use
the fuel energy. This is because gases do work more efficiently if they expand
over a high pressure ratio.
High pressure ratios have two main disadvantages.
One disadvantage is that you need a large compressor to make the high
pressure ratios. This results in a high engine weight.
The other disadvantage is the high compressor discharge temperature which
results from the compression. To understand why high compressor discharge
temperatures are not wanted let us first look at an example.
With a pressure ratio of 12 to 1 the compressor discharge temperature on this
engine would be approximately 2505 C.
We now add 3000 kg of fuel per hour to get the maximum power from this
engine.
The turbine inlet temperature is sufficiently low for safe engine operation. If you
now add more fuel, the gas temperature in the turbine goes above its critical
point and the turbine will be destroyed.
The turbine inlet temperature must always be below the limit of the turbine
materials. If the turbine inlet temperature is near to this limit, you have a good
compromise between maximum efficiency and safe engine operation.
High pressure ratios limit the quantity of fuel that can be added for
combustion.
Therefore, high pressure ratios make sense only if the turbine inlet temperature
can also be increased.
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Pressure Ratio
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ENGINE RATINGS
The turbine gas temperatures that are indicated in the cockpit are named
Exhaust Gas Temperatures or just EGT.
These temperatures are closely monitored by the pilots because
overtemperatures can quickly destroy the turbine components.
If overtemperatures happen, they must be recorded in the technical log book
so that corrective maintenance actions can be done.
The service life of an engine can be increased, if the exhaust gas temperatures
are always kept as low as possible.
Therefore the engine manufacturers try to limit high exhaust gas temperatures.
These limitations for the engine operation are known as engine ratings.
The flight crew selects these ratings by the throttle levers.
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THRUST RATINGS
There are five major thrust ratings used on modern aircraft, these are:
: maximum take--off thrust,
: maximum go--around thrust
: maximum continuous thrust,
: maximum climb thrust,
: maximum cruise thrust
Maximum take--off thrust rating is the highest thrust that an engine is permitted
to supply for take--off. This setting is only permitted for a few minutes, because
of the high stress to the engine.
Maximum go--around thrust rating is the highest thrust that an engine is
permitted to supply for an aircraft go--around. It has the same rating as
maximum take--off thrust and it is also limited for a few minutes.
Maximum continuous thrust rating is the highest thrust that an engine is
permitted to supply without time limitations. This thrust setting is only used in
an emergency.
Maximum climb thrust rating is lower than the take--off thrust. This thrust
setting is only used for the climb until the cruising speed is reached.
Maximum cruise thrust rating is the highest thrust limit for normal cruise flight.
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Thrust Ratings
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FLAT RATING
Another rating on civil aircraft is the so named flat rating.
It is used to increase the service life of an engine.
The flat rating is a fixed limitation for the maximum thrust of an engine. To
understand this term, let us first look at the normal operation of a jet engine.
This thrust temperature diagram shows how the thrust changes when the
ambient temperature changes.
With the engine throttle lever in a given position, the engine gives more thrust
on a cold day and less thrust on a warm day.
An engine that gives maximum take--off thrust at 0 C, cannot make sufficient
thrust at higher temperatures. On the other hand, an engine which gives
maximum take--off thrust at 50 C is bigger than necessary for most other
operating conditions.
Because of this, most modern engines can make the maximum take--off thrust
at temperatures of up to 30 C to 40 C.
This upper temperature limit is named the flat rate temperature. A flat rated
engine gives a constant thrust at all ambient conditions below this flat rate
temperature.
Flat rating stops the pilot using the maximum possible thrust on cold days. It
makes sure that the necessary thrust for safe take--off and climb is available.
This increases the service life on the engine.
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Thrust Measuring by N 1
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Air Disturbance
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COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS
There are two ways to compress air in engines.
You can decrease the volume in a cylinder by a piston or you can make use of
Bernoullis Principle again to get compressed air. This is the method which is
used in the compressors of gas turbine engines.
The compressor of a gas turbine engine supplies a continuous flow of air to the
engine combustor.
The compressor has two main components. The compressor rotor and the
compressor stator. Each rotor has rotor blades mounted on it.
As it rotates around the axis of the compressor the rotor blades suck in air and
then push it to the outlet side of the rotor. This action increases the energy of
the airflow.
The compressor stator is a fixed component. The stator also has blades
attached to it, which are named stator vanes. The stator vanes guide and slow
the airflow to cause an increase in pressure.
The combination of a rotor and stator is named a compressor stage.
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Compressor Components
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COMPRESSOR STALL
The angle of attack changes if the rotor speed or the inlet velocity changes.
At a given rotor speed the angle of attack increases when the inlet air velocity
decreases. If this occurs, the airflow separates from the compressor airfoils
and causes a turbulent vortex.
This airflow separation is named compressor stall. Compressor stall changes
the proper airflow in the compressor. It causes the airflow to slow down, stop or
even reverse its direction. Stall can occur at some airfoils only. It is then weak
and almost unnoticeable. It can also occur at one or more compressor stages.
The engine then runs roughly and the rotor speed decreases slightly.
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Compressor Stall
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COMPRESSOR SURGE
If the stall becomes stronger it can affect all compressor stages.
This condition, named compressor surge, will be shown in more detail in the
next segment.
Compressor surge is a very severe form of a compressor stall.
It is generated as follows:
: A rapid decrease of airflow causes stall on some blades or stages.
The stall causes a blockage in the airflow which leads to a stronger stall in the
subsequent stages. This causes low pressure zones in which the airflow comes
to a stop and reverses its direction.
Surge can happen on all engine compressors. It can occur in the forward or in
the aft compressor stages.
Surge in the forward stages usually affects only a part of the compressor
blades. This is because of the bigger dimensions of the blades.
The effect on the compressor operation is not very dangerous.
Surge in the aft stages develops very rapidly over a large part of the
compressor. This behavior is supported by the high pressure in the aft stages
and by the short compressor blades.
At a compressor surge in the aft stages the airflow decreases rapidly and
causes a strong reverse flow. In the extreme, this reverse flow could be from
the combustion chamber back to the engine inlet.
The reverse flow removes the low pressure zones and stops the stall on the
compressor blades.
The correct airflow can now build up again but if the reason for the compressor
surge is still there, the surge process starts again.
During compressor surge the airflow collapses and builds up again at very
short intervals. It is usually very strong and comes with heavy vibrations and
loud bang noises.
The thrust decreases, the engine speed fluctuates and the exhaust gas
temperature increases.
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Compressor Surge
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The compressor does not stall and it always operates at an optimum efficiency.
The disadvantage is that it needs a very complicated control mechanism.
The operation of the variable stator vane system will be explained in detail in
the power plant course.
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COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
PURPOSE AND REQUIREMENTS
The function of the combustion chamber is to produce a hot stream of gas for
the turbines and for the jet nozzle.
It produces this stream of hot gas by the continuous combustion of a fuel--air
mixture.
Combustion is a very difficult process on aircraft engines because of many opposing factors and requirements.
For a safe and efficient operation of the engine the combustion chamber must
fulfill the following requirements. It must permit safe ignition of the fuel air mixture on ground and in flight and give stable combustion in all operating conditions of the engine.
The combustion must also be complete. This means, that no unburned fuel
should leave the combustion chamber.
Other combustion chamber requirements are to give equal temperature
distribution at the combustion chamber outlet. This is important for the first
turbine stage.
Combustion should happen with a minimum of pressure loss in the combustion
chamber to increase the engine efficiency.
The combustion chamber must be as small and light as possible to save weight
and it must have a dependable cooling system for all materials which get in
contact with the hot gas flow.
Finally it should have a high operating lifetime because the replacement of
these engine components is very time consuming.
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Combustion Requirements
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COMBUSTION PROCESS
Compressed air enters the combustion chamber. Fuel nozzles spray the fuel
into the center of this airflow.
The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the airflow.
The fuel air mixture is then electrically ignited by an igniter plug.
After the combustion has been started, the ignition will be switched off. The
combustion continues because fuel and air is continuously supplied to the
combustion chamber.
There is stable combustion as long as fuel and air are supplied to the
combustion chamber.
Two primary conditions are necessary for correct and safe combustion.
First, the ratio of air and fuel must be correct and second the air velocity must
be slow enough to make sure that the combustion is completed inside the
combustion chamber.
For complete combustion of a kerosene / air mixture we need a ratio of 15
parts of air for 1 part of fuel.
For this reason the airflow which comes from the compressor is split into two
parts:
: the primary airflow
: the secondary airflow.
The primary airflow is used for the combustion process. This is approximately
20 to 30 % of the airflow from the compressor.
The rest of the airflow bypasses the primary combustion zone and mixes with
the hot gas in the dilution zone of the combustion chamber. The primary zone
is where the flame stabilizes.
In this area some of the secondary air is used to keep the flame away from the
flame tube walls. This is necessary because the temperature in the center of
the flame reaches approximately 2000 degrees Celsius.
The secondary air is mainly used for cooling because combustion chamber
material would melt at these high temperatures.
Most of the secondary airflow enters the dilution zone of the flame tube via
dilution air holes.
The forward part of the combustion chamber and at the duct between the
compressor outlet and the combustion chamber inlet are shaped like a diffuser.
For correct combustion, we must have low velocity airflow in the flame tube.
This is needed to stabilize the flame. It also makes sure that the combustion
process finishes in the primary zone and not in secondary zone or in the
turbine.
The airflow that comes from the compressor has a velocity of approximately
150 m/s. This velocity is much too high for the combustion process, because it
would blow the flame out of the combustion chamber.
The diffuser decreases the velocity down to approximately 25 m/s. Even a
velocity of 25 m/s is too high for the combustion process.
The velocity for the combustion of a kerosene--air mixture should be in the
range of 2 to 15 m/s.
The velocity in the forward part of the combustion chamber is further
decreased by restrictors and by swirl vanes.
These components cause a vortex in the airflow which also helps to mix the
fuel and air.
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T
Low
Airflow
Velocity
~ 2--15 m/s
~ 25 m/s
~ 150 m/s
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Combustion Process
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Annular Combustor
Can - Annular
Can - Type
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Lesson 6
Figure 61
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Figure 62
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Figure 63
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Figure 64
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Lesson 6
Figure 65
HAM US sw July 1997
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Lesson 7
TURBINES
TURBINE TYPES AND COMPONENTS
The turbine provides power which is necessary to drive the engine compressor
and the accessory gear box.
The turbine extracts energy from the hot gases which comes from the
combustion chamber.
There are two different types of turbines on gas turbine engines.
One is the radial flow turbine and the other one is the axial flow turbine.
The two types of turbine have the same main components.
The first main component of a turbine is always a set of stationary vanes.
These vanes are named the turbine nozzle guide vanes.
The next component is a set of moving rotor blades on the turbine disc.
You can find turbines with one or more stages. Like the stages of a
compressor, a turbine stage is made up of a stator and of a rotor.
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Figure 66
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Figure 67
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Figure 68
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Figure 69
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Turbine Operation
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Figure 70
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Impulse Turbine
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Figure 71
HAM US sw July 1997
Reaction Turbine
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Lesson 7
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Lesson 7
Figure 72
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Lesson 7
Page 146
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Figure 73
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Creep
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Lesson 7
Figure 74
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Lesson 7
CONVECTION COOLING
Different cooling methods are used in high pressure turbines.
Convection cooling is the easiest method.
Here the cooling airflow passes through the hollow turbine nozzles vanes and
rotor blades.
Convection cooling takes away the heat from the turbine materials while the air
passes along the inner walls of the turbine airfoils.
This cooling method is used at the turbine nozzle guide vanes and also at the
turbine rotor blades.
The cooling air enters through holes at the bottom of the rotor blades and flows
through the many internal channels.
The air finally escapes at the trailing edges and at the blade tips and mixes with
the hot gas flow.
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Figure 75
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Convection Cooling
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Lesson 7
IMPINGEMENT COOLING
Impingement cooling is a better cooling method for turbine nozzle guide vanes
and rotor blades.
Here the cooling air first flows into an insert which is fixed inside the hollow
turbine airfoils.
The insert has many small holes which serve as jet nozzles.
The cooling air that is forced through these jet nozzles impacts on the inner
walls of the airfoils. This improves the contact between cooling air and turbine
materials and therefore the heat transfer.
The cooling airflow finally escapes at the trailing edges of the nozzles guide
vanes and mixes with the hot gas flow.
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Figure 76
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Impingement Cooling
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Lesson 7
FILM COOLING
The film cooling method is a further cooling improvement.
This method is used at the turbine nozzle guide vanes and at the rotor blades.
Cooling air is blown into the hot gas flow via small drill holes in the turbine
airfoils.
The gas stream deflects the cooling air and forms a thin air film on the outer
walls of the turbine blades and vanes. This cooling film prevents the direct
contact of hot gas flow with turbine materials.
Film cooling is the most effective method, because it reaches a maximum
cooling effect but with a minimum of cooling air. This means that more air is
available to drive the turbine.
The disadvantage of this cooling method is that these small drill holes are very
difficult to make and therefore very expensive.
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Figure 77
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Film Cooling
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Figure 78
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HPT Cooling
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Lesson 7
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Figure 79
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Tip Clearance
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Figure 80
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Figure 81
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Material Expansion
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Figure 82
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Lesson 7
FAN AIR
COMPRESSOR
BLEED AIR
Figure 83
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FUNDAMENTALS
Lesson 8
EXHAUST
INTRODUCTION
In this segment you will look at the function of a gas turbine engine exhaust
system.
The exhaust system guides the exhaust gases from the rear of the turbine into
the atmosphere but the main task of the exhaust system depends on the type
of gas turbine engine.
On a jet engine the main task of the exhaust system is to accelerate the airflow
which comes from the turbine to efficiently make thrust.
In the turboprop engine the main task of the exhaust system is to safely guide
the exhaust gases overboard.
The exhaust system does not make thrust, because most of the gas energy
has been absorbed by the turbine for driving the propeller.
On the APU the exhaust system guides the exhaust gases overboard because
all the gas energy will be absorbed by the turbine.
The APU exhaust system also reduces the noise of the exhaust gases by use
of mufflers in the exhaust duct.
So in a jet engine, the exhaust system releases the gases to the atmosphere.
The exhaust gas flow leaves the engine in the necessary direction and with the
optimum velocity to make efficient thrust.
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Figure 84
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Figure 85
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Primary
Exhaust
Nozzle
Secondary
Nozzle
FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 86
HAM US sw July 1997
Exhaust Nozzles
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Figure 87
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Exhaust Mixer
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Figure 88
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Figure 89
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Figure 90
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ATA
Beijing
Aviation College
110
112
2
2
6
8
10
18
22
30
42
42
44
46
54
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PURPOSE AND REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . .
COMBUSTION PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMBUSTION CHAMBER TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE CAN-TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER . . . . . . . . . .
CAN-ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER . . . . .
ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
METHODS TO REDUCE EMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
114
116
118
120
122
124
126
128
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ENGINE EFFICIENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PRESSURE RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THRUST SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION . . . . . . . . . .
ENGINE RATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THRUST RATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLAT RATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THRUST MEASURING METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THRUST VERSUS HORSEPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
58
60
62
66
68
70
72
80
TURBINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TURBINE TYPES AND COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RADIAL FLOW TURBINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AXIAL FLOW TURBINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE OPERATION OF A TURBINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TURBINE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TURBINE COOLING METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONVECTION COOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IMPINGEMENT COOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FILM COOLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TURBINE CLEARANCE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
132
132
134
136
138
144
148
150
152
154
158
82
82
88
92
98
100
EXHAUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ENGINE EXHAUST COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIRFLOW IN THE EXHAUST NOZZLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
168
170
176
102
102
106
108
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 23
Figure 24
Figure 25
Figure 26
Figure 27
Figure 28
Figure 29
Figure 30
Figure 31
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
59
61
63
65
67
69
71
Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 40
Figure 41
Figure 42
Figure 43
Figure 44
Figure 45
Figure 46
Figure 47
Figure 48
Figure 49
Figure 50
Figure 51
Figure 52
Figure 53
Figure 54
Figure 55
Figure 56
Figure 57
Figure 58
Figure 59
Figure 60
Figure 61
Figure 62
Figure 63
Figure 64
Figure 65
Figure 66
Figure 67
Figure 68
Figure 69
Figure 70
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
101
103
105
107
109
111
113
115
117
119
121
123
125
127
129
131
133
135
137
139
141
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 71
Figure 72
Figure 73
Figure 74
Figure 75
Figure 76
Figure 77
Figure 78
Figure 79
Figure 80
Figure 81
Figure 82
Figure 83
Figure 84
Figure 85
Figure 86
Figure 87
Figure 88
Figure 89
Figure 90
Reaction Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbine Operating Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turbine Cooling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convection Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impingement Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Film Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HPT Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tip Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effects of Tip Clearance Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Material Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relation between Engine Speed and Tip Clearance . . .
Air for Active Clearance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas Turbine Engine Exhausts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airflow in Exhaust Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Nozzles for Supersonic Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exhaust Nozzles for Subsonic Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
145
147
149
151
153
155
157
159
161
163
165
167
169
171
173
175
177
179
181
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