Chapter 3

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Lipids

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Organic Chemistry

All organic molecules contain carbon.

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Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon.

Biochemistry is the chemistry of living things.

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Carbon: The Central Atom

Carbon is the central

atom in all organic
molecules.
Carbon has unique
bonding properties.

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Can combine with other

carbon atoms in long
chains
Can form ring structures

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Carbon: The Central Atom

Carbon atoms
participate in four
covalent bonds.

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Has four electrons in the

outer energy level
Can double bond with
oxygen
Can triple bond with
other carbon atoms

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Properties of an Organic
Molecule

Several factors determine the properties of an

organic molecule.

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The types of atoms in the molecule

The 3-D arrangement of atoms within the molecule

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Isomers

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Isomers
Organic molecules can have the same
number and composition of atoms, but can
have different arrangements.
These are called isomers.
Molecules with the same empirical formula but
different structural formulas

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Hexose Isomers

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The Carbon Skeleton

All organic molecules have a carbon skeleton.

This determines the overall shape of the molecule.

Organic molecules differ in these ways:

The length and arrangement of the carbon skeleton

The kinds and location of atoms attached to it
How the attached atoms are combined together

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These combinations are called functional groups.

Functional groups determine the chemical nature of the
molecule.

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Functional Groups

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Macromolecules of Life

Macromolecules are very large organic

molecules.
The most important organic compounds
found in living things are:

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Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Lipids
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Polymers

Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are

polymers.
Polymers are combinations of smaller building blocks.

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The building blocks are called monomers.

Polymers are built via dehydration synthesis.

Polymers are broken apart via hydrolysis.

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Polymers

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Carbohydrates

Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen
All have the general formula CH2O
Names end in ose
Serve as the primary energy source for most living
things
Also serve as structural support

Important components of nucleic acids

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Plant cell walls

DNA and RNA

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Simple Sugars

Simple sugars are described by the number

of carbons in the molecule.

Examples of simple sugars:

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Triose-3 carbons
Pentose-5 carbons
Hexose-6 carbons
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
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Complex Carbohydrates

When two or more simple sugars are

combined, they form complex carbohydrates.

Formed via dehydration synthesis

Disaccharides

Two simple sugars

Trisaccharides

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Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose

Three simple sugars

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Polysaccharides

Contain many simple sugars

Examples of polysaccharides:

Starch and glycogen

Used for energy storage in plants (starch) and animals

(glycogen)

Cellulose

Important component of plant cell walls

Humans cannot digest cellulose; it is the fiber in our diet.

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Helps facilitate movement of food through the digestive

tract

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Complex Carbohydrates

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Proteins

Proteins are polymers

made of amino acids.
An amino acid contains:

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Central carbon
Amino group
Carboxyl group
Hydrogen

There are 20 different

amino acids.

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The Structure of Proteins

Amino acids are joined via dehydration synthesis.

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The bond formed between amino acids is called a peptide

bond.

Several amino acids joined together form

polypeptide chains.

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Primary Structure

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The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide

constitutes the primary structure of the protein.
This sequence is dictated by information in genes
(DNA).
All levels of protein structure depend on the primary
sequence.

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Secondary Structure

Polypeptides twist and fold

into their secondary structure.

Some sequences of amino

acids twist into a helix.

Some sequences of amino

acids remain straight and
fold back on themselves.

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This is called an alpha helix.

This is called a beta-pleated

sheet.

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Tertiary Structure

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The various alpha

helices and beta
pleated sheets interact
to form a globular
structure.
This globular structure
is unique for each
polypeptide.

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Quaternary Structure

Some proteins contain more

than one polypeptide chain.
Each of these polypeptides
has its own unique tertiary
structure.

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These polypeptides interact

to form a more complex
globular structure.

Quaternary structure can be

stabilized by disulfide bonds.

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Form and Function

The proteins overall shape

determines its job.
If a protein is not shaped
properly, it likely will not work
properly.
Example:

Denaturation:

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Sickle cell anemia

A mutation in the gene causes
the protein to have a different
shape.
This shape change results in a
change in function.
When heat or other
environmental conditions break
the bonds that stabilize tertiary
structure.
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Types of Proteins

Structural proteins

Regulatory proteins

Determine what activities will occur in a protein

Enzymes and hormones

Carrier proteins

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Important in maintaining the shape of cells and

organisms
Collagen

Transport molecules from one place to another

Lipoproteins
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Myoglobin and Heamoglobin

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Nucleic Acids

The largest biological

molecules
Store and transfer
information within a cell
Include DNA and RNA
Are made of
nucleotides

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5-carbon sugar
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous group
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Nucleotides

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The Structure of DNA

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DNA

Each DNA molecule is made of two strands.

Held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous

bases
The bases pair according to base pair rules.

The two DNA strands are twisted on each other, forming

a double helix.
Each DNA strand is divided into segments.

Each segment forms a gene.

Genes are the recipes for proteins.

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Adenine - thymine
Cytosine - guanine

The sequence of nucleotides in a gene dictate the order of amino

acids in a polypeptide.
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DNA and Chromosomes

Each DNA strand has many genes.

Each DNA strand is called a chromosome.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes in each
cell.

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Each cell copies all of these chromosomes before

it divides to pass along to daughter cells.

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The Functions of DNA

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The Functions of DNA

DNA is able to:

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Replicate itself
Store information and transmit it to offspring
Direct synthesis of proteins
Mutate (change chemically)

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RNA

RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

Contains uracil instead of thymine
Base pairs with itself and DNA

RNA is found in three different forms:

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A-U
G-C
mRNA (messenger RNA)
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
tRNA (transfer RNA)

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DNA vs. RNA

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Lipids

Commonly called fats

Large and nonpolar

Usually have very few oxygen atoms

There are three main types of lipids:

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Do not dissolve in water

Dissolve in other nonpolar molecules like acetone

True fats (e.g., pork chop fat and oils)

Phospholipids (membrane components)
Steroids (most hormones)
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True (neutral) Fats

Used to provide energy

The building blocks of
fats

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A glycerol molecule
Three fatty acids

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Saturated vs. Unsaturated Lipids

If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has as much

hydrogen as possible, the fat is called a saturated fat.

If the carbons of a fat have double-bonded carbon

molecules in them, the fat is called unsaturated fat.

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Saturated fats are found in animal tissues and tend to be

solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated fats are frequently plant fats and are liquids at

room temperature.
A polyunsaturated fat has several double bonds.
Fats are important energy storage molecules.
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Saturated and Unsaturated

Fatty Acids

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Phospholipids

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Are complex organic

molecules that
resemble fats but
contain phosphate
groups
Phospholipids are the
major components of
cell membranes.

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Steroids

Nonpolar molecules that are arranged in rings of

carbon
Steroids are important components of cell
membranes.

Steroids often serve as hormones and serve in

regulation of body processes.

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Cholesterol

Testosterone, estrogen

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Overview

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