-

27.1
Prokaryotes were the first to inhabit earth and have gone through natural selection ever
since then.
o Most prokaryotes are unicellular, small, well organized, and variety of shapes
o Key feature is the cell wall; in hypertonic situation, cell loses water and hypotonic
it gains water.
o Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, a polymer made of modified
sugars cross linked by polypeptides. Archael cell walls have polysaccharides but
not peptidoglycan.
o Gram stain is used to categorize cells based on differences in cell wall
composition. Gram positive have simpler walls, large amount of peptidogylcan,
are purple stained, are more resistant to certain antibiotics. Gram negative have
less peptidoglycan, structurally complex, outer membrane contains
lipopolysaccarides(cause fever and toxic) , has outer membrane that protects body
defenses, more resistant to antibiotics, and are pink stained.
Cell wall of many prokaryotes is surrounded by a layer called capsule if it is well
organized or slime layer if it is not well organized. Both allow prokaryotes to stick to
substrates and other individuals.
When there is a lack of important nutrients, bacteria make endospores. The original cells
makes a copy of its chromosome and surrounds the copy with a multilayered structure.
Water is removed, the original cell lyses, and the endospore is released. It can survive in
hot temperatures or remain dormant for centuries.
Some prokaryotes stick to substrate by fimbriae which are hair like appendages, shorter,
and numerous than pili.
Taxis is a directed movement toward or away from a stimulus. Ex: chemo taxis is
movement in response to chemicals
Most common for movement is flagella. Prokaryote flagella are smaller than eukaryote
flagella, different molecular composition, different mechanism of propulsion, made of
different protein than archael flagella. Flagella are analogous structures.
Bacterial flagella have motor, hooks and filament. Pg 570. The flagellum evolved as other
proteins were added to an ancestral secretory system. This is an example of exaptation,
the process in which existing structures take new functions because of descent with
modification.
Prokaryote genome has less DNA than prokaryote. Prokaryote have circular
chromosomes, less proteins, eukaryotes have linear chromosome and more proteins.
Prokaryotes lack nucleus; their chromosome in the nucleoid, a region in cytoplasm not
closed by membrane. Prokaryotes also have smaller rings of independently replicating
DNA molecules called plasmids.
Prokaryote ribosomes are smaller than eukaryote, and thus antibiotics have a better effect.
Prokaryotes are small, they reproduce by binary fission, and have short generation times.
27.2
Genetic variation occurs in prokaryotes.

If errors occurs during DNA replication, some of the offspring may differ genetically.
New mutations can increase genetic diversity in species that have short generations and
large populations. This leads to rapid evolution.
Genetic recombination, the combining of DNA from two sources, creates diversity.
Meiosis doesnt occur in prokaryotes so they go through transformation, transduction,
and conjugation. This is called horizontal gene transfer.
Transformation is when the genotype and phenotype are changed because a foreign
DNA is taken from the surroundings. It is usually when a nonpathogenic cell takes in a
pathogenic DNA. The cell is now recombinant since it replaced its own DNA with the
nonpathogenic one.
Transduction is when phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another. The
virus that carries the DNA may not be able to reproduce on its own. But it can attach to
another prokaryotic cell and inject prokaryotic DNA from the first cell into that new cell.
The DNA will now be incorporated in the new cell and become a recombinant as well.
In conjugation, DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells that are joined for
some time. The DNA transfer is one way. The pilus of the donor attaches to the recipient
and the two are brought together. The mating bridge is through which the donor
transfers DNA to the recipient.
The ability to form pili and donate DNA results from having a piece of DNA called f
factor. The f factor can be either a plasmid or a segment of DNA in the chromosome.
o The f factor in the plasmid is called f plasmid. The cells that have f plasmid are
called F+ and are DNA donors. The cells that dont have it are called F- and are
DNA receivers. The F+ cells transfers the F- cell into a F+ is a copy of the entire
F plasmid is transferred.
o The f factor in a chromosome if called Hfr (high frequency of recombination).
This cell is the donor to the F- cell. When DNA from Hfr cell enters F- cell,
homologous regions from the two chromosomes align and allow the segments of
DNA to be exchanged. So there is genetic variation in the recipient cell.
o Genes that resist antibiotics are called resistant genes and are located on plasmids
known as R plasmids.
27.3
Organisms that obtain energy from light are called phototrophs, and those that obtain
energy from chemicals are chemotrophs.
There are obligate aerobes which use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow
without it. Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and live by either fermentation or
anaerobic respiration in which substances other than O2, such as NO3 or SO4 accept
electrons at the downhill of electron transport. Facultative anaerobes use O2 if it is
present, otherwise go through anaerobic respiration.
Prokaryotes can turn atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia through nitrogen fixation. This
can increase nitrogen for plants that cannot use atmospheric nitrogen.
Prokaryotic cells have cooperation and so they are able to use environment resources.

Most cells carry out photosynthesis, but heterocysts are cells that carry out nitrogen
fixation. Each has a thick wall to prevent entry of O2 that was produced by a nearby cell.
Metabolic cooperation between prokaryotic species occurs in biofilms. When cells are in
biofilms, they pass signals and recruit nearby cells, causing colonies to grow. The cells
produce polysaccharides and proteins that turn into the capsule or slime layer.
27.4
Many scientists realized that the cells classified as prokaryotic are more closely related to
eukaryotes and make their own domain called archaea.
The diversity in prokaryotes is immense.
Horizontal gene transfer has played a key role in the evolution of prokaryotes.
o Proteobacteria- gram negative bacteria, includes alpha, beta, gamma, delta,
episilon subgroups.
o Chlamydias- survive as parasites in animal cells, gram negative, lack
peptidoglycan
o Spirochetes- gram negative, flagellum like spiral, pathogenic parasites
o Cynobacteria- gram negative, plantlike, abundant in freshwater and marines, some
specialize in nitrogen fixation
First prokaryotes assigned to domain archaea live in extreme environments and are called
extremophiles.
o Extreme halophiles live in highly saline environments.
o Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hto conditions. These prokaryotes have
structural and biochemical adaptations that make their DNA and proteins stable at
high temperatures.
o Methanogens are archaea that release methane as a byproduct of their unique
ways of obtaining energy.
28.1
Protists are very small unicellular organisms. They are classified as eukaryotes in the
domain Eukarya. Protists exhibit more structural and functional diversity.
o Protists use subcellular organelles rather than multicellular organelles to carry out
functions.
Some protists are mixotrophs, they are a combination of photoautotrohs and
heterotrophs.
Some protists are known to reproduce asexually and some reproduce sexually through
meiosis and fertilization.
There is evidence that much of the protistan diversity originated in endosymbiosis, a
relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cells of another.
In order to compare which prokaryotic lineage gave rise to the mitcohondria, researchers
compared DNA sequences of mitochondrial genes(mtDNA) to those in major clades of
bacteria/archaea. The studies indicates alph proteobacterium.
The plastid bearing lineage gave rise to two lineages of photosynthetic protists, or algae:
red algae and green algae.
o Diversity of plastid produced by endosymbiosis: cynobacteria and gram negative,
which means that they have two cell membranes; an inner plasma membrane and

an outer membrane that is part of the cell wall. The plastid bearing eukaryotes
suggest that plastids evolved from cynobacterium engulfed by ancestral
heterotrophic eukaryote(primary symbiosis). That aancestor the diversified into
red and green algae, which then engulfed other eukaryotes (secondary symbiosis).
-

28.2
There are four main groups of protists. The first one is excavata, a clade based on
morphological studies of the cytoskeleton. Excavate includes diplomonads, parabasalids,
and euglenezoans. Each of these three groups is monophyletic.
Diplomonads and parabasalids lack plastids, have modified mitochondria, found in
anaerobic environments.
o Diplomonads reduced mitochondria called mitosomes. They dont use oxygen to
get energy from carbs, they get energy from anaerobic biochemical pathways.
o Structurally, they have two equal sized nuclei and many flagella (eukaryotic
flagella are extensions of cytoplasm not globular proteins attached to cell surface
like prokaryote flagella).
o Parabasalids reduce mitochondria called hydrogenosomes, which generate
energy anaerobically. They line the vagina and cause infections.
o Euglenozoans have a morphological difference in that they include a rod or
spiral crystalline structure inside their flagella. Two groups are kinetoplastids and
euglenids.
Kinetoplastids have a single large DNA and DNA in an organized mass
called kinetoplast. They feed on prokaryotes in water. Ex: trypanosome
cause sleeping sickness.
Euglenid has a pocket at one end of the cell from where the flagella come
out.
28.3
The second supergroup is called SAR clade, which has found the three main clades of
protists- stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians- form a monophyletic supergroup. The
supergroup has a large, extremely diverse collection of protists.
o Stramenopiles is major subgroup of the SAR clade. It includes photosynthetic
organisms. The name refers to flagellum- the stramenopiles have flagellum paired
with shorter, smooth flagellum. Stramenopiles have three groups: diatoms, golden
algae, and brown algae.
Diatoms are unicellular algae, with glass-like wall and embedded in
organic matrix. The wall is made of two parts that fits on top of one
another like a shoe box and lid.
they are most abundant organisms in ocean and lakes. Many are
eaten by protists or invertebrates during their bloom and other
escape. They take decades to sink underneath the ocean, and the
carbon dioxide absorbed by diatoms during photosynthesis is
transported, or pumped to the ocean floor.

Golden algae is made from yellow and brown cartenoids. Both flagella
are attached near one end of the cell. They can absorb dissolved organic
compounds or ingest food particles.
Brown algae is the largest and most complex algae.
some of the seaweed algae have specialized organs, such as
rootlike holdfast , which anchors alga, and a stemlike stipe
supports the leaflike blades.
Brown algae have adaptations that enable their main
photosynthetic surfaces to be near the water surface.
The cell walls of brown algae is gel forming and is used to make
salad dressing and pudding thicker.
o The next subgroup of SAR clade is alveolates, which have membrane enclosed
sacs under the plasma membrane. Three alveolate clades are dinoflagellates,
apicomplexans and the ciliates.
Dinoflagellates are cells that have two flagella located in grooves which
make them move through water. Periods of bloom in dinoflagellates cause
red tide by making the waters appear red/brownish. They are very toxic.
Ampicomplexans are parasites of animals. They spread through their host
as tiny infections. They have intricate life cycles and require two or more
hosts for completion.
Ciliates are large and varied group of protists known for their use of cilia
to move and feed. Ciliates have two types of nuclei; tiny micronuclei and
large macronuclei. Genetic variation in the ciliates results from
conjugation- sharing of pili.
Ciliates reproduce through binary fission
o The next subgroup of the SAR clade is rhizarians. Many species in this group are
amoebas (protists that move and feed by pseudopodia- extensions that bulge
from anywhere on the cell surface.
o Three groups of them are: radiolarians, forams, and cercozoans.
Radiolarians have delicate, symmetrical internal skeletons made of silica.
Protists called forams are named because of their porous shells called
tests. They are found in oceans and freshwater.
Cercozoans are a large groups of amoebois and flagellated protists that
use threadlike pseudopodia.
Alternation of generations is the alternation of life cycles from muticellular haploid to
diploid forms. Human gametes are haploid , and thus alternation of generations is only
for those whose haploid and diploid stages are both multicellular.
o A diploid individual is called sporophyte because they make spores. The spores
are haploid, and are called zoospores. They develop into halpolid, mutlicellualar
gametophytes which make gametes. When two gametes unite, a diploid zygote
forms and gives rise to new multicellular sporophyte.

Heteromorphic is when two generations of sporophytes and

gametophytes are structurally different.
Isomorphic is when sporophytes and gametophytes look similar but have
different chromosome numbers.

28.4
Red algae, green algae, and land plants make up the third eukaryotic supergroup, called
Archaeplastida. It is a monophyletic group that descended from an ancient protest that
engulfed cynobacterium.
o Red algae are greenish red in shallow water, bright red at moderate depths, and
black in deep water. Most are multicellular, reproduce sexually and depend on
water currents to bring gametes together for fertilization, unlike other algae.
o Green algae have structure and pigments like chloroplast in plants. If they are not
included in plant kingdom, then they are paraphyletic group.
o There are two groups of green algae: charophytes and chlorophytes
Charophytes are most close to land plants
Chlorophytes are many, and most live in fresh water. The simplest are
unicellular. Many unicellular live independently. Some live symbiotically
within other eukaryotes.
Larger size and greater complexity evolved in chlorophytes by:
o Formation of colonies of individual cells
o Formation of true multicellular bodies by cell division and
differentiation
o Repeated division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic division
Most have sexual and asexual reproductive stages
28.5
Unikonta is the last supergroup of eukaryotes that includes animals, fungi and some
protists.
Two major clades of unikonts are the amoebozoans and the opisthokonts. They have a
close relationship.
Unikont evolution is not sure because the root of the eukaryotic tree of life is unknown.
o Amoebozoan clade is many species of amoebas that have lobe or tune shaped
pseudopodia. They include slime molds, tubulinids and entamoebas.
Slime molds produce fruiting bodies that aid in spore dispersal. It
descended from unicellular ancestors; they diverged to two- modial slime
molds and cellular slime molds.
Plasmodial slime mold are brightly colored and form a mass
called plasmodium. They are not multicellular. The plasmodium
extends the pseudopodia through the soil as it engulfs food.
Cellular slime molds have a feeding stage that consists of single
cells that function individually, but when there isnt enough food,
the cells for a sluglike aggregate and function as a unit.

Tubulinids are made of large and different groups of amoebozoans. They

are unicellular. Most are heterotrophs.
Entamoebas are parasites. They infect all classes of vertebrate animals
and some invertebrates.
o Opisthokonts are very diverse group of eukaryotes including animals, fungi, and
many protists.