2013 IEEE Military Communications Conference

A Site-Specific MIMO Channel Simulator for Hilly and

Mountainous Environments

Jonathan S. Lu and Henry L. Bertoni

NYU WIRELESS Center
Polytechnic Institute of New York University
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A.
lushiaoen@gmail.com and hbertoni@poly.edu

arrival and departure of each multipath arrival (direct, ground

reflected, terrain scattered and terrain diffracted) between all
TX and RX antenna pairs. The total phase of a terrain scattered
arrival for an antenna pair, is determined by the propagation
path length and additional phase incurred by scattering.
Because available terrain databases have resolution (> 30m)
larger than the UHF wavelengths (< 1m) considered in this
work, the total phase cannot be deterministically known. Thus,
the additional phase is modeled with a uniformly distributed
random variable [5] and the path length is found from the
geometry of the antennas with the center of the terrain element.
Note that even though the total phase of this arrival cannot be
deterministically known, the relative phases of this arrival
between all antenna pairs are known from the different path
lengths. After determining the multipath information of all
arrivals, our simulator forms the MxN channel matrix in time
or frequency domain.
To demonstrate the use of the proposed simulator, we
investigate the feasibility of MIMO communications in rural
environments using Monte Carlo simulations of 2x2 MIMO
radio links in many different types of terrain.
An overview of the SISO channel simulator is presented in
Section II. The methodology of our MIMO channel simulator
is given in Section III, along with closed form expressions for
the tapped delay line coefficients and channel frequency
response in terms of the channel impulse response. The setup
and procedure of the Monte Carlo simulations using our
MIMO channel simulator is given in Section IV. The results of
the Monte Carlo simulations are analyzed in Section V.

Abstract This paper presents a real-time site-specific MIMO

channel simulator for communication links in rural
environments. This simulator first predicts the delay, angle of
arrival and departure, and amplitude of the individual multipath
arrivals (direct, ground reflected, terrain diffracted, and terrain
scattered) for a specified multiple antenna receiver and
transmitter link. The predicted multipath characteristics are
then used to compute the tapped delay line coefficients and/or
frequency responses of the channel between each transmitter
antenna and receiver antenna pair, which are the outputs of the
simulator. To demonstrate the use of this simulator, Monte Carlo
simulations of SISO and MIMO channel capacity for many
databases are performed. Conclusions are drawn on the
relationship between capacity, terrain roughness and other
channel characteristics.
Keywords MIMO Channel Modeling, Mobile, Mountainous
Terrain, Rural Propagation, Terrain Scattering

I.

INTRODUCTION

Scattering from terrain can result in a rich multipath radio

environment for radio links located in hilly or mountainous
terrain [1]. To efficiently predict the multiple-input-multipleoutput (MIMO) channel in rural terrain for UHF band (300
MHz 3 GHz) military communications, a real-time sitespecific MIMO channel simulator, which accounts for the
scattering from terrain, was created from our previously
developed site-specific propagation single-input-single-output
(SISO) simulator.
Previously proposed empirical MIMO channel models
[2],[3] simulate the time domain channel in the form of tapped
delay lines. The SUI channel model A [2] is the only one to
consider hilly terrain. It was developed from 1.9 GHz
measurements [4] taken in flat to hilly terrain with light to
heavy tree density for fixed wireless applications. The transmit
antenna heights in these measurements ranged from 12 to 79 m
while the receive antenna height was 2 m. Because of the high
antenna heights, relatively gentle terrain and fixed links, this
model may only apply to specific radio scenarios in which the
line-of-sight (LOS) is dominant. Thus, we have developed a
real-time channel simulator which can apply to a greater range
of radio scenarios and terrain, while accounting for the sitespecific environment.
For a MxN MIMO link, where the mobile transmitter (TX)
has N antennas and the mobile receiver (RX) has M antennas,
our proposed simulator utilizes the previously developed SISO
simulator [1] to predict the local area amplitude, and angles of
978-0-7695-5124-1/13 $31.00 2013 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/MILCOM.2013.135

II.

RURAL ENVIORNMENT SISO CHANNEL SIMULATOR

In this section we provide an overview of the previously

developed SISO channel simulator for rural environments [1].
This simulator is used to predict the local area RMS voltage
amplitudes ap, angles of arrival and departure, and initial
propagation delays Rp/c of the p = 0,1, .. P arrivals. Here c is
the speed of light.
A. Vertical Plane Model
The Terrain-Integrated Rough Earth Model (TIREM) [6] is
used to predict the received power from rays lying in the
vertical plane (VP) containing the TX and RX. For line-ofsight (LOS) links, the dominant waves in the vertical plane
travel along the direct and ground reflected paths.

764

 (1 , 2 ) = cos m (1 ) cos m ( 2 ) ,

On non-LOS (NLOS) links where one or more ridges

separate the TX and RX, radio waves diffract over the ridges.
For one diffracting edge, TIREM uses Bullingtons
approximation to the 4-Ray diffraction expression [7]. For
multiple edges, the Epstein-Peterson method is used [8]. In
both LOS and NLOS cases, waves scattered from the
troposphere and surface waves are also accounted for [6]. At
the higher frequencies and shorter ranges of interest here, these
latter effects are not of importance.
The RMS voltage amplitude a0 of the VP contribution is
found by taking the square root of the TIREM predicted power.
The delay of this VP arrival R0/c is also returned by TIREM.
Note that in the case of LOS, there may be two rays, but the
arrival time will be nearly equal since the separation between
the antennas is usually large compared to the antenna heights
relative to the ground.
Parameters used for TIREM in our simulations are: Earths
surface conductivity = 0.01S/m; Surface humidity near the
antennas = 7.5 g/m3; Surface refractivity = 289; Relative
permittivity of earths surface = 15; Polarization is VV.

and is seen to satisfy the symmetry condition. In this study we

have chosen m = 1 and  = 0.1 (-10 dB) as in [1]. The value of
 is independent of frequency when the wavelength is on the
order of the surface roughness, or smaller [5]. Thus, aside from
the weak frequency dependence associated with diffraction, the
ratio of the scattered power to VP power will be nearly
independent of frequency in the UHF band where wavelength
is less than the expected surface roughness.
C. Terrain Visibility Algorithm
To apply the bi-static equation (1) to a radio link, we have
developed an efficient visibility (viewshed) algorithm to search
for the terrain elements visible to both the TX and RX
viewshed algorithm. A detailed description of our algorithm
can be found in [1]. To increase processing speed of the
algorithm by taking advantage of fast integer operations, we
approximate the TX and RX locations by their nearest terrain
points (correcting for the effect of this assumption on delay and
path length is discussed below). Along with pre-treating the
terrain database, computation time of the terrain scattered
contributions and vertical plane contributions is on the order of
a mili-second.

B. Terrain Scattering Model

For NLOS cases in mountainous or hilly environments,
radio waves are expected to be very weak after diffracting over
the mountains or hills between the TX and RX. In these cases,
scattering from terrain elements visible to both the transmitter
and receiver may give significant contributions. Terrain
surfaces in hilly and mountainous areas are rough for
frequencies in the UHF band. Thus incident radio waves on a
terrain surface element are scattered into many directions in
addition to the specular direction.
For the case when P terrain surface elements have LOS
with both TX and RX, the RMS voltage amplitude ap as a
result of scattering from the pth terrain element is [5],[9]-[11]

ap =

Pt

2 Ap
.
(4 ) 3 R p21 R p2 2

(2)

III.

RURAL ENVIORNMENT MIMO CHANNEL SIMULATOR

In this section, we present the methodology of our MIMO

channel simulator for rural environments using the outputs of
the SISO channel simulator discussed in Section II. This
MIMO channel simulator predicts the MxN channel matrix in
time domain and frequency domain when given the positions
of a transmitter array (TX) with N antennas and a receiver
array (RX) of M antennas in a terrain database. Also presented
in this section are expressions for SISO and MIMO wideband
channel capacity. These expressions are used later in our
Monte Carlo simulations.

(1)

A. Channel Inpulse Response

The (i, j) element of the time domain channel matrix is the
baseband channel impulse response hij(t |c) between the ith RX
antenna and the jth TX antenna. hij(t |c) can be approximated
as a sum of impulses [12], [13] by treating each of the VP and
the terrain scattered arrivals to arrive at distinct time intervals.

Here the TX and RX antennas are assumed to be isotropic

(Antenna Gain = 1). Also, Rp1 and Rp2 are the distances in
meters from the pth terrain element to the TX and RX antennas,
respectively. They correspond to a propagation delay Rp/c =
(Rp1 + Rp2)/c. The area of the pth terrain element is Ap and its
normalized scattering coefficient is . Propagation paths that
undergo two or more scatterings, or scattering plus diffraction
are expected to be significantly weaker and are not considered.
The bi-static scattering coefficient  of a surface element is
dependent on the directions (1, 1) to the TX and the
directions (2, 2) to the RX, the surface roughness compared
to the wavelength, as well as the dielectric constant of the
material. In order to satisfy reciprocity, the dependence of  on
the two sets of directions must be symmetric. Measurements
conducted on surfaces whose statistics are isotropic have found
that  is nearly the same for both horizontal and vertical
polarizations of the electric field, and the total scattered power
depends on the angles 1,2 from the normal, but is independent
of the azimuthal angles 1,2 [5].
The generalized Lamberts Law is commonly used for the
scattering coefficient. It is given by

hij (t , | c ) = a p e p e
j

jc ijp

j p t

( ijp ) .

(3)

p =0

Here p = 0 refers to the VP contribution from TIREM and p =

1,2, , P refer to the terrain scattering contributions. Also, ap
is the RMS voltage amplitude of the pth multipath ray, p is the
additional phase caused by diffraction/scattering in radians, p
is its Doppler frequency shift in Hz, and ijp is the propagation
delay from the ith RX antenna to the jth TX antenna in seconds.
c is the carrier frequency in Hz.
As discussed previously, the phase p is modeled as a
uniform random variable having values on the interval (0, 2].
This random distribution of the phase has been reported in [5].

765

To determine the values of ap, p and ijp, the SISO channel

simulator discussed in Section II, is fed the TX and RX
positions inside a database. The simulator then returns ap,
gridpoint to gridpoint delay Rp/c, and arrival and departure
angles for each of the P + 1 multipath as if RX is located at its
nearest grid-point and TX is located at its nearest grid-point.
The amplitude ap is the square root of the power Pr(p) of the
th
p multipath and is the same for each TX-RX antenna pair (i,
j). This approximation is valid because the separation of TX
antennas and separation of RX antennas are all small relative to
the multipath distances from the TX to RX. Furthermore, ap is
assumed to be frequency independent over the UHF band as
discussed in Section II.B.
The delay of the pth multipath ray from the grid point
nearest the TX array to the grid point nearest the RX array is
Rp/c. To determine the delay ijp traveled by the pth multipath
ray, we need to simply account for the additional delays caused
by the distance offset traveled by the ray from
the jth TX antenna to the TX grid-point and the distance offset
th
from the RX grid-point to the i RX as seen in
th
Fig. 1. Here is a vector from the j TX antenna to the TX
grid-point and is a vector from the RX grid-point to the ith
RX antenna. and are unit vectors in
the direction of propagation that contain the angle of departure
and angle of arrival information of the pth multipath ray output
by the SISO simulator, respectively. Thus

ijp =

G G
G
G G
G
R p + r j <k pTX / k pTX + r i < k pRX / k pRX

Rp 2
R p1

G
rj
TX

pij = 2

j p t

sin( ( nTs ) / Ts )
d , (8)
( ( nTs ) / Ts )

h (t, | )
ij

Substituting (3) into (8), we receive [13]

gij( n ) (t | c ) = a p e p e
j

jc ijp

j p t

sinc( ( ijp nTs ) / Ts ) . (9)

D. Channel Capacity
From the channel frequency responses (6), the MIMO
channel capacity, and the individual SISO capacities for each
TX antenna and RX antenna pair can be computed. The
wideband SISO channel capacity at a time t is found by
sectioning the wideband channel into U narrowband channels
of bandwidth W and then summing the capacities from each
channel. Thus,

(5)

U 1

C (t ) = W log 2 (1 + SNR(u , t )) .

(10)

u =0

Here, for the uth narrowband channel centered at carrier

frequency u, the signal to noise power ratio SNR(u, t) seen at
the receiving antenna can be written as the product of the
transmit signal to noise ratio SNR0 and the channel frequency
response H(=0, t | c=u) using the expression SNR(c, t) =
SNR0|H(=0, t |c=u)|2.
For the MIMO channel capacity between a TX of N
antennas and a RX of M antennas [13], an expression can be
similarly written in the form

B. Channel Frequency Response

To arrive at a frequency domain expression for the
baseband channel Hij(, t |c) between the ith RX antenna and
the jth TX antenna, we simply take the Fourier transform of (3),
so that
j p j ( +c ) ijp

gij( n ) (t | c ) =

Here and are the velocities of the TX and RX,

respectively.

H ij ( , t | c ) = a p e

RX

where Ts is the sampling period of yij(t,  | c), xj() is the

transmitted signal and is the nth tap coefficient.

is defined as

(4)

G
k pTX

G
ri

Figure 1. Terrain scattering from kth visible terrain surface

The Doppler frequency shift ijp accounts for the mobility

of the TX and RX term. From [13], it can be expressed in the
form
G G
G
G
G
G
f ( vTX <k pTX / k pTX v RX <k pRX / k pRX )

G
k pRX

(6)

U 1

C (t ) = W log 2 (det( I + SNR0Q (u , t ))) .

C. Tapped Delay Lines

The temporal channel impulse response hij(t,  | c) (3)
between the ith RX antenna and the jth TX antenna can
alternatively be represented as a tapped delay line. The
received signal in time domain yij(t,  | c) is then expressed as

yij (t, | c ) =

x ( nT ) g
j

(n)
ij

(t | c ) ,

(11)

u =0

If N M, Q = H(=0, t |c=u) H*(=0, t |c=u) and I is

an identity matrix of order M. If N < M, Q = H*(=0, t |
c=u)H(=0, t |c=u) and I is an identity matrix of order N.
Note that H(=0, t |c=u) is a M x N matrix of the channel
frequency responses and H*( =0, t | c=u) is its conjugate
transpose.

(7)

n =

766

IV.

MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS SETUP

To demonstrate the use of our simulator, Monte Carlo

simulations of MIMO links are performed similar to [1] for
terrain databases ranging from flat to mountainous. In the
simulations TX and RX each have M = N = 2 isotropic
antennas of height 1.8 m high with 1 m separation. They
communicate at a 1 GHz carrier frequency (i.e., c = 2*109)
with a 20 MHz bandwidth. The transmit power and thermal
noise power over the bandwidth are 27 dBm and -101 dBm,
respectively. The noise figure is 10 dB. To compute the
capacity for a SISO link (10), transmit antenna = 118
dB. Assuming an equal transmit power in computing the
capacity for a MIMO link (11), = 115 dB for each
TX antenna. Results from these simulations are analyzed to
determine the relationships between the SISO and MIMO
capacities, and terrain roughness H and other channel
parameters.

Height Mean [m]

Height STD H [m]

207.1
137.4
29.6
1081.7
188.5

127.6
113.7
5.9
225.7
143.7

Fraction of Valid Links

0.7

0.6

0.4

50

100

150
200
250
Terrain Roughness H [m]

300

350

400

Figure 2. Fraction of links with path loss less than 150 dB

versus terrain roughness H.
B. Simulation Procedure
For the simulation of a radio link located in an artificial
database, a 6km x 6km square is placed at the center of the 10
km x 10 km database. A randomly selected point within the
rectangle is generated as the TX location of the radio link. The
RX location is chosen by randomly choosing a point on a
circle of radius R centered at the TX location. The MIMO
channel simulator described in Section III, then calls the SISO
channel simulator described in Section II, to predict the
multipath characteristics for this radio link. From these
multipath characteristics, the elements of the channel matrix
are then computed using (6). Expressions (10) and (11) are
then used to compute the SISO and MIMO channel capacities,
respectively. This procedure is carried out 200 times for link
lengths R = 0.5, 1 ..., 7 km. This procedure is repeated for
artificial databases of H = 5, 50, 100, 200 and 400 m created
from those in Table I. Note that the 2 km wide zone about the
6x6km box allows for scattering from distant terrain elements
having delays of more than 20 s.
V.

MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS RESULTS

Communication systems have a maximum tolerance for

path loss in uplink and downlink. For example, in LTE, the
uplink and downlink thresholds are about 163.5 dB [14].
While in HSPDA 3G, the thresholds are about 132.5 dB [15].
In the ensuing discussions, we will use a small area average
path loss threshold of 150 dB. The small area average path
loss for a link is found by incoherently summing the
individual power contributions Pr(p) = ap2 of each arrival [16].
The fraction of links with path loss less than this threshold for
each artificial database are plotted versus the H of that
database in Fig. 2. Results are grouped by the natural database
used to create them. These results are similar to those given in
[1] where the probability and severity of terrain shadowing
increases with H.

TABLE I
NATURAL TERRAIN DATABASES

Arizona
Caspian
Fort Dix
Nepal
Washington

0.8

0.5

A. Artificial Terrain Databases

The databases used in this work are matrices of terrain
elevation samples over a uniformly spaced square grid. Table I
lists six naturally occurring terrain databases of grid spacing
GS = 90 m. The lateral extent of each database is
approximately 10 km by 10 km. Also listed in Table I are the
mean and standard deviation H of terrain height in meters.
Here H is also called terrain roughness and is a terrain
variability metric used to characterize the type of terrain (e.g.
hilly, mountainous). Note that because the distribution of
terrain heights is not symmetric about the average, 2H is
typically greater than the mean height, even though none of
the terrain is below sea level.
An artificial database with any desired value of terrain
roughness can be created from any of the databases in Table I
by multiplying the height of all terrain points in a given
database by a constant . The resulting artificial database has
a terrain roughness H. By this process, artificial databases
are created having values of H = 5, 50, 100, 200 and 400 m
for all natural databases listed in Table I, which covers the
range from rolling to mountainous terrain.
We have chosen to use artificial databases so that the
influence on the radio channel of the single statistical
parameter terrain roughness H could be studied. This choice
is made in place of using various natural databases with
different values of terrain roughness, so that the interpretation
of the influence of H is not clouded by the radio channel
dependence on other statistical measures of the terrain.

Map Name

Arizona
Caspian
FortDix
Nepal
Washington

0.9

767

To determine the dependence of capacity on different

channel parameters and terrain variability, we have chosen to
focus on the results of the Fort Dix artificial databases. Note
that analyses of results from other databases derived from
those listed in Table I, give similar results. Quantitative
differences in the analyses may arise from the higher order
statistical measures of terrain variation described in [1].
The mean capacity of links having the same TX-RX
separation in the H = 5 m (red triangles) and 100 m (blue
squares) databases are plotted in Fig. 3. From Fig. 3, MIMO
communications is seen to have an advantage over SISO, and
the SISO and MIMO capacities are negatively correlated with
TX-RX separation. This correlation stems from the decreasing
channel gain due to distance dependent propagation loss and
the increasing probability of shadowing. At larger distances,
the mean capacity is greater for hilly terrain (H = 100 m) than
for flat terrain (H = 5 m). This is due to the significant impact
of terrain scattering present for hilly links which will be
discussed later.
To better show the advantage of MIMO communications,
we introduce a capacity ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the
MIMO capacity to the average of the four SISO capacities of a
link. The capacity ratios predicted for links in the H = 5 m
(red triangles) and 100 m (blue squares) databases are scatter
plotted versus their small area average path losses in Fig. 4. It
is seen that the capacity ratio of a link approaches 2 as the
path loss increases. To analytically show this relationship, we
investigate a narrowband link with one multipath arrival. For
this case, the magnitudes of the all elements in the 2x2 MIMO
channel matrix (6) are equal, while the phases differ due to the
different propagation distances. If we let the path loss
approach infinity or equivalently, the magnitude of the arrival
approach 0, the logarithms in (10) and (11) can be replaced by
first order linear approximations and the ratio approaches 2.
This increase in capacity ratio is due to the power gain from
having multiple antennas [13]. Thus, for cases in which there
is a very dominant arrival relative to other arrivals, as is the
case in flat terrain, but high path loss, the capacity ratio is 2.
The results for hilly terrain in Fig. 4, show considerably
more spread than results for flat terrain. Furthermore, the
capacity ratios for H = 100 m at a given path loss are greater
or equal to those for H = 5 m. This is also true for other
databases of H > 5 m as shown by the median capacity (black
diamonds) in Fig. 5. Note that in Fig. 5, each symbol is the
median of the capacity ratio results for a database of H. From
Figs. 4 and 5, the capacity ratio is found to be positive
correlated with H.
From Fig. 3, MIMO communications give higher channel
capacity compared to SISO. Furthermore, as terrain becomes
more mountainous, the use of MIMO is more advantageous as
shown by the positive correlation between median capacity
ratio and H in Fig. 5. As previously stated, this is due to the
richer multipath environment (i.e., larger angle spread and
smaller Rician K-Factor) caused by terrain scattering. Note that
the K-Factor for a channel is the power ratio of the dominant
arrival to all other arrivals. As the K-Factor approaches 0 (-
dB), the small scale fading is Rayleigh distributed. To

1400
SISO H = 5m
MIMO H = 5m

1200

Mean Capacity [Mbps]

SISO H = 100m
MIMO H = 100m

1000

800

600

400

200

100

200

300
400
TX-RX Separation[m]

500

600

700

Figure 3. Capacity ratio versus path loss for Fort Dix H = 5

and 100 m databases.

FortDix H = 5m

FortDix H = 100m

Capacity Ratio

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
50

100
Path Loss [dB]

150

Figure 4. Capacity ratio versus path loss for Fort Dix H = 5

and 100 m databases.
2

Median Capacity Ratio

1.98

1.96

1.94

1.92
Arizona
Caspian
FortDix
Nepal
Washington

1.9

1.88

1.86

50

100

150
200
250
Height STD H [m]

300

350

400

Figure 5. Median capacity ratio versus terrain roughness H.

768

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

emphasize the influence of a richer multipath environment, the

coordinate invariant method for computing angle spread [16] is
used to compute the angle spread for all simulated links in the
Fort Dix H = 5 and 100 m databases. The angle spreads are
plotted versus capacity ratio in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the
range of angle spreads are larger for H = 100 m, than for H =
5 m and that the capacity ratio is positively correlated with
angle spread. The Rician K- Factor are also computed for all
simulated links in the Fort Dix H = 5 and 100 m databases
and scatter plotted versus capacity ratio in Fig. 6. For links
with Rician-K-Factor greater than 20 dB, we have truncated
their values to 20 dB. For H = 5 m, the Rician K-Factors are
all very high, which corresponds to negligible scattering from
terrain and VP dominance. While for H = 100 m, the
computed Rician K-Factors span a larger range of values and
are negatively correlated with the capacity ratio.

The authors wish to express their appreciation and thanks to

Dr. Hung-Quoc Lai formerly of CERDEC, U.S. Army for
many stimulating discussions and helpful comments.
This work was funded by the Wireless Internet Center for
Advanced Technology (WICAT), NSF I/UCRC, Polytechnic
Institute of New York University.
REFERENCES
[1]

[2]
[3]
[4]

VI.

CONCLUSION

In this work, we present a site-specific MIMO channel

simulator for real-time channel prediction. This simulator
considers propagation paths that lie in the vertical plane
containing the TX and RX and those that are terrain scattered.
We have demonstrated the use of this simulator by
performing Monte Carlo simulations on 15 databases and
computing the SISO and MIMO capacities. Results show that
utilizing a MIMO system is usually advantageous compared to
a SISO system. For flat terrain, MIMO systems benefit from
power gain due to multiple antennas. In mountainous terrain,
MIMO systems can better exploit the rich multipath
environment caused by terrain scattering. This is shown by the
positive correlation of median capacity ratio with terrain
roughness and angular spread, and the negative correlation
with Rician K-Factor.

Angle Spread [degrees]

60

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

60

50
40

[11]

50

H = 5m

H = 100m

40

30

30

20

20

10

10

[12]
[13]
[14]

0
1

1.5

1.5

[15]
[16]

K-Factor [dB]

20

20

10

10

H = 5m

-10

-10

-20

1.5
Capacity Ratio

-20

H = 100m
1

1.5
Capacity Ratio

Figure 6. Capacity ratio versus Rician K-Factor and angle

spread for Fort Dix H = 5 and 100 m databases.

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