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What is value?
There are two senses in which we may use the word value: (1)
in reference to the values someone possesses, as when we
criticize someone for possessing the wrong values, and (2) in
reference to the value something possesses, as when we talk of
the value of a job.
What do we mean when we talk of the values people
possess?
Usually, when we talk of the values people possess, we refer to
what they think will bring them happiness.
Some people think money will bring them happiness: they value
wealth. Others think popularity will make them happy: they
value fame. Still others are happy when they can order people
around: they value power.
We talk of people having values and not simply a value. We
imply that for most people happiness comes from many things
and not just one.
The values a person possesses are usually the reason why a
person values particular things. His values are not particular
things themselves, but something that those particular things
would help him attain.
Wealth, fame, and power are not particular things, but they
come from particular things. Wealth can come from having
many lands, or it may come from investments, or it may come
from having a lot of cash in the bank. Someone who values
wealth may decide to gather wealth from all of these three
sources.
Someone may be famous for having done something patriotic
or for having set a record (like eating the most hamburgers in
three minutes) or for assassinating a president: someone who
values fame may not care what his fame is based on so long as
he is famous.
Power, like wealth and fame, can come in many ways. For
someone who values power, it may not matter what sort of
power he has: the important thing for him is that he has power.
Values are like goals, and they may act like goals for a time in a
persons life. But they are not goals because goals cease to be
goals once they are attained, but values do not cease to be
values once we possess things that bear them. Otherwise, we
would throw away those things.
Wealth may be my goal while I am poor. Once I am rich, it
ceases to be my goal. On the other hand, I may believe that
wealth brings happiness; in other words, I value wealth.
Because of this, I try my best to become rich, but once I am
rich, if wealth does make me happy, then I will continue to
value wealth.
The values a person possesses will lead him to like certain
things or persons and dislike others. In other words, values give
rise to attitudes to particular things or persons.
Thus, someone who values honors may like joining contests and
dislike good competitors. Thus, someone who values health
may be attracted to health foods and may not like late night
activities that reduce his hours of sleep. Thus, someone who
values beauty may like reading about new cosmetics and avoid
fattening foods.
The attitudes we have towards things give rise in turn to
actions: we go after those things to which we have a positive
attitude and avoid those to which we have a negative attitude.
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No. Just as human beings possess values, so do animals: when
chickens eat worms and dogs flee fire, they act as they do
because of the values they possess. Animals possess values by
instinct, in contrast to human beings. The values of the animal
have to do directly with its survival, or more precisely the
survival of its species. As in the case of human beings, the
value that an animal grasps in another animal or, say, a plant is
a relationship of benefit or harm to it and its species.
Which of the two senses of value is the Values Education
teacher interested in?
The Values Education teacher is interested above all in the first
sense. He is interested in the values his students possess.
Should everyone possess the same values?
If the values people possess are whatever people think will
bring them happiness, then the question is the same as asking
whether for all people the same things bring happiness.
Put this way, the question seems ridiculous, since it is obvious
that different people think different things bring them
happiness.
Earlier we saw examples of the person who seeks happiness in
wealth or the one who seeks it in fame or another who seeks it
in power.
A better question is whether we can even claim that happiness
comes from only one thing.
Can it be claimed that happiness comes from only one
thing?
In fact, this is the claim of philosophers (on whose work Values
Education depends), but they phrase their claim in this way:
Perfect happiness can come only from the perfect good.
Note the adjective perfect that modifies happiness. The
philosophers imply that imperfect happiness can come from
many different things, but perfect happiness from only one
thing. Note as well what they call what brings happiness. They
call it a good. This is what some philosophers now call
value. More importantly, note the adjective modifying good:
perfect. What perfect happiness and perfect good mean
are explained below.
Can people be mistaken about what brings happiness?
The answer to this question seems equally obvious, since it is
easy to cite examples of people who have been disappointed
regarding what they thought would bring them happiness. We
are not saying that what these people were completely
mistaken about what they thought would bring them happiness.
Rather, we are saying that the happiness it brought them did
not last or was not completely satisfying.
There are people who have sought happiness in wealth and
have achieved it and yet are sad. The same thing can be said
about people who have sought it in fame and power.
Happiness and what brings happiness is the subject matter of
Values Education.
What do philosophers say about happiness?
They say, to begin with, that it is what all human beings seek.
It is because of this that we value above all things what we
believe will bring us happiness.
Secondly, they say that happiness comes with possessing
something good.
Philosophers call anything that brings happiness to a person a
good. This is a technical term. It does not mean that anything
that brings happiness is morally good, that is, in conformity
with the moral law.
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we have a habit, that habit is a part of us (the philosopher
would say it is a modification of us), so much so that we
sometimes call it second nature.
Philosophy tells us that the direct knowledge and love of God
bring perfect happiness, but direct knowledge of God cannot
happen in this life.
Direct knowledge of God means seeing him face to face.
Reading about God (for example, reading the Bible) or
considering what he must be is not the same as direct
knowledge. While direct knowledge of God is not possible in this
life, true love of God is. This is because it is possible to start
loving someone with just a minimum information about her or
him, even if one has never met the other person. There are
enough stories about such cases.
What must we do in this life to see God directly in the
afterlife?
Different religions give different answers to this question. What
philosophy tells us (and it is really little) is that we should love
God as much as we can in this life.
This answer is based partly on human experience. The most
intense form of seeing is that of the lover gazing at the beloved.
If we want to see God in order to be happy and not merely out
of curiosity, then we should love him, and if we want to be very
happy, then we must be able to see him very intently. To do so,
we must love him as much as we can.
Virtue makes it easier for us to follow moral norms and enables
us to love God strongly.
What must we do to love God as best we can in this life?
Once again different religions give different answers to this
question, and once again what philosophy tells us is little: (1)
we must observe moral norms, and (2) we must cultivate virtue.
Moral norms are discovered by reason. They keep a person from
destroying his own humanity through his own acts. Virtue helps
a person fulfill the moral norms. They enhance a persons
humanity, and they strengthen his capacity to love.
Can we consider the moral norms and virtue values?
Strictly speaking, the moral norms cannot make us happy, and
so they cannot be considered values. However, following the
moral norms can make us happy. When someone follows the
moral norms habitually, we say he has the virtue of prudence.
Prudence is a value.
Prudence is a virtue. The other virtues can likewise help us
possess God. Thus, the virtues are values.
Sometimes, practicing a virtue may make a person sad, as
when a student decides not to go out with friends in order to
study. He studies because it is his duty, but he does not feel
good about having to stay at home. When practicing a virtue
makes us sad, it is a sign that we do not yet have that virtue
perfectly. When we have a virtue perfectly, we are happy
practicing that virtue. With more practice, we get to perfect a
virtue. This is like a runner training for a race. In the beginning,
running causes him much pain and fatigue, but with constant
practice the pain and fatigue may disappear.
What does it mean to have virtue as a basic value?
It means prizing goodness above all things and pursuing it
throughout ones life.
It means valuing action based on thinking rather than feeling.
It means valuing the good of others as much as ones own
good.
It means valuing friendship.
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It means avoiding vice.
Should God and virtue be the only values human beings
should have?
No. Aside from virtue, there are other values that can help us
attain God, and so these would be good to have as well.
Furthermore, any values that help us to be better human beings
are good to have.
What other values aside from virtue help us to attain
God?
Aside from virtue, knowledge of the truth and seeking the good
of others help us to attain God.
What does it mean to have knowledge of the truth as a
value?
It means prizing the truth above all things and pursuing it
throughout ones life.
It means valuing the intellect and its use.
It means valuing sources of truth, such as books and wise men.
It means avoiding prejudice, subjectivism, and emotionalism.
It means avoiding anything that can impair thinking, such as
drink, drugs, excessive eating or excessive sexual activity.
It means avoiding distractions to the intellect, such as certain
types of music, noise, and certain video material.
It means cultivating friendship with the wise and learned.
What does it mean to consider seeking the good of
others a value?
It means thinking only about the people with whom we live and
work.
It means valuing their goodness and happiness.
Who are the other people whose good we may seek?
First of all, there is ones own family.
Secondly, the people with whom one lives and works.
Thirdly, the political community to which one belongs.
This can have several levels, e.g., city, province, region,
country.
Fourthly, there is all humanity.
Isnt the person who seeks happiness by living his life
for others vulnerable to disappointment if and when the
persons he lives for reject him or at least do not love
him back?
Yes, he is, but if he loves others for the sake of God, then it is
really God that he loves and God will never reject him and will
always love him back.
Can we call these three values the basic values that all
human beings should have?
We certainly can.
If a person wants to be happy in this life by means of something
that cannot get lost because it is a part of him and with the
least danger of his happiness being short-lived, then he should
value truth and virtue.
The wisdom of the wise man is something he possesses within
him, and if he does not give up his studies or if he considers
what he knows from time to time, he will not lose his
knowledge. The virtue of the good man is likewise something he
possesses. It is a habit, and if he continually does works of
virtue, he will not lose his virtue.
After God would come virtue, knowledge of the truth, and the
good of others.
After these three would come health, wealth, and society.
After these three would come nutrition and exercise, work and
technology, and communication.
We may call God as value and the values coming immediately
below him personal values. We may call the other values
natural values.
The personal values have happiness in the afterlife as their
goal, while the natural values have happiness in this life as their
goal.
The natural values are conditions for happiness in this life, not
in the next. It is possible to attain happiness in the afterlife even
without health, wealth, or the assistance of other people (as in
the case of someone abandoned or persecuted by society).
What is the difference between the personal value of the
good of others and the natural value of society?
The personal value of the good of others is based on the
appreciation of the dignity of the human being. Someone who
has this value gives himself to anyone and everyone, because
human beings are persons. The natural value of the family on
the part of the parents is based on the desire to have ones own
children; on the part of the children, it is based on their
dependence on their parents while they are not adults and on
gratitude once they are adults. The natural value of the political
community is based on the desire to promote ones welfare and
the welfare of his family. Someone who possesses the value of
the family or the value of the political community gives himself
to the family or the political community, but not necessarily to
people who are not members of his family or his political
community.
Does this hierarchy have any repercussion on our
actions?
Yes. If there should ever be a conflict between the natural
values and personal values, the personal values should prevail.
If we have to choose between making an illegal deal that would
give us millions and giving up that chance to get rich, then we
should choose to give up that chance.
The truth is, however, that when we go against the personal
values, we also pave the way for unhappiness in this life, if not
soon after, then sometime later. In other words, when we
pursue happiness in the afterlife, we pursue happiness in this
life as well.
After making an illegal deal and getting my millions, I may find
that my conscience bothers me. Or I may be chased by the law.
Or I may live in fear of being discovered.
The opposite is not true, however: If someone deliberately
pursues only happiness in this life, he is certainly not pursuing
happiness in the next, particularly if he deliberately rejects God
as a value.
Can a spiritual value and a natural value inspire the
same action?
Yes. I may, for example, eat, and this would be in line with the
value of nutrition, but as I eat I observe the virtue of
temperance. So in one action I follow two kinds of values.
Or I may help the poor, and this would be in line with the value
of seeking the good of others, a spiritual value, but as I help
them, I help the society to which they belong, a natural value.
Consequently, we may pursue both happiness in this life and
happiness in the afterlife at the same time in a single action.
5
The two kinds of values (personal and natural) do not mean that
the human being leads two lives at the same time. He leads
only one life, his life, in the world, but as he goes about his life
in the world, the truth inspires and guides him, he tries to do
everything he does virtuously, and he strives to have the good
of other people in mind, if not as immediate beneficiaries of his
actions, then at least as the ultimate beneficiaries (in other
words, he acts with a spirit of service). In short, the personal
values affect the way he acts and his intentions. Religion guides
him in relating directly with his Maker, and pleasing God is the
ultimate intention of everything he does.
How do we acquire values?
By experience or by instruction.
Instruction can happen in many varied ways: the example of
others, readings, the mass media, stories heard from other
people, the places in which one lives and works.
Every value has two components: knowledge and wanting.
Virtue as value is composed of (1) the knowledge that virtue
brings happiness and (2) wanting to be virtuous. Wealth as
value is composed of (1) the knowledge that wealth can be
used to serve the poor and (2) wanting to serve the poor with
ones wealth. Obedience as value is composed of (1) the
knowledge that obedience is an important part of governance
and (2) wanting to be obedient to political authorities.
The knowledge component is always knowledge of something
as good, and the wanting component always consists of
wanting that good thing.
Knowledge comes before wanting, because we cannot want
what we do not know, but wanting has to come after
knowledge; otherwise, there is no value.
How do we acquire the knowledge component of the
value?
The knowledge component of the value can come in two forms:
in the form of ideas or in the form of images.
Fame brings happiness: this statement expresses the
knowledge component of a value in the form of ideas. A picture
of a smiling popular movie star may express the same
component.
Similarly, the idea that power brings happiness may be
conveyed by a novel.
An ad of a good-looking model could communicate the idea that
beauty brings happiness.
We can acquire the knowledge component of values in all the
ways we may acquire ideas and images.
Does age make a difference in the acquisition of the
knowledge component of values?
Yes, it does with regard to knowledge in the form of ideas.
Before the age of reason, the child acquires only natural values,
since acquisition of natural values does not depend on the use
of reason, while acquisition of personal values does. Upon
reaching the age of reason, the child begins acquiring personal
values.
The acquisition of personal values keeps pace with the stages of
intellectual development. At every stage, progress is made with
regard to truth, virtue, and the good of others. The human
being deepens in his understanding and practice of prudence
with every new stage.
The Stage of Simple Apprehension (ages 7 to 10) is the right
stage at which to focus on the value of temperance.
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The Stage of Articulated Apprehensions (ages 11 to 14) is the
right stage at which to focus on the value of fortitude.
The Stage of Concepts (ages 15 to 18) is the right stage at
which to focus on the value of justice.
The Stage of Philosophical Concepts (age 19 up) is the right
stage at which to focus on the value of friendship. It is probably
only at this stage that the human being is first able to articulate
for himself the values that will rule his life and their relations
with one another.
Can we acquire values unconsciously?
Yes, it happens all the time, particularly
communication of ideas through images.
through
the
Refinements:
Values: intentio
Attitudes: consent and choice
Value of society calls for values of language and trust
Kinds of intellectual content: ends, means, intermediate ends
Conditions (health, wealth, society) to do what? Earn a living,
support a family, be a good citizen