Qualitative Research

Methodologies

Dinampo, Polinar, Rome, Ygana

Definition
(Kidder and Judd, 1986) :formulative
or exploratory studies characterized
by receptive, seeking attitudes of the
investigator and an intense study of
individuals or groups

Definition
Descriptive study with the primary
purpose of exploring a phenomenon of
interest as a prelude to theory
development
Explore phenomena in natural settings
Reveal the nature of multiple
perspectives

Approach

Issues are complex

with different layers
multifaceted in form
there is no single truth that can be discovered
but multiple perspectives held by different
individuals with each perspectives having
equal validity or truth
- approach requires considerable preparation
and planning

Uses
generating hypotheses regarding the
determinants of a condition or any
characteristic of interest
provide baseline data and monitor change
over time
can establish associations among factors
when little information are available, variables
are unknown and when relevant theory is
inadequate or missing

 helps define what needs to be

studied thats why it usually
precede other research designs
useful in developing solutions to
problems, planning and
forecasting

Qualitative research are chosen for

one or more of the following
purposes

Description: Can reveal the nature of certain

situations, settings, processes, relationships
and systems or people
Interpretation: Enable researcher to gain new
insights about a particular phenomenon,
develop new concepts or theoretical
perspectives about the phenomenon and/or
discover the problems that exist within the
phenomenon

 Verification: Allow researcher to test

the validity of certain assumptions,
claims, theories or generalization
within real world contexts
Evaluation: Provide a means through
which a researcher can judge the
effectiveness of particular policies,
practices or innovations
(Peshkin, 1993 in Leedy,2005)

General
Characteristics

 Starts with general questions

As the research progresses:
- gains specific answers or data regarding the
topic
- allows the formulation of specific hypothesis.
Methodology evolves in the course of
investigation as well.
Design is necessarily flexible to discover ideas,
gain insight and formulate the problem for
further investigation

The Researcher
acts as the instrument
his ability to interpret and make sense of what
he or she sees critical for the understanding of
any social phenomenon is important
should be well trained for observation
techniques, interview strategies and other
data collection methods

 must have firm grasp of previous studies or

related literature to discern the important
details he or she truly needs (except for
grounded theory)
must be able to create order or to organize a
vast scope of data for interpretation

Sampling

Usually purposeful or intentionally nonrandom in their selection of data

subjects are selected according to their
experience with the phenomenon being
explored

Data collection
Methods
- observations, interviews, questionnaires and
from objects, written documents, audiovisual
materials and electronic document
entails a great deal of time to ensure all
potentially useful data are recorded
thoroughly, accurately and systematically
consistent with ethical principles

Observation
must experiment with various data recording
strategies to identify particular methods that
will work best and practice them using other
contexts
get the consent of subjects if necessary
To minimize bias the observer must remain
inconspicuous and very objective in record
keeping

Interviews

Well structured / less structure

Focus Interview
Focus group
Non directive

Data Analysis
Data Analysis Spiral by Creswell,1998
Complex and time consuming
Computer softwares and databases may help
facilitate data organization and interpretation
analysis
Transcribed data must have several replicates
especially those stored in computers in case
problems arise.

Data Analysis Spiral by Creswell, 1998

(6) Final Report
(5) Synthesis offering hypothesis or propositions
- constructing tables, diagrams and heirarchies
(4) Classification grouping data into categories
-finding meaning in the data
(3) Perusal- getting an overall sense of data
-jotting down preliminary interpretations
(2) Organization filing, creating database
- break large units into smaller ones
(1) Raw Data

Limitations
May take long time to finish and requires
much effort in transcribing the data
Highly subjective
Results cannot be applied to general
population
must not be used when in need of quick
results and easy answers

 Observation methods may be wasteful in

terms of time
Researchers presence may lead certain
events to be altered.
Interviews may lead to considerable
distortion when researcher asks about
past experiences
Lastly, it doesnt allow for causal
relationships to be determined.

Six Common Qualitative Research

Designs

Case study
Ethnography
Phenomenological study
Grounded theory study
Content analysis
Historical Research

Case Study
It studies a specified topic such
as individual, groups, program,
event and others in depth for a
defined period of time

General Procedure
Purposive sampling or defining the
characteristics of the participants
Triangulating or bringing together
multiple perspectives and sources of
information from interviews,
observations, field notes, tests,
transcripts, and other documents is a
prime method of data analysis in case
study research.

Kinds
Explanatory
-This type of case study would be used if you
were seeking to answer a question that sought
to explain the presumed causal links in real-life
interventions that are too complex for the
survey or experimental strategies.

 Exploratory
-This type of case study is used to
explore those situations in which the
intervention being evaluated has no
clear, single set of outcomes

 Descriptive
-This type of case study s used to
describe an intervention or
phenomenon and the real-life context
in which it occurred.

 Multiple-case studies
-A multiple case study enables the
researcher to explore differences
within and between cases. The goal
is to replicate findings across
cases.

 Intrinsic
-suggests that researchers who have a
genuine interest in the case should use
this approach when the intent is to
better understand the case.

 Instrumental
- The case is of secondary interest; it
plays a supportive role, facilitating our
understanding of something else.

 Collective
-Collective case studies are similar in
nature and description to multiple
case studies

Things to Consider in conducting

Case Study Approach:
(a) the focus of the study is to answer how
and why questions
(b) you cannot manipulate the behavior of those
involved in the study
(c) you want to cover contextual conditions
because you believe they are relevant to the
phenomenon under study
(d) the boundaries are not clear between the
phenomenon and context

Ethnography
Ethnography comes from 2 Greek
words namely ethnos meaning
folk or people and graphia
meaning writing.

General Procedure and

Methodology

Direct, first-hand observation

of daily activities and
participation.
Interviews
Big-Net Approach

Methodological triangulation
-combines dissimilar methods
such as interviews, observations,
and physical evidence to study the
same unit
Time triangulation

Issues in Ethnographic Research

Ethics
Errors

Phenomenological
Study

Definition
Phenomenology basically refers to how a
person views and interprets a certain event or
phenomenon in a removed or objective
manner
As such, phenomenological study is a type of
qualitative study which aims to understand
the subjective experiences of individuals
objectively.

Definition
helps answer the question, what must it be
like or feel like, for a person or group with
certain unique conditions
a challenge of describing things as they are
and to look at them from the vantage point
of possible meanings.

Methods and Procedures

Requirements
1. A topic or research question which deals
with autobiographical meanings and values
which in turn have social significance
2. A set of questions to be used in the
interview process
3. Lengthy person to person interviews and
the

Methods and Procedures

4. Organization and analysis of data
which will in turn provide descriptions of
the phenomenon and thus, a variety of
interpretations and meanings for the said
phenomenon

Methods of Preparation
1. Formulation of the research question
Must have social meaning and personal
significance
Depends heavily on the researchers curiosity

Methods of preparation
Characteristics of a phenomenological research
question
1. giving a richer description of the meaning and
essence of the human experience
2. Must uncover more of the qualitative aspects
of behaviour than the quantitative ones
3. Able to engage the total self of the research
participant by involving him or her passionately
and personally

Methods of Preparation
4. Does not aim to predict causal relationships
5. Must be understood through vivid
descriptions and narratives instead assigning
numbers such as measurements, ratings and
scores.

Methods of collecting data

Lengthy interview
One to two hours
Interactive and informal

Organizing and Analyzing data

Identify statements that relate to the topic.
In this step, the researcher must filter the
information obtained through the interviews
and separate the important information. After
the important pieces of information have
been filtered, they are then organized into
phrases or sentences which constitute a
certain thought or aspect of the experience
being studied

Organizing and analyzing data

Group statements into meaning units
The statements are then categorized
accordingly depending on the aspects of the
phenomenon.

Organizing and analyzing the data

Seek divergent perspectives
From the set of interviews, the researcher
must then analyze the different ways in which
the participants view and understand their
experiences.
Construct a composite
The researcher then describes the experience
in its totality through the meanings and
narratives obtained in the interviews.

References
Leedy P, Ormrod JE. Practical Research Planning
and Design. 8th ed. New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc.;2005.
Tesch, R. Qualitative research: Analysis types and
software tools. Volume 337. Philadelphia:
RoutledgeFalmer, Taylor and Francis Inc. ; 1990.
Moustakas, C. Phenomenological Research
Methods. California: Sage Publications, Inc.;
1994.

Grounded Theory
Study

Definition

A grounded theory study is basically a type

of qualitative research which does not depend
on a theoretical framework. Rather, the
theoretical framework is derived from the set
of data gathered

Definition
The rationale and significance of grounded
theory is hinged on the concept that an
objective, and thus, more reliable view of
reality can be obtained when the researcher
does not hold any speculations on the
outcome of the research

Definition
Formulating a theory requires creative
thinking:
1. being open-minded to possibilities
2. formulating options
3. exploring possibilities
4. utilizing nonlinear forms of thinking
5. getting a fresh perspective
6.avoiding shortcuts

Methods
Data in grounded theory study is obtained
through the usual course of interviews,
observations, documents, historical records,
videotapes or any other material which is
deemed vital in answering the research
question.

Methods
After the data has been gathered, the
researcher must then categorize the data
revise them and then to form
interrelationships between them.
At this point, the researcher may go back and
forth between data gathering and analysis in a
process known as constant comparative
method

Data analysis
Open coding
In open coding, the data are categorized
accordingly and are then reviewed to identify
the properties which define each category.
The data is basically summarized into different
themes which are deemed part of the topic
studied.

Data analysis
Axial coding
In axial coding, interrelationships are then
made between the categories created. As
such, the prior conditions, the current context,
managing strategies and the consequences of
such strategies of the categories are studied.
Axial coding basically relates the categories
and the subcategories based on their
properties and dimensions.

Data analysis
Selective coding
After the categories and their
interrelationships have been pointed out, a
story line is then created which describe the
series of events or conditions leading to the
phenomenon.

Data analysis
Development of a theory
From the story line, a theory is eventually
created. This could come in the form of a
statement, model or hypotheses. The theory
must contain the series of events and
consequences which have led to the
phenomenon, particularly the actions and
interactions which have caused further actions.
This theory is based solely on the data gathered.

Finished outcome/ research report

A description of the research question
The research problem and how it was outlined
throughout the course of the study should be
explained.

Finished outcome/ research report

Review of related literature
Literature should be used only to provide the
significance and context of the study, not to
provide a theory.
Methodology
A description of the methodology particularly
the data gathering should be explained. After
which, the data analysis should be explained
by identifying the categories used.

Finished outcome/ Research report

Presentation of theory
The theory should be presented in a visual or
verbal form.
Discussion of implications
The theory should now be related to existing
information. After which, possibilities for
further research should be discussed.

References
Leedy P, Ormrod JE. Practical Research
Planning and Design. 8th ed. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.;2005.
Strauss, A and Corbin, J. Basics of qualitative
research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory. California: Sage
Publications, Inc.; 1998.

Content Analysis

Definition
Content analysis has been defined as a
systematic, replicable technique for
compressing many words of text into fewer
content categories based on explicit rules of
coding (Berelson, 1952; GAO, 1996;
Krippendorff, 1980; and Weber, 1990).

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Definition
"any technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of
messages" - Holsti, 1960
content analysis is not restricted to the domain of textual
analysis, but may be applied to other areas such as coding
student drawings or coding of actions observed in
videotaped studies
In order to allow for replication, however, the technique
can only be applied to data that are durable in nature.

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Definition
Enables reader to read through large volumes of info/
data
It can be a useful technique for allowing us to discover
and describe the focus of individual, group,
institutional, or social attention (Weber, 1990)
It also allows inferences to be made which can then be
corroborated using other methods of data collection.

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Definition
...to infer from symbolic data what would be
either too costly, no longer possible, or too
obtrusive by the use of other techniques
Krippendorff, 1980

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Types of Content Analysis

1. Conceptual Analysis
a concept is chosen for examination and the number
of its occurrences within the text recorded
selective reduction
the researcher simply wants to examine presence
with respect to his/her research question, i.e.
whether there is a stronger presence of positive or
negative words used with respect to a specific
argument or respective arguments.

* http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html

Types of Content Analysis

2. Relational Analysis
examining the relationships among concepts in a
text
it is important to first decide which concept
type(s) will be explored in the analysis.
it is important to first decide which concept
type(s) will be explored in the analysis (too many
/ too few)

* http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html

Practical Application/ uses

1. determine authorship
one technique for determining authorship is to
compile a list of suspected authors, examine their
prior writings, and correlate the frequency of
nouns or function words to help build a case for
the probability of each person's authorship of the
data of interest.
* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Practical Applications/ uses

2. examine trends and patterns in documents
3. Provide empirical basis for monitoring shifts
in public opinion

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Practical Applications/ uses

4. Reveal international differences in
communication content
5. Detect the existence of propaganda
6. Identify the intentions, focus or communication
trends of an individual, group or institution
7. Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to
communications
8. Determine psychological or emotional state of
persons or groups
* http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html

Conducting a Content Analysis

6 steps ( Krippendorff, 1980)
1) Which data are analyzed?
2) How are they defined?
3) What is the population from which they are
drawn?
4) What is the context relative to which the
data are analyzed?
5) What are the boundaries of the analysis?
6) What is the target of the inferences?

Analyzing Data
Use of word frequency counts is helpful in
identifying words of potential interest
will help to strengthen the validity of the
inferences that are being made from the data
to test for the consistency of usage of words
There are computer soft wares that could be used
in this area
* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Analyzing Data
Coding and categorizing of data
Emergent vs. a priori coding =
Emergent - categories are established after some
preliminary examination of the data.
a priori - categories are established prior to the
analysis based upon some theory

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Analyzing Data
Coding units
Sampling units - depends on the researcher, they could
be words, paragraphs or sentences
Context units - set physical limits on what kind of data
you are trying to record, neither need be independent
or separately describable. They may overlap and
contain many recording units

Recording units - are rarely defined in terms of physical

boundaries , ex. Ideas
* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Reliability & Validity

Reliability
Stability = or intra-rater reliability. Can the same
coder get the same results try after try?
Reproducibility = or inter-rater reliability. Do
coding schemes lead to the same text being coded
in the same category by different people?
* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Reliability & Validity

Reliability
One way to measure reliability is to measure the
percent of agreement between raters
may be calculated by using Cohen's Kappa, which
approaches 1 as coding is perfectly reliable and
goes to 0 when there is no agreement

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Reliability & Validity

Reliability
Kappa:
K = PA PC/ 1- PC
PA = proportion of units on which the raters agree
PC = the proportion of units for which agreement is
expected by chance.

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Reliability & Validity

Validity
Triangulation lends credibility to the findings by
incorporating multiple sources of data, methods,
investigators, or theories (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper,
& Allen, 1993).
Shapiro & Markoff (1997) assert that content analysis
itself is only valid and meaningful to the extent that
the results are related to other measures.

* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Problems that may arise...

1. If a large number of documents/ files are
missing the content analysis must be abandoned
2. There are inappropriate records should be
discarded ( but must be kept around to ensure
that there are no missing files)
3. The documents match the requirements but is
uncodable because of missing passages or
ambiguous content
* http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17

Advantages
looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts ->
gets at the central aspect of social interaction
can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations

can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time

through analysis of texts
allows a closeness to text which can alternate between
specific categories and relationships and also statistically
analyzes the coded form of the text

*http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html

Advantages
can be used to interpret texts for
purposes such as the development of
expert systems
is an unobtrusive/restrained means of
analyzing interactions
provides insight into complex models of
human thought and language use
when done well, is considered as a
relatively "exact" research method
(based on hard facts, as opposed to
Discourse Analysis).

Disadvantages
time consuming
is subject to increased error, particularly when
relational analysis is used
is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too
liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the
relationships and impacts implied in a study
is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing
with complex texts

Disadvantages
tends too often to simply consist of word
counts
often disregards the context that produced
the text, as well as the state of things after
the text is produced

can be difficult to automate or computerize

Conclusion
Powerful data reduction technique
Its major benefit comes from the fact that it is a
systematic, replicable technique for compressing
many words of text into fewer content categories
based on explicit rules of coding
Two fatal flaws that destroy the utility of a
content analysis are faulty definitions of
categories and non-mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories.

Historical Analysis

Definiton & Characteristics

research about events that occurred in the
past. An example, you might study the use of
corporeal punishment in schools in the 19th
century.

*http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec2.pdf

Definition & Characteristics

Used to gain information on an event,
development and/ or previous educational
experience.
May involve studying previous/ current
situations and to predict if the same situation
will happen again
*http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Azia1980-494704-qualitativeresearch-design/

Definitions & Characteristics

Conclusions are based from collected facts and
evidences (records, diaries, oral histories,
photographs, and other artifacts) to answer why and
how things occurred

Is useful to solve problems that involve sensitive issues

Important in collecting and defining facts & evidences
(systematicall & objectively)

* http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Azia1980-494704-qualitativeresearch-design/

Conducting Historical Research

1. the recognition of a historical problem or the
identification of a need for certain historical
knowledge.
2. the gathering of as much relevant information about
the problem or topic as possible.
3. if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that
tentatively explain relationships between historical
factors.
4. The rigorous collection and organization of evidence,
and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of
information and its sources.
*http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/historical.htm

Conducting Historical Research

External criticism = is used to determine the physical
authenticity (i.e., validity) of the record, document, or
artifact related to its investigation.
Internal Criticism= to assess the degree, if any, of bias
within the content of a record, document, or artifact.
Internal criticism also seeks to ascertain the historical
meaning and accuracy of an artifacts content.

*http://www.charlesdennishale.com/books/eets_ap/9_Qualitative_Research
_Designs.pdf

Conducting Historical Research

5. The selection, organization, and analysis of the most
pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of
conclusions; and
6. the recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.

The historical method of research applies to all fields of

study because it encompasses their: origins, growth,
theories, personalities, crisis, etc.
Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in
the collection of historical information.

*http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/historical.htm

Sample topics
development of school, academic or public
libraries/ etc.,
the rise of technology and the benefits/
problems it brings,
the development of preservation methods,
famous personalities in the field, statistics, or
geographical demographics and how they
effect nutrition intake of the area.

Obtaining data
Primary sources (most sought after)
are first hand accounts of information
examples of primary documents are: personal diaries,
eyewitness accounts of events, and oral histories

Secondary sources
records or accounts prepared by someone other than
the person, or persons, who participated in or observed
an event
useful in giving a researcher a grasp on a subject and
may provided extensive bibliographic information for
delving further into a research topic.

Advantages
1. The historical method is unobtrusive -- the
act of research does not affect the results of
the study.
2. The historical method is well suited for trend
analysis.
3. Compared to longitudinal designs, content
analysis is usually less expensive.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject
interaction.

Disadvantages
1. Researchers are likely to be biased
in interpreting historical sources.
2. Interpreting sources is very time
consuming.
3. Computerized content analysis is
costly to quantitatively analyze

Disadvantages
4. The sources of historical materials may well be
problematic -- for example women are more
likely than men to keep diaries, not all records
are kept in consistent patterns, original authors
bring their own perspectives and biases to the
interpretation of events.
5. Due to the lack of control over external
variables, historical research is very weak with
regard to the demands of internal validity.

Issues to consider
1. slant or biases in the information you are
working with (from the historians)
2. The many factors that contributed to the
historical episodes
3. Evidences should not be examined in a single
point view only

References

*
*

Leedy P, Ormrod JE. Practical Research Planning and Design. 8th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.;2005.
Baxter P, Jack S. Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for novice researchers. The
Qualitative Report. 2008 December; (13):544-559.
Stake RE. The art of case study research. USA: Sage Publishing Inc.; 1995.
Yin RK. Case study research: Design and methods. 3rd ed. USA: Sage Publishing Inc.; 2003.
Fetterman DM. Ethnography: step-by-step. 3rd ed. USA: SAGE Publication Inc.;2010.
Atkinson P, Hammersley M. Ethnography: principles in practice. 3rd ed. New York: Tavistock Publication; 2007.
Handwerker P. Quick ethnography. USA: AltaMira; 2001.
Azade, Asgari. Research Methodology: Qualitative Research Design. Retrieved Jan. 10, 2011 from
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/Azia1980-494704-qualitative-research-design/.
Chapter 2 Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research. Retrieved Jan. 10, 2011 from
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/lectures/lec2.pdf.
Chapter 9 Research Design: Qualitative Method. Retrieved Jan. 10, 2011
http://www.charlesdennishale.com/books/eets_ap/9_Qualitative_Research_Designs.pdf.
Lemming, M. RESEARCH AND SAMPLING DESIGNS: TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING HYPOTHESES. Retrieved Jan. 10, 2011
from http://www.stolaf.edu/people/leming/soc371res/research.html.
Content Analysis. Retrieved January 9, 2011 from http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html.
Stemler, Steve (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(17). Retrieved
January 9, 2011 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17.