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Urban Water Journal

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Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection in closed

conduits
a

B Brunone & M Ferrante

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile ed Ambientale University of Perugia - via G. Duranti 93

06125 Perugia Italy
Published online: 09 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: B Brunone & M Ferrante (2004) Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection in closed conduits, Urban
Water Journal, 1:2, 145-155, DOI: 10.1080/1573062042000271073
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1573062042000271073

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Urban Water Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2004, 145 155

Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection in closed conduits

B. BRUNONE* and M. FERRANTE
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile ed Ambientale, University of Perugia - via G. Duranti 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:56 13 November 2014

(Revised version received June 2004)

In recent decades, growing water demand and a scarcity of easily exploitable high-quality
water sources has reinvigorated interest in the further development of already stressed
groundwater resources. Since leakage reduction often means the acquisition of new highquality water resources, utility managers are realizing that water loss must be considered
in plans to extend water supply and leak detection is now perceived as a money-saving
expense. Among leak detection methodologies, those based on transient analysis can be
some of the fastest and cheapest. This article briey outlines the properties of pressure
waves in closed single pipe systems. Past ndings from the analysis of pressure signals
within the time domain framework are reviewed and time series of pressure variations
acquired in laboratory experiments at one measurement section are examined. Emphasis
is placed on the analysis of transient test results in the frequency domain and the use of
the wavelet transform for interpreting pressure signals. Both a single pipe system and a
wastewater outfall system are examined and discussed.
Keywords: Pressure waves; Leak detection; Closed conduits; Fluid transients

1. Introduction
The quick pace of change aecting all facets of society and
human activity at the start of the new millennium poses
unprecedented challenges to the engineering profession.
Instead of designing or planning completely new works, an
engineer is now often called upon to adjust, rehabilitate or
save existing infrastructure. The extent of any such intervention essentially depends on the age of the infrastructure
and/or on the nature of its inadequacy vis-a`-vis new
operating conditions. It is obviously important that these
conditions and performance requirements be understood
and established as accurately as possible. Furthermore, it is
also necessary to identify the potential situations in which
operational demands exceed the ability to provide an
adequate level of service. Only after these issues have been
taken into account is it possible to make informed decisions.
With respect to pipe networks, these considerations give rise
to an ever-increasing demand for tools that can be used to
quickly evaluate service conditions and system integrity as

well as suggest viable solutions for rehabilitating the

infrastructure and rendering it more ecient. It is no longer
simply a matter of planning the wholesale replacement of
large sections of a network, but rather a careful balancing act
to perform targeted and ecient interventions with limited
budgets and resources so that improvements and upgrades
ensure adequate performance.
Economic motivations can induce water companies to
initiate a leak detection campaign because in many cases
the nancial savings realized from leak detection and repair
outweigh the cost of the campaign. Indirect savings, such as
reduced damage to building foundations and roadways as
well as diminished water treatment and sewage loading,
enhance the economic feasibility of leakage control. Leak
detection also plays an important role in curtailing certain
non-economic externalities, perhaps the most important of
which is limiting the potentially adverse water quality
eects of leaks. Of specic concern is the transient intrusion
phenomenon which is a function of: (i) the nature of the
manoeuvre giving rise to the transient; (ii) the systems

*Corresponding author. Email: brunone@unipg.it

Urban Water Journal
ISSN 1573-062X print/ISSN 1744-9006 online # 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/1573062042000271073

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 18:56 13 November 2014

146

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

initial conditions; and (iii) the characteristics of the pipe

system (e.g. the prole of the pipe).
Intrusion has the potential to occur whenever a lowpressure regime is established. In such a case, the ambient
pressure external to the leak, pext, is higher than the internal
pipe pressure at the leak, pe, and intrusion of polluted water
can take place. As an example, gure 1 shows the timehistory of the piezometric head, hi, measured at a leak
during a transient that is caused by the rapid closure of a
ball valve placed at the terminus of the pipe. As a reference,
the constant value of the piezometric head, ho, at the tank
where the leak discharges is indicated. Even though the
transient attenuates quickly (the maximum value of the
piezometric head (20.80 m) is not much higher than the
hydrostatic value, hs (11.52 m), during the two time
intervals in which the pressure dierential is sucient for
water to enter the pipe), the risk of compromising water
quality exists. Specically, the test conditions described (see
test No. 3 of table 2) during the abovementioned periods of
time (having a complete duration equal to about 1.4 s),
permit an intrusion volume of about 0.2 l (Brunone and
Ferrante 2000, 2001).
The present article is conceived within the context of
resource conservation and eciency. With respect to pipe
systems, its goal is to assist with the verication of system
performance and the determination of pipe condition by
investigating the problem of leak detection and sizing.
Attention mainly focuses on transient based leak detection
methodology. Specically, this paper summarizes dierent
approaches developed and employed by the authors during
the past decade for analyzing the pressure time-history at
one measurement section.

The methods applied here are based on the transmission

and reection properties of pressure waves. Part of a
transient wave moving along a pipe is reected by
singularities encountered in the conduit (e.g. junctions,
diameter changes, and leaks). These waves relay useful
information about the system, expressed in terms of
variations in a pressure signal. To interpret the information
and to perform a system diagnosis, the pressure signal can
be analyzed in the time domain, the frequency domain, or
in both. Acknowledging this distinction, and focusing on
the determination of leak size and location, the paper is
organized as follows. In section 2, attributes of pressure
waves in closed single pipe systems are described and some
results obtained within the time domain framework are
reviewed. Section 3 emphasizes methodologies based on the
analysis of pressure signals in the frequency domain as well
as the use of the wavelet transform. General observations
and ndings are then summarized in section 4.
2. Sketch of the problem in the time-domain framework
Part of a transient pressure wave propagating through a
pipe is reected back at a leak with a change in sign,
whereas the remaining part passes beyond it (Brunone
1989, 1999, Brunone and Ferrante 1999, 2001, Jonsson
1999, Nash and Karney 1999). A single pipe system (SPS) is
dened as comprising a pipe of uniform characteristics with
a xed level upstream reservoir and a valve at the end
section. In such a system, one can discern information
regarding the presence of a leak by measuring the pressure
time-history (the pressure signal, PS) at one section (the
measurement section, m) if a pressure wave arrives at the

Figure 1. Single pipe system (SPS). Pressure time-history at the leak during transient due to the closure of the end valve
(modied from Brunone and Ferrante 2000).

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Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection

measurement section before the expected arrival time of the

reected wave from the upstream reservoir. The reected
pressure wave causes a reduction in pressure, appearing
essentially as a step, y, in the PS. Pinpointing the leak
strictly depends upon the accuracy in evaluating the time at
which the pressure waves reach the measurement section
(i.e. the pressure wave from the end valve and the one
reected back at the leak).
For the sake of clarity, some experimental data are
reported to illustrate these characteristics of pressure waves.
Unsteady-state tests were carried out at the Laboratorio
di Ingegneria delle Acque (Water Engineering Laboratory)
of the University of Perugia (Italy) in a polyethylene pipe,
with a length, l = 350.5 m, and a nominal diameter,
ND = 110 mm. The pipe was arranged in concentric circles
(gure 2) with bends having a minimum radius of 1.5 m
and was almost horizontal, except for the last short part.
For the supply reservoir, an air vessel was used in which the

pressure was automatically kept constant and equal to a

prescribed value by varying the speed of the submerged
pumps placed in the recycling reservoir. A buttery valve
was placed at the inlet section of the pipe, whereas a ball
valve was located at the end section. In order to simulate
the leak, a device with an orice at its wall was used (gure
3). Pressure measurements were made at the supply
reservoir, at section m and at the leak. Pressure transducers
were of the strain-gauge type, with a recording range of 0 to
30 m of water, an accuracy of 0.5% of the full-range scale
and a time response of about 5 ms. Steady-state discharges
were measured by means of magnetic ow meters. Output
signals from the sensors were read directly into a PC at a
rate of 50 150 Hz.
In the experiments, two dierent pipe system congurations were considered: (i) the single pipe system (SPS)
already described and (ii) the wastewater outfall system
(WOS). The WOS conguration is reported in gure 2 and
other test information is given in table 1.
For WOS, two leaks were simulated at x1 = 128.5 m and
x2 = 223.5 m through plastic tubes of internal diameter
equal to 24 mm which connect the polyethylene pipe to the
end tank (x = axial coordinate, x = 0 at the inlet section of
the pipe). The pressure signal was registered at the
measurement section, m, at xm = 23.5 m.

Figure 2. Experimental layout for the wastewater outfall

system (WOS). Plan view.

Table 1.

Figure 3. Device simulating the leak.

Characteristics of the transient tests.

Initial conditions
Buttery valve
position

Ball valve
position

WOS

closed

open

SPS

open

open

Pipe system
conguration

Flow

Manoeuvre

supply reservoir disconnected with hydrostatic

the pipe is quickly connected to the
conditions given by the water level at the end tank
pressurized supply reservoir by
opening the buttery valve
steady-state ow with the pipe discharging in air
quick closure of the ball valve

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148

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

Figure 4. Wastewater outfall system (WOS). Pressure signal for both intact and damaged pipe, the latter with two leaks
(modied from Brunone 1999).
Figure 4 depicts the two pressure signals acquired in the
WOS by considering an intact pipe and a pipe with two
leaks. The dimensionless time is dened as (y = t/ Tc, with t
being the time since the beginning of pressure data
acquisition, Tc = 2l/a being the pipe characteristic time,
and a = pressure wave speed. In the gure, although the
overpressure is quite small (9.75 m), the reduction, y, in PS
due to the presence of each leak is clearly evident and the
location of the two leaks can be discerned. Specically,
since y ,1 is due to the leak placed at x = x1, whereas y ,2 is
caused by the leak at x = x2; the position of the leaks can
be obtained by measuring the arrival times, t3,1 and t3,2, of
the waves reected by the leaks (Brunone 1989):

1
xm at t3;1  t1
x1
2

1
xm at t3;2  t1
x2
2

by considering PS. Precisely, the water-hammer equations

(Wylie and Streeter 1993):
@h
@q
L R0 0
@x
@t
@q
@h
C
0
@x
@t

can be solved numerically (Brunone 1999, Brunone and

Ferrante 2001). In equation (3), q is the ow and the inertia,
L, the capacitance, C, and the resistance per unit length, R,
are given by:
L

with t1 being the arrival time of the generated wave. When

more than just leak location must be known, such as when
a proposed intervention depends on leak size or an
assessment of potential contamination due to leaks is
contemplated (Funk et al. 1999, Brunone and Ferrante
2000), the eective leak area, C A (where C and A are the
discharge coecient and the leak area, respectively) must
be determined. At any time the discharge through a leak,
qt , is assumed to be given by the equation:
q

2
qt C A 2g ht  hto
where g is the acceleration due to gravity; ht and hto are the
piezometric heads at the leak inside and outside the pipe,
respectively.
Once the positions of the leak and the initial conditions
have been determined, the product C A can be evaluated

1
gA

gA
a2

R0

fq2
2gDA2

where f is the DarcyWeisbach friction factor, D is the

internal pipe diameter, and A is the cross-sectional area of
the pipe.
As a downstream boundary condition, the pressure
signal measured at section m, can be used instead of
assuming the ow variation at the valve. This can reduce
errors arising from an incorrect simulation of the transientprovoking manoeuvre. At the leak, equation (2) is used,
while the presence of a constant level reservoir must be
simulated in the proper end section according to the
characteristics of the pipe system (table 1).
For the SPS, the leak is placed at x = x2 = 223.5 m and
the section just upstream of the end valve has been chosen
as section m (xm = ). The behaviour of leaks of dierent
size and shape (circle, triangle, rectangle and square) was
previously investigated along with dierent outow conditions at the leak (Brunone and Ferrante 2001).
Figure 5 depicts the registered pressure signals arising
from transient overpressures for both the intact pipe and

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Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection

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three dierent sizes of the circular leak. Specically, for

tests No. 1, 2 and 3, k is equal to 0.003, 0.011 and 0.029,
respectively, with k = C A /A. As expected, the larger the
leak diameter, the larger the reduction of the piezometric
head, y, due to the leak. In table 2, the experimental values
of y as well as those of C A obtained by means of the
outlined numerical procedure are reported for the tests
pertaining to gure 5. It is worth noting that the nondimensional k parameter can be estimated by steady-state
or transient analysis, while the geometric ratio A /A is less
interesting for practical applications.
When friction losses are neglected, and the duration of
the manoeuvre is short
pin the sense specied in (Brunone
1999), the value of d k is given by:
d

ac
p
1c

!12
5

where c = y/D is the dimensionless piezometric head

reduction (with D being the transient overpressure) and
p
a 2gD/a is a dimensionless pipe-test parameter.
The application of equation (5) is straightforward. In
fact, a can be obtained experimentally or by means of
Allievis formula. Additionally, D is easily measured and a,
which in this case completely denes both the pipe and test,
is known. Finally y, and then c, are given by the pressure
signal. A graphical representation of equation (5) is depicted
in gure 6 where values of practical interest of the parameter
a are considered. As an example, a = 0.01 may correspond
to D = 5 m and a = 990 m/s, which is typical of metallic
pipes, while a = 0.05 may derive from D = 10 m and
a = 280 m/s, a value applicable to plastic pipes. A thorough
laboratory investigation (Brunone and Ferrante 2001) has
conrmed the validity of equation (5), at least as a means of
obtaining a provisional value of C A .

3. The frequency domain framework

3.1. Harmonic analysis
The pressure signals acquired during a transient usually
exhibit a strong periodic component leading many authors
to attempt analysis of the signal in the frequency domain
(Covas et al. 2000, Ferrante et al. 2001, Mpesha et al. 2001)
in order to expose features indicative of the leak. One way

Table 2.

Figure 5. Single pipe system (SPS). Pressure signal for

both intact and damaged pipe, the latter with a circular leak
of dierent size (from Brunone and Ferrante 2001).

Leak data from inverse procedure analysis for

transients of gure 5.

Test (No.)

y (m)

Q2 (1/s)

C A (cm2)

1
2
3

1.03
2.47
4.47

2.92
2.88
2.74

0.164
0.600
1.101

Figure 6. Dependence of parameter c on d for dierent values of a.

150

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

to analyze the pressure signal at a given section in the

frequency domain is to numerically integrate equation (3)
in the time domain and to transpose the resulting piezometric head variation, DhD, to the frequency domain using
the Fourier transform:

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1
Dh^o p
2p

1
1

Dhte

iot

dt

where o is the angular frequency. Following this approach,

two applications of the Fourier analysis for SPS with a leak
were performed by Jonsson 1999 and Covas et al. 2000. The
underlying assumption is that a leak in a SPS produces a
singularity in the piezometric head spectrum that is not
evident for a non-leaky pipe. Ferrante et al. (2001)
demonstrated that leak detection based on this assumption
is successful only in certain cases. Diculties in explaining
these results are due to the necessity of a heuristic
interpretation: analyzing the shape of the spectra of
simulated or experimental results. The authors try to infer
the general behaviour of a leak-induced modication in the
piezometric head spectrum. However, more dependable
results can be obtained by integrating equation (3) directly
in the frequency domain so that an analytic expression for
the piezometric head spectrum is obtained. For this
purpose, the instantaneous h and q values are considered
as the sum of the mean values, h
and q
, and the oscillations
around the mean, h and q:
h h
h0
q q
q0

Assuming a steady-state condition for the mean ow, and

substituting equation (7) into equation (3), gives the
following perturbation equations (Suo and Wylie 1989):
@h0
@q0
L
Rq0 0
@x
@t
@q0
@h0
C
0
@x
@t

When considering a SPS, integration of equation (8)

yields the transfer function (Suo and Wylie 1989)
ZD ZC tanh gl

11

where Z = H/Q is the hydraulic impedance; the subscript

D denotes the downstream end sections. The propagation constant, g, and the characteristic impedance, ZC, are
dened as
p
g
12
g CsLs R ZC
Cs
with s being the complex frequency. The response h(t) at the
end section to a Dirac discharge impulse at the valve can be
evaluated by the impulse response function:
21
3

1 4
ZD eiot do5
13
rDh t Re
p
0

For the superposition principle, when considering a generic

discharge variation at the end section, DqD(t), the piezometric head variation at the end section, DhD(t), is given by
the convolution of the response function and the ow
variation at the valve:
t
DhD t rDh t  tDqD tdt
14
o

Using a well-known property of the Fourier transform, the

time convolution theorem, and equation (14), the Fourier
transform of the piezometric head variation, DhD, can also
be obtained as the product of the Fourier transform of ow
variation, DqD, and the Fourier transform of the response
function (i.e. the transfer function):
qD o ZD o D^
qD o
Dh^D o r^Dh o D^

15

where a linearized form for the resistance per unit length,

R, is assumed:
f

q
R
9
gDA2
The physical oscillations about the mean values can be
evaluated as:


h0 Re Hxeiot
10


q0 Re Qxeiot
p
in which i 1; H and Q are the complex head and
complex discharge, respectively, and are exclusive functions
of x; Re[z] denotes the real part of z.

where ^ denotes the Fourier transform of the function.

The Fourier transform of ow variation at the valve can
easily be derived, either numerically or analytically, once
the time variation of ow is known or indirectly measured
by means of a pressure transducer during the transient. As
an example, when an instantaneous closure manoeuvre is
executed, it creates a power law decrease of the Fourier
transform of the piezometric head variation at the end
section (Ferrante and Brunone 2003a). When this term is
subtracted form the Fourier transform of the piezometric
head, only the response function of the system remains (a
characteristic of the pipe system that does not depend on
the manoeuvre). Since leaks signicantly alter the characteristics of the system, when the eect of the manoeuvre
is separated, harmonic analysis can be used as a diagnostic
tool to detect the presence of a leak.

151

Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection

For an intact SPS, if friction eects are neglected

(R = 0), as s = io, the propagation constant becomes:
p
o
16
g io CL i
a
and the transfer function (11) becomes:
 
p 
ol
ZC tan or
jZD j ZC tan
a
2

17

where or = o2l /ap is the normalized angular frequency.

The function jZD(or)j as dened by equation (17)
approaches innity for odd values of or :

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or o0r 2

2l o0
2n  1n 1; 2; :::
a 2p

18

and it is equal to zero for even values of or:

or o00r 2

2l o00
2nn 1; 2; :::
a 2p

exhibits a general behaviour similar to that evaluated

experimentally by taking the Fourier transform of the
pressure signal recorded at the end section of the pipe
during a fast closure manoeuvre (assumed to be instantaneous).
For a SPS with a leak at distance l2 from the valve, if
friction is neglected, both g and ZC do not vary upstream
and downstream from the leak and the transfer function at
the end section is (Ferrante and Brunone 2001):
jZD j



:
2

ZC

1 tan2 por lr =22 I2r tanpor lr =2  tanpor =2

h
i2
  Ir 1 tan2 por lr =2tanpor =2  tanpor lr =22
h
I2r tanpor lr =2tanpor lr =2  tanpor =22
i2 1=2
2
2
20
tanpor =21 tan por lr =2

19

Frequencies dened by equation (18) correspond to the

fundamental period TT = 2 TC of the system and its
harmonics.
In gure 7, the function jZD(or)j refers to the laboratory
SPS where experimental tests have been carried out. When
a frictionless ow is considered, jZDj approaches innity
for values corresponding to the mode shapes of the pipe
system, as dened by equation (18). When friction is taken
into account using equation (11), the simulated jZDj

where lr = l2/l is the normalized distance of the leak from

the valve and the impedance ratio Ir is:
Ir

L

L
ZC
a Q
1 D Q

ZL gA 2HL 2 HL Q2

21

2 is the initial steady-state discharge at the valve;

Q

2 =gA is the maximum frictionless overpressure
D aQ
generated by the fast total closure of the manoeuvre valve;

L are the head drop and the ow exiting at the

L and Q
H
leak, respectively, for the initial steady-state ow; and

L
2H
ZL

QL

22

When the leak is suciently small that the discharge

through it approaches zero, Ir goes to zero and, as expected,
equation (20) becomes equation (17). On the other hand,

L and Ir approaches innity, equation (20)

2
Q
when Q
becomes:
jZD jZL
0 ZC tan ol2 =a

Figure 7. Analytic values of ZD for an intact pipe (dotted

lines) and for a damaged pipe (dashed lines) and experimental values of ZD (solid lines) for a damaged and an
intact pipe.

23

Thus, the transfer function at the end section is the same as

that for an intact SPS of length l2.
Equation (20) conrms that the Fourier transform of the
pressure head depends on leak dimension and location, but
it also shows that only under certain circumstances, can a
leak cause an increase in the energy spectrum around the
frequencies dened by
0000

o r or

2n  1
lr =2

n 1; 2; . . .

24

152

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

For these values of or, equation (20) becomes:

s
 000




1
ZD o  ZC tan o000 p 2 1 I2


25
r
r
r
2
tan o000
r p 2

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Comparing equations (17) and (25), it can be seen that

dierences of the transfer function between an intact and
damaged pipe around the frequencies dened by equation
(24) depend on two terms, the dened impedance ratio, Ir,
and the position factor, Pr:





p
1
26
Pr tan1 o000
p
2

tan

2n

1

r
2lr
Pr is equal to zero when
p
p
2n0  1
om
r p=2 2n  1
2lr
2

n; n0 1; 2; . . . ; n5n0
27

and the relative distance of the leak from the valve is

lr

2n  1
2n0  1

n; n0 1; 2; :::; n5n0

28

Hence, when leaks are located in certain specic zones they

do not necessarily increase the spectrum energy around
some specic frequencies, as those dened by equation (24)
and related to the period 2l2/a; limiting analysis strictly to
these frequencies can be misleading whereas other information can reveal leak location even when equation (28) is
valid. As an example, when tests corresponding to dierent
values of Ir are considered for the same SPS, the derived
transfer functions cross each other at frequencies related to
the leak position (more details are given in Ferrante and
Brunone 2003a).
When a leak is considered with Ir = 0.1, as in gure 7,
maxima and minima of the function correspond to the values
of or dened by equations (18) and (19), respectively. New
peaks in jZDj for or appear when Ir is greater than 1; in this
case the jZDj function is more similar to that of an intact pipe
of length l2 and peak values of jZD(or)j increase as Ir
increases. The same description applies when experimental
data for the single polyethylene pipe system are considered.
3.2. Wavelet transform
^ of a continuous signal
The standard Fourier transform, f,
in time, f, as dened by equation (6), gives a global
representation of the frequency content of f over the entire
time domain. Unfortunately, information concerning the
time-localization of transient short signals cannot be read
^ To overcome this limitation, and to widen
o easily from f.
the applicability of transient-test based methodologies for
leak detection, the wavelet transform of the pressure signal

is used. Such a technique is able to capture both the overall

structure and specic details of the signal rather than only
providing general information averaged over the entire time
domain.
Advantages of using the wavelet transform:
^ u p1
fl;
l

t  u
dt
f tC
l
1

29

for the analysis of transients, as compared to Fourier

analysis, stem from two main features of the wavelet
transform basis functions, c(l,u), or wavelets (with l and u
being the dilation, or scale, and the translation parameter,
respectively). Firstly, the wavelets are compactly supported
(they decay rapidly to zero outside a nite domain) while
the Fourier basis functions (the sine and cosine terms) have
innite support. This attribute permits localization of the
analysis in time: by changing the translation parameter, u,
the time localization centre can be moved. Secondly, the
wavelets are obtained by changing the value of the dilation
parameter, l (i.e. the width of the support of the function).
This property allows for localization in frequency when the
dimension of the support is proportional to the scale of the
observed feature (i.e. the period). Sometimes the scaling
and translation of the basic or mother wavelet c is said to
generate the daughter wavelets. Several mother wavelets
have been developed, the Debauchies wavelet db2 being
used in the examples.
The wavelet map is a graphical representation of the
_
function f in the variables, l and u, for a given wavelet. It
_
can be shown that, for a given scale l, j f j is proportional to
the rst derivative of the signal f smoothed by the function
whose integral is the mother wavelet and local maxima of
_
_
j f j and that j f j can be used to characterize discontinuities
in the this function (Mallat and Hwang 1992).
Regularity characterization is widely applied in many
elds to process irregular signals when the relevant
information lies hidden in singularities rather than being
apparent from amplitude. Pressure signals representing a
fast closure manoeuvre exhibit large irregularities when a
sharp wave passes through the measurement section. In
mathematics, Holders exponent is often used to numerically represent the magnitude of a singularity. If a
polynomial Pn of degree n 5 m exists, with m positive real
number, so that:
jft  Pn t  t0 j  Cjt  t0 jm

30

the supremum of all m so that the above relationship holds,

is termed the point-wise Holders exponent m(t0)2(n,n + 1)
of the singularity at t0. When 0 5 m 5 1, equation (30)
reduces to:
jft  ft0 j  Cjt  t0 jm

31

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Pressure waves as a tool for leak detection

It has been shown (Mallat and Hwang 1992) that the

location of the singularities can be determined, and Holders
exponent calculated, by scaling the wavelet transform along
the so-called maxima line, converging toward the singularities. Such local maxima lines are dened by connecting the
local maxima of the wavelet transform modulus. From a
geometrical perspective, as portrayed in a contour map of
the modulus of the wavelet transform of a function, local
maxima lines are dened by ridges.
The db2 wavelet map of PS for the intact pipe of gure 5
is shown in gure 8 where the normalized scale lr = l/TC is
considered. The absolute values of the wavelet coecients
are shown in a logarithmic scale; the local maxima, whose
locations are denoted in the gure by dots, have a quite
regular, tree-like organization. As mentioned, the local
maxima tree indicates the ridges of the wavelet map and the
discontinuities in the PS. The arrows indicate the ridge
corresponding to the wave reected by the supply reservoir.
In gure 9, the db2 wavelet map for test No. 1 of gure 5
is given. The general behaviour of the wavelet transform
reported in this gure is similar to the one in gure 8, but a
new crest with a steep ridge caused by the arrival of the
pressure wave reected at the leak appears at tr = 0.385.
This ridge has a maximum slope comparable to that of the
ridge established by the reection of the pressure wave at
the upstream reservoir. Since the wave speed can be
assumed constant for all waves travelling along the pipe,
the leak location lr can be estimated by:
lr

tr;leak
l2

l
tr;reserv:

32

Figure 8. Wavelet transform (logarithmic scale of the

absolute value) of the db2 wavelet coecients for the intact
pipe of gure 4, with the local maxima (dots). The arrow
indicates the ridge related to the reservoir reected wave
(modied from Brunone and Ferrante 2003b).

153

with tr,leak (tr,reserv) being the arrival time of the wave

reected at the leak (the reservoir).
For the scenario presented, the estimated value of lr is
equal to 0.385/1.03 = 0.374, while the experimental value is
128.3/350.5 = 0.366 with a relative error of about 2.1%.
Local maxima lines corresponding to leak reected waves
can be distinguished from the others because their
maximum slope is much steeper than other maxima lines
(Ferrante and Brunone 2003b). Such a behaviour is related
to the magnitude of the singularity induced in the pressure
signal by the leak reected wave and can be measured by
Holders exponent. In the examples, the maximum value of
Holders exponent has been found for the wavelet transform of gures 8 and 9 (i.e. a value of 2 for waves reected
by the leak and by the reservoir).
4. Conclusions
The use of unsteady-state tests as a safe and reliable tool for
leak detection in closed conduits has been investigated. On
the basis of some laboratory trials, the proposed tests do
not require complex equipment, but only pressure measurements at one section. Additionally, these tests do not give
rise to dangerous overpressures, conrming their suitability
for application in real systems. In the paper attention
focused on single pipes with two possible congurations.
For the wastewater outfall system (WOS), transients are
caused by the quick opening of a valve placed at the inlet
section of the pipe. Therefore, only onshore pressure
control and measurement is necessary. In contrast, for the
single pipe system (SPS), transients are generated by the

Figure 9. Wavelet transform (logarithmic scale of the

absolute value) of the db2 wavelet coecients for test No. 2,
with the local maxima (dots). The arrows indicate the ridge
related to the reservoir and to the leak reected waves
(modied from Brunone and Ferrante 2003b).

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154

B. Brunone and M. Ferrante

quick closure of the ball valve placed at the downstream

end section of the pipe. In this case, pressure control and
measurement can be made only at the end section of the
pipe, just upstream the operation valve. In both congurations, even though only small overpressures were
experienced, the presence of a leak could be detected by
virtue of its inuence on the pressure signal and its size and
location could be ascertained. When the proposed method
is employed, the state of the pipe can be determined
periodically by comparing the current pressure signal with
one recorded, for example, immediately following the
installation of an intact pipe.
For any diagnosis, the reliability of the technique used
increases with the availability of dierent and complementary methods of data analysis. In order to reduce the
fallibility of leak detection, pressure signal analysis has
been conducted in both the time and frequency domains.
Investigation in the frequency domain by means of Fourier
analysis has demonstrated that, although the interpretation
of pressure head variation is not trivial, it can reveal leak
location. While the advantages of using such techniques are
limited by the diculty in extending to more complex
systems, the analytic integration of the unsteady-ow
equations in the frequency domain helps to provide insight
into transients and leak detection.
The results indicate that both small and very large leaks
can be discriminated based on the value of the leak
impedance ratio Ir. For the usual steady-state approach, a
leak is considered to be large or small depending on the
value of: (i) the ratio between the leak area and the pipe
cross-sectional area; and (ii) the ratio between the ow rate
through the leak and the ow rate downstream of the leak.
The rst ratio gives a clear idea about the leak dimensions
(it remains the same for any working condition), but does
not give precise information about the hydraulic characteristics of the leak. The second ratio, on the contrary,
depends on the working conditions and indicates how
detectable the leak is. The larger this ratio is the more likely
is detection. In this sense, small leaks dened by this ratio
could be enlarged by changing the diagnostic conditions,
such as by examining night consumptions in district meter
areas.
When the transient behaviour of the leak is examined the
impedance ratio Ir gives an idea of the leaks detectability:
small leaks could be dened as those with Ir 5 1, whereas
for very large leaks it is Ir 4 1. It is worth noting that the
impedance ratio, as expressed by equation (21) depends not
only on the ratio between the leak and pipe cross-sectional
area, but also on system characteristics and operating
conditions.
According to the established criterion, small and very
large leaks cause dierent eects to be observed in the
Fourier analysis of transients. Specically leaks with Ir 5 1
can signicantly modify the function jZD(or)j, regardless of

their size, if they are located in certain parts of the pipe,

while for very large leaks, the dynamic response of the
system is totally dierent. When ZC/ZL 4 1, as stated by
equation (21), one or both of the following observations
applies: the ratio between the maximum transient overpressure and the steady-state pressure is small, and/or the
leak discharge is much higher than the one reaching the
downstream valve. In both cases, the valve manoeuvre does
not change the piezometric head distribution signicantly
in the pipe upstream of the leak and the transient eects are
mostly conned between the valve and the leak. The
piezometric head in the section just upstream of the leak
does not change signicantly during the transient and it
behaves as a constant level reservoir with respect to the
incoming pressure waves. As a consequence, equation (23)
holds true and the system is still equivalent to a single pipe
system with length l2 instead of l. As the ratio between the
ow rate through the leak and that downstream of it in
steady-state conditions, Ir can be modied by varying the
pressure head distribution and the discharge at the valve. In
this sense, a small leak could behave as a large leak when
the appropriate test conditions are established.
In order to retain the advantages of scrutinizing pressure
signal information in the time domain, about the reected
wave arrival time, and in the frequency domain, about the
energy distribution in frequency, wavelet analysis has been
used. The results presented here, along with other ndings
(Stoianov et al. 2001) encourage further investigation in
this eld.
Acknowledgements
A. G. Rossetti and A. Cirimbilli are thanked for their
assistance with the laboratory tests. This research has been
supported by the Italian Ministry of Education, University
and Research (MIUR), Fondazione Cassa Risparmio
Perugia, and Surge-Net project. The Surge-Net project is
supported by funding under the European Commissions
Fifth Framework Growth Programme via the Thematic
Network Surge-Net, contract reference: G1RT-CT-200205069. The authors are solely responsible for the content of
this article, which does not necessarily represent the
opinion of the Community. The Community is not
responsible for any use that might be made of data therein.

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