S. Muthumari et al.

/ International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

REVIEW OF VARIOUS ULTRASONIC

TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED IN
MODERN INDUSTRIES
S. MUTHUMARI
Assistant Professor, School Of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
SASTRA University,
Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613 401, India

ANURAG SINGH
B. Tech- Information and Communication Technology
SASTRA University-613401.
SHANMUGHA ARTS SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND RESERCH ACADEMY (SASTRA UNIVERSITY),
Tirumalaisamudram,
Thanjavur -613401,
Tamilnadu, India.
Abstract
In todays industries, various technological advancements have begun to be implemented. With more
advances comes a greater risk of errors. Ultrasonic techniques are one of the most prominent methods
used for error detection and improvement of efficiency. There are many variations of this technology and
each one has its own application based on the need of the situation. This paper gives a review of the
general ultrasonic technique and aims at a comparative study of the various applications and processes
involved that are currently used or could be implemented in the future. The paper also gives suggestions
on the alternatives that can be used to the currently existing techniques, along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
1.Introduction
The Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) is another form of Non Destructive Testing (NDT) which
utilizes the time of flight of longitudinal waves incident on a crack tip. This technique utilizes the difference in
traverse time taken by two longitudinal waves that are incident on the two edges of the defect to locate and size
it.
The principle of working is that an ultrasonic wave gets reflected or diffracted as echoes when there is a change
in phase of the medium. Since the diffracted echoes scatter, they can be picked up by the receiver almost
anywhere along the surface of the material.

Fig. 1. Working of the TOFD technique.

In the above diagram, 4 different signals are received by the transmitter, namely:
1. Lateral wave (1)
2. Back-wall wave (4)
3. Diffracted waves (2, 3)

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3078

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

Consider a defect of length L at a depth of D. By knowing the transit time between the longitudinal
diffracted echoes from the top (t1) and bottom (t2) of the crack, the defect depth and defect size may be obtained
by applying the following equation:
=

(1)

..(2)

Where, D is the defect depth, L is the defect size, v is the longitudinal wave velocity inside the material and
S is the distance between the probes. The analysis of the crack can be done in various ways, the most common
of which is using AB scans. The main aim of todays research in this field is to come with a more sophisticated
and economical way of detecting near-surface as well deeply located flaws in industrial materials like pipelines,
nuclear reactor chambers, etc. This paper analyzes a few of these techniques as proposed by various researchers
and aims at putting forward the advantages and disadvantages of each.
2.Scattering of Ultrasound
The propagation and scattering of ultrasound generated in a cracked specimen can be detected by an evaluating
system with a dual-laser source by using finite element method (FEM) [Ni (2010)]. The following experimental
setup can be used:

Fig. 2. Experimental setup

The results show that the arrival time of some ultrasonic wave modes are related to the crack-orientation angle.
When the incident laser directly irradiates the top of the crack, the ultrasound generated by the incident laser
will superpose and diffract at the tip of the crack. Using its arrival time along with the arrival times of Rayleigh
wave R and the component of R that splits at the tip (nR), the crack-orientation angle can be calculated. Then,
the numerical and experimental values obtained are compared. Finite elements models can be used to obtain the
numerical values. The technique has a minimum error and the values are in agreement with the numerically
calculated ones. Sensitivity analysis [Proceedings of the International Conference Nuclear Energy in Central
Europe, Bled, Slovenia, (Sept. 11-14, 2000)] of various parts of the sample can also be done to obtain similar
results.
Auto-focusing ultrasonic imagery technique [Hunter et al. (2010)] is another technique which is specially
designed for specimens with complicated geometries using ultrasonic arrays. It works by estimating the imaging
parameters from the data collected about the defect, in a technique called passive autofocus, or simply
autofocusSignal processing can also be done using a technique based on Empirical Mode Decomposition
(EMD) and the Hilbert transform [Chen et al. (2005a)][Huang et al. (1998a) ]. This system has the advantage
that arrival time for signals with high SNR and Defect Position can be identified with higher efficiency.
A reliability assessment [Nath et al. (2010)][Visser (2000)] of the ultrasonic technique for compounds with
complex geometry can be done by developing experimental probability of detection (POD) and probability of
sizing (POS) curves using the manual TOFD system. More notch sizes will result in greater inspection
reliability. A greater number of similar notches with sizes in the range studied here will create more data points
and hence will yield smoother POD/POS curves. The detectability of deeper defects can be improved in two
ways:
(i)
Increase the gain setting (dB) of the equipment (to increase the signal amplitude) while keeping all
other parameters constant and

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3079

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

(ii)

Optimize the probe center-to-center spacing so as to have greater sensitivity for deeper defects
(often, in this way, the TOFD amplitude can be increased).
The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) [Sinclair et al. (2010)] sharpens the image in each pixel of
a B-Scan or S-Scan image by mixing the echo signals received from that pixel location for several different
locations of the ultrasonic transmitter.
This algorithm can be combined with Wiener filtering and autoregressive spectral extrapolation. An analytical
model of the transducer is also constructed to generate a reference spectrum for the de-convolution operation.
The test has been found to generate moderate results on real-time flaws, signaling the need for further perfection
and modification of the technique.
The ultrasonic waves propagated in a solid medium can also be visualized using pulsed laser scans [Yashiro et
al. (2008)]. A test piece is scanned by a pulsed laser for ultrasound generation, and the propagated waves are
received by a transducer placed on its surface. A snapshot of the waves can then be seen using the following
experimental setup:

Fig. 4. Schematic Diagram of system for visualizing travelling ultrasonic waves.

The results of the above experiment can be seen to be in total agreement with the numerically simulation.
3.Measurement of Near-surface defects and short cracks
Depth measurement of short cracks (<75 m) can be done with an acoustic microscope [Knauss et al. (1993)]
using simple Time-distance analysis of the arrival of various signals at probe. This technique can give more than
95% agreement with original values - success rates unimagined before. Ultrasonic testing by head waves
[Razygraev (2004)][Razygraev et al. (1975)]can also be used. Head waves are waves that propagate along a
surface. They are also called surface-longitudinal waves [Ermolov (2004)]. The advantage of this technique is
that Subsurface vertical cracks strained by welds can be efficiently revealed by head waves using tandem
probes, extra uses of same return wave, wave recycling, etc. Another option is to use Phased Array systems
[Moles and Zhang]. Phased arrays use an array of elements, all individually wired, pulsed and time shifted.
These elements are typically pulsed in groups of approximately 16 elements at a time for weld tests.
4.Applications of ultrasonic signals:
Ultrasonic signals are applicable in complex wavelet analysis[Yang et al. (2004)] , which utilizes the envelopes
of the impulsive waveforms of the ultrasonic wave for extracting their features .A Hilbert transform[Chen et al.
2005b] can be use for improving accuracy of the calculated SNR and time-resolution of the wave in their paper.
Analysis of ultrasonic signal can be proved by the comparisons with the corresponding traditional methods and
further confirmed by a series of experiments on a tube sample. The experimental results show that all
measurement errors are less than 3.5%, which could be completely accepted for some practical applications.
I.

Application in Medical field for detection of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a condition affecting the walls of the arteries in the heart. Atherosclerosis is characterized by
calcified plaques, lipids, and cellular debris in the inner layers of the walls of large and medium-sized arteries.
Of the various test diagnosis for identification of the condition, Doppler ultrasound is best preferred[Kara and
Dirgenali (2007)] as it is a noninvasive technique, which is widely used in medicine for the assessment of blood
flow in intact vessels. The received Doppler signals can be analyzed either using Discrete wavelet analysis of
carotid artery Doppler signals, Welch method for spectral analysis or principal component analysis.A Levenberg

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3080

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

Marquard back-propagation algorithm, an artificial neural network (ANN), can then be used for the pattern
classification thus enabling rapid execution of the signal processing. The main advantage of such a system is
that it is rapid, easy to operate, noninvasive and inexpensive.
II.

Application in Oil industry for pipeline testing

Ultrasonic In-Line Inspection Tools [Reber et al. (2002)] can be used for detecting, sizing and locating metal
loss and cracks in transmission pipelines. These devices are pumped through the section of pipe to be inspected
together with the medium being transported therein. Various new hardware has been introduced for execution
techniques for the calculation of the defect parameters. There are basically 2 types of sensor designs: wall
thickness measure type and crack detection version. The latter has sensors orientated at a predetermined angle to
the pipe wall, which ensures that ultrasonic shear waves will travel under a 45angle within the metal. The
disadvantage of this method is that the small scale efficiency of these tools and the cost-effectiveness has not
been tested. Thus, there is insufficient proof for their argument of higher accuracy and simplicity. On the other
hand, a multi-channel ultrasonic inspection system [Bo et al.] can be implemented as shown below:

Fig. 6. Experimental setup for multi-channel ultrasonic pipeline inspection system.

The synchronization circuit springs the ultrasonic probe to transmit ultrasonic to the inner wall inspected. The
echo signal processed by signal processing unit is transferred to Single Chip Micyoco 1 (SCM1), and then the
orientation signal from the course wheel and the coder and the emendation signal from the outer sign orientation
device are transferred to Single Chip Micyoco 2 (SCM2). The data from the two SCM are transferred to an
embedded computer and compressed and stored according to uniform encoding. The inspection is finished on
line. For this, a separate inspection module is used. There is also a support system consisting of a rechargeable
Li-ion battery to act as power supply. The analysis of the inspection data is done through communication
interface and finally the report is given. Thus, comparatively, the second system is more reliable, practical and
has sufficient proof of feasibility. Yet, here too, there is insufficient information about economic requirement
and the detection of near-surface (<3mm) defects.
With another reference to the pipeline industry, the reliability of the NDT technique in the inspection of
pipelines in the oil industry [Carvalho et al. (2008)] can be discussed by comparison with other techniques. The
specimen used for testing consisted of lots of defects which have been artificially inserted on laying the weld
bed. By using radiography, manual and automatic ultrasonic techniques using pulse-echo and time of flight
diffraction (TOFD), three classes of defects can be analyzed: lack of penetration (LP), lack of fusion (LF) and
undercut (UC). Also, the pattern classifiers use artificial neural networks to recognize the classes of the TOFD
signals from ultrasound inspection in weld joints. Then the results from each of these techniques can be
compared to the others. It can be concluded that the automated ultrasound technique is far superior when
compared to the others. On the other hand, in case of one particular type of defect (undercut class), the
automated TOFD technique has the largest error in sizing. This again brings forward another question whether
the technology can be as effective in all situations. Also, the signal preprocessing techniques employed did not
produce improvement in the success rate of the ANN. In conclusion, this technique, though very efficient in
most cases, needs advanced research to be applicable in other situations.
III.

Application in Civil engineering in evaluation of Concrete and Steel

Nonlinear ultrasonics [Shah et al. (2009)] can be used to asses damaged concrete in industrial applications like
nuclear power plants, bridges, etc. In the experimental procedure, nine cylindrical concrete specimens with three

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3081

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

distinct watercement ratios are intentionally damaged under compression, then tested ultrasonically to enable
measurement of the amplitudes of the fundamental, second, and third harmonics. This is kept aside for future
use and ultrasonic testing of the same specimens is performed using narrow- and broadband transducers with
different frequencies. The results are plotted and compared in order to determine the performance of narrowand broadband transducers as transmitters in ultrasonic testing.
Thus, we can conclude that the use of a narrowband transmitter provides greater sensitivity to damage in
concrete. In an attempt at improvement of concrete damage assessment tools, D.M. McCann and M.C. Forde
[Mccann and Forde (2001a)] have presented a review of the various techniques currently available in the
industry. They have explained the use of NDT in civil engineering as prime focus and have also given specific
case histories from the past. They have finally concluded by saying why the NDT techniques are identified
nowadays as imperfect in the field of civil engineering.
Generally, pulse-echo method is used to detect defects in welds and thick layers of steel [Riahi and Abolhasany
(2006)]. Yet, the present trend asks for more precise measurements, thus paving a path to the introduction of
non-destructive testing. Time-distance analysis of the arrival of various signals at probe can be done. In
comparison with other methods, this technique has been found to be more effective.
A weld made of austenitic stainless steel may result in strong anisotropy varying continuously from one area to
another all over the weld resulting in heterogeneous anisotropy [Baikie Bl et al.(1976)][Neuman
(1989)][Kemintz et al. (1997)]. This may cause aberration and scattering of the ultrasonic waves, leading to
difficulties in the detection of the defect. Hence, a lot of research is required to avoid this, taking into
considerations the various advantages of austenitic welding. To do that, the characteristics of the weld have to
be analyzed. This can be done using Finite-Element Modeling [Chassignole et al. (2010)] technique, which is
associated with a complete characterization of the inspected welds. Two essential characteristics of the welds
are determined: the average elastic constants of the weld and the grain orientations. Thus, a better understanding
of the phenomenon can be obtained from this data, leading to possible improvements in the technique in the
near-future.
Ultrasonic methods can also be used for the in-situ sizing of fastener hole cracks in steel [Michaels et al.
(2006)]. A dual angle beam through transmission technique can be employed in which the regions of expected
crack initiation are interrogated with vertically polarized shear waves. If a crack is present, the waves are
blocked hence reducing the intensity of the received signal.
Another new approach combines the application of non-linear deconvolution and the HilbertHuang Transform
(HHT) for better detection of defects in heavily attenuating materials [Kays et al. (2008)]. Considering the case
of plastic pipes, the first step of the algorithm is eliminating the strong ultrasonic echo signals reflected by the
interfaces. Next, the HHT is itself split into 2 different processes - first, a wide-band ultrasonic signal is
decomposed into narrow-band IMFs in a process called empirical mode decomposition [Huang et al. (1998b)].
The second step involves the calculation of the instantaneous frequency and amplitude of each intrinsic mode
using the Hilbert transform and their presentation as a spectrum in a three-dimensional timefrequency
amplitude plot. For improving visualization of defects, a new presentation of the HilbertHuang spectrum can
be used, in which the product of the amplitude and the instantaneous frequency is displayed in a threedimensional plot.
The problem in this technique is that of intrinsic modes, leading to the conclusion that selection of modes has to
be done separately for different materials. Yet, issue of visualization of large size defects and near-surface
defects has still not been addressed. In another similar attempt, D. Pagodinas [Pagodinas (2002)] has made a
different proposal on the detection of defect in composite materials. Though this process was able to identify
artificial defects by itself, presence of porous layers proved fatal. In order to overcome this problem the author
suggested the use of novel measurement and signal processing methods, which were used in the former
discussed paper. Further, plotting the spectrum in 3-D enhanced the accuracy and sensitivity of defect sizing as
compared to Hilbert Transforms technique used in the latter.
A comparative study of two non-destructive testing techniques namely, the measurement of electrical resistivity
and transmission of ultrasonic surface waves [Goueygou et al. (2008)] can be made. The author suggests placing
the source and receiver on a wedge whose angle is the critical angle of the shear wave in order to enhance the
fundamental Rayleigh modes. The results prove that the ultrasonic technique yields more data compared to the
electrical technique due to smaller spatial sampling, complexity of the crack pattern appeared as a perturbation
factor but, when it comes to identifying whether the surface has dry or wet crack, electrical technique
complements the ultrasonic. Also, a combined technique could be researched on to identify defects as could be
done to an ideal crack.

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3082

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

TOFD techniques can also be used in casting inspection [Dukic and Dukic (2000a)] . This can be done by
finding images in the same sample during different years and representing them in the form of scans. The
resolution of the indication is not improved with use of the Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)
process [Burch and Burton (1984)][Hall and Reid (1986)]. Metallographic analysis results showed no evidence
of creep. The advantages of this technique are good reliability and reproducibility of inspection, accurate sizing
of tips of defects, clear presentation and easy storage of results is available, allowing quick reference,
comparison and monitoring of the propagation of defects.
Various other methods [Mccann and Forde (2001b)] can also be used for inspection, some of which are Visual,
Proof load, Vibration,coring and sonic testing.On comparison of the test results of these methods on the same
sample, it was found out that the radar method was most effective for both concrete and masonry structures. Yet,
this technique had various disadvantages including reflection from air-voids, limitations to depth of defect
detection, low practical resolution, etc. GPR will also not penetrate conductors such as metal or salt water.
Hence, it is necessary to improve the existing ultrasonic techniques for wide implementation in this field.
IV.

Application in Nuclear Power Generation:

Nuclear Energy has become one of the most important sources of energy in the world. Nuclear power plants
comprise of heavy concrete shielding and metallic joints to protect the environments from the nuclear radiation.
The smallest of cracks in the shielding could cause heavy damage to the entire vicinity of the plant. Thus, it is
essential that utmost care is taken to detect even the slightest of damages to the structures as soon as possible.
Ultrasonic techniques provide easy access and portability in these cases and hence are commonly used. The only
problem is that most of the components of the nuclear power plant are inaccessible to testing equipment. Hence,
it may be necessary to generate the images on screen before doing the analysis for defects.Phased Array
Ultrasonic Inspection systems (PAULI) [Song et al. (2002)] can be used to obtain electronically scanned
ultrasonic images of the inside of nuclear power plant components for nondestructive evaluation. This is just a
modification of a medical ultrasound system that used 64 individual transceiver channels. Simplified integrity
assessment procedure [Nuclear Electric Confidential (October,1998)][Duki and Duki (Sept. 11-14, 2000b)]
can also be used to test the removable or accessible components like turbine casing, turbine rotor, etc.
5.Discussion
Thus, it is clearly seen from the above that the ultrasonic techniques play a major role in the process of
improving the efficiency of error detection in many industries today. These techniques have been proved to have
a much higher efficiency when compared to the other traditional testing techniques. Various methods for the
analysis of the scans have also been reviewed and their advantages and disadvantages have been discussed from
various points of considerations. Also, variations of the NDT technique for application in many other fields have
also been discussed along with description of the procedure and principle involved. Each reviewed technique
has also been compared to other techniques available for the same purpose and their effectiveness has been
discussed elaborately.
Existing technology, though very efficient, is not sufficient to cater to the growing necessity for an extremely
precise system of measurement of errors. This has arisen due to the fact that even the smallest of defects can
cause a huge damage or result in heavy reduction of efficiency in the current industrial practice, which in itself
has got more complicated. Better imaging techniques are required for improved visualization of the defects.
Also, there is a need for better understanding of the physics behind every one of these materials on which the
NDT technique is being used. The ultimate aim is to be able to adopt these techniques efficiently in any possible
situation in the engineering field. Thus, there is a wide scope for research in the above mentioned fields which
can pave the path to more accurate instrumentation in the future.
6.Conclusion:
Thus, the various principles involved in the ultrasonic defect detection technique have been explained in this
paper. Comparisons of the variations of this technique in the different engineering fields have been done and
various suggestions for applicability of the technique have also been made. The paper re-enforces the fact that
TOFD technique has the most practical applicability in real-time systems when compared to the other NDT
techniques which have also been discussed briefly. It can be clearly seen that though existing technology is able
to cater partially to the needs of current industrial requisites, further research and development is an utmost
necessity for the successful implementation of the ultrasonic techniques in the unreached fields and
improvement of precision and accuracy in the systems currently adapting this method.

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3083

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

Table 1. Ultrasonic defect detection techniques, their advantages and disadvantages.

Technique
Phased Array Ultrasonic Inspection systems
(PAULI)

Auto focusing ultrasonic imagery technique

Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD)

Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique
(SAFT)
Pulsed laser scans

Probability of detection (POD) and

Probability of sizing (POS) curves

Advantages
Can electronically focus ultrasonic wave
from an array transducer without
mechanical changes also the array system
could provide ultrasonic images by
manipulating received signals from every
array element.
Principle can be used for complex
geometries, or for the correction of
wavefront aberrations within
inhomogeneous and/or anisotropic media.
Arrival time for signals with high SNR and
Defect Position can be identified with
higher efficiency
Improves lateral resolution, it sharpens the
image in each pixel of a B-Scan or S-Scan
image, effective for relatively small
transducers.
Can be applied for opaque bodies, signal-tonoise ratio is high, offers capability for the
visualization of the wave propagation in a
large area
The curve is based on reflected wave
amplitude which can be easily enhanced in a
system.

Disadvantages
Results should be made on site with
temporal ultrasonic signals on screen and
the recorded ultrasonic signals are useless
without knowing detailed inspection
conditions and instrumental
set up.
De-focusing is a major problem,
insensitivity to translation and rotation of
the array profile and bluntness of particular
image features.
Not tested on samples whose thickness is
below 8 mm nor for those with defects other
than EDM defects
It is assumed that the echo signals will all
have the same shape and frequency content,
regardless of the position of the flaw relative
to the transmitter
The laser beam should be normal to the
surface of the test piece, laser focusing is
also needed, precise control of probes
required to acquire waveform.
Effect of scattering of waves may lead to
erroneous curves

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]

Baikie, Bl. et al.(1976): Ultrasonic Inspection Of Austenitic Welds. J Br Nucl Energy Soc, 15(3), pp. 257
261.
Bo, Dai et al. An Ultrasonic In-line Inspection System on Crude Oil Pipelines. Beijing Institute Of Petro-Chemical Technology,
Beijing 102617, P. R. China.
Burch S. F.; Burton, J. T. (Nov. 1984): Ultrasonic Synthetic Aperture Focusing Using Planar Pulse- Echo Transducer. Ultrasonics,
pp. 275281.
Carvalho, A. A. et al.(2008): Reliability of non-destructive test techniques in the inspection of pipelines used in the oil industry.
International Journal Of Pressure Vessels and Piping, XXX, pp. 17.
Chassignole, B. et al.(2010): Ultrasonic and structural characterization of anisotropic austenitic stainless steel welds: Towards a higher
reliability in ultrasonic non-destructive testing. NDT & E International, 43, pp. 273282.
Chen, Tianlu et al. (2005b): Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing Accurate Sizing and Locating Technique Based on Time-of-FlightDiffraction Method. Russian Journal Of Nondestructive Testing, 41(9), pp. 594601. from Defektoskopiya (2005), 41( 9), pp. 5768.
Chen, Tianlu Et al.(2005a): Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing Accurate Sizing and Locating Technique Based on Time-of-FlightDiffraction Method . Russian Journal Of Nondestructive Testing, 41(9).
Dukic, Ines; Dukic , Predag (2000a): Advantages and Limitations of TOFD Technique in Casting Inspection. .Roma 2000 15th
WcNDT, Matkonerg D.O.O., Brezice, Slovenia.
Duki, Predrag; Duki, Ines (Sept. 11-14, 2000b): Proceedings of the International Conference Nuclear Energy in Central Europe,
Bled, Slovenia.
Ermolov, I. N. (2004): Progress in the Theory of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection: Problems and Prospects. Russian Journal Of
Nondestructive Testing, 40(10).
Goueygou, M. et al. (September 2008). NDT & E International, 41(6), pp. 448-456.
Hall, S. R.; Reid T. E. Ld. (1986): SaftThe Evolution Of A Signal Processing Technology For Ultrasonic Testing. NDT
International, 19(3), pp. 163170.
Huang, Ne Et al, (1998a): The Empirical Mode Decomposition and the Hilbert Spectrum for Nonlinear and Non-Stationary Time
Series Analysis. Proc. R. Soc. London, A, pp. 903995.
Huang, Ne Et al, (1998a): The Empirical Mode Decomposition and the Hilbert Spectrum for Nonlinear and Non-Stationary Time
Series Analysis. Proc. R. Soc. London, A, pp. 903995.
Hunter , A. J. Et al.(2010): Auto-focusing ultrasonic imagery for non-destructive testing and evaluation of specimens with complicated
geometries. NDT & E International, 43, pp. 7885.
Kara, S. ; Dirgenali, F. (2007): A system to diagnose atherosclerosis via wavelet transforms, principal component analysis and
artificial neural networks. Expert Systems with Applications, 32, pp. 632640.
Kays, R. et al.(2008): Ultrasonic detection of defects in strongly attenuating structures using the Hilbert Huang transform. NDT & E
International, 41, pp. 457466.
Kemnitz P. et al.(1997): Measurements Of The Acoustic Field On Austenitic Welds : A Way To Higher Reliability In Ultrasonic
Tests. NuclEng Des,174, pp. 259272.
Knauss, D. et al. (1993): Depth measurement of short cracks with an acoustic microscope. Journal Of Materials Science, 28, pp. 49104917.
Mccann, D. M.; Forde, M. C. (2001a): Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and masonry structures. NDT & E
International, 34, pp. 7184.
Mccann, D. M.; Forde, M. C. (2001b): Review of NDT methods in the assessment of concrete and masonry structures. NDT & E
International, 34, pp. 7184.
Michaels et al. (March 2006): An Ultrasonic Angle Beam Method for in situ Sizing of Fastener Hole Cracks. Journal Of
Nondestructive Evaluation,25(1).

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3084

S. Muthumari et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST)

[23] Moles, Michael; Zhang, Jinchi. Construction Weld Testing Procedures Using Ultrasonic Phased Arrays. American Society For
Nondestructive Testing.
[24] Nath, S. K. et al.(2010): Reliability assessment of manual ultrasonic time of flight diffraction (TOFD) inspection for complex
geometry components. NDT & E International, 43, pp. 152162.
[25] Neumann, E. (1989): On The State Of The Art Of The Inspection Of Austenitic Welds By Ultrasound. Int J Pressure Ves Piping,39,
pp. 227246.
[26] Ni, C et al. (2010): An analysis of angled surface-breaking crack detection by dual-laser source generated ultrasound. NDT & E
International, 43, pp. 470-475.
[27] Pagodinas, D. (2002): Ultrasonic signal processing methods for detection of defects in composite materials. ISSN. Ultragarsas, 4(45),
pp. 1392-2114.
[28] Proceedings Of The International Conference Nuclear Energy in Central Europe, Bled, Slovenia. (Sept. 11-14, 2000). Advantages of
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique and R6 Structural Integrity Assessment Procedure for Nuclear Power Plant
Components.
[29] R6 Assessment of the Integrity of Structures containing Defects: Nuclear Electric Confidential, October 1998.
[30] Razygraev, N. P. (2004): Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing by Head Waves: PhysicalPrerequisites and Practical Use. Russian Journal
Of Nondestructive Testing, 40(9).
[31] Razygraev, N.P. et al. (1975): A Method For Ultrasonic Testing Of Material Quality. Ussr Inventors Certificate No. 491 092, Byull.
Izobret., No. 4.
[32] Reber, K. et al. (2002). A New Generation Of Ultrasonic In-Line Inspection Tools For Detecting, Sizing And Locating Metal Loss And
Cracks In Transmission Pipelines. NDT Systems & Services Ag, Am Hasenbiel 6, 76297 Stutensee, Germany. IEEE Symposium.
[33] Riahi, M.; Abolhasany, M. R. (2006): Substitution of the Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique for Nondestructive Testing of Welds
and Thick Layers of Steel: A Comparative Investigation. Russian Journal Of Nondestructive Testing, 42(12).
[34] Shah, A. A. Et al. (2009): Nondestructive evaluation of damaged concrete using nonlinear ultrasonics. Materials And Design, 30, pp.
775782.
[35] Sinclair, A. N. et al.(2010: Enhancement of ultrasonic images for sizing of defects by time-of-flight diffraction. NDT & E
International, 43, pp. 258264.
[36] Song, S. J. et al. (2002): Development of an ultra sonic phased array system for nondestructive tests of nuclear power plant
components. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 214, pp. 151161.
[37] Visser, W. (Pim). (2000): POD/POS curves for non-destructive examination - Offshore Technology Report 2000/018, Visser
Consultancy Limited, 3 Valiant Road, Weybridge, Surrey KT13932, UK.
[38] Yang, W. X. et al.(2004): A contribution to the applicability of complex wavelet analysis of ultrasonic signals. NDT & E International,
37, pp. 497504.
[39] Yashiro, S. et al.(2008): A novel technique for visualizing ultrasonic waves in general solid media by pulsed laser scan . NDT & E
International, 41, pp. 137144.

ISSN : 0975-5462

Vol. 3 No. 4 Apr 2011

3085