RE L A Y S

P ROT E CTI V E
T HE I

R T H E ORY

D E S I GN ,

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RA C T I

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BY

V I C T OR H T O D D
.

DE S

I GN I NG A N D M A N U F A CT U RI NG E L E CTRI CAL E NG I NE E R
W E S TI NG H O U S E E L E CT RI C
M A N U F A CT U RI NG C O
ME M B E R A I E
E
.

RR RE N

FI

T HI D

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IMP

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M c G R W HI LL BO OK C OM P AN Y , I N C
N E W Y ORK : 3 7 0 S E V E N T H AV E N U E
L O N D ON : 6

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1 922

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EN G IN E E

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p reparing a work o this nature it will be real ized that the

sub j ect is so broad and varied in its scope as to prec l ude an

author s i n timate pe r sonal k n owl edge of each and ever y s y stem

described A ttempt has been made to cover the Sub j ect from
the rst principl es of P rotective Re l a y s to the protection of
high tension net works the ob j ect being to make the work of
val ue n ot only to the ope r ator an d tester who has a fair knowl edge
of e l ect r icit y and is seeking more information
but al so to the
designer of the sy stem who may nd man y p oints not p reviously
taken into consideration in his cal cul ations
C onsequently , ma n y re l iab l e sources of information were
free ly consul ted and in severa l instances passages were quoted
verbatim fro m a book l et e n tit l ed P erformance of I nstrument

Transformers an d from P rotective Rel ay s which in turn

was reprinted from an artic l e b y
r L N C richton in Th e
E lectr i c Jour n al
F ull credit is hereb y g i ven to the Westing
house E l ectric
an uf acturing C ompan y for such excerpts ;
a l so to the A merican I n stitute of E l ectr ical E ngineers for several
paragraphs quoted from its June 1 9 1 9 , P r oceedi n g s
S ome of this material has been publ ished in the for m of artic l es
b y the author in P ow er P ow er P l an t E n g i n eer i n g E lectr i cal Recor d
and S ou ther n E n g i n eer an tha n ks are he r eb y given to their
editors for permissi on to use the text an d e l ect r o t y pes for
i ll ustrations
The author al so wishes to exten h i s t h anks and appreciation
to
r F A A nnett A ssociate E ditor of P ow er , for p ersona l
i n terest and assistance in the preparation of the work ;to
r
L N C richton Re l a y E ngineer of the Westinghouse E l ectric
an uf acturing C ompan y , an d writer of severa l articl es
from which m uch val uab l e information was obtained w h o
kind ly read this manuscript an d o ffered man y hel pful sug g es
tio n s and constructive criticisms ;and to of cial s of the Westing
house E l ectric
anufacturing C o m pan y the G eneral E l ectric
C ompan y and the C ondit E l ectric C om p an y for val u b l e ssis
tance in procuring p hoto g ra p hs for i ll ustr tions
In

M
M

aa

a
,

V I CT O R H T O D D
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S UM M I T ,

J,
.

D ecem ber , 1 9 2 1

vii

C ONT E NT S
P AG E

P RE F A CE

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elaayse e evlaeyse e ve se e elLays
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y p es
C H AP T E R

P ROT E CTI V E R E L AY S ?

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ir c i t S r c S h n t Tr i A xi i r
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r
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CON TE N TS

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T I O S or D C O W E D I
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I m r t n t P in t E ff c t of O r d
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rr n t
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E tf ect of Un b an ced S h r t ci r c i t h r ac t r i t ic of R a s
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85

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1 12

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CON TE N T S

xi

C H AP T E R X I

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132

C H AP T E R X I I

TI O O F P ARALL L F D S
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1 52

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C H AP T E R X III

TI O O F R D I L RI
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C H AP T E R X V

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23 1

C H AP T E R X V II

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2 51

265

TI

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mm

IN

RE L AY S

P RO T E C T I V E
C HA P T E R

W HAT ARE

P RO TE CT I VE

RE LAYS

When the rst e l ectric generators we r e bui l t and inst ll ed

no p rovision was made for disco n necting them automatically
from the l ines in case of t r oub l e such as ove r l oad or short
circuits This was overl ooked for two R
easons : ( 1 ) I t was not
c onsidered det r imenta l to have service interrupted as the
e l ectric s y stem was more or l ess a n ove l t y and in the ex
l
r
n
a
2
r
stage
and
the
design
generators
and
p
ime
i
m
e
t
o
f
e
(
)
p
movers was such that in case of heavy overl oad either the
prime mover wou l d stop or the be l t y off or the vo l tage drop
so l ow that no e l ect r ica l damage c ou l d be done
However as the mechanical and e l ect r ical design of genera
to r s and prime movers was g r adually imp r oved it was n oticed
that in t h e event of a heavy overl oad the i n crea sed current
wou l d bu r n ou t the weakest sp ot in the s y stem ; sometimes
this was in the armatu r e sometimes in the w ir in g an d sometimes
i n the s w itches
N aturally the resu l t was to i n sert intentio n a lly
a weak spot at some conve n ient poi n t i n the s y stem b y con
n ect i n g a piece of wire much small er tha n the main wires
so
that when the overl oad occurred this wire w ou l d bu r n out
and then the ope r ator knew j ust whe r e to go an d l ook for troub l e
when the power went off This was the rst fu se
I nstall ing the ne wi r ing near i n ammab l e material l ed to
another troub l e ;i e r e risk as during a heav y sh ort circuit
the wi r e was me l ted and the red
hot meta l thrown viol e n t ly
in all directio n s
The remed y was t o enc l ose the fuse in an insu l ating non
in ammab l e tube t o prevent res and al s o to provide fu se b l ocks
an c l ips so t h at t h e fuses cou l d be rep l aced easi ly in case of
an overl o
b l o w i ng them out
,

d ad

P
d

E ti en

to ay

ROTE C TI

REL A YS

VE

tere is no other piece o

apparatus which
ex
cel a pr dpj
er l y l e si n ed fuse for re l iabi l it y and no matter
ca
t g
n
ap paratus is installed as wi ll be described
wI i at
l ater there is hardly an install ation which does not have fuses
as an absol ute guarantee of protection against h eavy overl oads
shou l d the other protective apparatus fai l

O b je cti ons
The greatest ob j ection to fuses was the main
t en an ce cost or c ost of rep l acement as ever y time a fuse b l ew
ou t it meant a new fuse an d as the current capacit y of the s y stem
went up ever y new fuse meant considerab l e mo n e y N ot
on ly that but it took some time t o l o cate an d r ep l ace
fuse
and besides if a new fuse were n ot i mmediate ly at hand there
was a severe temptation to use a convenient piece of copper or
sol der wire to comp l ete the circuit thus again i n troducing a
a hazard This improper rep l acement of fuses is one of the
deepest rooted evi l s in the e l ectrical industry and is a l one

respo n sib l e for thousands upon thousands of do ll ars wor t h

of damage b y re ever y y ear in addition t o the burnin g ou t
of man y motors generators an other apparatus
I n order to e l iminate this rep l acement expense as we ll as
to restore service in a m i n I m u m of time it was f ound necessary
to deve l op an automatic switch which wou l d open the
circuit in the event of troub l e This was the forerunner
of the present circuit breaker There were man y t y pes de
vel ope d and successfu lly used but the princip l es and the ob j ects
accomp l ished were all the same ;a coi l car ry ing the main current
was arranged to either attract an armature fastene to the
switch bl ade and thus open the switch direct ly or to attract
an armature which in turn re l eased a spring thu s all owing
the spri n g t o open the switch
F rom the foregoing it woul d p pear that the prob l em of pro
But protection was not the o nl y desirab l e
t ect i on was so l ved
feature ; customers emanded continuous service and man y
times an interruption was caused o n ly b y a transient short
circuit ;for instance a w ire or tool roppe across a switch
immediate ly fall ing off or burning ou t I t was not necessar y
for the breaker t o open as the overl oad di sappeared almost
i mmediate ly and if the breaker had not opened servi ce wou l d
hav e continued uninterrupted I n other words the circuit
,

'

'

d d

P
d
a
a
ARE

WHAT

ROTE C TI

RE L A YS

VE

b r eaker had no iscri m i nating

reasoning
thinki n g
or
power This l ed t o the deve l opment of the p r otective re l ay

P r otective Rel ays

The p rotective re l ay is an e l ectrica l
instrument generally accurate , sensitive rugged an re liab l e
in construction interposed between the main circuit and the
circuit breaker in such
manner that an y abnormal it y in the
circuit cts on the rel ay , which in turn after the p roper dis
crimination of the magnitude and characteristic of the ab
normal it y causes other apparatus such as a circuit breaker
to function and re l ieve or protect the circuit and apparatus
The great need of adequate protection and continuous service
under a ll conditions has gradually cause the crude t y pes of
re l ay s of a few y ears ago which sometimes gave protection under
special conditions but often fai l ed at the critical moment
t o be deve l oped into present da y t y pes which are bui l t with
the accurac y of a watt hour meter and can be depended u p on
in practically all conceivab l e cases of e l ectrical distress
I n al ternating current s y stems the need of continuit y of
service is so great that the l ines must be kept l ive unti l there
is no chance of the disturbance c l earing itse l
I n some states
the pub l ic uti l it y boards require an exp l anation of each and ever y

interruption that occurs in an O perating compan y s service

as we ll as a report of the steps take n to prevent its recurrence
an y power p l ants and factor y m anagements have require
in the p ast dup l icate supp ly l i n es so that their power supp ly
wou l d not be interrupted in case of troub l e on other parts of
the s y stem Others have maintained stand by p l ants read y
to assume the l oad in case of e l ectrical troub l e
AS a t ypica l examp l e of how p r otective re l a y s have e l iminated
this necessit y on e O perating compan y had as man y as 25 i n
t er r u pt i on s a y ear but after making an inte ll igent surve y of
the s y stem a few changes were made in the sectional izing
apparatus and accurate re l ay s install e d which reduced the
i n terruptions to about on e annually al though the s y stem
su ff ered n ot l ess than 1 00 short circuits per y ear fro m various
causes
The re l a y s instantly sectional ize and iso l ate a defective
l ine or piece of apparatus without disturbing the rest of the
s ystem This all ows spare l ines t o be use continually , nd the
.

af

RE L A YS

P RO TE C T W E

great sav i ng an econom y of coppe r wi ll often nance the

install ation of r e l a y s
L ike a si l ent sentine l the p rotect i ve re l a y stands on guard
on the l in es
da y and night summer and winter read y t o
detect troub l e instantly t o determine if it is serious enough
t o o p en the circuit and i so to disconnect fau l t y apparatus
or sectiona lize defective lines w ith a lm ost h um an inte lli gence
and more than human accurac y
A t present the protective re l ay s are so spec i a li ze
n hi ghly
deve l oped that there i s practicall y no e l ectrica l de e ct or ab
normal condition ou a l ine that cannot be detected b y a re l a y
and the circuit protecte against i t E xcess current ( generall y
call e
under current over vo l tage under vo l tage
over and under wattage reverse current or power high or l ow
frequenc y high or l ow temperature reverse phases and numer
ous other condit i ons which m a y occur
ll can be detected b y
sui tab l e re l a y

P r i n cip l e s of O p er ti o n
A s e l ectricit y is an intangib l e some
t hing which canno t be measured l ike water or gas we must
e t ect i ts p resence an characteristics b y the e ff ect it p roduces
The e ffects are o ur in number : chemica l changes heat magnet
ism
n
static attraction Al though e l ect r ica l indicating
instruments have been made t o operate on a ll these various
e ffects y et practica lly a ll p rotective rel a y s epend on t h e mag
netic e ff ect of n e l ectric current o r their O peration

The t h ree main princip l es used are ( 1 ) the D Ar son val p rin
ci pl e uti lizing a m oving coi l reacting on a permanent magnet :
i
the
so
l
enoid
and
p
l
unger
t
y
pe
uti
l
zing
the
sucking
ef
f
ect
2
( )
of an energize d so l enoid on an iron p l unger and ( 3 ) the induc
tion t y pe , uti lizing the same princip l e as emp l o y ed in induc
tion motors an watt hour meters V arious re l a y s O perating
et i l on o ll owing
on these prin c i p l es wi ll be conside r ed in
pages
.

dfa d

d ad f d
.

d a

d
f
,

da f
d

N N

OM E

E
CLAT UR

A s re l ay eve l opment has been a gradua l evo lution , m an y

rm s deve l oping a certain re l a y to overcome their particu l ar
troub l es it wi ll be readi ly apparent wh y there shou l be such
a wi e vari tion in the no m enc l ature throughout the country
,

P
d d

WHA T ARE

ROTE C TI

RE L A YS

VE

I n an effor t to stan ardize an harmonize the nomencl ature

of p r otective re l a y s the P rotective D evices C ommittee of the
A I E E recommended the f oll owi n g terms :
P r otect ive Rel ay
An intermediate e l ectrica l instrument
b y means of which on e circuit is indirect ly contro ll ed b y change
in conditions in the same or other circuits The re l a y is gener
ally equipped with contacts which are c l osed or O pened mechan
i cal l y b y a change on on e circuit and these contacts in turn
c l ose or open an auxiliar y circuit el ectrically

Dir e cti o n al Rel y

A n y rel a y which functions in conform
ance with the direction of power or vo l tage or current or phase
rotation etc

P ow er dir ect io n l Rel ay

A n y re l a y which u nctions in con
for m an ce with direction of power
This inc l udes both uni
directiona l re l a y s with singl e contacts and du o directiona l
re l a y s with doub l e contacts This term is t o be preferred

to
reverse p ower or reverse current re l ay s because thi s
t ype is frequent ly used to u nction under normal direction
of power
F urthe r more in some cases the norma l condition
of the s y stem ma y permit power to
ow in either direction

P o l ar i ty dir ecti o n al Re l ay
A n y re l ay wh i ch functions b y
re ason of change in po l arit y

P h se r otati o n Rel ay
A n y re l a y wh i ch u nctions b y reason
of a reversa l of the n orma l direction of phase rotation

Curr en t Rel y
A n y re l a y which functions at a predetermined
val ue of the current These ma y be either over current re l ay s

or under current re l a y s and are common ly ca ll ed

overl oad

and under l oad re l a y s

A n y re l a y which functions at a predetermined

Vol t g e Rel y
val ue of the vo l tage These may be either over vo l tage re l ay s
or under vo l tage re l a y s
/

W tt Rel ay A n y re l a y which functions at predetermined

value of the watts These ma y be either over watt re l a y s
or under watt re l a y s

F r equ en cy Rel ay
A n y re l a y which functi ons at pr edet er
mined val ue Of the frequenc y These ma y be either over
frequenc y re l a y s or unde r frequenc y rel a y s

Temper atur e Relay An y re l a y which functions at a pre

deter m ined temperature in the apparatus protected

a
a

a
a a

'

a a

P ROTE C TI V E

E
L
A
r
B
s
J

ph se Rel y A n y re l a y whi ch functions b y reas on

of the opening of one phase of a po ly phase circuit

D ier en ti al Rel ay
An y re l a y which functions b y reas on
of the di ff erence between two quantities such as current or
vo l tage etc This term i nc l udes re l ay s heretofore known as

ratio bal ance re l a y s

biased and percentage di fferential

re l a y s

Locki n g Rel y
A n y re l a y which rende r s some other re l ay
or othe r device inoperative under predetermined va l ues of
current or vo l tage etc

Tr i p fr ee Rel ay A n y re l a y wh i ch prevents ho l ding in an

e l ectrically operated device such as a circuit breaker whi l e an
abnormal co n dition exists on the circuit

Auxi li r y Relay A n y re l a y which assists another re l ay in

the performance of its function and which O perates in r esponse
to the opening or c l osing of its operating circuit S ometimes

call ed re l a y switches
contactors or m ul t i con t act r el ayS

S ig n al Relay An auxi l iary re l a y which operates an audib l e

or a visib l e sig n al S ometimes ca ll ed be ll ringing re l ay s

O p en

PP

UALI F YI N G

Notchin g

TE RM S

AS A

LI E D T O

RE LAY S

A qual if yi n g term app l ie d to an y re l a y i n di cat

ing that a number of separate impu l ses are required to comp l ete
O peration

I n ver se Ti m e A qua l ify i ng term app l ied to an y re l a y

indicating that there is purpose ly introduced a del ay ed action
which de l a y decreases as the O perating f orce increases

Ti m e A qual if yi n g ter m app l ied to an y re l ay

n it e
D e
indicating that there is purpose ly introduced a de l ay ed action
which de l a y remains substantiall y consta n t regard less of the
magnitude of the operati n g force
( F Or o rces s light ly bove
the min imum operating val ue the de l a y may be inverse )

I n st n t n eo us A qualifying term app lied to an y re l ay

indicating that no del ay ed action is p urpose ly introduced
Where re l a ys o p erate in response t o changes in more than
one condition ll u nction s shoul be m entione
.

aa

af

C HA P T E R

II

C I RCUI T BRE AK E RS AND

RE LE AS E S

I n or er t o appreciate u lly the action of the protective

rel ay s it is rst necessary t o understand the action of circuit
breakers both h ow the y may be equipped with certain re l eases
which O perate on abnormal conditions such as over an d under
current etc and al so how the y may be equipped with trip
coi l s which are actuated e l ectrically b y protective re l ay s
AS previous ly stated the rst circuit breakers were m ere ly
automatic switches arranged with an e l ectromagnet to cause
the b l ades to y open upon the occurrence of ex ess current
in the e l ectromagnet P resent d y c i rcuit breakers break the
circuit either in air or under O i l The rst are common ly ca ll ed

carbon circuit breakers because the nal break is between

carbon contacts and the second kind are O ften call e
automatic

Breakers ma y be
or
oi l
switches
circuit breakers
oil
semi automatic fu lly automatic or e l ectrically o p erated A
semi automatic circuit breaker is on e which opens au t om at i
cally on the occurrence of an abnormal condition but must be
c l osed b y hand and if the hand l e is he l d in a c l osed position
the breaker is inoperative I n the fully autom atic breaker

the hand l e is said to be trip free ; that is if the breaker

has opened due t o an abnormal co n dition and attempt is made
t o r e c l ose the breaker b y hand then if the abnormal condition
sti ll exists the breaker wi ll open even though the hand l e be
he l d in the c l osed position A n e l ectrically operated breaker
is one which is both c l osed and o p ene d e l e ct r ically The
opening i s su all y ue to an abnormal condition but the breaker
may be either opened or c l ose from some remote source for
instance a re m ote contro l pane l boar or
p rotective re l ay
,

d
-

P RI

C ircuit

d d a
N
N

CI P L E OF O P E RATIO

aa

breakers are usually arran ged so that when the y

are c l osed considerab l e energ y is stored in strong springs
and the parts he l d in
c l osed position b y
sm ll trigger or
,

'

P RO TE C T I VE

A
Y
E
L
s
E

tripp i ng l ever When t h e p re etermined conditions occur

for which the breaker is set or when actuated b y the pr ot ec
tive re l ay this trigger is tripped thereb y re l eas ing the poten
tial energy of the springs which c uses the contacts t o o pen
in a small fraction of a second
This ma y be seen readi ly from the sc h e m a t i c iagram of p arts
of a t y pica l carbon circuit breaker as shown in F i g 2 which
shows the breaker in its normally c l osed position A and
B are the main contacts ( usua lly heavy coppe r b l ocks ) which
are spanned b y the l aminated copper brush C This is l oose ly
attached t o the mo vi n g arm D in such a manner that it is
se l f al ign i n g and when the breaker is being c l osed contact
C is forced gainst contacts A and B with great pressure re

wiping action which makes a good e l ectrica l

sul t i n g in
connection The moving arm D is pivoted at E and the springs
This
F are under tension tending to pu ll the contact open

is prevented b y the toggl e j oint G an H w h ich is he l d in

position b y the trigger I ( pivoted at J)
C onnected between the l ower stud on the breaker and the
l ower main contact is a coi l K which carries the main current ;
and under its in uence is an iron armature L pivoted at M
When the current in coi l K becomes great enough the armature
L is attracted to its core ;this causes a proj ection on the armature
sharp b l ow thereb y re l easing
t o strike the tripping l ever
the toggl e j oint and all owing the springs to open the co n tacts
quickly I n F i g 3 is shown the breaker j ust at the i n stant
4 shows the breaker fu lly open
of tripping and F i g
I n order to reset the hand l e S must be pu ll ed down
thereb y straightening the toggl e j oint extending the springs
and giving the necessary p o w er t o force t h e cont cts into
tight contact
I f the main contacts were t o O pen the c i rcu i t ire ct ly the
resu l tant arcing wou l d soon cause them to become so pitted
that the y cou l d no l onger make contact Therefore the circuit
is na lly broken b y two au xi l iary carbon contacts at N and 0;
when the m ain contacts open the current is shunted through
these contacts but the y are separ ted so quickly that no ar e
or excessive burning resu l ts the o xi e of course p ssing off as
a gas
.

aa

ad

P ROTE C T I V E QE L A YS

10

I n order t o all ow a variation in t h e tripping current require d

the armature L is provided with a threaded weight P wh ich
is mounted on a worm Qand so its position may be varied by
turning the nut R Wh en the weight is near the e l ectromagnet
K
its ful l weight tends t o keep the armature away from
the el ectromagnet thus requiring the maximum current to
cause tripping ;when it is near the nut R its weight tends to
assist the attraction of K thereb y requiring a minimum of current
rovision is usual l y made to open the brea kers b y hand
This breaker is opened b y raising the hand l e 8 which resul ts
in tripping M an y operators prefer to touch the trip l ever
I or the nut R to open the breaker but this shoul d be done

with great caution as this part is al ive and there ma y be

danger of severe shock b y touching M an y breakers provide
for Opening in this manner b y using a we l l insul ated nut at
R thus preventing danger of accidental shock

S h un t tr ip Attach m e n t I t wi l l be readi l y seen that an y thing

which trips the l ever I wil l cause the breaker to open The shunt
t rip is a devi ce for tripping the breaker from some remote source
either manual l y or automatical l y b y a protective re l ay I n
F ig 5 is shown the trip l ever I pivoted at J with the parts
shown in F ig 2 omitted for cl arit y The e l ectromagnet
A is wound with man y turns of ne insu l ated copper wire
and is mounted on the side of the breaker as shown in F ig
13
When this e l ectromagnet is energized it attracts the iron
armature B ( pivoted at C) and this striking a stud D on the
tripping l ever causes the breaker to trip or open as before
The shunt trip attachment is the device usual l y emp l o yed
when protective re l ay s are used ;upon the occurrence of condi
tions for which it is set the rel a y c l oses the circuit to the shunt
trip attachment thereb y opening the breaker

n d er l o ad R
el eas e
There are cases n ot important enough
to warrant the use of an accurate rel ay where a circuit must
be prote cted from damage due to reverse current or under
current F or instance if the charging source of a storage
battery is interrupted the battery ma y at t empt to assume
the l oad or to motor the generator However the instant
the current drops to zero ( as it must do before reversing ) the
u nder l oad attachment trips the breaker
,

E AK E R
C I RC UI T BR
S AN D

RELE SES .

11

The princip l e of Operation is shown in F ig 6 The tripping

l ever is represented b y J and I as before and the device is shown
read y to appl y current An e l ectromagnet N ( carr ying the
main current ) is mounted on the side of the breaker as shown
in F i g 1 3 The heav y iron armature P pivoted at C has on
its side a small l ever D which is pivoted at E and is manuall y
hooked over the stud F thereb y hol ding the armature a s l ight
.

FI G
FIG
F ro

6
7
8

U n d er
U n d er
U n d er
-

ll cc mm ipmpy lp ipi
d at t a h
oad at t a h
o ad at t a h
oa

en t

en t

en t

( n or
( r ead
( tr

os

to tr

d)

on

distance r om t he e l ectromagnet N When the e l ectromagnet is

energized i t attracts the armature P to the position shown in
F i g 7 thereb y re l easing the cat ch l ever D
N ow shoul d the current fai l the armature P is no l onger
attracted and from its ow n weight fall s down to the position
shown in F ig 8 striking the trip l ever a sharp b l ow and tripping

the breaker C are must be taken that the device sets

itse l f when current is appl ied ; that is the iron weight must
be attracted and the l ever D rel eased otherwise the device
wi ll n ot operate on the cessation of current
.

TTf

PR O E C I VE

12

d
d d

RELA YS

Rel ease The

vol tag e
o regoing device w h en woun
w ith man y turns of ne wire ma y be used as D C under vo l tage
o p erating w h en the vol tage rops to a pre etermin e
n der

"6 9

F I G. l o

FIG
FIG
FIG

9 Un
1 0 Un
11
Un
.

ll g ll l m ilpg i i

der vo t a e r e eas e
d er v o t a e r e ease
d er vo t ag e r e ease

d d

( n or a o s
( r e e as n )
( r e e ase d )

FIG l l

on

am ount On al ternating current t h e e l ectromagnet must

have a cl osed magnet circuit and so the armature must be in
the same position ( cl ose air gap ) in both operating and trippe d
p osition This is accompl is h e b y a toggl e j oint arrangement
.

CI RC UI

B REA K ERS

RELEASE

AN D

13

as shown in F ig 9 I and J represent the trip l ever as before

he coi l A is wound on l aminated iron core B which with the arma
ture C forms a cl osed magnetic circuit Attached to the back
of the armature is a triangu l ar piece D ( pivoted at E ) which
is co n nected t o the setting l ever F ( pivoted at G) b y the l ink
The spring K tends to rotate
H which forms a toggl e j oin t
F in a c l ockwise direction and this b y attempting to straighten
the toggl e wou l d tend t o give D a counterc l ockwise rotation
and pul l the armature awa y from t h e el ectromagnet This
is prevented b y the energizing Of A As soon as the vol tage
drops t o a predetermined amount the armature is pul l ed away
all owing the S prings K t o move the l ever F thereb y tripping
the l ever I and causing the breaker t o O pe n This position
is shown i n F ig 1 0 But the springs pul l the l ever F further
than the tripping position and this causes the l ink H and piece
D to force the armature C back against the e l ectromagnet
thereb y a g ain comp l eting the magnetic circuit and preventing the
coi l A from burning out shoul d the vol tage come on again
before the device reset This is shown in F ig 1 1 Re
setting is accomp l ished simpl y b y moving the knob to the posi
tion in F ig 9 A breaker with this form Of rel ease is shown
in F ig 1 2

O ver vol tag e Rel eas e

F or an over vol tage rel ease a device
somewhat simil ar to the shun t trip attachment is used but is
usuall y designed with a heavier magnetic circuit t o all ow a smal l er
energ y l oss due to continuous O peration An over vo l tage
rel e ase is shown on the breaker in F i g 1 4 The sol enoid is wound
on a heav y iron casting and has in its center an iron p l unger
When the vol tage increases to a certain amount the pl unger
is sucked upward striking the pivoted l ever which in turn
strikes the p roj ection on the trip l ever and trips the breaker
Whil e practicall y ever y make of breaker varies in detai l
of construction and in fact each manufacturer ma y turn ou t
various designs Of breakers y et the principl e of Operation
is practical l y the same in al l and the foregoing exampl es are
t ypical of the devices usuall y empl o y ed
F rom the foregoing it woul d appear as if the protective
rel ay were a super uous evice but it must be borne in
mind that these re l eases are not at all accurate in their setting
.

TT

14

FI G

P R O EC

12

] VE l E L A YS

l
g
l
i
p
p
w
i
m b
lc m l
ip

U n d e r v o t a e
ou n t e d on
r e aker

FIG 1 3 B eake e q u ed
u d e oad e e ase an d s hu n t
at t a h
en t

r e e as e

FIG

14

B r eaker

eq

i pp w l g l
e

ith

v er v o t a

e r e ease

h
t

tr

CI R C U I

BR E A K

ER

AN D

RELEA SE

15

and may not al way s give adequate protection On high

tension circuit it is Often necessary to have the re l ay s where
the y are easi l y accessib l e as for instance on the front of the
switchboard whi l e the breakers ma y be in som e r em ot e and
practical l y inaccessibl e l ocation Another point is that rel eases
are often dif cul t to test and often more difcul t to set to function
on the desired predetermined conditions
and protective rel ay s
are becoming more and more to be recognized as a necessary
adj unct t o the we l l equipped power p l ant and industrial
concern
.

C HAP T E R

TRI P

CI RC UI T S

III
D E LAYS

AND T I M E

rotect ive rel ay s may be c l assied as circuit cl osing and

circui t Opening rel ay s according to the method empl oy ed to
energize the trip coil of the circuit breaker
C ircuit c l osing

re l ay s are frequentl y call ed shunt trip rel ay s I t h as al re ad y

been shown h ow the circuit breaker may b e Opened b y h aving
an e l ectromagn et whic h actuates the trigger when it is energized
The function of the protective re l a y is then t o compl ete the
el ectri c circuit which will energi ze t hi s el ectromagnet or trip
coil as it is usuall y call ed
To accomp l is h this the re l a y is equipped with t w o contact s;
on e stationary and one attached to the moving e l ement
N or
mall y these are not touc hing but when the abnormal it y on the
circuit reac h es a certain predetermi ned magnitude the moving
el ement of the rel a y causes the contac t s to to uch each other
or to c l ose thus comp l eting the trip circuit and energizin g the
trip coil of the breaker and causing the b reaker to Open

r i p cir cui t Sour ce s

I t is evident that i the trip coil is
wound for the proper vol tage and frequenc y it might be possibl e
t o operate the trip circuit from the same source as the protec te d
source Bu t with no protection except a pl ain protective rel a y
t his wi l l not be satisfactory as in the event of a heavy short
circuit the vol tage may drop so l ow that there is not enough
vol tage to operate the trip coil even thoug h the rel ay shoul d
cl ose the trip circuit ;and it wi l l be noticed that this l ow vol tage
occurs j ust at the instant when full vol tage is most nee ded
E ven t h e practice of conn ecting the trip circuit to an exciter
bus of the D C machines suppl ying the e l d Of l arge al terna
tors is not satisfactory as a severe isturbance of the A O
l ines ma y b e el t all the wa y back to the exciter buses resul tin g
in a fai l ure of t h e tripping source at the most criti cal moment
F rom t his it is evident t h at the tripping circuit source must be
absol utel y dependabl e and absol utel y without connection to the
-

f
.

16

T T LA

PR O E C I V E

l8

Auxil iary rel ays , with their diagrams

YS
of

connections wi ll b e
,

f ul l y discussed in detai l in another cha p ter

C ir cu it o p en i n g or S er i es
r ip
There are man y instal l a
tions of re l a y s for pl ain overl oad protection in which it is con
si d er ed too expensive to install and maintain a comp l ete batter y
simp l y for tripping purposes F or suc h cases the overl oad
current itsel f is used as the energizing source but the en er g i z
ing of the trip coi l is sti ll contro ll ed b y the protective re l a y
I n this s y stem the trip coil is put in series with the l oad ;or
in parall e l with a shunt which is in series with the l oad ; or
connected directl y to the secondary of a series transformer
-

FIG

16

l m y i g m ci c i p i g l y

E e

en t ar

d d

of a

a ra

ut

en n

re a

the primary of w h ic h carries t h e l oa current But t h e pr ot ec

tive re l ay contacts are normall y cl osed an are conne cted
so that the y short circuit the trip coi l consequentl y the l oad
current ( or denite fraction Of it ) passes throug h the l ow
resistance contacts and very l itt l e ows through the trip coi l
N ow s houl d an unusual disturbance occur the contacts of the
protective re l a y wi ll open and as the current can no l onger
pass through the contacts it must ow through the trip coi l
thereb y energizing it and tripping the breaker The diagrams
in F ig 1 6 s h ow t h e connections for circuit opening or series
tripping
This method h as a very serious rawb ack h owever ;i the
contacts become sl ightl y dirt y or make poor contacts due
to vibration the y may shunt the current through the trip coi l
under normal conditions of l oad an trip the breaker without
.

d
d

T T LS

R I P CI RC U I S

AN D

I ME DE A Y

19

cause To obviate this defect on e compan y c l oses the contacts

positive l y b y means of a toggl e j oint and this gives goo d
protection and el iminates the danger Of tripping ou t without
ca use

All of the advantages of t h e circ uit o p ening

r an sf er R
el ay
s y stem h ave b een regained and the former defects el iminated
b y the devel opment Of the
transfer rel ay
so cal l ed
whic h is s h own in F ig 1 7
Wh il e this re l a y is discusse d
at l ength in another chapter
y et it ma y be here stated
that this s y stem uses a cir

cuit cl osing rel a y as the pr o

t ect i ve device an d when this
rel a y functions
it short

circuits a
h o l ding down
coil on the transfer rel ay ;
this all ows the transfer rel ay
to function and in doing so
it breaks the series circuit
an d instant l y cuts the trip
coil into this circuit thereb y
tripping the breaker
i m e D el ays
Were it n ot
for the fact that it is n eces
sary t o have a certain tim e
del ay between the instant of
disturbance and the instant
of breaker functioning there
woul d be but li ttl e el d for
the protective rel ay There
are three denite cl asses into
FIG 1 7 e t h ou e t a er r e a
which re l ay s may be divided
according t o time
el ay : instantaneous inverse time and
den i t e time
As the name imp l ies the instantaneous rel ay provi es n o
time del a y between the instants Of disturbance and tripping
I nstantaneous re l ay s are use general l y where accurate prote o

W ig f ly
s

ns

T
T
d dd f

PRO E C I VE

20

E L/
1 Ys

tio n is es ire an w h ere th ere is al most no possibi l ity of the

disturbance c l earing itse l in a few seconds F or instance
if a transformer or a generator deve l ops an internal short
circuit there is practicall y no chance Of it c l earing itsel and the
transformer or g e n e r a t o r
shoul d be cut ou t instantl y
Or if a generator l oses its e l d
or if a battery which is sup
posed to be onl y charging
shoul d sudden l y start dis
0
l
z
0
C
harging due to the a il ure
rai g Cg
t
Am p g

1
8
C h ar a t er s t
e o ad
t
FIG
u v of the charging source it is
a" u se
or a T a
advisabl e for the circuit t o
be opened instantl y an for this purpose , the instantaneous
p rotective rel ay is empl o y ed

I n ver se
This kin d of time l imit was the
i m e L imit
favorite for man y y ears as it gave protection oommen
surate with the magnitude of the overl oad By examining
the time de l ay curve Of an ordinary fuse ( F i g 18) it wi ll be
,

c
e

is n

c mip ic fim l c
r ren

er

im ypl c l l y i im limi b l w
60

70

FIG

19

C h ar act e;
i st i c

e- oa

e, o

ur

v es

ver

oa

of

re a

ver se

90

700

t,

seen that this inverse time protection is given but of course

on ver y heavy overl oads the time becomes al most instantaneous
Figure 1 9 gives a t y pical curve of a pl ain inverse time l imi t
,

R IP C IRCU I

TS T
AN D

IME DELA Y

21

rel ay and readi l y shows how the time vari es W i th the extent
of the overl oad F or instance consider the top curve This
i s taken wit h the re l a y set to c l ose the contacts at 1 0 amp at
whic h setting it takes about 1 0 sec this being on an indenite
part of the curve
With t h e same setting an 20 amp appl ie
200 per cent
of l oad or 1 00 per cent overl oad it takes onl y
se c ;at 50amp
)
( 216 500 per cent of l oad or 400 per cent overl oad ) it takes
sec ;at 100amp i t takes on l y
sec an above t h is the
re l a y is practicall y instantaneous
D eni t e tim e Del ays As the name imp l ies in this t y pe
Of protective re l a y t h ere is a denite time de l a y between the
.

FIG

20
.

C h ar a

c i ic im lyp c l l y i im limi b l w
t er

st

d u r ves of a G E d en
e O v e r oa d r e a

e- oa

te t

t,

instant Of disturbance and t h e c l osing Of contacts and this

time de l ay is/ in no wa y aff ected b y the magnitude of the ab
normal ity S uch time de l ay s have been successfu l l y emp l o y ed
on a sma l l sca l e but have rapid l y given wa y to the time de l a y
described in t h e next p aragrap h T y pical denite time curves
are shown in F ig 20

n
r
s
e
e
d

e
n
i
t
e
t
i
m
e Del ays
I v
I n t h is t y pe of de l a y the l atest
practice is O btained b y having t h e protective re l a y give a
time de l a y which is inverse l y proportional to the magnitude
Of the over l oad up t o about
per cent of l oad but whic h
.

22

PR O TE C TI V E R ELA YS

becomes a enite time l imit upon an y greater overl oa t h an

this F or instance consider the curve in F ig 2 1 which is
the time de l a y curve of a modern induction ty pe overl oad
.

ypic l im l c l yW i i c i yp l
Pe r C e n t

FIG

21

of

l 000
1 500
Ampe r e s Nec e s s ar y t o Cl ose Cont act s

d u r ve

e- oa

of a

re a

es t n

g h ouse

du

on

ver

oa

protective rel a y : At 200 per cent of l oa t h e time e l a y is

5 sec ;at 3 00 per cent
sec ;at 500 per cent
sec ;and at
per cent and an y overl oad above
per cent the time
de l a y is a denite 2 se c F igure 22 shows another set of curves
where denite time is approached at very heav y overl oads
.

ypic l im l c
15

FIG

22

20

d ur ves

e- oa

i c dy l l y

30

'

of a

du

ti on t p e

v er

oa

re a

The app l ications of these time de l ay s an how t o set the

various rel ay s to Obtain certain de l a y s wi l l be treated in detai l
in l ater c h apters
,

T
T

T T

R I P CI RC U I S

AN D

I ME DELA YS

23

im e Del ays Ar e O btain ed The method of l agging

HOW
or damping the moving e l ement of a protective re l a y depends
I n the direct
l argel y on the princip l e of operation of the re l a y
current t y pe emp l oy ing a moving coi l and permanent or el ectro
magnet the time e l a y is Obtained b y the use of an al uminum
COpper bobbin which al so ser ves as a suppo rt for the winding
OL
I t takes power to move the bobbin through the intense el d
and thus the movement and consequentl y the time de l a y
is inverse l y proportional to the power app l ied , or in other words
to the overl oad
I n the so l enoid and p l unger t y pe some manufacturers emp l o y
a l eather be l l ows with a small adj ustab l e need l e va l ve to al l ow
the air to escape sl ow l y As the p l unger attempts to rise
the air is compressed in the be l l ows thus retarding the movement
Other manufacturers use a dashpot with oi l to retard the motion
I n the induction t y pe an al uminum disk rotates between
strong perman ent magnets which retard the motion I n
this t y pe the denite time is obtained b y having a smal l trans
former which saturates ou heavy overl oad thus l imiting the
power w h ic h is suppl ied to t h e re l a y windings
Other t y pes use various nove l methods which wi l l be ful l y
describe un er the v arious t y pes of p rotective re l a y s
.

,
,

,
.

dd

,
.

P
V
P U P P T TV d
C HA

L NG E R T Y E

RO

A re l ay operating

TE R I

EC

RE LAYS

the e ffect of a sol enoi t o raise an iron

pl unger thus cl osing or Opening contacts is sh own in F ig 23
Referring to the diagram of parts s h own in F ig 24 winding
A is wound around the iron core B
S upported at the two pol es
an S is an iron p l unger C arranged so that it may sl ide up

FIG

on

i
p
w
pdl g yp l l y
23

C on d

un

er

st r a

e o

v er

oa

un d

re a

FIG

24

c wm ic i m l y

S h e

ho

at

d agr a

i n F ig

23

of r e a

and own When th e current in A reaches a certain val ue

the iron core C is l ifted thus c losing the contacts D an E
l
e
y
trip
the
b
reaker
as
w i t lL bdg L E h i ch wi H im me ia
,
t
r
i
b
d
l
d
sc
e
r
e
v
u
s
e
m
p
g
ig y
When the current is greater than
amp a win ing is not
necessary as the magnetism from the straight bar or cab l e
produces su fcient fl ux to O perate the re l a y The re l a y ma y
then take the form shown in F ig 2 5 the cabl e simp l y passing
through the l arge hol e H which is surrounded b y insu l ating
material I n F ig 26 is another modication which ma y be
used on a busb ar t h at runs verticall y in stea of h orizontal l y
.

24

TT

PR O E C

26

w
it wi ll rise on a minimum
w

of

] V R RE L A YS

w
current

if
it
is
set
high
then

current) rel a y util izing the

same principl e Of operation as those al read y described is shown
in F ig 28 C oil A is wound on the central part over the iron
pl unger C and the magnetic circuit is compl eted b y the two
parts B and B 1 The action is identical with the previousl y
described rel ay ; namel y when the current reaches a certain
val ue the pl unger C is l ifted upward thus causing the contact
S-

i
i
w
b
l
W
i
g
i
i
m
l
i
m
i
l y w c im i g
d
FI G

FIG

re a

29

3 0 S

FIG

I n t er

ho

29

or

FI

ve

th e

of

ver

so e t e

o n an d

the t

es t n

h ou se d e n
ar m

e set t n

d
d
fdd
d f dd
d d
d

30

te t

t D C
.

dis k F t o s h ort circuit t h e t w o contacts D an E w hic h compl ete

the circuit that trips out the breaker I n another t ype of
small capacit y adj ustment is made b y using taps on the wind
ing ;however thi s cannot be one in capacities Of several h undred
amperes T h e great a vantage gained b y the simpl e rel ay de
scribed u rt h er on h as iscourage the use of pl unger t ype rel a ys
irect current circuits I a pl unger t ype rel ay is to be
on
use wit h a shunt as has been one in rare cases t h e a j ust
ment for l oa is ma e b y varying the ro p of t h e s h unt
-

PL UNGER

YP E P R O TE C I VE RELA YS

27

F igure 29 s h ows a den it e time rel a y wit h the cover removed

and F ig 3 1 gives a schematic diagram of parts The sol enoid
A has an iron p l unger B which under normal condition rests
on the moving arm C
pivoted at E which car r i es a contact
D and a counterweight E
When the so l enoid A is energized
the core B is raised upward instantl y ;re l ieved of this weight
the counterweight E now causes the contact D to start upward
t o m eet the upper contact G
However attached to the arm
C is a piston H wor king within a c yl inder I which retards the
movement of arm C making it move ver y sl owl y as the air
escapes around the pl unger Then after a denite time from
1 to 5 sec depending on the initial distance between contacts
D and G the contacts D and 0 c l ose thus c l osing the circuit to
the shunt trip coil of th e circuit breaker, causing the l atter to
O pen
-

FI

31

c m i c i g m i i m l imi l l y

S he

at

d d
a ra

Of

the

d en

te t

v er

oa

re a

F ig

30
.

I f t h e current rops t o normal b e o re contacts G and D

F ig 3 1 cl ose t h e sol enoi all ows t h e pl un g er B to drop thus
forcing the arm C downward into normal position I n order
that the rel a y may reset qui ckl y a val ve is provided in the
dashpot pl un ger T hi s val ve consists Of a l ittl e stee l bal l J
which cl oses the air ports K when the piston moves upward and
attempts t o o rce air ou t of the port but raises and all ows the air
t o ente r readil y when the piston moves down as in resetting
F igure 3 0 is an outside view of a den i t e time l imit re l a y simil ar
t o that in F ig 29
This re l a y wi l l c l ose the circuit in the number
of seconds that arm A points to on scal e S
This re l a y is now
practical l y o b so l ete but t h ere are stil l man y in Ol d instal l ations
.

P R O TE C I VERELA YS

28

Th e t ypes Of re l a ys , F igs 23 t o 28 , if desired , ma y c l ose the

circui t t o a de
n i t e time l imit re l a y instead of tripping the
.

breaker instantl y but then whi l e the action is se l ective th e cost

renders its use prohi bitive S e l ective action except in very
heav
y short circuits ma y be obtained b y l agging the time Of the
tripping an ma ki ng the
an inverse time l imit device
-

of

il w im limi i l yp p l i lypy b l w
d

FIG 3 2 V e
o v e o ad n ve
.

r se- t

se r es

re a

FI

33

G
ty

E u

e o

ver

oa

re a

That is t h e greater t h e overl oa t h e q uicker the time I n

fact in actual practice the instantaneous rel a y h as a ver y l imited
use ;an inverse time l imit re l a y costs onl y sl ightl y more gives
the same prote ction and will not interrupt service on transient
short circuits The l atter t y pe is shown in F igs 3 2 and 3 3
The pl unger in rising compresses the air in the l eat h er bel l ows
.

AS

P UNGER T YPE P R O TE C TI V E R EL Y
-

29

which r es1 st s its upwar movement I n t h e t op of the cast

ing t o which the bell ows is attached is an air passage C whic h
ma y be an y where from 1 or 2 sec to 20 or 3 0 sec
The greatest obj ection t o the be l l ows t y pe rel a y is t h at the
l eather unl ess careful l y attended t o wi l l dry ou t and crack
making the permanence of time setting very unrel iabl e T o
secure the best operation the bell ows shoul d be rubbed with
and l oad time curves taken
n eat sfoot oil ever y few months
Another faul t
Otherwise the re l ay s ma y fai l at a critical time
is that whi l e the time is inverse up t o certain
overl oads on short circuits the time is al most
instantaneous Therefore if appl ied to a
radial feeder s ystem the action will be sel ect
ive up t o certain overl oad but above this a
breaker near the generator ma y go ou t as
quickl y as a breaker near the source Of dis
To overcome this difcul t y a
t u r ban ce
pl unger t y pe
overl oad
den i t e time l imit
rel a y was devised

A den it e time l imit

T im e li m i t Rel ays
rel a y is shown diagrammaticall y i n F ig 3 4
The pl unger A is not rigid l y attached to
the stem B as in the t y pe previousl y de
scribed but sl ides freel y on it I f an overl oad
occurs the pl unger is raised and compresses

4
F
I
G
S h e at
3
the spring C whic h in turn forces the stem
d a r a of est
B upward ag al n st the res i stance of the bell ows h ou se e o s t e
D and nal l y c l oses the contacts E and F i cu i t cl osi g d e
m i t O ve
e
with the disk G I t wi l l be seen readi l y that
ggigaf
n o matter how severe the over l oad ma y be
it can on l y com pr ess the S pring C ;consequentl y the upward
pressure on the bell ows stem is constant regard l ess Of overl oad
and the time is therefore constant The duration of time is
varied b y Opening or c l osing the air val ve S as described for
inverse time l imit t y pes At the rst gl ance this might appe ar
the sol ution of radial protection but it is impossibl e t o depend
on the re l a y for c l oser settings than 1 sec ; therefore
when
there are four or ve rel a y s connected in a circuit those near
the generators must be set to O perate in about 5 or 6 sec which
B,

c
m
i
c
i g mb l wW ypi g

c r

'

'

P RO

30

TT

EC I VE RELA YS
.

is too l ong a time to sustain a dead short circuit es pe cia ll y

near the generator Then too the re l a y s woul d trip j ust as
quickl y on a moderate overl oad as on a heavy overl oad which is
not at all desirab l e Were the foregoing of great importance
it woul d be necessary to perfect a re l a y accurate within smal l
percentage of sustained accurac y and one whose curve was inverse
up to certain overl oads after whi ch it woul d be come
a den i t e time l imit devi ce However owing to the u n q u es
t i on e d su periorit y of al ternating current for high tension
l ong
distance transmissions and the comparative l y smal l size of
most direct current radial sy stems of transmission re l a y engi
-

FIG 3 5 E
.

l m y i m i l i ib i y m
e

en t ar

ag r a

of r a

ut

st r

on s

st e

eers h ave devote d most Of their energies to the perfection of al ter

nating
current rel ay s which are to a high degree perfect in their
protection I n the l arge power p l ants or factories however
where there are n umerous machines that must be kept running
unl ess actual l y damaged a radial s y stem of protection may
be adopted with success
l imit
This brings up an important use o r den it e time
rel a y s C onsider the distribution s y stem shown in F ig 3 5
ni t e
E ach time the l ine divides t o supp l y a set of feeders a de
time l imit rel a y is supp l ied t o operate a doub l e pol e circuit
breaker F or instance the feeder from the busbar is protected
b y breaker A the next subdivisions are protected b y breakers
B and C and the next b y circuit breakers D E F and G
Sup
pose a heav y overl oad occurs on the feeder protected b y breaker
h

L T d
f B

P
D

UNGE R

YPE P R O TE C TI V E REL

31

YS

The excess current exten s all the way bac k t o t h e main

bus and were den i t e time rel ay s not used breaker A wo ul d
g o ou t as soon as breaker D thus interrupting every circuit
connected to the feeder protected b y breaker A But this
l imit re l a y enters in
is where the den i t e time
The rel ay
at D is set sa y o r 1 sec
and C for 2 sec and A for 3 sec
.

FIG

36

i w W i g p l c wi cyp l l
of

est n

h ou se be

r ot e

e o

o er

v er

oa

r e ay

wi t h

an d

wi

h ou t

Thus when t h e disturbance occurs al l the rel ay s Of brea kers A,

C and D start to operate but at the end of 1 sec breaker D
opens re l ieving the excess current and all the other rel ay s
reset quickl y conning the disturbance t o the one l ine on which
it occurred Had the disturbance occurred on feeder C then
the breaker at C woul d have gone ou t in 2 sec ;breaker A
woul d not have had time t o open and feeder B wou l d n ot have
been interrupted F igure 3 6 shows a t y pical overl oad rel ay
which O btains the time l imit b y means Of an air be l l ows an F ig
,

LA

PR O E C T ] VE JBE

32

YS

is a sc h ematic diagram of t h e same The iron pl unger

A worki ng under the in uence of the sol enoid B carries at
its l ower end an insul a t ed disk D having on its circumference
a band Of nonoxidizin g metal When the sol enoid coi l
is
energized b y a current Of a certain strength the core A is pul l ed
upward thus forcing the di sk D against the contacts E and
F comp l eting a circuit to a shunt trip coi l on a circuit breaker
On the upper end Of the p l unger shaft is a l eather be l l ows G
fastened to the permanent support H so that as the p l unger
rises it compresses t h e air in the be ll ows and resists its upward
motion Thi s air is permitted to escape
graduall y through a l ittl e openi ng at I
in the casting and this gradual escape
of air a l l ows the p l unger to rise in a
certain time t o compl ete contact at E
and F
I t is evident that the greater the
current in the sol enoid
the greater
wi l l be the upward pull consequentl y
the greater the compression in the bel
l ows the quicker the escape Of air and
the shorter the time That is the
greater the overl oa the quicker the
FIG 3 7 S h e at di a Circuit
be Opened
f r el ay
in
This inverse p roportion is not a xed
f g
factor however since b y varying the
size of the escape aperture at I b y means of the val ve I the
time ma y be varied from al most nothing t o 1 5 or 20 sec and
stil l have the inverse time l imit
The taps K L M etc are provided t o change the number
of turns in circuit and consequent l y the amount Of current
required t o Operate the rel a y F or instance this particu l ar
rel a y has taps for 4 5 6 7 and 8 amp Thi s means that if the
4 amp tap is in circuit the p l unger wi ll start to ri se when the
current reaches 4 amp ;with t h e 5 amp tap the pl unger wi l l
ri se w h en the current reac h es 5 amp etc
As a practical examp l e assume t h at the re l a y is use wit h a
This means that when the
1 00 to 5 curr ent transformer
ful l l oa current Of 1 00 amp is reache t h ere wi ll be 5 amp
37

c m ic

34

d
d

TT

PRO EC

] VE

d d
d

RELA YS

an t h e circuit b rea k er D opens an c l oses t h e circuit E

is t h e primary win ing Of a series transformer an F the second
ary w h ich is connected to the re l a y and energizes the sol enoid
H The irect current circuit is connecte t o the s h unt trip
C,

TRI P COI L

FIG

FIG

39

l m y i g m c i c i c l i g l y i gl p c i c i
e

40 S t an
.

en t ar

a ra

of

ut

os n

re a

on s n

h ase

ut

i gci cmi cl ci c i l lWy i g b l w yp

d ar d d a

ra

ut

of

on n e

os n

of

on s

ver

oa

re a

es t n

h ou se

e,

s.

coil of brea k er D wit h a b rea k in the circuit at contacts J

an K This diagram shows the normal operating position
I f an overl oad occurs at C and excess current in the trans
former E F resu l ts , t h e rel a y pl unger rises , s h ort circuits the
,

Ld

LA

UNGER T YP E

P R O TE C TI VE RE

YS

35

contacts JK an comp l etes the trip circuit ;an instant l ater

the Oil swi t ch wil l open disconnecting the l ine F igure 40
,

ll l i
i l l
ii y i
i
v

Co

er

N eed

Va

Ad jus t

Nut

L o ck N u t

Be

S u pp or t

ow s

for

ap

C o m p r ess
S t at

k Re

u c

on

S pr

eas e

l
ll ii il
l
i
lli i
i
i pl g yp l y
o

ve

C on t act

on ar

v g

Va

C o n t act

C on t act Base

un

Sto

er

me

ra

Po
P

un

pe

er

gC

n et

me S h e

ra

F r am e E n d P

a n et

er

e ce

r at n

g
M ag
M

F r am e C o

n et

F r am e S u

n et

e ce

pp ort i n g

cr e w

C a br at

C a i br a t i n

g Rod
gT b
u

D u st C o

Ad ju st

FI G

41

E u
.

er

er

N ut

e re a

gives diagrams of re l ay and transformer connections for

t ect in g singl e phase , t w o phase and three phase circuits
-

r
p o

36

P R O TE C

]V

RRE L A YS

O th er Type s
Anoth er b e ll ows ty pe Of re l a y is s h own in
F ig 4 1
This is a singl e phase unit M an y rel ay s were formerl y
made with t w o an t h ree rel ay s mounted on one casting to pro
.

Quic kRet u r n

Air Valve f or Ti me
Adj us t ment

FIG

ic i g l
k r ese t t

v a ve

on

bl w
e

d d

two or t hree p h ase circuits These w ill stil l b e found

on Ol der install atio ns
However the y require two or three sepa
ra t e series trans o rmers j ust as do the re l ay s p reviousl y escribe
t ect

T TT

PL UNGE R YP E PR O EC I VE RELA Y
-

37

I t wi l l be noted in this ty pe that the contacts are at the top

and protected b y a removab l e cover permitting read y inspection
I n this re l a y the various l oad settings are not Obtained b y
taps but b y varying the position of the iron pl un ger in the
sol enoid b y an adj ustment at A L owering the pl unger r e
quires more current to raise it and raising the position requires
l ess current
.

FIG

43

E ar

ly f m ic i g l b l w yp l y
or

Of

k r eset t

ai r

v a ve s

on

e re a

The time setting is varied b y an air val ve in t h e top Of the

be l l ows casting as shown in F ig 42 When an overl oad occurs
the sol enoid raises the pl unger thereb y raising the stem A
his compresses ai r I n the l eather b e ll ows B forcing it
up the channe l C and throug h the va l ve D The time
is adj usted b y vary ing the position of the pin C by turning
A good feature is the quick resetting device shown at
G
H and K K is a c yl inder which on upward travel of the stem
A is forced against opening L and e ffectuall y cl oses O pening
When the re l ay attempts to reset the air is rareed in the
M
bel l ows and c yl inder K is l ifted all owing air to enter M and
P thereb y insuring a quick resetting Of the p l unger
,

38

PR O TE C T] VE .RELA YS

An earl y o rm of quick resetting device is shown in F ig 43 , but

.

one of the greatest drawbacks Of this t y pe is that on a heav y

al ternating current overl oad especial l y l ow frequenc y the peak
of the wave causes the air to compress in the be l l ows whil e when
the A C wave p asses through zero , this compressed air drives
-

FIG

44

E d ash
.

p ypwi ci c pi p c i ggci im limi l y wi

ot

an d

e,

ut

t ho t

en n

r ot e

ve
o ver
n

r se

t
e

re a

the p l unger down a tri e and then the quick resetting device
admits air the wrong time This recurring at every al terna
tion drove the p l unger so far down that it coul d n ot cl ose t h e
contacts
On e drawbac k t o t h e l eat h er bell ows t yp e re l a y is t h at the
l eather unl ess attended to carefull y wil l harden in time and
crack thus defeating the purpose of an accurate time T o
overcome this rel ay s of th e type shown in F igs 44 were
-

TT

PL UNGE R T YP E PR O EC I V E RELA YS
-

39

deve l oped These h a the contacts at t h e t op as in the t y pe

F ig 45 but the bel l ows is omitted and an Oil ashpot was pl aced
at the bottom of the stem as shown in F i g 46
I nstead Of o rcing air throug h a need l e val ve Oil is forced
by a piston on its upward travel t h rough the val ve E and ou t
.

f
l
l
c
i
c
b
l
w
yp
i
i
m
l
i
m
i
c
i
c
i
cl i l y i g w i l l m p l y
/

FI

FIG 45 ( Le t )
os n g r e a
F I G 46 ( R h t )
.

45
.

G en er a

tr

FIG
v
n

46

e r s e-

S ho

det a

s of

the

o il

v a ve i

the

O il -

da

U
e-

t,

re a

ut

hol e F , F ig 46 The piston C has a number Of hol es in t h e

bottom which are normal l y covered by the disk D
pon upward
travel the disk cl oses the hol es practicall y oi l tight but on
downward travel it rises and al l ows a quick resetting of the
p l unger
of

T dT

40

PR O EC

RELA YS

] VE

Th ese rel ay s cannot b e use wh ere the y are subj ecte t o extreme
changes in temperature , and no other Oil except that suppl ied
b y the manufacturers shoul d be used in the dashpot Their
time may be varied from al most instantaneous at heavy l oa s
t o over 5 min at 1 50 per cent l oad
S ometimes as in radial s y stems an inverse time is not so
desirab l e as a denite time To obtain this the rel ays hereto
fore shown are sl ightl y modied so that instead of the p l unger
being rigidl y attached t o the bel l ows and contact shaft the rais
ing of t h e pl unger merel y compresses a spring wh ich in turn
.

FIG

47

l m y i g m c l yc i i ci c i p i g
e

en t ar

of

a ra

on n e
re a

on s

se r e s

ut

en n

raises t h e shaft This was shown in F ig 3 4 The pl unger A

is free to sl ide up on the shaft B
When it rises it compresses
the spring C which presses against a stop ri gid l y attached t o
the shaft at the bottom of the bel l ows thereb y raising the
shaft and contacts
I t will be readil y seen t h at n o matter h ow muc h current
is passed through the sol enoid once it rises there can be no
greater compression from the spring no matter what the l oad
C onsequent l y the contacts are c l osed in a den i t e time depending
upon the t ime setting after the raising of the pl unger Hence

the name den i t e time l imit overl oad re l ay

I n the exampl es s h own it was assumed that there was al wa y s
a separate direct current circuit which the rel a y compl eted
to trip the Oil switch S ometimes a source of direct current
is not avai l ab l e so t h e secondar y current of the series trans
.

T
d

42

P R O E C TI V E E L A YS

former 18 use t o tri p th e circuit b reak er These rel ay s are

known as series trip or circuit opening ty pes The secondary
of the transformer is connected to the trip coil on t h e breaker
but t hi s coi l is short
circuited normall y b y the rel a y cont acts
When the re l a y operates it connects the trip coi l in circuit
thereb y causing al l t h e current t o ow through it an Open
.

TR
IP

,
.

C OI L

OI L

R NT
CUR
ANS FOR
TR
M R
S

Th r ee Ph a s e Un g r ou n d e d

l
e Ph a s e
g

ig m c p ig

Thr ee Pha s e Gr oun d e d Neut ral

FIG

50 D
.

oil

a ra

or r es

on

xc p ci c i p if g l yB
Q

ua r r er

Hg

to

49

t for

ut

Ph a s e

en n

re a

s.

switch This is s h own in F ig 47 in whi c h t h e e eder

is supp l y ing the l oad C throug h the current transformer s

primary E and protected b y circuit breaker D The secondary
of the transformer F is connected through the re l a y H and the
trip coil I on the Oil s w itc h D The trip coi l is short circuited
b y the contacts J an K on the rel a y An overl oad at C cause s
the

TT

PL UNGE R T YPE PR O E C I VE RELA YS

-

43

excessive current to ow in the rel a y coi l H which raises its

p l unger and opens the contacts J and K causing current to
ow throug h the trip coil I which opens the Oil switch
On e t y pe of series trip re l a y F ig 44 c l oses the contacts
C b y a toggl e T which is c l osed on the downward trave l of
the pl unger thereb y insuring very positive connection When
the p l unger rises this Opens the toggl e all owing a spring to
open the contacts with a quick positive action
The series trip re l ay s have an advantage in that the y do not
require a separate circuit to trip the circuit breaker However
un l ess the y are equipped with so l id l y c l osed contacts the y are
l iab l e t o trip the breaker on a sl ight j ar or knock
Figure 48 shows the standard dia g rams of connections
furnished b y the Westinghouse C o for circuit opening re l a ys
corresponding to the circuit c l osing diagrams sho e in F ig 40
The G eneral E l ectric C O furnish the diagrams shown in F ig 49
for one t w o and three phase protection b y circuit c l osing rel a y s
The correspon ing iagrams for circuit open i n g r el ays are sh own
in Fig 50
,

dd

D C
.

PT T V
ER

C HA

O WE R DI RE C
-

I O NAL RE LAYS

D uring the earl y day s of the e l ectrical industry the prob

l em of the protection Of circuits and equipment was on e in
which the chief concern was given to disconnecting the faul t
as quickl y as possibl e This general l y cou l d be accomp l ished
b y the use Of fuses or circ uit breakers with an instantaneous
trip However as the size of e l ectric
power s y stems incre as ed
and the y were comp l icated with a mu l tip l icit y of circuits and
apparatus an d the necessit y Of continuit y of service became an
important matter t h e probl em of protection devel oped not
o nl y into on e Of protectin g the apparatus but al so of l ocal izin g
the fau l t t o the circuit on the piece of apparatus where it
occurred T o meet the various conditions of protection req uired
for machines Ope rating in paral l e l or in parall el with other equip
ment or for iso l ating the faul t y circuit in the various feeder
sy stems there have been devel oped a number Of different ty pes
of re l a y s
Among these devices the reverse current re l a y has
espe ciall y in the protecting of direct current circuits and appara
tus a wide app l ication
On e of the prime app l ications Of the D C power directiona l
rel a y is for the prevention of the reversal and the discharge
of current from a storage battery into the charging source
shoul d the vol tage of the charging equipment fail I n addition
t o t h is there are numerous other app l ications where the power
directional re l ay s ma y be used Rotary converters Operating
in parall e l with a stand by storage battery is another c as e in
which a high l y sensitive rel ay of the reverse current t y pe is
required Or where rotar y converters are operated in paral l e l
if the al ternating current supp l y fai l s on one machine it will
be motorized from the direct current bus E ven if the al ter

nating current supp l y is interrupted on l y for a short time

it is unsafe to run the converter inverted al though the power
consumed is ver y smal l since it ma y ru n at amaging speed
.

44

DC
.

P OWE R DI RE C TI O NAL RELA YS

45

al ternating

and in an y case were the

current supp l y to be
estab l ished after a ver y short interruption the converter wou l d
not be running in s ynchronism and might cause considerab l e
damage Therefore t h e power directional re l a y must be high l y
sensitive and trip the breaker immediatel y upon a sl ight reversal
of power in the direct current end
F igure 51 shows a D C power directiona l ( reverse current )
re l a y with the cover removed and F ig 52 is a diagrammatic
scheme of connections
I n F ig 52 A is the magnet frame and
an iron core about
which the moving coi l C is free to turn on j ewe l ed bearings
at the top and bottom of the coi l ver y simi l ar to the perma
nent
magnet movement vol tmeter or ammeter The el d
coi l D is wound with a l arge number of turns of ne wire con
n ect ed directl y across the circuit and magnetizes the p O
le
pieces N
and S
I t wi l l be noticed that the potential on coi l D does
not reverse , no matter which wa y the current is owing in the
circuit ; consequentl y the pol arit y Of the magnet is al wa y s
the same The movab l e coil is connected through spiral springs
the same as a movabl e coi l in a direct current ammeter or
vol tmeter to the shunt which is in series with the l oad
When the current ows in the proper direction the turning
e ffort or torque of the movabl e coi l tends to keep the contact
E rm l y against the stop F and is al so he l d in this position
b y the spiral springs But if the current reverses i t h e circuit
the current throug h the movabl e coil is reversed consequentl y
the torque therefore contact F moves over against G
his
cl oses a circuit to the shunt trip on the circuit breaker and open s
the circuit Or if desired it ma y cl ose a definite time l imit
rel a y which in turn cl oses the trip circuit The position
of the stop F and the contact G is variab l e so that the contacts
wi l l not cl o se until the l oad has reversed to a denite
predetermined amount This re l a y has a scal e marked in mil l i
vol ts as shown in Fig 51 and ma y be set to act as l ow as 2 per
cent reversal Of current or as high as 1 00 per cent
The cl osing torque Of this rel ay is proportional t o the l oad
o w ing to the restraining e ffort of the spiral s prings consequentl y
can be used as an excess current rel a y since its time is inversel y
proportional t o the excess current
hus if the disturbance is
,

T T LA

PR O E C I V E RE

46

FIG

FIG

52

51

rs

M l c il p c l W i

be

ova

ty

e re

ver se ur r en t
-

r e ay

est n

ghou se)

c m ic i g m m bl c il yp l y w
he

at

a ra

of

the

va

e-

e re a

ho

in F ig

51

DC
.

W T

P O ER

D ] REC

] O NAL

RELA YS

47

mi l d it may take as high as 8 sec to c l ose all owing amp l e time for
a transient disturbance to c l ear itsel f I f the disturbance is more
severe it may take onl y 1 2 or 4 sec depending on the viol ence of
the disturbance whil e on a dead short circuit the action in cl osing
the contacts is al most instantaneous
Figure 53 shows another t y pe of D C power directional
re l a y which is not however capabl e of suc h accurate pro
.

FIG

FIG

54 S

t ect i on

53 P o
.

l iz c l y W i
ar

re

ver se u r r en t
-

re a

es t n

g h ouse)

c m ic i g m c l y w
he

at

Of r e

a ra

ve r

A sc h ematic diagram

se

r r en t r e a

ho

i n F ig

53

this re l ay is given in F ig
54
A is a permanent bar magnet with pol es N and S
ivoted
on t h e end of the magnet is an iron armature B w h ic h has its

ends pol ari zed N and N b y magnetic induction The ir on

cores of coi l s C and D al so serve to compl ete the magneti c
circuit of the bar magnet
he coil s are wound to produc e
pol es N and S at the armature end with the current owi ng
.

of

48

TT d
] VD

PRO EC

RELA YS

in a normal irection Then th e N en of t h e l ower cOil repe l s

the arm ature N and t h e S end of the upper coil attrac t s the
armatur e Thi s keeps the contacts E and F open S houl d the
c urrent reverse t h e pol arit y of the e l e ctroma g nets is r e
versed an
the armature end of the l ower coi l wi ll b ecome

S pol arit y which wi ll attract the armature N whi l e the upper

wi l l b ecome N and w ill repe l the armature N ;therefore

the armature move s over an cl oses the contacts E an F on
.

FIG

55 G
.

pw

st r a

c ly

u n d r ever se u rr en t

re a

reversal of t h e current w h ic h in turn may c l ose t h e circuit

ni t e time l imit re l a y or the s h unt trip
t o a re l ay switch de
coil on the circuit bre aker
he rel ay ma y be adj uste to operate on a de nite reversal
b y changing the position of the stop G or b y vary in g the milli
The milli vol ts drop ma y
vol ts drop across the re l ay coil l eads
be Obtained b y connectin g across a l ength Of cop per busba r
All owi n g
amp per square i nch Of cross se ction 6 ft
A correspondin gl y
l ength of b usbar wi ll give 50 m v drop
heavier c urrent per square inc h will give t h e drop wit h a shorte r
s pan
C are must be taken that the re l ay l eads span on l y t h e
sol id copperthat is there is no j oint inc l uded as a sl igh t
resistance Of a j oint ma y equal several e et Of b usbar an the
,

T
T
df B f d d

50

PRO E C

] VE

R ELA YS

a somew h at i f e rent p rincipl e r om t h ose in F igs 55 56 an

T his is shown di agrammaticall y in F ig 59 The i ron
57
on on e si e an
magnetic circuit A h as a ga p
an iron y oke
on

FI

57
Rever se
.

c ly g
u

r r en

FIG

re a

58

ar r an

Re

f or

ve

bu s

( G :E ) fo r bu s bar

l y ic l
a

m ig
o

I f the current in t h e heavy b us b ar D

C acro ss its center
is owi ng in the dire ction of the arrow , it will magnetize the
y oke wit h a pol arit y as shown The win ing E is woun wit h
.

D C

P O ER

D] REC T ] ON AL

RELA YS

51

a l arge number Of turns Of ne wire and is connected across

the circuit so as to produce a pol arity in core C as indicated
It
is evi ent t h at the e ff ect Of the current in the busbar and that
.

FIG

59
S

FIG

c m ic i g m
he

6 0 C o n
.

at

ra

i pw
t

st r a

o f r e ve r se~ cur r e n t

u d
n

re

ly
a

c ly

v e r se u r r e
-

re

nt

re a

in coi l E is such as to cause a ow Of ux through the mag

netic circuit formed b y the magnet A and the y oke C of the
potential coil E as indicated by the dotted l ine M
ery l ittl e
,

P RO T E C T I

52

K E RELA YS

magnetism w il l ow through t h e part of t h e magnetic cir

cuit conta ining the air gap B S houl d the current reverse
in the busbar however the magnetism will al so reverse and
oppose that of coil E but the y wi ll both unite in forcing t h e
magnetism through t h e part of the circuit containing the air
gap B I n air gap B is an iron core F and when the magnetism
becomes great enough the core will be attracted upward thus
.

i
g
m
w
i
gp
l
i
y
w
i
c
m
l
i
c
i
p
c
l
c
l
i
cc
FIG
FIG

on t a

61
62

ts

FIG

61

ho
sh o

a ra

a ra

FIG

t
ar t

o ar

h u r r en t
on

in

n or

r r en t

re

62

ve r s a

d re

on

an d

os n

of

cl osing t h e contacts C wh ic h are s h own c l earl y in F ig 58 T his

t y pe of rel ay is given an inverse time characteristic b y equip
p ing it with a retardin g be ll ows B which may b e adj usted b y
the air val ve A on top of the rel ay
Another sl ightl y di fferent form of power irection al rel ay
is shown I n F ig 60 An iron pl unger is used and t w o coil s
The
ar e pl aced on opposite l egs Of the iron magnetic circuit
is shown diagram maticall y in F ig 6 1 The
arrangement

iron magne tic circuit A and A has a current coil B on on e l eg

an d a potential coi l C on the other l eg with a core D l ocate d

between A and A arranged to move verticall y With the curr ent

owi ng in normal dire ction t h e magnetism travel s u p on e l eg
,

dd

D C
.

D d
d

P OWE R
-

I RE C T]ON AL

RELA YS

53

own the ot h er as indicate by t h e arrows There is

n o magnetism or at l east a ver y weak e l d in the core D under
normal l oad S houl the cur rent reverse in B then bot h
an

FIG

63

Re

ly

d d d
FIG

64

Re

ar r an

ge d

for

h or

iz

on t al

l y g ic l
a

ar r a n

fo r

v er t

bu s

bu s

coil s ten t o force t h e ux t h roug h t h e core D Wh en this

reversal is sufcient to force enough magnetism throug h the
core it is l ift e up an cl oses the contacts E an F b y the
,

P RO TE C T I VI

54

RELA YS

contact disk G as in F i g 62 which in turn c l oses t h e circui t

to a breaker trip coi l
When the current is
amp or more the current coi l
is omitted and a rel ay l ike F ig 63 is used the cab l e or bus
passing through the insul ated hol e H the magnetic el d set up
about the cab l e being suf cient to operate the rel ay I f the
re l a y is to be used with a vertical busbar instead Of a horizontal
one the parts are sl ightl y rearranged as shown in F ig 64
but the principl e of operation is the same
There are other rel ay s uti l izing simi l ar principl es of operation
but before se l ecting an y rel a y for a particu l ar service
the characteristics of the rel a y shoul d be careful l y studied
as we ll as the character of the install ation to be protected
and a re l a y chosen which gives a maximum of favorab l e points
Appl ications of D C power directional re l a y s wi l l be fu ll y
discussed in the next chapter
.

,
.

PPT T

LI CA I O N S

PTP V T
ER

C HA
OF D C
.

O W E R D IRE C
-

I ONAL RE LAYS

here are numerous cases in which power directional re l ay s

ma y be appl ied not onl y to give comp l ete protection to D C
apparatus but al so t o preserve continuit y of service in case Of
fai l ure of l ines or machines Whi l e their general use has been
l imited b y the initial cost and the re l ativel y smal l sizes Of
D C transmission s y stems c ompared to A C s y stems y et
the y are becoming more and more to be recognized as an ih
dispensabl e factor i n the correct Operation of an y p l ant Another
reason wh y the y have not come into general use in the various
pl ants is because the users Of el ectric energy have grown into
the habit of considering an interruption as a part Of their ever y
da y work ; an unavoidabl e evi l Were the protective rel ay s
better understood it woul d at once be real ized that interrup
tions are n ot a n ecessar y evi l but a l arge percentage of the
interruptions on man y s y stems may be avoide b y the proper
use of protective re l a y s

S to r ag e batt er y
r o t ect io n
The primar y appl ication of
a D C power directional or reverse current r el ay i s to protect
a charging storage batter y from discharging shoul d the charg
ing source fai l I f the batter y is being charged b y a smal l
motor generator a fai l ure Of the motor ma y cause the battery
thus exhausting itsel f E ven if
t o motorize the generator
the batter y is being charged from a l ine circuit through a r e
si st an ce a fai l ure of the l ine wi ll cause the batter y t o discharge
into the l ine t h rough the resistor I f being charged b y a mechan
ical rectier a fai l ure of the al ternating current may cause
the batter y t o discharge through the rectier coi l s However
w ith a mercur y arc rectier or a vacuum tube rectier such as

the
Tungar
or the
Rect i g on the battery cannot dis
charge in case of A C fail ure
Figure 65 shows a diagram of connections g iving the dir ec
tion of current in battery generator and l oad F igure 66
-

'

55

TT

PR O EC

56

] VD

RELA YS

i g m cw cmi l i c ib yc l g
BA7 7 E RY

FIG

65
.

a ra

of
s

ho

FIG 6 7 D
.

on s

n or

of

re

at t e r

w w i ci c

E E RA TOR
BE ING M O TORED
FIG 66 Ar r o s sh o
G N

on n e

re

on

of

oa

urr e

o n of

row/w

nt

w u

rr e n t

an d

w
o

e n er at o r

re

of

en e r at o r

i g m c cgi c b y l l g p c i
a ra

of

on n e

fo r
n st

on s

at t e r

r r en t r e

oa

ver s a

an d

p f il g
on

Ar r o

e n er a t o r

fo r

r ote

on

TT

PR O EC

58

] VE

uti l izing

RELA YS

methods
the no l oad and the reverse current
re l eases have been fu l l y described under the chapter on Ci rcuit

Breakers and Re l eases

Ot her

PO

E R D I RE C TI O NAL RE LAY S
-

AN D S TAND BY
-

ATT E RI E S

When the batter y is l arge enough and is designed t o carry

part or carr y al l the l oad in the event of charging source fai l ure
as for instance in the case of a rotary converter charging the
l arge stand by batter y of an e l evator or mine hoist s y stem
it is evident that the battery must n ot be disconnected in case
Of current reversa l
-

FIG

69

C o n n e

c i w w ycm l i c i g b c y l m
t

o n s o f r o t ar

Ar r o

s s

ho

n or

ver t e r
a d e t

on

s t or a

on O f

D C

an d e e

at t e r

r r en t

v at or

ot o r

I n order t o determine the correct point Of appl ication for

the rel ay s l et us consider F ig 69 which shows a rotary con
verter feeding a stand by batter y and the e l evator motor l oad
,

FIG

70
.

Ar r o

w w i c i c wi ci c i l i
s s

ho d

re

o n of

r r en

h a sho

rt

ut

on

the

A O
.

n e.

s h oul d the A C power fai l due for instance to a short

in the A O l ine as shown in F i g 7 0 at X then the batter y will
attempt to feed the rotary ( D C end ) run it inverted generate
al t ernating current and feed through the short at X Or even
if the A C suppl y is on l y interrupted for a short time it wou l d
N ow

AP P L I

CA T]ON S OF

D C
.

P O ER

D ] REC TI ON AL

RELA YS

59

be unsafe to run the converter inverted al though the power

it consumes is very small ; o r it may run at damaging speed
I n an y case were the al ternating current t o come on suddenl y
it woul d not be ru n ning in s ynchronism and might cause
considerab l e damage
herefore the reverse cur rent re l ay
must be install ed between the rotary converter and the l oad
I t must be ver y sensitive and trip the brea k er immediate l y
upon a sl ight reversal of power in the D C end The rotary
must then be restarted and res ynchronized ( if not of the sel f
s ynchronizing t y pe ) and the vol tage readj usted before recon
n ect i on to the D C
s y stem
his case call s for the highest
grade Of re l a y as it must be set to trip the breakers instantl y
on a reversal of current of on l y 1 or 2 per cent Of normal l oad
current
I f the batter y is not l arge enough to carr y the ful l l oad then
a reverse current power directional re l a y may be instal l ed
in the batter y circuit to l imit the discharging l oad b y tripping
several Of the unimportant circuits I n this case however
much better operation is assured b y using the re l a y not to
trip the circuits directl y but to sound an a l arm thus warning
the operator to pul l feeders unti l the safe l oad of the batter y
is reached at which point the al arm wi l l cease

FIG

7l

Ar r o

F ail ur e

wP w i c i c i g f g

Of

s s

ho

ri

re

on

of

rr e n t

w t

h t h r ee

e n e r at o r s

ee

di

bu s

M over s
A simi l ar case is where the gen

may be run from water or steam turbines or other

t y pe of engine where the y ma y b e connected in parall e l feed
ing the same bus or charging a stand by battery C onsider
F i g 7 1 showing three generators each with its separate prime
mover tied into on e bus E ach generator shoul d be supp l y

er at or s

T dT

PR O E C

60

] VE

d
d d

E
L
r
A
s
e
J

ing i t s own s h are of t h e l oa

But suppose the p rime moving
source of generator N O 2 s h oul d fai l Being connecte to
a l ive bus the current woul d reverse it woul d run as a motor
and keep the prime mover running as a l oa instea of a mover
the currents being as shown in F ig 7 2
.

FIG

72

Ar r o

ho

d re

o n of

r r en t

w w i c i c p f il
T
s s

w u
o

on

r e of on e

gen er at or

S uppose t h e fai l ure shoul d not be due to the prime mover but
due to generator N O 2 l osing its el d ( accidenta ll y disconnected
from exciting circuit )
here woul d still be a weak residua l
e l d upon which the heavy reverse current might react run
the motor and prime mover at terric speed breaking the
y
whee l or doing other material damage S ti ll the current might
be l es s than full l oad c urrent
A reverse current rel ay inserted between the generator and
protecting breaker woul d prevent this On the l east reversa l
of current the re l a y s woul d quickl y c l ose its contacts tripping
the breaker which coul d n ot be cl osed unti l the conditions
were correct for normal O peration This scheme shoul d not
be depended on al one to disconnect a generator with l ost e l d
as ever y important machine shoul d be equipped with a cen t r if
uga l device w hich instant l y Opens the circuit in the event Of
excess speed

Heavy D C insta ll ations sometimes tie

ar all el F e ed er s
in a sub bus with several tie l ines some of which formerl y were
used as spare l ines to be used on l y in case of emergenc y
S ometimes important machines have their moto r s fed b y
severa l feeders B y properl y connecting in reverse power re l ay s
with overl oad an den i t e ti me l imi t re l ay s every feeder may
,

Ad

PPL I CA T] ON S OF

D C
.

P O ER

df

D] RE C T ] ON AL

R ELA YS

61

use wit h a great econom y in copper an a a ul t y feeder

disconnected immediate l y without interruption Of service al l ow
ing the other cab l es to carry the l oad at overl oad unti l the
damaged l ine can be repaired F igure 7 3 shows the main bus
tied into a sub bus b y two feeders and protected at the gen
be

J UB

FIG

73

N or

m l id c i d c p l lf
d

re

o n Of

r r en

t in

ar a

ee

d er s

crator end b y overl oa an den i t e time l imit re l ay s and

at the sub end b y reverse current re l ay s I f a heavy excess

current occurs on the sub bus re l a y s OD and OD wi ll trip the

breaker on each feeder at the generating end But a short
S uppose
on a bus inside the station is of a ver y rare occurrence
however , a S hort Occurre on the feeder at X F i g 74 This
-

74

Ar r o

FI

w d w i c i c wi d ci cdi f
s

ho

dr

on

of

r r en t

a s

ho

ut

on

on e

ee

d er

short will b e fe from b oth the generating en an t h e sub end

thereb y putting a heavy l oad or excess current on each feeder

Bot h re l a y s start to act at OD and OD but the current in

rel a y R has reversed so b efore either OD or OD can trip their

breakers R tri ps its breakers thus rel ieving the excess current
The excess current is n ot re l ieved from
on the rst feeder

rel ay s OD , h owever , so in a second or so the y trip their breaker

,
.

P RO TE C T I VE

62

2ELA YS

effectuall y cutting the bad feeder from ser vice at both ends and
sti ll all owing the rst feeder to feed the bus l oad without inter
ru ption
When there are a number of feeders in paral l el the y may
be equippe d with p l ain overl oad ( excess current ) re l a y s with
an inverse time l imit D ue to the current in the faul t y feeder
being greater than in the other feeders the inverse
time de l ay s
wi l l usuall y enabl e the rel a y s to discriminate and trip out the
faul t y feeders This condition is practical l y the same on D C
and A C and is discussed in detai l under the chapter on the

rotection of aral l el F eeders b y E xcess C urrent Re l a y s

Ring S y stem s S ometimes there is an apparatus

D C
which must be run without interruption except in case of actua l
damage to the apparatus itsel f and even then the interruption
must be conned to the small est possibl e area To this end
spare feeders or l ines are often run to each piece of apparatus
and in case of troubl e on one l ine the other is switched On
I f the apparatus is connected in a ring s y stem and power
directional and den i t e time l imit rel ay s suppl ied the faul t y
feeder or piece of apparatus ma y be automatical l y cut out
without interruption to the rest of the s ystem As shown
in F i g 7 5 the tie l ines between the motors are al l equipped with
rel a y s which trip onl y when the power ows aw ay from the
apparatus Then the rel a y s on the side awa y from the main bus
as at A B C D and E are set for a decre asing time el ement
as for instance A for 5 sec B for 4 sec C for 3 sec and so
forth The other rel a y s going around the other wa y F G
H I and J are als o set with decreasing time e l ement as F
for 5 sec G for 4 sec and so on The feeders are protected
at the bus b y overl oad and den i t e time rel a y s having a time
el ement sl ightl y l onger than the l ongest reverse current re l a y
Now remembering that a re l a y wi ll onl y trip w h en the current
ows aw ay from the sub buses and never when it ows
into them consider the e ffect of a short circuit at X F i g 76
An excess current wi ll ow in the direction shown and re l a y s
A B C and D will start Operating ;al so F and the main re l a y s

K and K But D has the l owest setting of an y of the ones that

start operating S o at the end of 2 sec rel a y D trips its breaker
thus rel ieving the e x cess current on A B C and K which imme
.

TS

APPL I CA I O N

FIG

7 5
.

OF D C
.

W T

P O ER D I REC I O NAL RELA YS

l m y wi i g ypplmy f i g m i p

Ee

e n t ar

two

re r n

FIG

76

63

Ar

ro

for

st e

ee

dn

o t or s an

n n t er r

ho

re

t on

of

w w i c i c i wi c i c i b w
s s

te

r r en t

s t at o n s

w
o

a s

h or t

ut

et

een

T
T
T
P RO

64

d iat el y

EC I V E g tE L A YS

rese t
he excess curren t is sti ll actuating re l ay s F and
K but as F is quicker than K F trips its breaker before K thus
re l ieving the excess current and K resets
Thus it will be seen that the faul t y l ine is disconnect ed at
both ends and every motor is sti ll running without interruption
A disturbance at an y point of the whol e s y stem wi ll thus c l ear
itse l f E ven if the motor were defective the l ines suppl yin g
it woul d be automatical l y opened on each end and woul d cut
out onl y the defective unit and al l ow the others t o run without
interruption
To expand th is s y stem Of protection l arge industrial pl ants
ma y be substituted for the motors and be fed in a ring
without inte rruption except to the pl ant or the l ine in which
the disturbance occurs
Or as a further expansion a number of substations ma y be
connected in a ring and give uninterrupted service
Of course this is se l dom done on a commercial scal e on
direct current work due to the expense un l ess the importance
of the service warrants it but the same s y stem is wide l y used
in high tension al ternating current transmission and a careful
stud y Of the ring s y stem as appl ied in its el em en t ar v form
to D C work wi l l greatl y assist in understanding the action
of the ring s y stem in A C work where three phases phase
re l ations and distortions as we l l as inductance and capacit y
e ffects must be considered and are very confusing unl ess the
e l ementary princip l e be c l earl y understood

n der c urr e n t
r ot e cti o n
I f desired under special con
dit i on s most reverse current re l a y s ma y be adj usted to O pen
the breaker when t h e l oad mere l y drops instead of a ful l reverse
b y making the contacts norma ll y c l osed and using the current
in normal direction to hol d them O pe n
he breaker wi ll
trip on either a fal l in l oad or on reverse
vol tag e r o t ecti o n By suitabl y changing t h e winding
O ver
on a moving coi l t y pe reverse current re l a y and connecting
in series with a resistor directl y across the l ine it can be made
to give protection against over vol tage F igure 7 7 gives the
diagram of connections As the vol tage rises it forces more
and more current through the moving coi l unti l a prede
.

PT
U TP U T
E R VI I

C HA

IN D

CT I ON

RRE N RE LAYS

Y E C

When the great possibi li ties of adequate protection were

seen and when it was real ized that t o Obtain this protection
a more accurate re l a y than the pl unger t y pe was required
the induction t y pe watt h our meter was l ooked to as a sol ution
of the probl em The vol tage winding Of the watt hour meter
was disp l aced b y a current winding and contacts were arranged
t o c l ose when the current reached a certain val ue
The torque
or turning e ffort of the disk was opposed b y a spiral spring
The magnetic and e l ectric circuits of a re l a y of the induction
t y pe are shown in F ig 7 8 A is the main winding an under
this is another winding simi l ar to the secondary of a trans
former wh ich supp li es the pol epi ece windings B and D The
path of the magnetic ux is indicated b y the dotted l ines
F igure 7 9 shows a standard induction t y pe rel ay and F ig
The
80 a schematic diagram of parts as viewed from the top
disk A is damped b y the permanent magnets D in a manner

l
simi ar to a watt hour meter except that both windings on the
e l ectromagnet C Operate from the current of the l ine al one
as in an ammeter I nstead Of the disk revol ving continuousl y
when current is appl ied the rotation is opposed b y the spira l
spring I fastened with its outer end t o the permanent support
E an d its inner end to t h e s h a t B w hic h al so carries t h e moving
contact F
When suf cient current ows through the el ectromagnet C
to deve l op in the disk the necessary torque it rotates unti l
the contact F touches contact G t h ereb y compl eting the trip
circuit
The foregoing describes the in uction t y pe rel a y without
its present renements I t had great accurac y but on e great

drawback was that the moving contact oated

That is
the l oad might be suf cient to turn the disk hal f wa y around
and the l oad was
so i t h e re l a y was set to oper ate on 5 amp
,

,
.

66

T T

I ND U C I O N

FIG

RELA YS

67

g ic l ci ic c ci c iyp l y i g i im limi

7 8 M a
.

YPE C URREN

n et

e e

tr
n

FIG

79

du

on

ut
t

of

est n

e re a

h ou s e

v er

W i g i c i yp l l y
es t n

h ou se

du

on

s e-

e o

ve r

oa

re a

e-

TT

P R O EC I VE

68

RELA YS

amp for some time and then s udden l y increase

the
c l osing of the contacts woul d be al most instantaneous because

amp caused the contacts to oat near to the tripping

point T o overcome this several hol es were cut in the disk
beneath the pol es of the e l ectromagnets These hol es decre as ed
the torque considerab l y but once the c u rrent became h igh
enough to move the disk sl ightl y the hol es were moved out
from under the pol es and the l atter then acting on the sol id
metal caused t h e isk t o revol ve unti l the contacts were c l osed
.

FIG

8 0 S
.

ho

wi gp i i c c i mw g
os

on

Of

on t a

t s,

( t op

ve

n et s ,

et c

in

W ig ly
es t n

h ou se

re a

his insured an inverse time l imit on all overl oads as the disk
was al way s at its starting point unti l an overl oad occurred
As al l circuits cou l d not be set to trip on the same overl oad
taps were brought out on the current coi l which enab l ed the
operating current to be varied over a wide range a common
range being 4 5 6 7 and 8 amp al though l ater practice has
often shown 4 to 1 2 or 4 to 1 6 amp preferabl e
I n the induction t y pe re l ay F i g 7 9 the taps are changed
b y inserting a screw in a marked p l ate to make contact with
the desired tap The metal piece on the front of re l ay F i g
8 1 has a number of tapped hol es to receive the screw which
ma y be put in an y hol e and make contact with the taps The
main coi l is wound on the e l ectromagnet and has the taps
broug h t ou t at t h e correct turn s t o give the esired Operation
,

,
,

T T

I ND UC I O N

YPE C URREN

T S
RELA Y

69

The b l oc k is Of insu l ating material and is arranged so the taps

cannot pu l l out
As has been pointe ou t previousl y it is sometimes desirabl e
to have an inverse time l imit on moderate overl oa ds and a
This
de n i t e time l imit in the case of severe short circuits
.

FIG

81

C ur r en t

t ap

pl W i g i c i l l y
at e of

est n

h ou se

du

on o

ve

re a

r oa

combination of inverse time on moderate overl oad gra ual l y

decreasing to a denite time on heav y overl oads or short circuits
is met in the i nduction t ype re l a y b y the use of a small trans

former call ed a torque compensator

his torque compensator is intro

or qu e C om pen sa t or s
The
du ced into the secondar y circuit as shown in F i g 82
main winding A carries the main current as in F i g 78 and
b y its transformer action induces a current in the primary
B of the smal l transformer On the opposite side of the core

E
E
l
i
e
s
e
c
l
o
e
is
the
secondar
y
which
supp
ies
the
and
D
C
p
p

TT

PR O EC I V E [R
ELA YS

70

with th e n ece ssary current to react on the main ux or magnet

ism from the pol e F produced b y coi l A At n oder at e l oads
the current in D wi l l increase in proportion to B but the iron
in C is of a cross section such that after the current in coil
B passes a certain val ue the core becomes saturated
conse
quentl y the current in D cannot increase no matter what the
overl oad ma y be S ince the current in the coil cannot increase
above a denite val ue the torque on heavy overl oads becomes
constant thus resul ting in a den i t e time del a y
,

FIG

82

g ic l c icm cil c i l y
n et

e e

tr

ut

m t

of

re a

os t i n g h ou se

d en i t e m i n i m u m

I t is essential in t h e protection of radial and ring sy stems

that the time Of the re l a y be variab l e To accomp l ish this
the angl e through which the contact must trave l is varied
hus if the contact must trave l one hal f revol ution it may
take 2 sec but if a stop H F ig 80 is arranged so that the
contact need make on l y one fourth revo l ution the time may
be hal ved Other po sitions easi l y set b y a sma l l l ever enab l e
an y time from instantaneous to a ma x imum to be readi l y set
A t y pical curve for an overl oad induction re l a y is g iven
in F ig 2 1 reference to which wi ll show that 1 50 per cent l oad
takes about 1 0 sec for the re l a y t o cl ose its contact ;200 per
cent l oad requires about 5 sec ;500 per cent
sec ;
f
l
r
cent
an
an
y
over
oad
in
excess
this take a denite
o
e
p
These val ues are taken at the highest
t i me of about 2 sec
,

T T

I ND UC I O N

YPE C URREN T RELA Y

71

time setting ;if t h e setting is hal ved the time is hal ved I n
other words the time is al most proportional to the l ever settings

Rel ay Con tact s Owin g to the accurac y required in a pr o

t e ct i ve re l a y the parts must be sma ll and de l icate l y constructed
C onsequent l y the contacts of the trip circuit cannot be l arge and
bu l ky and are not designed t o open the trip circuit either i n
t en t i on all y or unintentiona l l y once it has been estab l ished
This is one point that requires carefu l consideration in the design
as the tripping circuits are as a rul e
or se l ection of a re l a y
highl y inductive and an ar e which wou l d natura ll y fo l l ow the
O pening of the circuit might persist for a considerab l e l ength of
time and resul t in serious burning of contacts F or this reason
it is necessar y that the tripping circuits be opened b y an au x i l iar y
pal l et switch or contacts fastened to the circuit breaker in such a
manner that the opening of the breaker automatica l l y opens the
tripping circuit

There are two reasons wh y the contactor

C ontactor S witch e s
switch is required I n the rst case take for instance a circuit
breaker which requires
O f a second to O pen after the re l a y
contacts have c l osed and the trip coi l of the breaker has been
energized S uppose that the overl oad on the l ine shou l d dis
appear i n the smal l interval between the instant of contact c l osing
and the opening of the breaker The re l a y wou l d instantl y
attempt to reset and in doing so woul d open the circuit before
the auxi l iar y pall et switch opened it thus r esu l tiI I g in severe
contact burning The contactor switch overcomes this
I n the second case the over l oad might j ust be great enough
to bare l y c l ose the contacts This weak c l osing might not a ll ow
sufcient current to pass through to operate the trip coi l of the

breaker and the contacts wou l d chatter and burn ba l y

o overcome this the contactor switch ma y be e m p l o y ed to
change a weak uttering contact into a good positive contact
which wi ll keep the trip circuit c l osed in the re l ay unti l it is
opened external l y b y the pa l l et switch on the breaker
A diagrammatic scheme Of the ol d st yl e contactor switch is
shown in F i g 83 whi l e a diagram of the modern contactor switch
is shown in F ig 84 I n both these gures the main re l a y con
tacts A when the y cl os ethe tripping circuit of the re l a y energize
a smal l coi l
that attracts an iron armature or p l unger C and
,

B
.

TT

PR O EC

72

]V

RELA
YS
E

c l o ses the contacts D w hi ch are in parall e l with t h e main con

tacts A Thus it wi ll be seen readi l y that even though the
contacts A shou l d open the current wi ll pass through B and con
,

FIG

83

c m i c i g m b l c c wi c
he

at

a ra

of O

so e t e

on t a

tor

tacts D wi ll sta y c l osed unti l the pa ll et switch on the b reaker

opens the circuit ;when this occurs coi l B wi l l l ose its pul l and
open contacts D This contactor s w itch wi l l c l ose about 20
amp at 220 vo l ts
.

FIG

4
8
S
.

c m ic i g m m c c c
he

at

a ra

of

d er n

on ta

t or

s wi

I n Fig 85 is s h own a view of the assemb l e contactor switch

and al so an exp l oded view showing the p l unger and contacts
This contactor switch is usuall y mounted in the bottom of the
re l a y as sh own in F i g 8 6
I f the trip circuit requires more than the current which can be
safe l y hand l e b y the contactor switch then an auxi l iar y re l a y
.

TT

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

74

such as s h own in F igs 19 5 and 1 96 may be used The auxi l iary

re l a y shown in Fig 1 9 7 not on l y hand l es greater c u rrent but
ma y a l so be arranged t o trip several circuits upon the function
ing of O n e rel a y

Contin uity In d i cator

On e di fcul t y frequent l y encountered
is the burni ng out Of trip current carr ying springs due t o excessive
tri p c urrents or contact arcing To overcome this specia l con
tacts ma y be arranged as in F i g 87 to prevent the spring from
carr ying an y current C ontact A is stationar y w h i l e B is
.

'

FI G

p ci l g m i c i c c w i w i c i i y
d

87
S
.

ar r an

en t

of

on t a

mounte

ts

at o r

hen

r eq

re

on t n

ut

a t hi n exibl e strip C Then when the disk turns

the arm D strikes the contact B forcing it against A and com
pl et i n g the trip circuit
Some companies connect a smal l vo l tmeter or a pi l ot l amp
across the contacts as in F ig 8 7 in order to te ll b y its continuous
in dication that the trip circuit is ali ve up to the contacts Shou l d
the meter fai l to indicate or the pi l ot l amp go ou t the operato r
knows immediate l y that the trip circuit has fai l ed I n other
cas es a smal l te l egraph re l a y is connected t o ring a be ll when the
circuit fails

Another l ater form of continuit y indicator or

supervisor y

cir c u it is formed in t hi s re l a y b y adding a second spiral spring

and using the standard re l a y with its c urrent carr ying spring and
moving contacts The vol tmeter or pi l ot l amp is connected to
on

T T

I ND UC I O N

AS

YP E C URREN T REL Y

75
.

feed through both springs so if the main spring burns out then
the continuit y indicator indicates b y the pi l ot l amp going out

A front view of this

Th e G ene r al E l e ctr i c I n d uction Re l ay
re l a y is shown in F ig 88 where the external simi l arit y to the
house t y pe watt hour meter is readil y apparent F rom the
schematic diagram of the front mechanism as shown in F ig 89
it wi ll be seen that there is a disk A which is driven b y a U shaped
,

FIG

88

l l c i c i l y c i yp l x c c

T h e G en er a

tr

Co

du

re a

on

e o

v er

oa

(e

ess

r r en

t)

e l ectromagnet ( not shown ) and which is damped b y the per

manent ma gnets C
pon the occurrence of an overl oad the
e l ectromagnet causes the disk to turn against the restraining
action of the spring U I t w i l l be noted that t h e edge of the disk
is sl otted with sl ots of decreasing depth so that as the disk r e
vo l ves more and more metal is p l aced under the action of the
driving magnet thus resul ting in an increased torque whic h
O ffsets the increasing restraining action of the spring and prevents
the disk from oati n g
.

TT

76

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

C on t

F IG

89

M ech

a ct

a n is

c m ic i g m i c i yp l l y
he

at

ra

of

du

on

e o

ve

r oa

re a

T T

I ND U C I O N

YPE C URREN

T dS
RELA Y

77

The pin ion S causes t h e gear to revo l ve an as soon as the

disk revo l ves far enough a pin on gear T pushes t h e contacts
D together thus comp l eting the tripping circuit
I n order to prevent the contacts from uttering or o p ening
the trip circuit and causing the contacts to burn the e l ectro
magnet G is connected i n series with the trip circuit and arranged
s o that the rst utte r Of current which passes through the tri p
coi l energi zes the e l ectromagnet which quickl y attracts the
iron armature on contacts D and ho l ds them positive l y shut unti l
the trip circuit is o p ene by t h e auxi l iar y p al l e t switc h on the
cir cuit breaker

I t h as p rev ious l y b een s h own w h y a

im e L o ad Cur ve s
denite or inverse den it e time de l a y was preferab l e to a true
inverse time del a y where the curves ma y i ntersect at extreme l y
,

FIG

90 I
.

de

xpl

a t e of

i ci l ly
n

du

on o

ver

oa

re a

heav y
I n thi s re l a y t hi s inverse
a h in g den it e
minimum de l ay is obtained b y using a small saturation trans
former connected so that its primary carries the l ine current and
At high currents
i t s secondar y e eds the driving e l ectromagnet
this transformer l imits the current supp l ied to t h e driving e l ectro
m agnet and resu l ts in curves as shown in F i g 22
I t wi ll be
noted that al though the time is sl ight l y inverse throughout the
entire l ength of the curve y et the curves never intersect and are
cl earl y distinguishab l e even at
per cent of normal l oad
his overl oad is sel dom met in actual practic e exce p t on ver y
exceptional l y heavy short circuits
ractice has shown on this rel a y t h at a tabl e of gures is
preferabl e and more eas y to interpret than a set of curves C on
sequentl y the rel ay is provided with a tabul ated namepl ate
overl oads

ap pr

TP

T L

P R O T EC I VE RE A YS

78

90 w h ic h

as in F ig
is
expl an at or y from a careful stud y I f
desirabl e a transcript pl ate may be made in which the actual
transformer secondary operating currents are tabul ated instead of
.

sel f

FIG

9l

er at o r s

t r an s

c ip i xpl
r

Of

at e

using mul tipl iers S uc h a transcript is shown in F i g 9 1 and is

Often Of great convenience when changes in settings must be
q uickl y made
.

Cur r e nt Tap
Pl uq nn l O Amp

Ho l e

FIG

92

L o

c i c pl
at o n o f

th e

T im e

r r en t

t ap

at e

in th e G

i c id l l y
n

du

on o

ve

r oa

d re a

S etti n g s T h e time is readil y control l e b y a small

F or
l ever E ( F ig 89) which moves over a divided scal e N
instance if the rel ay takes 2 seconds at a certain l oad with N o 1 0
.

T T

I ND UC I O N

PT

YP E C URREN

RELA YS

79

setting then at the same l oad it wi ll take 1 second at No 5

setting or
seconds at N o 2 setting etc

C ur r e nt T ap l ate
A c l ose u p view Of the current t ap pl ate is
shown in Fig 92
his pl ate contains taps from the primary
coil of the saturation transformer and is arranged to keep the
ampere turns constant I n changing taps an extra pl ug is
screwed into the desired hol e and then the rst on e removed
wo pl ugs must never be l eft in at one time as this woul d short
circuit part of the transformer primar y ;nor must both pl ugs be
withdrawn at once as this woul d open circuit the series l ine
transformer and might resul t in a dangerousl y high potential
at the re l ay terminal s
he numeral s 4 5 6 8 and 1 0 represent
the min imum val ues of current in amperes that each tap requires
to cause the rel a y to c l ose its contacts

Ad ju stm e nt Of r i ppin g C ur r en t
Al t h oiig h ever y re l a y as it
l eaves the manufacturer is carefu ll y adj usted to trip on its rated
current y et due to variation in wave form or frequenc y or
shocks in transportation it wil l sometimes be found that the rel a y
requires sl ight adj ustment F or this purpose a ux shunting
screw is convenientl y l ocated on the l ower l eft hand side
L oosening the l ock nut and turning the screw to the right i n
creases the current required and turning to the l eft decreases it
After adj ustment the screw shou l d again be l ocked b y the nut

Rel atio n of ar io u s ar t s When the rel a y has been repaired

or reassembl ed it is necessar y t o see that the rst short sl ot in the
edge of the disk stands j ust under the front edge of t he opening

in the l eft hand frame This is to insure against oating of

the disk at l ow overl oads
he time l ever must be set on zero and then the contacts
adj usted so the y are bare l y c l osed When free these contacts
shoul d be separated from each other b y about
inch
I n these rel ay s wil l be found a bl ack spot painted on the edge
of the disk ( as in F i g 9 3 ) and this spot shou l d come exact l y in
the center l ine Of the bracket which supports the permanent
magnets
With the time l ever set on zero of its scal e the contact mec h an
ism is brought into position for assemb l y with the rel a y frame
and the hol ding screws partiall y set up l eaving the gear and
pinion disengaged
he disk is then rotated careful l y in a
,

V P

P ROTE C T I VE RELA Y

80

counterc l ockwise direction ( l ooki n g dow n ) from its free position

through approximate l y
of a revol ution until the spot painted
on the ed g e Of the disk is midwa y between the pol e tips of the
permanent magnet The gear and pinion are then engaged and
the mecha ni sm secured b y tightening the hol ding screws C are
must be taken that the gears are not meshed too deepl y There
shoul d be a l ittl e pl a y in them when the disk is hel d xed and the
gear wheel shaken back and forth
.

Cont act s

li
l

Ti me Le ve r

S ot s i n
D sk

wi ig p c c l i cwi c l c l y l bl c
BackS pot

on Ce nt e r
Mag net t

S uppo r t s

FIG

93
S ho
.

the

d sk s

or r e

ot

be t

r e at i o n

in t h e G

du

ee n

on o

on t a

ve r

ts

oa

t im e

re a

ve

an d

T h e correct l ocation of the driving magnets is al so important

Both the upper and l ower pol e pieces have a secondary conductor
or shading ring and the angu l ar position of the po l e pieces with
respect to the radius of the disk at their center determines in
a l arge degree the torque exerted b y the disk when a given current
is appl ied t o the rel a y windings
The upper pol e piece is secured to a pin in the U sh aped
driving magnet in such a manner that it can rotate sl ightl y as the
.

TT

PR O E C I V E RELA YS

82

When rep l a cing the time index p l ate be sure that it is

adj usted so that its ba ck does not touch the edge Of the disk
.

I N D UC T I O N VS

S OL E N O I D P LUN G E R RE L AYS
-

There are a number of disadvantages in the sol enoid p l unger

re l ay s whi ch are not present in the induction t y pe I n the

air bel l ows l agged t y pe the time is ver y inaccurate and u n r el i

abl e u e to the dryi ng out of the eat er
Another dif cul t y is that the con tinuous vibration t o which
the y are subj ected graduall y l oosens the nuts screws etc
un l ess the rel a y is unu suall y well bui l t The noise is al so Objec
t i on abl e
The force on the p l unger increases as the square of
the current w ith th e resul t that the forces reach such enormous
val ues during a heav y overl oad that the l eather may be stretched
or even burst I t is no uncommon thing for re l a y s of this
t y pe to be so bad l y damaged that the y wi l l fai l t o operate
the next time another short circuit occurs
The den i t e time l imit rel a ys are not subj ect to suc h defects
n
in the be l l ows due to overl oad but
i g nh emn t j m
in time makes them unrel iab l e for sel ective action c l oser than
about one second Another disadvantage of bell ows t yi
rel a y s i s that once the core is l ifted then in order to reset the
current must drop to 40 or 50 per cent Of the minimum tripping
val ue
The oil dam pe d re l a y s are not at al l permanentl y accurate
and change in time greatl y due to changes in the vi scosit y of
the oil upon changes in temperature
An Obj ection to the use of al l sol enoid p l unger rel a y s is that
the expense Of adj usting them for accurate work is often greater
l
l
h
l
the
cost
O
the
re
a
y
s
themse
ves
I
t
is
possib
e that an
a
n
f
t
g
automatic sectional izing scheme coul d be l aid out so that time
l im its var ying b y steps of 1 to 2 sec cou l d be used in which case
the be ll ows t y pe of rel a y might be sufcient l y accurate but such
accurac y coul d not be Obtained except at considerab l e expense
I n order to adj ust rel a y s of this t y pe it is generall y necessary
to disconnect them from the circuit and connect them to a test
circuit which in man y cases is not eas y to obtain I n addition
a chronograph ammeter and control device are necessary
N eed l ess to sa y , such a cal ibration must be made b y a ski l l ed
-

u.

T T

I ND UC I O N

YP E C URREN

RELA YS

83

tester I f a change in the time l imit is l ater req uired it is

necessary to repeat the entire process
The best feature of the induction t y pe of overl oad rel ay is
its remarkabl e accurac y and permanence Of cal ibration The use
of permanent magnets as a time l imit device prevents overswing
ing and chattering of the contacts and the con st r u ct l on i s such
that the re l ay wi l l instantl y cease its movement when the over
l oad disappears
There is no possibi l it y of mechanical inj ury
due to excessive currents wh en the torque compensator is used
because the saturation of the iron prevents the mechanical
forces from increasing be y ond a certain amount
he current and time adj ustment Of the induction re l ays
are p l ain l y and accurate l y marked and an y desired change

can be made at a moment s notice This is a feature much

appreciated b y the operating man who is responsibl e for the
successful operation Of the automatic sectional izin g devices
on his s y stem
He can personal l y check the setting of every
rel ay and thus be sure that no incorrect Operation wil l resul t
due to the carel essness or incompetence of an assistant

Loa d on I nstr ument

ransforme r When se l ecting a rel ay
for use on current transformers which al so operate instruments
it is important t o consider the l oad which the re l ay pl aces on
the transformer The induction t ype of re l a y requires a smal l er
amount of energy than does an y other t y pe a feature to be
appreciated when bushing t y pe current transformers are used

Re l ay S peci cat i on s I n order that u n r el i abl m n d u n sat

i sfact or y overl oad and under l oad re l a y s ma y not be used in
instal l ations it is a l wa y s wel l to add the fol l owing speci ca
tions I f a re l a y meets these fundamental requirements and
is well constructed it shou l d be satisfactor y but these S peci
cat i on s wi l l bar the undesirab l e re l ay s
Over l oad protective re l a y s sha l l be equipped with a time
l imit that varie s inverse l y with the current at all moderate
overl oads and which wi l l not drop be l ow a denite minimum
time at extreme overl oads
he denite minimum time limit
shal l be adj ustabl e for all val ues between 0 and 2 sec ( or 0
and 4
which adj ustment shal l be accurate and permanent
he re l ay s shall be cal ibrated at the factory and the cal ibrating
data shall be xed t o the front of the re l ay I t shal l be possibl e
.

TT

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

84

to make wit h ou t t h e use of an x t es t i n g eq u ipm er

devices independent adj ustment of both the tir
the overl oad va l ue at which the rel ay wi ll Operate
be so constructed that the y wi l l not be damaged or t
tion a ff ected b y the maximum current that the gene
ment can de l iver to them Their construction s
that in case an overl oad ce as es before the rel a y c
been c l osed the rel a y wi l l instant l y commence to
starting position The energ y that the current
must furnish to operate a re l ay shal l not be in

vo l t amp
,

PT
P T

E RV I I I

C HA

AO
.

OWE R DIRE C
-

I O NAL RE LAYS

I n t h e transmission of e l ectric energ y t h ere is perhaps

no more important piece Of apparatus than the power directional
rel ay which is used to discriminate or l ocal ize and isol ate a defe o
tive feeder or substation and thereb y secure a maximum Of
continuous service These re l ay s are frequentl y call ed reverse

current re l a y s overl oad and reverse current rel ays reverse

power re l ay s and reverse overl oad re l ay s

Al though quite
good protection has been Obtained b y the use of spl it c onductor
and pi l ot wire s y stems for the protection of parall e l feeders
( as wi l l b e escribe l ater) y et such s y stems are ver y expensive
,

d d

FIG

9 5 S h o
.

wi g w y c
n

th e

r r en

w p l lf
h

ve ses
sh o t ed
t

re
r

on e

en

"

ar a

ee

d er

is

to install an d maintain Their greatest excuse at the time

of instal l ation was the l ack of a re l iab l e power directional
rel a y as it must be admitted that the earl y re l a y s were quite
l acking in some points and since the perfection of the present
da y power di re ctional re l ay s the pi l ot wire and sp l it conductor
s y stems are used on l y on certain s ystems where careful design
and cal cul ation indicates a distinct advantage
The deve l opment of a sat isfactor y power directional rel a y
however was b y n o means a simpl e proposition I n order to
better i ll ustrate thi s it ma y be we ll to consider some of the
earl y forms and show wh y the y fai l ed
.

85

TT

PR O E C I VE RELA YS

86

A review

the mos t common u se of t h e power directiona l

r e l a y is shown in F i g
9 5 where A is a generator feeding the bus
B whi ch suppl ies the sub bus C over the parall e l tie l ines D
and E
S uppose a short circuit occurs at X on feeder D Cu r

rent wi ll feed into the short X direct l y from the bus and
al so over the l ine E through C and into X But it wi l l be
noted that whi l e the power ow in feeder E and in feeder
D as far as X is in the normal direction y et the power ow in the
se ction of the feeder D between X and C h as revers ed Or
in other words the current ( instantaneous val ues ) has r e
versed i ts pol arit y with respect to the vol tage ( instantaneous
val ues ) This reversing of respective instantaneous pol arities
of current an
vol tage is responsi bl e for the term reverse

current
I t might a pp ear at rst thought an eas y matter to p l ace
c ontacts on a wattmeter which woul d ho l d open on norm al
direction and c l ose on reversal of power But shoul d the

sho r t be near the substation the vo l tage wi l l be ver y l ow

al though the current ma y be high an d the power actuating
the wattmet er wi ll be extremel y l ow in this case I n fact
in some tests made where the l ine was actuall y shorted i n t en
t i on all y it was shown that the vol tage ma y drop as l ow as
1 per cent of normal
F urther we are usuall y eal ing in actual practice wit h three
phase current and phase distortions must be considered par
t i cul ar l y in the case of short circui ts from one l ine to ground or
These short circuits ma y so distort the rel a
on on e phase on l y
tion of current t o vol tage as to cause the angl e between them to
be al most 90 deg and consequentl y there is the worst condition
for l ow torque in the wattmeter e l ement i 6 very l ow power
factor and ver y l ow vol tage

l
S till on e of the rst re a y s used for reverse power trip
ping had a wattmeter e l ement which cl osed contacts on reversal
I n this form the movement was the same as the
of po wer
induction wattmeter There was a movabl e arm and contacts
and two stationary contacts on e on each side of the movabl e
contact with separate adj ustments provided to all ow different
setti n gs for tripping points in normal and reverse directions
he movement was control l ed b y a strong spring t o al l ow set
of

AC
.

W T

P O ER D I REC I O NAL RELA YS

87

ting t o two or three times ful l l oad N O att empt w as made to

introduce time l ag or damping the rel a ys acting instantaneousl y
These re l a y s were found t o be entire l y inadequate on account
Of in sufcient torque when short circuits caused the vol tage
and power factor to drop to l ow val ues The y prov ed con

wattmeter rel a y was n ot s atisfactory

cl u sivel y that a pure
Another earl y rel a y used a moving coil d ynamome t er t y pe
movement with an ironcl ad magnetic circuit to increas e the
torque On e particul ar reason wh y this fai l ed was because
the ver y powerful current in the current coil generated a vol tage
in the vol tage coi l of the rel a y during a short circuit and co u se
quent l y the rel a y woul d not trip when it shoul d
nder other
conditions the induce d v ol tage c au se it to trip when it shoul d
not
Another disadvantage of the instantaneous reverse power
rel a y s was that sudden momentar y surges such as might be due
t o s y nchronizing or switching woul d trip out the breaker
unnecessari l y
here were man y attempts made t o a
c orrective features
t o the earl y wattmeter re l a y s
On e of the most interesting
was an arrangement consisting of a contact d ev1ce l n com
bination with a quick
acting regul ator to maintain the current
practical l y constant in the potential coil regard l ess of l ow
vol tage Adj ustments were provided to var y the time el ement
of the re l a y
The next step in devel opment was t h e
t y pe

in which a vo l tage coil was added to pol arize an ordinar y

current operated rel a y in order to cause the rel a y to Operate
at a l ower va l ue of current in the reverse than in the norm a l
direction
S uch re l a y s were made in both the sol enoid be ll ows
t y pe and the induction t ype
I n the sol enoid t y pe a vo l tage
winding was superi mposed upon the current sol enoid : vol tage
and current acting in opposition on normal ow an d acting
additivel y if the power ow reversed
Another form of this di ff erential c l ass of rel a y was made
on the induction t y pe wattmeter princip l e b y winding the
rel a y for excess current and adding a vol tage win ing co n nected
to a vol tage transformer
he coi l s were wound on the iron l aminations in such rel ation
.

dd
,

TT

P R O EC I VE RELA YS

88

as to cause the torque in the mo m b l e dis k t o b e proportional

t o the square of the current ;a terminal b l ock w as used to vary
the current settings b y changing the number of turns in the
main co il When vol tage was app l ied to the terminal s of the
main coil the e ff ect was to s hi ft the torque curve in the reverse
direction I t wi ll be understood that the great advantage
of this t y p e of re l a y over the earl ier wattmeter t ypes w as that
even shou l d the vol tage or the power factor or both fall t o

zero the rel a y woul d become a pl ain excess current rel a y

and thus trip ou t the circuit breaker Whereas the wattmeter
rel a ys woul d be inactive under these conditions resul ting in
no automatic protection and these rel a y s woul d trip Their
difcul t y was of course that under such conditions the y coul d
n ot
discriminate between directions of power ow and thus
woul d trip ou t both circuit breakers at the substation ends
Bu t the y were better than rel a y s which under
of para ll e l l ines
conditions of l ow vol tage or power factor woul d not trip out
at all and the y were thus used satisfactori l y for a n u m ber of y e ars
These rel a y s were al so made for pol y phase work with two
movements operating one shaft and contact but as the tripping
val ues woul d be diff erent according t o whether the overl oad
was on on e phase or on more the y were abandoned in favor
of the use of separate singl e phase e l ements for po l y phase service

As regards their p l ace in the el d these overl oad and revers e

re l a ys can onl y be regarded as a modication of overl oad

( excess current) rel a y s which with given conditions of super
imposed vol tages as regards val ue an d irection wi l l tri p at
di fferent val ues of current

The y become practicall y current re l a y s when the vol t age

drops very l ow
.

d
D
d

RE Q
UI RE

E NT S

OF A P RACT I CAL P O WE R

I R C TI O N AL

RE L AY

F rom the foregoing it is evi ent that a practical power

directional rel a y shoul d ful l l the foll owing conditions :
1 I t shoul d c l ose its contacts positivel y when the direction
of power ow is reversed under all possi bl e conditions of
vol tage power factor and current
2 I t shou l d never under an y circumstances c l ose its contacts
ow is norma l
when the direction of power
.

Td T

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

90

tains t w o s ep arate in uction el em qi t s eac h wit h its win i n gs

disk magnets contacts etc
h ere is no mechanical connec
tion whatever between the two moving e l ements The t op
e l ement is the quick acting extremel y sensitive watt el ement

and the l ower e l ement is the standard excess

current ( over
,

x l iw W i g pw i ci l ly
d
d

FIG 9 6a

FIG 9 6a E t e a v

FIG 9 6b I t e a v e
.

rn

FI G

rn

of

of

e st n

e st n

h ou s e
h ou se

er

er

9 6b

d r e t on a e a
d r e t on a r e a
r

l
l
l
l
re
a
y
provided
with
a
j
ustab
e
time
ever
etc
exact
y
)
as described for the overl oad inverse den i t e minimum time
l imit re l a y
F igure 9 7 shows t h e i nternal wiring iagram of connections
the current win ding being shown b y the heav y b l ack l ines
F i g ure 9 8 shows the same connections but the vol tage circui t
is this time shown b y heav y l ines and F ig 99 shows the same
with the trip circuit sh own heavy

T h e C ontactor S witch
Another e ffect present uring short
circ uit was that d ue t o the ow of heavy currents the vibration
Of the disks prevented the making Of good contacts at the watt
e l ement and al so caused the disks to sl ip on t h e s h a t s ue t o the

l oa

d
fd

AC
.

P O ER D I RE C T ] O N AL RELA YS

91

RQE

TO
U
CWI PE/
Y
5AM R

i
c
i
l
l
y
w
i
i
ci c i w wi yli
r

ut h

FIG

98 S a

FIG

99

h hea v

re

n es

on a

re a

m xc p wi p i lci c i y
e as

Sa

F ig

97

o te n t a

ut

s hB w n

h e av

m x c p wi i p ci c i w y
e as

F ig

97

tr

s er e s

ho

h e av

TT

P R O EC I V E RELA YS

92

excessive torque devel oped The br at i on e ff ect was a matter

of magnetic attraction between the series coil s and the induced
currents in the disk
F ortunate l y this weak uttering contact ma y be changed
into a good positive contact b y means of a contactor switch
mounted in the case
his consists of a sol enoid capab l e of
attracting an iron p l unger which carries a sil ver contact as in Fig
.

84

N ow suppose the main re l a y contacts j ust bare l y c l ose and are

-

vibrating or chattering vio l entl y due to the heav y induced

currents in the disk to which the y are attached Their partial
touching al l ows a weak uttering current to ow in the sol enoid
his weak current immediatel y raises the pl unger and the
contact disk immediatel y short
circuits the two stationar y
contacts which being in parall el with the main contacts i mm edi
ate l y take al l the trip current b y making good positive contact
thus positive l y energizing the trip coi l and tripping the breakers
I t is ver y evident that shoul d the main contacts still utter
there wi l l be no spark and in fact after the rst touch the y
ma y even Open al though the touch was enoug h to c l ose
the contactor contacts and trip the breaker The trip circuit
wi l l sta y energized and these contacts wil l sta y cl osed until
the circuit is opened b y the auxi l iary pall et switch on the breaker
which is arranged for this purpose
he contactor switch not onl y assures positive contact
but b y increasing the tripping
circuit capacit y from 2 to 2 0
amp avoids the use of an auxil iary rel a y switch except in the
case of ver y heav y trip currents

or qu e Compen sator
The e ffect of the excessive
Th e
torque l oosening the disks on the shafts was easil y overcome

b y means of the torque compensator which as was thorough l y

expl ained under I nduction t y pe Re l a y s is merel y a smal l trans

former with the primar y carr ying the main current the secondar y
supp l ying the rel a y windings and so proportioned that the
iron becomes saturated at heav y overl oads thus preventing
excessive ow of current in the re l a y

S tr ay F ie l d s I n view of the fact that the heavy overl oad

currents produce such a strong e l d it might be suspected
that this al ternating el d woul d weaken the permanent magnets
,

,
.

LA

94

P R O TEC TI V E R E

FIG

FIG

1 02

1 01

I n t er

YS

i i w p l yp p w i c i l l y
or

ve

of

h ase

er

re

on a

re a

l wi i i m p l y p p w i c i l l

t er n a

r n

g d agr a

of

h ase

er

re

on a

r e ay .

AO

W T

95

P O ER D I REC I O NAL RELA YS

-

F r om t h is

it wi l l be p l ain l y seen that there are t h ree sepa

rate current coi l s and three separate potential coi l s and since
the re l a y operates on the induction princip l e there is no mutual
inductance between coil s ; consequentl y no induced vo l tage
in the potential coi l from the heavy current owing in the
series coi l
wo disks are use the upper on e of w h ic h is driven b y on e
e l ement
he l ower disk is driven b y two e l ements on e in the
front ( pl ain l y sho w n i n F i g 1 01 ) and one in the rear
nder
norma l direction of power the disks tend to rotate i n on e direction
and keep the contact open Reversal of power ow causes the
disks to rotate in the Opposite direction thus c l osing the contact
S ince the action desired is as nearl y instantaneous as possibl e
no attempt is ma e to damp the movement ;the arc of disk
t rave l is very sma l l
Fl uttering trip currents such as migh t be due to vibration
of disk bouncing of contacts etc are quickl y transformed
into full strength current b y means of the smal l auxi l iary con
tactor switch
s e d with Ov er l o ad
ow er d ir ecti on al M u l ti e l e m en t R
el ays
Rel ays his power directional re l ay must be used in con ju n c
tion with a three phase or three sing l e phase overl oad rel a y s such
as the induction t y pe or so l enoid be l l ows t y pe to secure proper
protection
The trip circuits of the overl oad re l ay s ( connecte in m u l
tip l e ) are connected in series with that of the power directional
re l a y so that neither can trip the breaker separate l y but
b oth must c l ose their contacts before the breaker wi l l be tripped
E ach overl oad re l a y is connected in series with a current coi l
he compl ete connections of a three
O f the reverse power re l a y
phase circuit are shown in F i gs 1 59 and 1 6 0
his pl ainl y
shows the main three phase l ine protecte d b y bre aker and sup
pl ied with three current and three vol tage transformers E ach
current transformer suppl ies one current coi l in the power d ir ec
The trip of the power dir ec
t i on al re l a y and on e overl oad rel a y
t i on al rel a y is connected in series with the trips of the overl oad
rel ay s and O perates the trip coi l of the breaker When the break
er opens the auxi l iary switch opens thus resetting the contactor

switch in the power directional rel ay

.

T T d
d
P T

96

Di

P R O T E C TI V E RELA YS

Rel ay

Another recent deve l

we d i e ction al
i r ect i on al re l a y
This must
O pm en t is the di ff erential power
be used in conj unction with the auxi li ary re l ay shown in F i g 1 03
This rel a y is al so shown with the cover removed in F ig 1 03
and the diagram of conn ections is shown in F ig 1 64 The power
directional re l ay is arranged to make contact when it moves either
to the l eft or right But onc e it cl oses one contact i t instant l y
energizes one of the interl ocking re l ay s and this re l ay opens t h e
er en t i al

r-

FIG

1 03

W i g pxili cyii gc l c i g l y wi wi
es t n

h ou se au

n t er o

ar

r ot e

ve

kn

re a

an d

d
t

h ou t

trip circuit t o t h e opposite contact The interl oc king re l ay

resets in about two seconds after the trip circuit has b een e ener
g i z ed b y the opening of the circuit breaker
The appl ications of power directional re l a y s t o various s y stems
will be discussed in a subsequent chapter devoted to that subj ect

e
order that engineers ma y Obtain
S p cicati on s
In
the hig h est grade of power directional rel ay s and to guard
against t h e use of Obso l ete and defective princip l ed rel a y s
.

T T

C H AP T Ft

C HAR
AC E RI S

IX

OF A C

ICS

DI S

TU

RBANCE S

an y of the earl y protective re l ay s were designed with

but a partial knowl edge of the actual characteristics of the
e l ectrical disturbances which the y were supposed to detect
and i sol ate C onsequentl y there were man y fai l ures under
certain conditions and these fai l ures l ed to an intimate stud y
of the e ffects of an el ectrical disturbance from both a theoret
i cal and an actual standpoint I n some instances the l ines
were actuall y shorted at various l ocations to determine the
actual conditions whi l e in other cases miniature s y stems were
bui l t with l ines having characteristics simi l ar to the main
l ine in order to stud y the extent and divisions of overl oads
E ven the protection of simp l e apparatus such as motors and
transformers requires an intimate knowl edge Of how certain
apparatus acts in case of e l ectrical distress
S ome of the more important points on which an accurate
knowl edge must be Obtained are as fo ll ows :

short circuit ?
1 What is the intensit y of a
2 F or how l ong can the overl oad exist ?
3 What is the effect on the s y stem vo l tage ?
4 What other e ffects such as phase distortion and surges
accompan y severe disturbances ?
5 What must the re l a y do and what must it not do and
what are the best connections ?
These points are essential not onl y to the user of the pro
t ect i ve re l a y s but al so to the manufacturer and it is safe t o sa y
that had the manufacturers had proper information on t h ese
points when the y designed their rst re l a y s the re l a y user
coul d have saved man y thousands of dol l ars of damage to
apparatus an avoided thousands of interruptions
.

E F F E CT S

L OAD
O F OV E R

The duration of an overl oad without damage depends entirel y

on the apparatus itsel f ;that is it ma y be sustained unti l the
excessive heat starts to burn the insul ation or cause other
,

98

T TS

CHA RA C ER I S I C

OF A O
.

D I S T UR B A NCES

99

dd d

e ff ects whic h woul d l ead to damage insul ation D amage

from overl oad is se l dom caused except b y heat so me exceptions
being the breaking of shafts or the e x p l osion of transformers
o r the puncturing of insu l ation due to surges
M o ern esign
has however practical l y el iminated this danger
So me motors ma y often have their vol tage reduce t o zero
for a second or so without being damage or l osing their l oad ;
the y al so may carr y overl oad ( about 50 per cent) c ontinuousl y
without serious damage ; but the y must be protected so that
the y wi l l be cut out Of service shoul d the l oad exceed 1 50per cent
for an y l ength of time I f internal short circuits deve l op
causing excess current the y must be cut out ver y quickl y to
avoid serious burnouts
ower transformers must al so b e protecte against internal
and external overl oads in the same man ner ;in fact an internal
short in a l arge transformer might damage it severe l y in a
few seconds and as an internal short wi l l sel dom c l ear itsel f
its automatic isol ation shou l d be practical l y instantaneous
Transmission l ines are often damaged b y p rol onged overl oad
and the y al so cause an excess current in the generators t o which
the y are connected in case of short circuits
On e of the big present day prob l ems in automatic sectional

o
izing is t cut out a short circuite section of l ine before it burns
down
The overl oad which an al ternator can stan
epends entire l y
upon the al ternator as the characteristics of such machines vary
over a wide range The short circuit current I na y be rough l y
cal cul ated b y observing the vol tage drop between the two
sections at normal l oad as w ill be expl ained l ater
The current during a short circuit decreases very rapid l y
unti l a sustained short circuit current is reached as wi ll be seen
b y referring to F ig 1 04 This curve does not mean that the
maxi mum possibl e short circuit current is 1 00 per cent , but
take as examp l e an al terna tor w hich gives 1 2 times the norma l
l oad current on short circuit
This is 1 00 per cent but this
1 2 times quickl y decreases unti l the sustaine current is about
1 2 per cent of 1 2 times or
times the normal l oad
S om e al ternators ma y de l iver a sustained short circuit cur
l oad current
rent oi two and one ha l f or three times the full
.

d
-

,
.

d dd

T
T
dd f

PR O E C I V E RELA YS

1 00

rapi
ecrease o sh ort circuit current is another important
reason wh y a breaker shoul d not t p ou t instant l y I ts breaking
capacit y must be considerab l y greater to trip instant l y t h an
to trip when the current fal l s t o its sustained val ue whic h is much
l ower

T his

t
tt
c ymm ic l M ci c i
RP

1
2
5
3
4
6

FIG

1 5 800
20 000
000
1 2 000
6 ( 100

1 04

000

or

1 500
1 8 00
18 75
1 16

Al t er n at or
Al er n at or

3 75
3 75

T u r bo
T u r bo
T u r bo
Al t er n a

C u r r e n t d e

r e a se o n

as

C 3 cl cs
25
60

3
1
1
3
3
3

2
3
23

et r

NAT URE OF S H O RT CI RC UI T S O N T RAN S

-

P h ases
S h o r ed

h or t

ts

I S S I O N L I NE S

When making current cal cul ations it s h ou l d al wa y s b e as sumed

that a short circuit is ue to a metal l i c connection between the
conductors On a h igh vol tage aerial l ine using wooden pins
and crossarms it sometimes h appens that an insu l ator is
broken with the resul t that the wood is graduall y heated
b y the passage of the current through it until it nall y bursts
into ame thus causing an arc between conductors A l it t l e
consideration shows that the ow of the current is smal l unti l
the arc is establ ished and that it is absurd to speak of auto
m at i call y disconnecting a section of l ine which has such a hi gh
resistance short circuit I t h as sometimes b een assume that
-

TT

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

1 02

he

al cul at i on

b f t he

short circuit curren ts on a comp l i

cat e d :sy s t em i n vol ve s r nOre or l e ss approximation
and a good
method I s t O prepare a tab l e showing the impedance of each
section of l ine an d al so of the generators These gures can then

FIG

c c i m c wi m i l
yc l
.

1 05RE S I S T AN C E , I N D U C T A
.

Resis t an

( R)

I n d u t an

an d

25 C

pe an

Z per

re

per

es

0000
000

00
0
2

4
6

8
60 C

yc

1 40
-

l es

0000
00

0
2

6
8

h v ol t a e t o n eu t r al
en t
as ed o n 9 7 p er
ar e st r an d ed : ot h er s ar e so d
or 67 F
V al u es i n tab l e o pu t ed on sl d e r u l e
ar e

t o be

u sed

83 1

8 45

8 59

873

908

wcli m Bi gi c c c i i y
d d

Abo v e va u es

Oiz

on

93 6

964

992

NO 0000 t o 0

t v t at 2D C

es

du

be com b ine in any wa y esired to determine the impedance of a

particul ar path I n Obtaining the impedance Of several sections
the resistances and inductances must be added
of a s y stem
separatel y and the two sums combined geometricall y The
inductance varies with the size of the conductors and with the
.

T T

CHA RA C ER I S I CS

OF A C
.

D I S UR B ANCES

1 03

distance between them which in the case of a cab l e is determined

b y the thickness of the insul ation The ch afact er ist i cs of
cabl e can usuall y be Obtained from the manufactur ers A
v N o 0000 cabl e at 60 c y cl es has an impedance about 23
per cent greater than its Ohmic resistance whereas the imped
ance of a
v l ine having the same size copper conductor
spaced 1 5 ft apart is about three an one
quarter times the
,

d
m kc i g ml g mil
,

FIG

1 06
AP P R OX I M AT E

RE S I S T AN C E AN D I M P E D AN C E
C O N D U C T O R C AB L E S
AT 60 C Y C L E S

m il

OHM I C

per

T H REE

Res s t
S i zc

OF

ped an

Wor

e, o

vo t a

p er

1 0, 000

O 8 58

O 8 59

O 69 2

O 69 6

O 545

O 547

00

O 43 6

O 43 9

444

47 8

000

O 3 52

O 3 52

3 57

3 96

0000

O 2 80

O 283

2 88

332

2 50000

O 245

O 245

2 52

2 99

O
Bc m i c i c i cyc wci c ic l ly w c m ick c
ic i i i y c g
i m ly c
3 00000

O 2 10

O 2 10

3 50000

O 1 87

O 1 87

1 94

40000
0

O 1 66

O 1 66

1 74

4 50000

O 1 48

O 1 48

500000

O 13 7

O 13 7

217

2 70

2 50

23 4

22 1

2 12

Oi
iy c

1 56

1 44

Pu r e C o pp er 7 5 F
t h an a o an e of 3 p er en t for s p r al
pat h of on d u t or s 60 l es per se on d an d st an d ar d t h n ess of v ar n s h ed
a
br c n su l at on V al u es ar e pr a t a
t h e sa e for ot h er t p es of
n su l at on
T h ese
en t
ur es ar e al so appr ox
at e
cor r e t for 98 p er
o n d u ct v t
o ppe r at 65 F
d

as e

on

val ue of i t sresistance The resistance i nductance and impedance

of aerial t ransmission l ines having various wire spacing are given
in F i g 1 05 and F ig 1 06 which shows the r esI st an ce and impe
dance Of various kinds of three
conductor cab l e
The method of computing the impedance of a circuit incl uding
a l ine generator and transformer is shown in the fol l owing
examp l e
"

1 04
Ass u

Ty Tg

i
g
k
m
g
c
i
c
c
i
c c
c c c m cw
m
i ic c
m
c ii
mc
m
ic
g
i
g
i
m
PR O EC I VE RE L A YS

kva , 60 c

d r op
A

kva

an d

b an

cg

a art

F u ll l oad

cc c
mi c
cc c
ci
mm y

vol t a

S t ar

t an

Rea

T r an sfor

er

Res s t an
Resistan

Rea

t an

Rea

ne

ar

41

2
6
1
1
64

co

con

d u tor s s p a ed

am p

5 per

cen

of

26 1 v

50 X 0 7 1 4
.

bl e

41 0
.

20 0

L in e
T ot al

9 50

H en

4 1

er

Ne l

,
4

( f r om T ab l e F i g

T r an sfor

x+

en t of

20 Oh

R l X

he short circuit current is therefore

-

1 00 5

m
o

260

amp

for the rst instant As shown in F ig 94 t n e initial current

wil l decrease until the sustained va l ue is reached I n this

l
l
l
ll
e xamp e the sustained va ue is probab y about twice fu l oad
current or sa y 1 3 0 amp I f the l ines shoul d have more im pe
dance or if l ess generating capacit y shoul d be connected to
the busbars the generator reaction woul d have l ess e ffect
.

t of

G en er at or

4 ft

i ll be
r ed u ced t o t er

t r es stan

pper

ped an

64

en

d r op

d r op

en

st cs

1 per

1 per

s:

1 0 pe r

d r op

C h ar act er ist

Su

st

C h ar a t er

t an ce

e an d

t an

e, r ea

v l in e NO

h avin

er s

cen t r eac an

V3x

d r op

t an ce

cen t r eac an ce

G en er at or C h ar act er

Rea

t r an sfor

u r r en t

of

5per
-

v al u es of r esi st an
v

1 0 per

50 m l es

of

h av

en er at or

d r op

All

cl e

TT

P R O EC

1 06

RELA YS

] VE

short circ uit b ecause any smal l Obj ect that cou l d be b rough t
into contact with the busbars w oufd be immediatel y destroy ed
he onl y possibi l it y for Obtaining a shor t circuit that will l ower
the vol tage to a point where reverse power re l ay s cannot ope rate

a
is the case of an extr high vol tage s y stem where the short
circuit current is so small that it cannot burn Off a metalli c
connection F or instance on a
v s y stem of some
magnitude the current at short circuit may not exceed 500
amp which coul d be carried for some seconds b y a tel ephone
wire dropped across a transmission l ine The possibil it y
of interruption from this cause is remote because a short circuit
across three wires wi ll not Often occur and when on l y two
wires are invol ved the l ow vol tage condition does not exist
except on on e phase

E ect of
nbal a n ce d S hort cir cuits I n the past the opera
tion of power directional re l ay s has been somewhat u n sat i s
factory because means were not taken to insur e correct operation
at times when the power factor of the s y stem was bad due t o

unbal anced short circuits As a resul t of several y ears investi

a
i
s
t
o
n
it
has
been
found
the
the
methods
f
connecting
rever
e
o
g
power r el a y s with their potential coi l s in star as has been the
usual custom is theoreticall y incorrect and the rel ay s ma y
fail to operate upon the occurrence of the most common form of
short circuit When unbal anced short circuits occur a l arge
number of combinations of ci r cu m st am ces are possibl e but it has
been found that the most severe condition is when onl y two con
du ct or s of a three phase l ine are short circuited and if re l ay s
wi l l operate pro p erl y under this condition the y will satisf y
practicall y al l the others
I n F igs 1 07 a and 1 070are s h own in a rather incomp l ete wa y
the vector rel ations on a simpl e el ectric circuit when a short
circuit occurs between the wires B and C F igure 1 07 b shows
at a the vol tage triangl e at the generating station and at b
the vol tage triangl e some distance from the generating station
At 0 is represented the conditions at the short circuit and
it wi ll be seen that the l ong sides of the vo l tage triangl e have
c l osed in together I t wi ll al so be observed that the two star
vol tages OB and OC are in pha se Referring again to a
if the c ircuit has no inductance the current which ows into
-

T T
B

CHA RA C ER I S I CS

OF A C
.

D I S UR B A NCES

1 07

the S hort circuit wi ll be in phase with the vol tage BC as is S hown

'
b y the vectors I
and I C I f such a condition were possib l e
none of the rel ay s at the short circuit coul d operate because
the power factor is zero S ince however there is al way s induc
tance in the circuit the current wi l l l ag somewhat as shown
1
1
b y the vectors I B and I C
he resul t of this is to cause one
of the rel a y s at the short circuit to operate forwards and the
other one to Operate backwards F igure 1 07b shows the effect
of an inductive l oad on the s y stem
he short circuit currents
are represented b y dash vectors and the resul tant of the short
circuit currents and l oad currents b y heav y vectors The
-

c
i
g
m
c
l
g
w
i
c
i
c
i
w
l i c wi g c wi i c i l
FIG
oad i s
FIG
.

l 07 a

n on -

FIG

V e

t or

du

ti

S ho
l 07 b

1 07 a
a

FIG
vo t a

Of

ra

r r en

an d

1 07 0
.

h s h or t

ut

h en

the

ve

t or s

du

ve

oa

general resul t of the l oad current on the s y stem is to make l ess

pronounced the effect due to the short circuit as wi l l be observed
upon comparing 0 in F igs l 07 a and b I n the former case
but in the l atter case
on e of the re l a y s operates backwards
both of them read properl y
I n the above exp l anation the condition in onl y one l ine
has been shown and the question might immediatel y arise as
to what di ff erence it makes whether or not on e rel ay operates
backwards so l ong as one of them Operates to trip the circuit
breaker The answer is that the same condition exists in al l
the good sections of l ine paral l el to the troub l e with the resu l t
that their circuit breakers wil l al so be opened This dif cu l t y
can easil y be overcome b y using the del ta del ta connection
of vol tage transformers as expl ained under I nstrument Trans

formers and G roupings

With this connection the current
in each rel ay l eads the vol tage in each rel ay b y 3 0 deg when
the l ine power factor is 1 00 per cent instead of the rel ay current
and vol tage being in p hase at 1 00 per cent l ine power factor
-

TT

P R O EC I VE RELA YS

1 08

Then even though the l ine power factor shou l d drop to a l most
zero during a short circuit the cufr en t in an y re l a y coul d not
l ag more than 60 deg behind its vol tage
-

C H ARACT E R
I S T I CS O F

RE L AY S

F rom the o regoing discussion it wi l l readi l y be seen that the

re l a y s must be absol utel y rel iab l e and dependab l e and have
as we ll a high accurac y both initial l y and maintained Re l a y s
for the protection Of overl oads or rather excess currents shou l d
have two distinct adj ustments : time and current
he time
setting is of course easi l y set accor ing t o the re l ay curves to
obtain the desired del a y
M uch misunderstanding has prevai l e in the past regarding
t h e current adj ustment
I n the case of straight overl oad rel ay s
the rel a y is easi l y sel ected and set according to the magnitude
of the l oad and the overl oad Bu t on di fferential protection
however man y rel a y s have been used with ver y l ow current
windings in order t o make them susceptib l e to s l ight u n bal an c
ings in current The resul t is that the y were too sensitive
and tripped the b reaker on sl ight surges due to throwing the
apparatus on the l ine or l ine switching or s ynchronizing
Attempts were made t o give these rel a y s a time de l a y with onl y
sl ightl y better resul ts I n such case a rel ay shoul d be used
with a comparativel y hi gh overl oa setting an the time a j usted
t o instantaneous
On the power directional rel a y s there shoul d be three dis
tinct adj ustments : time current and direction
he time
and current adj ustments shoul d be set same as the current rel ay
whil e the directional adj ustment must be so sensitive that it
wil l function on a very smal l reversal of power ow even though
the potential drop to 1 or 2 per cent of normal
M uch conf usion has existed regarding the correct use of t h
power directional and the watt rel a y s F or instance consider
a pl ant suppl ying part of its ow n power and bu ying the rest
from a nearb y station with provisions to l imit the power ow
N either a power directional nor a watt re l a y al one wil l give
the desired resul ts ;both must be used
When considering the adj ustment of t h e power directional
rel a y it must be remembered that i t is for protection al one
,

dd

d d d
T

TT L

PR O E C I VE RE A YS

1 10

power from a high vol tage h y dro e l ectric s y stem I t I S

obvious that the smal l steam pl ant cannot ho l d up the e l ectric
s y stem during troubl es w hi ch are inherent in the el ectric s y stem
and which occur a l together too frequentl y N everthe l ess
even if the receiving s y stem shoul d have sufcient steam
t urbine capacit y constantl y oating on the li ne t o pick up the
el ectric l oad the instant it is l ost such a change cannot be made
without considerabl e disturbance and there is al wa ys a possi
bili t y that the steam p l ant wi l l be unab l e to pick up the l oad
as quickl y as is necessar y in order to save the service N ow
there can be onl y two conditions e x isting at the steam pl ant
either there is sufcient steam generating capacit y connected
to the busbars so that the l oad can be picked up instant l y
and if this is the case there is sufcient capacit y avai l ab l e to
O perate reverse power re l a y s having a norma l current setting ;
or e l se there is insufcient steam capacit y to pick up the l oad
in which case it wi ll be desirab l e to hol d on to the e l ectric power
through whatever manner of disturbance ma y occur
This argument is usual l y met b y the statement that the

h y dro e l ectric s y stem frequent l y goes under due to a fai l ure

in the water supp l y or due to short circuit on the transmission
s y stem w h ich cuts Off essential p l ants Of course under such
circumstances it is not desirab l e for the steam p l ant to attempt
t o carry all the l oad of the e l ectric s y stem and it is reasonab l e
t o separate the t w o but the power directiona l re l a y cannot
be depended upon to ma ke this separation in the proper manner
F or t hi s purpose use shoul d be made of a watt re l ay which is
essentiall y a contact making wattmeter and which will c l ose
its contacts when the po wer exceeds a predetermined amount
in a predetermined direction
hi s device is much simp l er than
the power directio n al rel a y and can be depended upon to oper
ate with great accurac y However i t is not intended to c l ear
short c ir cui ts and in the install ation which we have been con
it wi l l be necessar y to make use of the po wer dir ec
si der i n g
t i on al re l a y s to take care of l ine troub l es and the watt re l a y
t o prevent the steam s y stem from attempting t o carr y the h y dro
e l ectric s y stem This arrangement wil l give compl ete pr ot ec
tion and if the e l ectric sy stem is in itsel f properl y sectional ized
so as to take care of its ow n troub l es there wi l l be very l ittl e
-

AT T S

C HA R C ER I S I C

OF A C
.

D I S UR B A NCES

111

for keeping
stand by steam p l an t in readine ss
n s t an t l y carr y the entire l oad
iewed from t his stand
t the question becomes of considerab l e importance and wi l l
ify careful consideration on the part of prospective re l a y
s
nother important point is that re l a y s with a l ow current
ding not on l y have a high impedance but the y wi ll not carr y
av y l oad without severe overheating
wi l l be expl ained l ater under the pi l ot wire s y stems
S
current re l a ys nd a l egitimate app l ication when the currents
t be transmitted a l ong distance between the current trans
er and re l ay I n this case however use is made of current
sfor m er s whose norma l se condar y current is the s ame as
current rating of the re l ay
e

ss it y

the

PT
T U TT
C HA

IN S R

ER

RAN S F O RM E RS

M EN

AND G RO

UP

ING S

With the exception of the small er l ow vol tage instal l ations

where the rel ay s may be connected directl y to the l ine and wound
to carry the l ine current it is essential to connect protective
re l a y s t o the secondar y circuit of instrument transformers
I t then becomes necessary to have an accurate knowl edge
of the performance of an instrument transformer during times
of e l ectrical troub l e

In str umen t ran sfo r m e r s There are two cl asses of i n st r u

ment transformers avail ab l e : the current or series trans

former and the vol tage

potential or shunt transformer
The current transformers are used to carr y the main li ne
current in their primar y and reproduce in their secondar y
circuit a small er current which bears a denite rela tion in
phase and magnitude to the primar y current Another ver y
important function of the current transformer is to insu l ate
the secondary circuit t o which are connected the re l a y s from
the high tension of the primary
C urrent transformers are required for re l a y s whic h must
function on a predetermined condition of the current in a
circuit The primar y is connected directl y in series with the
l ine and several current instruments ma y be connected to the
secondary
art of the l ine current acts as the mag netizing
current for the transformer iron and for a xed number of in st r u
ments in the secondary ;a ri se or fall in the l ine current requi res
a corresponding ri se or fal l in the secondar y vol tage t o force
the secondary current through the connected instruments
The magnetic ux thus fo l l ows the rise and fa ll of the primar y
or l ine currents unti l the point of saturation is reache when
the ratio breaks down
I n an y transformer the primary ampere turns ma y be con
si d er ed as made up of two parts
on e smal l e l ement which
suppl ies the magnetizing and core l oss current an another
-

1 12

1 14

v amp t o
v amp and this in man y cases is above
the saturating point of the an sfor m er
his n ecessitates
an accurate knowl edge of the ratio of the transforme r w ith
various secondar y l oads and various primary currents in order
to enab l e the rel ay s to be set accuratel y

40

r
r
E

4o

30

20

wi g y i l i f m b w
T

60 90 120 150 I6O 210 240 21 0 300 330 360390 420450

Pr i ma r g Amper es

1 08
C

uv
r

e s

ho

h ow t h e

r at o o f a s e r e s

h av
e

ve

r oa

t r an s

or

er

r ea

ks

do

n on

agnetiz
ation
ore
he magnetic histor y of the iron
of C
M
al so aff ects its l osses I f the core has been magnetized either
b y passing direct current through the coi l b y opening the second
ar y circuit with a l oad on the primary or b y a heavy overl oad
on the primary the iron l oss and magnetizing current will be
abnormall y high and the ratio and phase angl e errors wil l be
s l ight l y greater than normal S uch a transformer can be dem ag
condition b y passing about
n et i z ed and restored to norma l
1 50 per cent of normal current through the primar y with the
secondary connected to a resistance of 20 to 3 0 ohms and gradu
.

T TT F

RA NS O RMERS

I NS R UMEN

AN D

GR O UP I NGS

1 15

a l l y r educin g t h e re si stance to zero G reat care shou l d be t ake n

not to come in contact with the secondar y l eads during this
operation as dangerous vo l tage ma y be induced

L
oa d The instruments connected in
E e ct of S e con d ar y
the secondar y circuit of the transformer are pl aced in serres
so that the secondary current wi ll pass through each As i n st r u
ments are added higher vol tage is required to force the current
through them This requires higher magnetic densit y in the
iron w h ich increases both the iron l oss and the magnetizing
current hence both the ratio and the phase angl e errors are
magnied F or the sake of accurac y therefore there is
a l imit t o the number of instruments that shoul d be pl aced on
a singl e current transformer
he ordinary measuring instruments are n ot non inductive
he power factor of the l oad of instruments varies w ith the
different combinations used I n general an d within the l imits
of the usual groups of meters it ma y be said that for the same
vol t ampere l oad the greater the inductive e l ement in the l oad
the l ess wi l l be the phase disp l acement error and the greater the
ratio error Whi l e the variations in the errors are not enough
to affect the accurac y to a great extent the power factor of the
l oad must be recognized in prepa ri ng performance curves of
current transformers
F or a given instrument l oad on the transformer the secondary
ampere
turns bear a denite rel ation to the primary ampere
turns for each val ue of the primar y l oad current Therefore
b y properl y proportioning the number of turns i mt h e windings
it is possibl e to raise the secondar y current to overcome the
ratio error However owing to the inherent variation of the
rati o error this compensation wi l l not be exactl y correct for
other va l ues of the primary current
A current transformer is usual l y compensated t o give as
cl ose l y as possib l e the correct ratio at 65 per cent of its rated
current As meters and transformers shoul d be sel ected with
a rating 50 per cent greater than the normal current of the
circuit to al l ow for peaks and overl oads the ful l l oad current
of the circuit represents about 65 per cent of the current rating
of the transformer and meter Therefore the greatest accu
.

TT

TT

PR O EC

1 16

] VE

RELA YS

rac y of meter readings is attained with fu l l l oad current in the

circuit
Higher frequencies produce l ower magnetizing current and l ower
iron l oss and therefore resul t in l ower percentage of ratio error
and smal l er phase angl e The variations are smal l however
and most current transformers may be use at an y frequenc y
from 2 5 to 1 3 3 c y c l es
As the operation of the current transformer depends on
current on l y variation of l ine vol tage has no e ffect on accurac y
A t y pe of current transformer must be chosen however having
insul ation suitab l e for the vo l tage of the l ine on which it is
to be used
The shape of the primary current wave a ffects to a certain
extent the maximum induction and therefore the iron l osses
and al so affects the shape of the secondary current wave which
ma y introduce sl ight errors in some meters These e ff ects
are however negl igibl e
Rise of temperature increases the resistance drop in the
windings which necessitates an increase in the secondar y vol t
age This in turn necessitates an increase in the magnetic
densit y required in the iron and thus affects the accurac y
he resistance drop is however on l y a smal l part of the induced
vo l tage and the temperature rise of transformers shou l d be
wit h in the A I E E l imit of 55 C The variations of accu
rac y due to temperature rise are very sl ight
A current transformer to be accurate requires at l east
I n the
600 ampere turns ( based on normal primary current )

through t y pe there is onl y one primary turn S O that this

ty pe cannot be made for normal currents of l ess that 600 amp
without sacricing accurac y I n cases where accurac y is
required over onl y a l imited range as for rel ay s or trip coi l s
the u se of this t y pe is entire l y satisfactory for normal current
as l ow as 1 00 amp Where it is possib l e to cal ibrate the in st r u
ment with the transformer , it is entirel y satisfactory to use
this t y pe of transformer
The momentar y current due to a heavy short circuit on a
l arge s y stem is extreme l y great and the mechanica l stresses set
up between the primar y and secondar y windings of a current
transformer due to this current are very l arge I n the through
-

TT

1 18

PRO EC

a)

( a)
( b)

Th r ee wi r e
Th r ee Wi r e
-

One

r an sfor

1 11

T w o h a

In

each

RELA YS

ph ase

on e- h ase an d

Pri mary

O ne t r an sform er i n
ed
T Con nect i on
.

each

ph ase

V Con n ect ion

o

p pi g c c f m wi gc c i
a

FIG

m er i n

T r an sform ers

F ou r w i r e. i n d e pen d en
F our -Wi r e. I n t er -c on n ec

] VE

se

gr ou

ar y

of

an d

t r an s

r r en t

ve

t or s

or

er s s

ho

on n e

on s

T TT F d d

GRO UP I NGS

RA NS O RMERS A ND

I NS R UME N

5 amp

1 19

ing t h at t h e transformers h ave stan ar

secondary
windings the numbers on the vector diagrams S how t h e currents
in the corresponding branches of the circuits The preferabl e
arrangement for an y case depends on the t y pe of instrument
F or ammeters a reading in each phas e usual l y
t o be energized
is al l that is necessary whi l e protective rel a y s shoul be so
connected that trou bl e on an y l ine will b e etected
,

d
d
Md
B
.

NE C E S S I TY F OR T H RE E

T RAN S F O R E RS
CI RC UI T S

T H RE E P HAS E

ON

That the use of t w o transformers an two re l a y s for the pro

t ect i on of a three phase circuit is n ot sufcient is apparent from
F ig 1 1 2 which shows the rel ay s at A and with the transformers
-

FIG

1 12

S h owi n

g w y p i p cf i m
h

two

ser e s

t r an s

h ase

r ot e

or

on

er s

n ot

ar e

f ci

en

t f or t

h r ee

at 1 and 2 I f a ground shoul d occur on l ine 2 and another

ground on a generator winding or l ead as at a or b or c then
,

W gc w cgci c i f m
FI

FIG
FIG

1 13

1 13
r on
on n e t

1 14
An ot h er r on

t h r ee t r an s
on n e t on

o n of

or

FIG

1 14

er s an d

two

ly

re a

there
b e a heav y short circuit current which woul d
ow through the midd l e l ine without passing through either
rel ay
woul d

P R O TE C I V E RELA YS

1 20

Three transformers cannot be used with two re l a y s with

the connections as shown in F i g 1 1 3 as it wi l l be noted that

in the event of a short between l ines 1 and 3 there wi ll be
no excess current in the rel a y I n F ig 1 14 a s hort due to ground
on either l ines 1 or 3 wi l l tend to force the excess current through
t he midd l e transformer thereb y pil ing up the vo l tage due to
the high impedance so this connection al so cannot be used
.

pl c c i l yl y
T
FIG

FIG
FIG

1 1 5 P r o

1 16

De

on n e

er

ta

FIG

115

on n e

on

on

for t

hr ee

to tw o

re a

re a

s an d

r ee

fm

1 16

t r an s

or

er s .

he best combination is three transformers wit h t h ree re l a y s

as in F ig 1 1 5as this enabl es each rel a y to receive the full current
from its respective transformer Thi s is the most used connec
tion Two rel ay s ma y be connected to three transformers
with the del ta connection as in F i g 1 16 or wit h t h e Z connection
as in F ig 1 1 7
.

FIG

1 17

Z-

c ci l y
on n e

on

to tw o

re a

Assuming that the normal

Advan tage s of th e Z C o nn e cti on
current in the transformer secondar y is 5 amp , then with the
-

del ta connection the normal current in the re l ay s is

amp
thus requiring special l y wound rel ay s With the Z connection
.

,
,

TT

PR O EC I VE RELA YS

1 22

When m aking th e Z connection the fo l l owing ru l e S h oul d

si t i ve transformer termina l s
be empl o y ed : C onnect two p
The negative terminal s of the
t o the r st re l a y terminal
rst and third transformer go to the second rel a y terminal and
the remainin g positive and negative transformer terminal s
go t o the common b etween the two rel a y s
hus refer ri ng
-

FIG

1 20
.

V ARI O U S

Z C O M B I N ATI O N S

RE L A Y

RE L AY

1 3

4 5

1 3

3 6

2
4

1 2

56

3 4

23

2 3

4 6

1 2

3 5

LOA D

1 5
-

4 5

2 6

C UR
RE N T

RE L A Y

1 6
-

F ig 120 it wi ll be seen that there are six combinations which

produce the same resul ts F igure 12 1 gives t h e various groupings
and vector diagrams

T h e secon ary circuit of a current

O pen in g of S e co n dar y
transformer s h oul d never be opened whi l e the primar y is carry
ing current If it is necessary to disconn ect instruments the
secondary S houl d
r st be short circuite
I f the secondary
circuit is Opened a di fference of potential is devel ope d between
terminal s which is dangerous to an y one coming in contact
with the meters or l e ads The cause of this high vol tage is
that with open secondary circuit all of the primary ampere
tu m s are e ffective in producing ux in the core where as no r mall y
but a ver y small portion of the total perform t h is function The
danger is magnied b y the fact that the wave form of this
secondary vol tage is peaked producing a high maximum val ue
A high ux produced in this way ma y al so permanent l y change
the magnetic condi tion of the core so that the accurac y Of the
transformer will be impaired

r an sfo r m er s
o l tag e
ol tage transformers ( a
l so cal l ed
potential or shunt transformers ) are used to insul ate the rel a y
circuit from the hi gh tension l ine circuit and to reproduce
a vol tage on the re l a y s w h ic h is in direct proportion t o t h e l ine
vol tage

to

V T

V
.

T TT F

RANS O RMERS

I NS R UMEN

( a)

t t

el a

C on n ec

( c) V ec

or

121

GR O UPI NG

1 23

( b) Y Con n ec ion

i on

( d)

par r all el

Rever sed

p g pi g c c f m wi gc c i
C mory 8

FIG

AN D

T h r eeh ase

fel

ro

Scmndary

Z - C on nect ron

s of

an d

r r en t

ve

t or s

t r an s

or

er s

ho

on n e

on s

TT

1 24

P R O EC I VE RELA YS

This trans o rmer is in principl e Of operation an or inary

constant potential transformer Sp eciall y designed for c l ose
regu l ation so that the secondary vol tage un der an y conditions
wi l l be as nearl y as possibl e a xed percentage of the primary
vol tage
The onl y thi ng which can a ffect the accu rac y of a vol tage
transformer without entirel y destro ying it is a change in the
iron which woul d change the exciting current I nasmuch as the
e ffect of the exciting current is small and modern transformer
iron is non aging it is safe to assume that the original cal ibra
tion of a r st cl ass modern transformer is permanent
ol tage transformers are compensated for the ir iron l osses
at their rated vol tage When used on some other vol tage
either higher or l ower an error is introduced I n general
this error wi ll not be more than
per cent when the app l ied
vol tage is from 50 per cent to 1 1 0 per cent of rated vol tage
A vol tage transformer shoul d never be used on a circuit whose
vol tage is more than 1 0 per cent above the rated vol tage of
the transformer
Ordinar y frequenc y variation and wave shape al so a ffect
the i ron l osses but their effects on the accurac y of the trans
former cannot be detected
As the Operation of the vol tage transformer depends onl y
on the vo l tage app l ied at its term inal s variations in the l ine
current have no e ffect whatever on its accurac y
As vol tage transformers are designed for c l ose regul ation
the y shoul d h ave a temperature rise wel l within the A I E E
l imit of 55 C

ol yph as e G r oup in g s
I n general two vol tage transformers
are suf cient for an y two phase or three phase circuit F igures
1 22 and 1 23 show various groupings of transf ormers on two
phase and three phase circuits respectivel y The numbers
sho w n on the vector di agrams of secondary connections S how
the vol tage between the points indi cated in percentage of the
vol tage between l ines ( corrected for ratio of the transformers )
I n case a di fferent secondary vol tage between these points is
desired transformers of suitab l e ratio shoul d be se l ected The
highest accurac y is attained with standard transformers when
the secondary vol tage of the transformers is 1 00 v but
-

TT

PR O EC I V E RELA YS

1 26

( c)

el

tt

Rever sed

a-

el a

( d ) Op e n Y O pen Y

NA BC

/
V
A
Open Y

(6)

FI

1 23

p g pi g lc g f m wi gc c i

Reversed open

T hr ee h ase

( f)

ro

v o t a e t r an s
an d v e t o s

s of

or

er s s

ho

Y Y
-

on n e

on s

T T F S
T RANS O RMER

I NS R UMEN

GR O UP I NG

AN D

1 27

to be hand l ed S ome companies have adopted the practice

of connecting the vol tag e transformers directl y to the l ines
This is dangerous because a short circuit
wi thout fuses
within the tra nsformer might cause a high vol tage l ead to
burn off and fa l l in such a wa y as to S hort circuit the s y stem
To prevent this the l arger American e l ectrical manufacturers
rec ommend the use of resistors and fuses in the high vol tage
l eads of vol tage transformers
The resistors l imit the short
circuit current to 20 t o 40 amp whil e the fuses are designed
to open such a current
I n normal operation the resistors carr y on l y the very smal l
primary cu rrent of the vol tage transformer and the drop in
vol tage which the y ca use is inappreciab l e

Lo ad on r an sfo r m er s
I f severa l instruments are connected
to the same transformer the combined l oad ma y be o und as
fol l ows :Let W 1 W2 W3 etc be the true watts required b y the
severa l instruments
An d M 1 M 2 M d etc be the magnetizing reactive vol t
amperes
required b y the severa l instruments
Then the vol t ampere l oad on the secondary of the trans
former will be
.

'

and the power factor of this secondar y wi ll be

PF

W 1 + W2 +
L

These rel ations are true in singl e phase or t w o p h ase s y stems

where the current from each transformer ows through its
ow n
l oad
As an approximation which is fair l y c l ose the
vol t amperes of the secondar y l oad may b e taken as the sum
of the vo l t amperes of the severa l instruments
An d the power
factor of the secondary l oad ma y be taken as the sum of the
watts di vi ed b y the sum of the vol t amperes
T h ree phase circuits having a set of transformers for each
phase are approximatel y equival ent to three singl e p h ase
circuits and the transformer error cal cul ated as for a singl e
phase s ystem wi l l be the average error But when onl y t w o
transformers are used on a three phase s y stem the cal cul ation
-

d
-

TT

P R O EC I VE RELA YS

1 28

of the l oads on the individual transformers become s more

comp l icated and is not i n cl u de here When accurac y is
required such that exact correction for phase angl e and ratio
is necessary two transformers shoul d not be used on three phase
s y stems
.

B M

RE L AY S RE Q
UI R
I NG

OT

phas e
On
tial transformers

C URRE NT AN D P O T E NTI AL

T RAN S F O R

S ingl e

E RS

and two phase circuits cu rrent and poten

ma y be connected to the re l a ys according
to the foregoing di rections But when re l a ys requiring both
current and potential are used on three phase circuits then
spe cial provision must be made to maintain the correct phase
rel ations or rather the phase rel ations demanded to give adequate
protection
F or ordinar y watt protection the re l a y s must be connected
so that the y al wa y s give positive de ection with the l oad in
a given direction Thi s excl udes the connection usuall y used
AS is we l l
wi th two singl e phase wattmeters on three phase
known the vol tage and current on one instrument fall s 90 deg
0 per cent l ine power factor and the de ection
ou t of phase at 5
actuall y reverses be l ow this val ue The correct connections
are shown in F ig 1 24
With directional rel ay s which are used to sectional ize and
isol ate a short circuited l ine it was once customar y to use
the star connection for current transformers and the star
de l ta connection for vol tage transformers as shown in F ig 1 25
Thi s caused the rel a y current and vo l tage to be in phase
at 1 00 per cent l ine power factor This scheme is sti l l used
particul arl y on underground cabl e s ystems where the resistance
is high compared to the inductance But on l ong overhead
l ines and in every case where feeder reactors are used a short
circuit may be of such l ow power factor that there wi ll not
be enough energy to cause the directional re l a y s to function
On e method of curing this troubl e is very simp l e : The
rel a y s shoul d be connected with the vol tage coi l s across the

same conductors which are causing the short circuit I n

other words the vol tage coil s shoul d be connected in del ta in
accordance with F ig 1 26 Because the current wi l l l ag behind
-

PR O T E C I V E RE L A YS

130

rel a y

phase power factor meter in series with the

current circuit

and then with 1 00 p er cent pow er fact or on the l ine se l ect the
-

l l l yc c i c wli ic p w cf c p wi

Load

FIG

FIG

1 25
.

S t ar d e t a r e a
t h e v o t ag e
-

at

on

1 00 pe r

in

en t

h h

th e

ne

er

u rr en t
a

t or

is i n

h ase

on s of r e a

to

n on - n

u se

du

ve

the

oa

ds

pair of vol tage l ea s w h ich give about

l ea on the meter
.

r r en t

to

ci l y i c i l c l l
d

2
1 6
C on n e t
.

on n e

ea

the

v o t age

on

86

per cent power factor

-

T d TdT F S

I NS R U MEN

RANS O RMER

AN D GRO UP I NGS

13 1

The secon metho is to use a singl e phase indicating watt

meter and wit h a l agging power factor on the l ine between
50 and 1 00 per cent sel ect the pair of vol tage l eads which give
the highest reading
Just after making the above test is the proper time to see
that the contacts are hel d open I f the y cl ose the vol tage l eads
must be reversed
The above discussion is n ot b ase sol el y upon t h e mathe
m at i cal stud y of the probl em but is the resul t of actual tests
made on a number of transmission l ines where the reverse
energ y rel ay s connected according t o the ol d method have
n ot given satisfactory ser vice
E xperiments have S hown that
this method of connection S houl d als o be used on s ystems having
a grounded neutral Thi s connection ( with the current 3 0
deg ahead of the vol tage ) must be used with care on an
ungroun e neutral s ystem having a heavy charging current to
ground D ifcul t y may al so be encountered on some s y stems
where the l oad current is l eading But in both these cases the
short circuit currents will be much greater than an y possibl e
l eading current and no difcul t y due to incorrect O peration of
the reverse power rel ay s wi l l be experienced if the excess

l
l
current e ements are adj usted to Operate on y on S hort circ ui ts

D et er mi n in g h ase Ro tati on I n order to function correctl y

the directional rel ay s must have the current l ead 3 0deg and n ot
l ag 3 0 deg and in order to obtai n this condition it is necessar y
This cannot be determined
t o determine the phase rotation
from an ordinary inspection of the three W ire s, but is easil y
determined b y smal l patented devices now on the market or
b y a simpl e apparatus c onsisting of t w o ordinary incandescent
l amps and a suitab l e r eactor connected in Y
The reactor
shoul d have about the same reactance as the l amps have
resistan ce
C all ing the three phase vol tage wires A, B, an C connect
on e l amp t o A and the other to C, an
connect the reactor to
B On e l amp wi l l now burn bright an on e dim and the rul e
is that the bright l ight al way s l eads the inductance F or
instance if the l amp connected to A shoul d be bright t h e phase
rotation is A
C whil e if the l amp connected t o C shou l d
be brig h t then the phase rotation woul be C
A
-

dd

d
dd
d B
.

PT
PTT TT T
ER

CHA

RO

EC

I ON

OF M O

O RS ,

XI

RAN S F O RM E RS

G E NE R
A O RS , AND LI NE S

I n the earl y day s of el ectri c service protection of motors

and transformers was accomp l ished b y ordinary fuses which
disconnected the apparatus automaticall y when the current
became excessive E ven today fuses cannot be excel l ed for
rel iab ili t y on heavy overl oads I t was soon real ized that there
were conditions of overl oad which the fuse did not take care
of adequate l y
and besides the fuse was not at all accurate or
sel ective in its action and was quite expensive F or this
re ason the circuit breaker was deve l oped but whil e it was

a great improvement y et it possessed small reasoning or

t hi nking power ; that is it w as very l ittl e better than the

fuse in its sel ective action This l ed to the use of the prote o
tive rel ay a smal l instrument actuated b y the currents in the
machines or wires and control l ing the action of the breaker
The re l a y is so exibl e in its various connections and so accurate

and sel ective in its action that it is often cal l ed the brains
of an e l ectric s y stem
Whi l e the principal use of the protective re l ay is on l arge
generating s ystems and l ong distance transmi ssion l ines y et
it is often appl ied to motors and transformers and gives pr ot ec
tion and uninterrupted service that can be Obtained in no other
wa y

r ot ectio n of M oto r s
I n its simp l est app l ication the re l a y
is arranged to carr y a current proportional to the l oad current
and upon the occurence of excess current cl ose a circuit which
trips or Opens a circuit breaker F igure 1 27 shows a rel ay
A connected to the secondar y of a series transformer B The
primary is connected to carr y the l oad current of motor C
which i s pr ot ect ed b y breaker D Normal l y the rel a y contacts
are Open but s h oul motor C be overl oa ed or deve l op a short
,

13 2

PR
OTE C T

134

FI G

1 28

FI G

1 29

39

im

RE L A YS

i m t c ti t w h c i c ui t
?

5 4 7 7 E

7 7W

ac

73

IV

04 5

ple p r o e

n on

o p a se
-

t c ti t h h c i c u t

p le ove loa d p o e
r

n on

ee p ase
-

MO TORS

T RAN S F ORM E RS , GE N E RA T OR
S , AN D

13 5

NE S

wou l in th i s c ase be used and ma y be operated with on e or

two trip coi l s
If
F i gure 1 28 shows a two phase prote c te d motor circuit
two tri p coi l s were use d the y m i ght be conne c te d in parall e l
.

7 0

70 a 6 :

J E

WWW

'

I FC l
75
W A J P H d J E C /
FW /
OF
IN
LS
04 5 2

/
VG

t
d
c
c
t
i
t
i
h
u
i
d
u
c
t
i
v
d
c
t
t
i
c
i
t
m
t
b
u i t witch thh ci it b I

GEN

A7

l 3o
S

'

E S

ec

a da

/4 42

7 7M

P AE

P o 72 C 7 70/
V

/ r

nn

7Z

q /
VD

o e o s of Wes g o s e
t
t i g ci r cu i t s f om o e loa s
I
all a ses e p
b y an a l a r y p alle s
e r u
ea ker
o
.

M :

FI G

6 0 4/

I VE U

/M

elays fo p o
u s e ope e d

connecte d separate ly t o t e i r respe c t i ve re l ay s

n an y c ase
both phases shou l d be opene d
Three phase motors ma y be prote c ted with two re l ay s
but require three transformers for adequate prote c tion as there
or

13 6

P RO TE C T

IV

RE L A YS

is danger of an overl oad on

wire shoul d the motor
.an y
i nsu l ation to groun d fai l The reasons for this are discussed

under
n strument Transformers and G roupings
On e trip
c oil is generally use d tripped by either re l ay but the breaker
must open all three l ines F igure 1 29 sh ows the conne c tions

FIG

13 l

C on n e

c ti G
o s of
n

i h c i c u i t t c ti
F

elay fo s g le p ase
r

pr o e

on

As i n the c ase of the singl e phase , the time de l a y in tripp i ng may

be easi ly set b y the time l ever and l oad taps on the re l ay

igure
1 3 0 shows t y pica l d iagrams of conne c tions as supp l ied b y the
manufa c turer Additiona l diagram s are shown in F igs 13 1 to 1 3 5

P r ote ctio n of S yn ch r onou s M otor s

T he prob l em of pro
t ect i n g a s y nchronous motor or c ondenser is pe c u l iar in that
it i s desirab l e to have the motor stay on the l ine j ust as l ong as
possib l e in the event of externa l troub l e and y et it shou l d be
quickly d isconnecte d in c ase of i nternal troub l e T he motor
.

P RO TE C T

13 8

IV

RE L A YS

T hi s atta c hment is a lso provided wi th a c al ibrate d s c a l e so

that i t may be set wi thin wide li m
its The re l a y proper is set
for a very l ong time de l ay on moderate overl oads of 200 to 400
per cent so that a maximum time de l ay is obtained in mi l d c ases
of distress Bu t shoul d the l oad ex c eed 500 per c ent then there
is no l onger time to de l ay so the instantaneous trip fun c tions
,

FIG

133

ct Gith u u d ut cti th h ci cuit

C o n n e i o n s of

ela y s fo p o e o of a
g o d e e al
r

ee p ase
-

an d c uts out the motor instantly T his arrangement a ll ows

the main line re l ay s to iso l ate defe c tive feeders before the s y n
but it provi des instantaneous
ch r on ou s motor is thrown off
protection shou l d a short ci r c uit deve l op in the motor or i ts
c onne c ting l eads
Additiona l protect i on shou l d be provide d for i n the form of
temperature l oa d re l ay s This s c heme emp l o y s exp l oring tem
i
r
coi
l
s
bui
l
t
right
in
the
stator
s
l
ots
t
a
ll
ows
the
mach
ne
r
a
t
u
e
e
p
.

MO TORS

T RAN S F ORM E RS , GE N E RA T ORS , AN D L I NES

13 9

carry a heavy overl oa d unt i l overheating occurs E ven then

.
though the ma c hine be hot if the l oa d has de c reased the re l ay
w i l l not funct i on ;it requires both high temperature and high l oad
t o O perate it and then it usually warns the operator b y means
or
of an a l arm
it operates automatic equipment to re lieve
the l oa d This re l a y is more fully des c ribe d un d er M i scell a

meous Re l a y s
to

I G

134

C o n n e

cti Gith u d ut cti th h ci cuit

o s of
n

elays fo p o e o of
a g o d e n e al

P r ot e ctio n of Rotar y C o n ver t e r s

.

ee p ase

Rota r y converters shou l d

be prote c ted on both A O and D C side un l ess the rotary

/
i s Oper at in g an iso l ated l ine without storage battery stan d b y s
or an y other c han c e of the current reversing and motoring
the rotary On the A O end there shou l d be provided the usua l
c urrent overl oad re l ay s to prot e c t against severe overl oads
A l ow vo l tage re l ay shou l d be provided to dis c onne c t the rotary
in c ase of l ine vo l tage fai lure
.

P RO TE C T

1 40

IV

RE L A YS

The pro t ection against reversa l of current i n the D C en d has

been f ully d es c ribe d un d er App lications of D C P ower D ir ec

tional R e l a y s
ver y rotary shoul d be provided wi th an
overspee d devi c e of the centrifugal t ype whi c h provides
prote c tion shou l d the other d evic es not protect i t fro m over
spee ding
.

FI G

1 3 5 C
.

nn

cti cuit Gth ith ut tucti u th h u wi

e o s of
n

wi

or

ela ys fo p o e o of a ee p a e fo
w o a g o d e d e al
r

A co m p lete di agram of the A O and D C

.

r-

prote c tive re l ay s

is shown in F ig 1 3 6

r
s
f
r
a
n
e
P
r
r
t
e
T
o m
o ction I f the re l ay s are conn ected on
the l ine side ( generating side ) O f transformers whi c h O perate
a l oad Of motors et c the y not only prote c t the l oad but the
transformers as we ll O pen i ng the c ircuit in c ase of troub l e
in the transformers
But the obj ect is not on ly to pro t e c t but a l so to preserve
.

PR
OTE C T

1 42

IV h h
E

RE L A YS

the secon d ary Current transformers are c osen for t e pri mary
and secondary w h i ch gi ve the sanie secondary c urrent ( generally
5
These are sho w n at B an d C The sec on d aries
.

FI G

FI G

13 8

137

Di

er en t i al

t m t ct
r

an sfor e r p r o e i on

h cu t u h t ci c u i t t m

S o wi n g

rr

e n s i n r elay po n s o

in

a sfo
n

er

are connecte d i n seri es so t at at norma l l oa d an d corre c t dir ec

t i on of power ow a current wi ll ci rcu l ate i n the secon d aries
an d none in the re l ay as there i s as m u c h ten d en c y for o w
in on e d irect i on as i n the other

MOTORS

T RANS F ORM E R
S , GE NE RA T OR
S , AN D L

NE S

1 43

As l ong as current ows away from t e transfor m er i n the

same r atio as i t ows into i t
1
there can be no c urrent
in the re l ay ;but c onsider F i g 1 3 8 A short circuit has O c c urred
'

in the W inding at X and a heavy current say 500 amp is

owing into the primary The se c ondar y current may not
drop off m uch but the transformer w oul d soon be burne d ou t
,

FI G

139

Tw o

t m
r

a sfo
n

es
r

in

h t ci cu i t

p ar allel ;s or

in

on e

Consider the c urrent i n the se c on d ar y O f the ser i es trans

formers
ive hundred amperes on a 1 00 to 5 transformer
give 25 amp on the se c ondary Th e ot h er transformer
t o 5) w i ll a
ll ow on ly 5 amp to ow through it so the extra
20 amp must go somewhere
Consequent ly the y ow through
the re l a y c l ose the conta c ts and trip both the breakers e ffectually
iso l ating the transformer

P r o t ectio n i n Ban ks
I f however there i s another trans
former operat i ng i n paralle l with this and a short
c ir c uit oc c urs
.

P RO TE C T I

1 44

RE L A YS

the good transformer ma y feed the bad transformer from the

se c ondar y side and cause an a c t ua l reversa l of power in the
defe c t ive unit that is power feeds into the trans formers fro m
both sides as wi ll be seen readi ly b y a c onsideration of the
arrows denoting the dire c tion of instantaneous c urrent ow
in F i g 1 3 9
T hi s shows that the good transformer as we ll as the defe c t i ve
one be c omes heavily over l oaded and p l ain ly shows that p l ain
over l oad prote c tion wou l d c ut out both transformers in equal
time The differentia l c onne c tions however c ut out on ly
the d efective unit and throw the fu ll l oad on the other remain
ing units Then if the l oad is too great to be safe ly carried
the over l oad re l ay s must necessari ly cut out the good unit
t o prevent it from damage whi c h resu l ts in unavoidab l e inter
ruption Thi s wou l d se l dom oc c ur ;for examp l e in our previ ous
examp l e of three transformers carry ing a l oad of
kva
if on e goes bad the others must ea c h carr y a l oad of 600 kva
whi c h is on ly 50 per c ent over l oad and shou l d be c arried without
dif c u l ty Shoul d two transformers go bad however it is
obvi ous that one transformer of 400 kva c ou l d not carr y a
l oa d of
kva and the re l ay s have no al ternat i ve but to c ut
out the l ast remaining transformer to save it
,

P O W E R- DIRE C TI O NAL

RE L AY

P RO TE CTI O N

t is quite evid ent from the foregoing that a power di recti onal
re l a y may be insta ll ed i n the l oad side of the transformer to g i ve
adequate protection
xcess
current ( overl oad ) re l ay s are
insta lle d in the l oad s id e as before Now shou l d an interna l
short deve l op in the transformer the reversal of power i n the
secondar y causes the power dire c tional re l a y to trip this side
of the transformer thus re l ieving the over l oad on the other
transformers in the bank and then the ex c ess c urrent re l ay
c uts the transformer ou t on the line side thus comp l ete ly
iso l ati ng i t
n this c onne c tion the excess current re l ay s gi ve
protection against over l oad in the line or l oa d past the trans
former and power directiona l re l ay s

Spe c ia l re l ay s whi c h ae c om
O th er D i er en t i al M eth o d s
the
same
prote
c
tion
are
sometimes
bui
l
t
in
wh
ic
h
the
li
h
s
p
a c tuating w in d ing i s w oun d in two se ctions These sections
.

P RO TE C T V E

1 46

RE L A YS

the re l ay c l oses the c onta c ts

igure 1 40 shows a p l un ger
F
ty pe re l ay with a doubl e W inding conne c ted for differentia l
prote c tion A is the l arge power transformer arranged wi th

series transformers B an d B which supp ly the re l ay win di ng

D and C N orma lly these currents oppose ea c h other produ c
ing no e ffe c t on the p lunger E
Bu t shoul d one current reverse
d ue to a short cir c ui t in A both assist i n raising p l unger
which c l oses conta c ts F and G c omp leting the c ir c uit to trip
coi l s H and I and opening breakers J and K
.

1 42

z pm
A/

D i t t c ti tw t m th h c i c u i t
5 4

FI G

fe e

al p o e o of
r

a sfo
n

7z

'

es
r

on

ee p ase
-

Another ty pe of re l ay uses two so l enoids operating a p i vote d

l ever whi c h c arri es the conta c ts This is shown diagrammati c

a lly in F i g 14 1 The two p lungers E an d E work under the

'
in uen c e of the so l enoids D C and D
Normall y c urrent
'
fro m transformer B in wi nding D O pposes c urrent from trans

former B in winding C resu l ting in no pull whi l e current in

D assists that in C resu l ting in a maximum pu ll

Shou l d the

current in C an d 0 reverse then p lunger E is pu lled up and

.

E x

MO TORS

T RAN S F ORM E RS , GE NE RA T ORS , AN D L I N E S

14 7

p l unger
l osing its attra c tion fall s down T his moves the
.
l ever L on i ts a i s M c l osing contacts F and G an d tri pping
the breakers

P o lyph as e Tr an sfor m er P r otecti on

F or the sake of c l arity
a ll conne c tions have been shown s i ngl e phase Tw o phase
requires two d up lic ates of the s i ng le phase
n th ree phase
work the transformers are genera lly worked i n banks of three
ph ase sets ;that i s if on e transformer i n a set goes ba d the
others i n that same set go ou t al so leavi ng the other sets i n
the bank to carry the l oad
a c h three phase set requi res on ly
two re l ay s but requires three series transformers on each si d e
of the transformer
F i gure 142 shows a t y pi c a l three phase di fferent i a l pr ot ec
tion conne c tion for a three phase set
.

P RO TE CT I N G T HRE E P HAS E S T AR D E L T A BANK S

-

A t ree phase bank

of

star de l ta transformers having a

grounded neutral attempts to maintain the vo l tage equa l
on a ll phases i n case of over l oa d or short circui t As a resul t
in the case of a groun d on the li ne the transformers will supp ly
current to the grounded wi re irrespe ct i ve of whether these
transformers are at substations or generating stati ons
n
other words i f a sma ll bank of transformers is connecte d t o
a l arge s y s t em and has its neutra l grounded it wi ll be sub
e
j ct e d to a short c ircuit ever y time there is a g roun d on the
s y stem
or this reason small banks shou l d h ave their neutra l s
iso l ate d not on ly be cause of the strai n w hich frequent short
c ir c uits thr ow on them but a lso on account of t e frequent
interruptions the y entai l
The above argument app l i es prin c ipa lly to hi gh vo l tage
sy stems but it is necessary to consider the same conditions
on l ow vo l tage four wire s y stems
our wire s y ste ms are
genera lly used when there is a l arge amount of singl e phase
l oad t o be distributed and as a r esu l t the vo l tage on the three
phases i s l iab l e to be unbal an c e d When a bank of de l ta star
transformers 1 8 conne cted onto such a s y stem the question
of grounding the n eutra l must be c onsi d ered carefu lly As a
general ru l e i t i s unsafe to make su c h a groun d if the transformers
-

P ROTE C T

1 48

IV

RE L A YS

are smal l but if the y are comparati ve ly l arge i t m ay be ad

visab l e t o utili z e them to assist I n maintai ni ng ba l anced t h ree
phase vo l tage Thi s bal an c ing i s e ffe cte d b y drawi ng c urrent
from the hi gh vo l tage phase and supp lying i t to the l ow vo l tage
phase w i th the resul t that there is a ow of c urrent i n the neutra l
The possibilit y of burni ng ou t the transformers c an be pre
vented b y installi ng an over l oad re l a y i n the neutra l and con
n ect i n g it so that i t will soun d an a l ar m or automatica lly O pen
the neutra l
I t frequent ly appe ns t at star d e l ta transformers are con
n ect ed to the main circui t through fuses and troub l e i s en coun
f the transformers are supp lyi ng
t er ed when a sing l e fuse O pens
a motor l oa d and the neutral i s ungrounde d the motor may
run sing le phase and damage the motor ; on the other hand
if the neutra l is grounded two of the transformers will carry
a ll the l oad at a mu c h l ower power factor than normal
n less
there i s a means of indi c ating a b l own fuse , the transformers
ma y c arry the over l oad unti l burne d ou t A re l a y i nsta ll ed
in the neutra l and arranged t o gi ve an a l arm see ms t o be the best
means of prote ction when vi ewed fro m the vari ous angles

P r ot ectio n of G e n er at o r s
Be fore the advent of thorough ly
re l iab l e reverse power re l a y s i t was c onsidered bad practice
to prote c t the generators b y overl oad re l ay s be cause the y coul d
not be set a cc ur ate ly and on c e the y started to trip the current
must be redu c e d ver y l ow i n order to have them reset The
undesirabi l it y of this i s rea li z ed when the momentary ex
c hange of power betwee n ma c hines as for instan c e i n s y n
is considere d This rush is n ot at a ll serious as it
ch r on i z i n g
qui c kly subsides ;but if the rel a y trips the breaker w hen there
is no cause for it then there is a disadvantage
The main cause of danger is in a short circu i t occurring
in a wi nding As this short ma y be on ly a few turns i t might
qui c k ly burn ou t a generator un l ess instant ly detected and
iso l ated
f both ends of ea c h w inding are a cc essib l e this
be c omes a sim p le c ase of prote c tion b y the differentia l method
As shown i n F i g 1 43 the thr ee windings are c onne c te d i n Y, w ith
six current transformers as shown
As in the c ase of transformer prote c tion if the same current
ows in through on e transformer and goe s out thr ough the
,

h hI

'

P RO T E C T

1 50

IV

RE L A YS

to c arr y its share of the l oad b t may be c ome motored

f
p
the ref usa l t o c arr y l oad is due to a short c ir cuit in the wind
ing it ma y a l so c ause a reversa l of power whi c h will intensify the
short circuit To guard against this the power
dire c tional
( reverse power or reverse over l oad ) re l ay s may be install ed
between the generator and bus These re l ay s shou l d be set
with a time setting of 1 or 2 se c on the ex c ess c urrent e l ement
as there are often heavy surges of c urrent whi c h may fl ow
between ma c hines due to line swit c hing or s y n c hronizing and a
time setting whi c h is too short wi ll c ause unne c essary tripping
ven when the ma c hines are prote c ted in this manner every
generator or prime mover shou l d be provi ded with an over speed
devic e whi c h prevents the ma c hines from speeding as occa
sions ma y o cc ur where neither excess current different i a l con
n ect i on s nor power dire c tional re l a y s wi ll give the proper prote o
tion against this

Whi l e transmission li nes are

P r otectio n of S in g l e L in es
se l dom damaged b y over l oads ex c ept b y an ar e at on e par
t i cul ar point y et the great maj orit y of disturban c es ori ginate on
the li nes owing to short c ir c uits c aused b y the l ines themse l ves
fa lling or be coming grounded or ar c s starting from something
shorting the wires as for instan c e a cr ossw ir e dropping a c ross
the l i nes Therefore it be c omes ne c essar y to dis c onne c t a fau l t y
l ine very qui c kly in c ase of short c ir c uit To do t h is over l oad
re l a y s are install ed i n each l ine to be prote c ted
ven on a
singl e phase l ine two transformers shou l d be emp l o y ed as a
doub l e ground on opposite lines ma y o cc ur at su c h po i nts
that the y cause a short c ir c uit in which the prote c tive trans
former is cut out The conne c tions are simi l ar to those de
s c ribe d for the induction motor in F i g 1 3 0 and nee d n ot be
dup l icate d Additiona l schemes for l ine protection ar e d is
c ussed un d er the pi l ot wire and sp l it c ondu c tor s y stems

I f a three phase line is grounded

P r ote ctio n Again st G r o un d s
so l id at the neutra l then adequate prote c tion is obtained by
the usua l l ine re l ay s So lid grounding however has been
shown to be undesirab l e for other reasons in some cases and
therefore the neutra l is grounded through a current limiting
resistor
n su c h cases it be c omes necessar y to provi de addi
t i on al prote c tion against line grounds and this is a cc omp l ishe d
,

M OT ORS

T RAN S F ORM E RS , GE N E RA T ORS , AN D L I N E S

1 51

b y inserting a re l ay in the neutra l c onne c tion of t h e l ine re l ay s

This re l a y is then a c tuated by an y unbal an c ed c urrent whi c h
ma y fl ow in the neutral
This re l a y ma y be a p l ain c urrent re l ay set to operate on a
l ow va lue of c urrent as in the c ase of a s y stem with the neutra l
grounded through a c omparative ly l ow resistor Or i t ma y
be a watt re l ay used with the c onne c tions shown in F i g 1 44
.

F 6505]

TO L I H/
T F L OW

G u d t c ti u i t

C URRE N T

FI G

1 44

poe
r

on

s g 3 wa
n

elay

T he current coi l is inserted in the neutra l between the trans

formers an d l ine re l ay s w hi le the potentia l c o i l is energi z ed by
the drop in vo l tage a c ross a res i stor i n the neutra l of the poten
tia l transformers
This re l ay is set to operate at a very l ow va lue of about 1
amp or l ess
t has an adj ustab l e time e l ement and can there
fore be set to se l e c t between su c cessive se ctions of line
.

C H AP T E R
P RO TE CT I O N

OF

XI I

P ARALL E L

F E E DE RS

When substations are tie d into the main generat i ng station

or when i mportant industria l con c erns are to be supp l ied with
uninterrupted servi c e re l ian c e is not p l a c ed in on e singl e t rans
mi ssion li ne G enera lly there are a numbe r of li nes run and
c onne cted in para ll e l These l ines ma y or ma y not run on the
same po l es or the same right of wa y T hen in the event of
a c ripp l ed l ine prote c tive re l ay s are provided to dis c riminate
i mmediate ly and iso l ate the defe c tive l ine whi l e the other lines

instantly assume the in c reased l oad without a se c ond s inter

ruption The fo ll owing report taken from the Th i r ty
fth
An n ual Con ven ti on P r oceedi n g s of the A I
E shows the
vast sa ving which may be expe cte d from the use of pr oper l y
prote cte d paralle l feeders :
,

ttt
tt

'

t
tt t t t t t
tt t t t t t t
t
t t tt
t t ttt

S AVI N G S E F F E C TE D BY A P ARALLE L O P E RATI O N

t t t tt t
tt t
tt t t t t
t
t
t
t
tt t t t t t t
t

O F F E E D E RS

The s avi n g s whi ch can be e ffe c t ed by a par al lel opera ion of feeders
depe n d in a l ar g e deg r ee up on he de si g n of he ransm issi on sys em and
he ra io of he c apaci y of he l i n e t o he c apaci y of he individual
s yn chronous c onver er s or r an sfor m ers whi ch are supplied by his
feeder I n on e sys e m supplyi n g c on ver er s var yi n g fr om 500 t o
kw i n si ze og e her wi h st ep down r an sfor m er s i n subs a ions
kw c ap aci y an d al so i n dus r i al subs a i ons on he
of
an d
kw in capa ci y
pre m i ses of cus om er s r an g i n g fr om about 500 t o
i t w as e st i m a ed h a if t h e feeder s c oul d be Op er a e d i n p ar allel hen a
of i n ve s m en t
s avi n g of 20 per c en t c oul d be m ade i n t h e am oun
As t h e i n s all a i on i n q ues i on h ad a b ook value of about
This c ompany
t here w as a p ossible savi n g es i m a e d at
h as bee n oper a i n g feeder s i n m ul ipl e for ab ou t w o year s
During his
period i h as real i ze d near l y 40 per ce n t of t h e p ossible savi n g in he
i n ves m en i n feeder s an d h is h as been se cured by an ac ual reduc ion
in he number of feeders no wi hs anding a c onsiderable increase in
he m axi mum load

1 52

1 54

IV
h

P ROTE C T

As an e a m p l e

of

RE L A YS

ow i nverse ti me l i m i t re l ay s m ay dis
c riminate conside r the paralle l t ie I i n es in F i g 145 The genera
t or bus is tie d to the substation bus wi th ve three phase
trans mi ss i on l ines A B C D an d E and these lines are equi ppe d
with c ir cui t breakers and re l ay s at both ends
N ow suppose a short ci r cuit o c curs at X
A ru s of current
ows di rectly from the generating bus Sa y for examp l e i t
amounts to
amp Another rush occurs over the lines
A C D an d E an d through the sub bus back to the short
at X Say this amounts to
amp This is di vid e d bet w ee n
-

FIG

m t di mdi c imi ti d t cti b i tim

EI h
h

E le e n ar y

1 45
.

ag a
r

of p a allel fee e p o e o n y
s
n a on
r

ve r se

the four fee ders A C D an d

ea
c taki ng on e fourt so the
current i n each i s
amp
t is ver y evi dent that if all the
re l ay s are set equa lly the on e havi ng
amp wi ll go out
much quicker than the ones havi ng
amp Likewi se
the one havi ng
( B from sub bus ) wi ll go out qu i cker than
the ones havi ng on ly
amp
The greater the numbe r of l ines the greater t e di fferen c es
of c urrent d uring a short c ircui t an d the more prote c tion

Suppose however i t is not a d ead short but mere ly a

high resistance short makin g on ly a mo d erate over l oa d This
throws the a c tion on an entire ly dier en t part of the time
c urve an d the re l ay s may or may not di stinguish w hich is the
defe c tive feeder
t is ver y e vid ent that the se l ecti ve acti on cannot be O btai ned

from 1 50 per cent over l oa d to a d ea d short and since this

can be done wi th power directional re l ay s the se le cti ve i nverse
time l i mi t re l ay s y stem is on ly emp l o ye d where l ow i nitial
-

P ROTE C T ON OF P ARALL E L F E E D E

RS

1 55

expense i s of paramount importan c e and abso l ute c ontinuity

of service a secondary consideration

When there are a c om

T h e Bal an ced P r otectio n Sy st e m
i
l
arge
number
of
para
ll
e
l
feeders
wh
c
h
ma
y
be
divided
l
i
a
t
v
e
a
r
y
p
into pairs quite efci ent prote c tion ma y be obtained b y using
a si m p le excess current ( overl oad ) re l ay conne cte d di fferen
t i all y to the two l ines mu c h i n the same manner as that d es cri be d
under dier en t i al transformer protect i on
n this case if
.

bTATI ON A

c'r

OF C u ti e s 41 P

FAULT

h i w b dic cdimi t icti tw i

VAU LT

FI G

1 46

ee v e s of

ala e
s

pr o e

o n of
g)

o p a allel l es
r

( N ot

troub l e occurs i n one feeder then both fee ders in the pai r go out
f ho wever both feeders deve l op troub le at once as might be
the case if both sets were carrie d on the same po l e li ne then
neither set wou l d go out un less equipped with suitab l e rea c tors ;
or i f e quippe d with p l ain over l oad re l a y s the who l e substation
might go ou t un l ess there were enough l ines to enab le the i nverse
time limit rel ay s t o trip ou t the bad feeder b y their se l e c tive
time de l ay Consider F i g 1 46 The transformer on the rst
feeder is c onne c te d with its secondar y in series with that of
the other transformer N ormally the c urrents are as shown
by the arrows and no current ows t hrough the re l ay T hen
consider the se c on d gure A shor t c i r c uit has oc curred at X

P RO TE C T

1 56

IV

RE L A YS

There i s an over l oad on both l ines but the c urrent has

reversed as shown ; it now bu c
O pposi t e transformer
r s the
with the resul t that the two c urrents from both ow through
th e re l a y whi c h c l oses and trips out both breakers at station
B
This re lieves the over l oad on the good fee der but the over
l oad sti ll exists on the shorted feeder C onsequent ly there
i s again an unbal an c ing of c urrent in the c urrent transformers
at the station A and this unbal ancing c auses the re l ay at station
A to trip ou t both feeders at station A thereb y iso l ating both
feeders at both ends An open c ir c uit in either li ne wi ll a lso
cause an unbal an c ing and tripping of re l ay s
t wi ll be noted that both substation breakers are tr i ppe d no
matter on whi c h feed er the troub l e o cc urred al so that if a simu l
t an eou s short o cc urred on both feeders neither breaker wou l d
tri p as the c urrent in both transformers woul d reverse giving
the same effe c t as norma l dire c tion
This c an be overcome b y c orre c t ly inserting rea c tan c es
in the substation end in one feeder and in the generator end
of the other feeder
as wi ll be more fu lly exp l ained u nde f the
Sp lit c ondu c tor S y stem
After the tripping of a pair of l ines it is the c ustomar y pr ac
ti c e t o l o c ate the good l ine and put it ba c k in servi c e with strai ght
over l oad protection in p l a c e of the differentia l prote c tion
n order to prote c t against short c ir c uits on the substation
bus itse l f or against an y possibi lit y whi c h wou l d not c ause an
unba l ancing of c urrents or a re l ative reversa l of c urrent on
a group of paralle l feeders the generator end of all fee ders
shou l d be provided with inverse time limit re l ay s havi ng com
l
i
With this arrangement it often
a
r
a
t
e
v
p
y high settings
happe ns that if the faul t o ccurs on the l ine between the main
and substation the substation re l ay c lears the faul t ver y
qui c kly at the substation end so that the inverse time limit
re l a y on the fau l ty l ine on ly at the generator end trips thus
l eaving the good l ine of the pair c onne c ted at the main station
T hen if a vo l tmeter is connected at the substation to as c ertain
whi c h l ine is a l ive , the goo d l ine may be qui c kly put ba c k in
servi c e

I n this s y stem
it
D ier en t i al bal anc e re l ay P r o t e cti o n
is ne c essar y to have a l arge number of parall e l feeders or tie
,

P RO TE C T

1 58

IV

RE L A YS

d iagrams Of instantaneo u s ba l an c e re l ay s and time d e l ay re la y s

are shown i n F i g 1 49

S pl it c on d u ctor S y ste m T his method uti l i z es a cab le with

two wires in parall e l instead of a single wire A t w o phase
cab l e woul d thus have eight wires and a three phase cab l e
.

FI G

1 49

Con n e

c ti G t c t i d i b c d t
o s of
n

for

ove loa elays a d a la e

p o e o of p a allel l es
E

ur r e n

elays

the two w i res of

phase of a s i x
wire cab le The other two sets wou l d be con n e ct ed i n a simi l ar
manner A d ifferential current transformer is use d havi ng
two primaries whi c h bu c k each other on bal an c ed current and
therefore pro d uce no current in the re l ay during norma l opera
tion Suppose a d efe c t oc c urred bet ween the two l ines as in

s1x e

es

F igure 1 50 shows

on e-

S
P RO TE C T ON OF P ARALL E L F E E D E R

1 59

The currents wou l d no l onger divi d e equa lly but less

wou l d ow in one l ine than the other This unbal an c ing of
current wou l d ex ci te the re l ay s and open the breakers at both
F ig

1 51

Si

s rxmou B

m on A

ch m tic i m c cti th it c duct t hm

EN DAL
D WVER
'

C O RRTR
M S

FI G

S
0
15
.

e a

ARROW M o mm a RELAVWE Dinecm ns

M O 0 M 1 t NI E N S I E S o: C0 2 8 6 ?"n o w

d ag a

of o e

o s of

nn

e S pl

o r sys e

ends e ffectua lly i so l ating the c ab l e F igure 1 52 shows t e

condit i ons of a l ow resistan c e fau l t
H owever a short on ly between two se c tions of the same
l ine wou l d c ause no da m age ;but su c h a short se l dom occurs
.

'

D i c ti w w i t h h t
Resnsr m

Hm

Fa un

FI G
Genera lly

1 51
.

C o umn o n

e o of p o e flo w
n

s o

pair short c ir c uits to another pair H owever

if on e pair shorted to either wire of another pair the currents
in the two c ondu c tors wou l d be unequa l and the breakers at
both ends wou l d trip ou t
f however t h e t w o sections of
on e

th w ttu ht i t it th w th u h th
I
Re s us muc e
ram s Cow man

Lo w

FI G

1 52

L en g

of a o s e p ese
rr

fa l

e s y of
n

e po e

o g

the same line shorted together and these shorte d to two simi l ar
se c tions the c urrents wou l d sti ll be ba l anced an d no prote ction
resul t This is over c ome b y insta ll ing a reactance in the l ines
as shown in F i g 1 53
t wi ll be noticed that a reactor is in on e
,

l 60

P ROTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

side of t e spl i t at on e en d of the cabl e an d a reactor i s i n the

opposite spli t at the opposite en d Now if both sp l its short
circuit the c urrent is no l onger bal an ced due to the reactor
and the re l a y s trip out the breakers F or further detai l s see the

paper b y W H C ol e on Sp lit Conductor Cab les Bal anced

P r oceedi n g s A I E E Ju ly 1 9 1 8 p 7 93
P rotection
A short c ircuit on one c ab le natura lly over l oads a ll the c ab les
but if the other c ab l es are intact the current wi ll di vi de equa lly
in the sp lit conductors an d the re l a y s w i ll not be energized
no matter what the over l oad As in the previ ous examp le
this is e ce ll ent protection but is ver y e pens i ve requiring

CI RCUI T

h wi th u c t t h i t c d u c t t m
To

FI G

l 53

Rel ay

To

e s e of ea o s
r

in

Re l a y

e s pl

o s ys e

reactors an d l arge cab les The same protecti on i s g i ven b y

using power dire cti ona l re l a y s ( to be describe d l ater ) and this
has di scourage d the extensive use of the sp lit condu c tor system

As has a lread y been shown di fferen

Th e P il ot Wir e Sy st em
tia l re l a y s are practica lly indispe nsab l e in prote cting trans
former banks b y instantly c utting out a defective un i t wi thout
interrupting the servi c e C l ose ly a ll ie d w ith this prote c tion
is the differentia l prote c tion of paralle l fee d ers ca ll e d the pi l ot
w ire s y stem
Referring to F ig 1 54 the ma i n generating station is tied
into the substation b y means of severa l feeders
ach feeder is
equipped wi th cir c uit breaker current transformers and re l ay s
at each en d P ara lle l to the feeders are two sma ll wires gen
S gage conne c ting the two trans
10 B
er al l y about N o
former se c ondaries and re l ay s in series
nder norma l con
di t i ons n o c urrent wi ll fl ow in the pi l ot wires as the se condary

wi ndings are arranged to bu c k ea c h other resu l ting i n z ero

current regar dless of l oa d The dire cti on of the current is as
.

P RO TE C T] VE

1 62

RE L A YS

tial re l ay s thus enabl i ng them to distingui sh between a short

i n a feeder and an over l oad in 01 past the substation

This method of protection a l though wide ly used in E urope
has not met w ith mu c h favor i n this c ountry ex cept on small
s y stems where the substations are c l ose together as the cost
of the pi l ot wires is quite high ;be sides
the same prote c tion
is a ff orded b y power dire c tiona l re l a y s whi c h wi ll be des c ribed
l ater
Another disadvantage of the di fferential metho d of prote o
tion is that an ything whi c h ma y damage the transmission line
woul d be ver y l iab l e to damage the pi l ot wires and it is ver y
evi dent that if the y be come open c ir c uited the re l ay s can
not operate no matter how severe the di sturban c e Then if
the pi l ot w i res be c ome shorte d even though the fee d ers are
i ntact the breakers wi ll open
To this i s a d ded the great danger that a high tension fee der
in fa lli ng or breaking may cat c h onto the pi l ot and intro du c e
a dangerous potentia l into the station
P i l ot wi re s y stems frequent ly make u se of current trans
formers wi th a norma l se c ondary c urrent of
amp with
re l ay s wound c orrespondingly T hus if a 3 00 to } amp trans
former were used and the re l ay set for M amp the s y stem woul d
c l ear a ground drawing as l ow as 1 50 amp
t has been c al
1 0 pi l ot wire is used these re l a y s can be
cul at e d that if a N o
operate d successfu lly where the stations are betwee n 2 and 3
m i les apart the maximum all owabl e distan c e depending upon
the setting of the re l a y whi c h in turn is determined b y the mini
mum ground current whi c h is expe c ted to ow during troub le
F urther information on thi s subj ect is given in a pape r b y

Tr an sacti on s
R F S CHU C HARD T on
P rote c tive R e l a y s
A I
E
V ol XXX V I , p 3 83 1 9 1 7
Sometimes a l oop or ring s y stem contains so man y sub
stations that the time interva l s which it is ne c essary t o a ll ow
between re l ay s i n series a dd up t o an u n safe am oun t on the
re l a y s at the generating stat i on
f the l oop covers a small terri
tor y i n may be convenient to install pi l ot wires between some of
the substations The c onnections are as shown in F i g 1 55and it
wi ll be observed that under norma l conditions the current
transformers at ea c h en d of a c onductor are short circuited
,

I
h h

P RO TE C T ON OF P ARALL E L F E E DE RS

1 63

upon ea c other t rough the p i l ot w i re H owever the pil ot

.
wire may have sufcient r esistan c e so that the c urrent wi ll
There
d ivi de an d part of i t l eak through the re l a y s at each end
fore current transformers are used which have a secondar y
or sometimes 1 amp
rating of
whi c h de c reases the potential
drop bet ween the t w o en d s of the pi l ot wi re an d at the same
.

'

S UBS TA TI ON BUS BARS

CI R
CUI T

COR
ELAYS
OF I OW

3 0R
[0
4 P/

FIG

P
5
15

i t i t m t t d th ti c d u t m
h
l o w e s ys e
r

a a ge so a se o n ar y c e n
la e s be wee s a o n s
rr

rr

ally ci r cu

time requi res the use of a re l a y whi c h operates on a sma ll er

current an d consequently has a higher impedance so that
l ess current wi ll leak through it
When a short c ircuit or groun d occurs on t e li ne between
the t w o substations the current transformers at t h e two en d s
are no l onger short circuited upon each other but the currents
whi c h the y p rodu c e are opposed to each other so that current
must fl ow through t h e re l a y s an d trip out the c i rcu i t breakers
at each en d
.

P ROT E C T

1 64

IV

RE L A YS

h x

P ARALLE L F E E D E R P RO TE C TI O N BY P O W E R DI R
E C TI ONAL
RE LAN
-

T hi s s y stem of protect i on wh ic i s use d e tens i ve ly on ra di a l

d istri but i on s y stems uti l i z es ex c ess cur rent re l ay s of the induc
tion t y pe at the generatin g end of the transmission lines and
power directiona l re l a y s at the substati on or re c eiving end O f
the l ine R eferring to F ig 1 56 the generator bus G is tied
to the substation bus S b y three paralle l three phase l ines
A B an d C
The excess current re l a y s an d c i rcu i t breakers
,

FI G

1 56

m t i u t wti cdi cti mit d

E h

E le e n a r y
Tr

s e of p o e r
e o al r elays
p a d po en al o e o s o
e
r

nn

on

p ar allel fee e r s

are sho w n at
an d t e power dire c tiona l re l ay s are shown
at R Now assume a short at X As has been previous ly
shown a heavy current fl ows through the re l a y on l ine B and
a l so but of l ess magnitude on the l ines A and C But the
current in re l a y R on l ine B has reversed with respe c t to the
bus vo l tage Consequent ly this re l a y trips out the substation
en d of this l ine re l ieving the ex c ess c ur rent on lines A and C
T he over l oad sti ll c ontinues on l ine B unti l excess c urrent
re l ay E tri ps ou t the breaker on the generating end thus com
igures 1 57 a and 1 57 6
pl et el y i so l at i ng the defective feeder
show t h e ty p i ca l conne ctions for power directiona l re l ay s
-

P RO TE C T I

1 66

RE LA YS

i n operati on if d es i re d but it may be provided wi t h an y time

de l a y desired b y means of the %etting on the ex c ess c urrent
members of the power dire c tiona l re l ay s
,

r
i

C
e
s

a
h
P

9
0

3
2
#
5
0

3
0

2
6
.

S
B
O

Q
O

m
0
0

s
o

a
m
o
e

p
y
f

W
7

n
o
C

n
o
i

n
n
o
c

d
r

a
d
n
a
t

S
.

5
1
.

G
I

Anot er a d vantage of the cross c onnecte d s y stem i s that

the re l ay s may be set to c lear a faul t whi c h draws l ess than
full l oad current on ea c h feeder Thi s enab les the correct
c l earing of troub le on a s y stem havi ng the neutra l grounde d
-

I
h h hh h h

P ROTE C T ON OF P ARALL E L F E E D E RS

1 67

throug suc a i g res i stance t at t e tota l l oa d an d troub l e

c urrent may be less than the m aximu m l oa d current of that cab le
f the para ll e l fee d ers happe n to be on a s y ste m wi th m ore
than on e generator stat i on there may be occasions w hen the
power ow is rst on e w ay an d then in the opposite di recti on
With the ordinary connections thi s often ne c essitates a change
.

Br eaker

cti cti Gth h h t mw dtih cti u d t v d

Gr

FIG

1 59
r

C o n n e

elays fo

ou n d

Bu

o s of
poe
ga
r

p ol yp ase p o e r
r ee p ase sys e
w

e o al r elay an d o er loa
u g o d e n e u r al
n

i n the re l a y setti ngs but with the cross conne cte d s y stem
/
the need for t h is c hange is obviate d as the a d j ust m ent i s the
same regard less of the dire c tion of power fl ow
Some manufa c turers and users c l ai m that the cross connec t ed
s y stem is more economical than the spl it conductor or the
s y stem be c ause it d oes n ot require extra cab l es
c l ai m i t to be super i or to the ba l ance d protection
-

'

P RO TE C T

1 68

t w o in

IV

RE L A YS

us i ng
pa i r becau se the cross connecte d sy ste m c uts
ou t on ly the d efect i ve fee d er w h i ltathe ba l an c ed s y stem cuts out
both feeders and the good one must be l ocated in some other
m anner before it c an be put back in service
The sche m atic di agram of F ig 1 6 1 shows the c onnections
of cross connecte d reverse power re l a y s app l ie d to a s y stem
-

c
t
i
G
h
d
i
c
t
i
d t c ti t h h u u t c i c u i t
h
h
I
hh F

FI G

l 60

loa

C
r

o e o s for
elays fo p o e
nn

p oly p ase p o w e r r e o n al r elay

ng a
r ee p ase g r o n d e d n e
r al
r

an d

ove

c ons i st i ng of a generati ng stati on an d a substati on connected

b y two para lle l fee d ers To simp lif y it the diagram shows
only one phase of eac feeder A comp l ete diagra m for a pair
of three phase fee d ers is shown i n F i g
Here
o wever
162
the tripping c ir c uit i s o mi tte d
t shou l d be borne i n min d that w i le s o w n i n i gs 1 6 1
and 1 6 2 for a comparative ly simp l e condition this s c heme
c an be use d with equal suc c ess in an y part of a compl icated
network Whi le pr eferably the cab l es i n t h e parall e l s y stem
.

P RO TE C T

1 70

IV

RE L A YS

quently there is no for ce tending to operate the re l ay s On

the other hand if troub le o cc urs On a c ab l e within the se c tion
the c urrent through the defe c tive c ab l e wi ll be higher than that
in the others and the ex c ess c urrent from its c urrent transformers
must therefore pass through the re l ay s Whi l e under t hi s
unbal an c ed c ondition current wi ll fl ow through all the re l ay s
it wi ll be observed that the c urrent i s in the proper dire c tion
to cause the re l a y to act on ly in the re l ay s at ea c h en d of the
defe c tive cab l es
n F i g 1 62 are shown pa ll et swit c hes c onne c ted in the trans
former se c ondar y c ir cuit T hese are a l so conne c ted mechan
i call y to the O perating me c hanism of the breaker so that when
the breaker O pe ns the c urrent transformers on the feeder con
tro ll ed wi ll be short c ir c uited By this method a cab l e can
be cut ou t of service without interfering with the e l e c tri c a l
bal ance in the current transformer circuit
.

FIG

l 63

C on n e

c ti ti h u d u c t c t h
o n s of Wes

g o s e o b le o a
p ase o ly)

elay ( s o w n

for

on e

t ct Rel ay s
I t wi ll be noti c ed that when the c ross c onne c ted re l ay s are app l ied
to two para ll e l feeders the y are a c tually in paralle l and on e c l oses
with power in on e dire c tion and on e with power i n the other
Therefore i nstead of using two re l ay s ; i t is possib l e to put
two contacts on the upper e l ement to perform the same duties
Thus if the disk turns to t e right it cl oses on e contact and
if i t turns to the l eft i t c l oses the other contact
Thi s i s c l early shown in F i g 1 63 which shows two l ines
Dier en ti al po w er dir ectio n al
-

D o u bl e

or

con a

Ih

P ROTE C T ON OF P ARALL E L F E E DE RS

171

fee d ing fro m or t o t e bus C The transformers are di fferen

the current
t i all y c onnected i e if the l oad is d i vided normally:
mere ly circu l ates t rough the transformer secon d aries and
wi ll not pass t hr ough the re l ay as there i s as much ten d enc y
to ow one way as the other
Bu t shou l d on e current reverse due t o a s ort c i r c u i t t ere is
an i mmediate ow of current in the re l a y and its direction is such
that it causes the upper di sk to turn i n the proper d i rection
to c l ose the contacts which trips the breaker on the d efect i ve
l ine This is true whether the power i s owi ng i nto or ou t of
the bus
t i s the r eversa l of current wi th respe ct to the bus
vo ltage that determ i nes which wa y to trip
As before F i g 1 63 shows on ly the prote ct i on of on e wi re
but it m ust be remembered that t he others are s i m i l ar ly pr o
t e c te d with the vo l tage co nnected to the bus which gives a
norma l l ag of vol tage 3 0 deg be hind the current at 1 00 per
cent power factor The necessit y of this as we ll as the method
of determ i n i ng the correctness of t i s p ase re l at i on h as been
d iscusse d previ ous ly
.

hh

D I S AD V ANTAG E S OF CRO S S CO NNE C TE D S YS T E M S

-

The use of cross conne cte d re l ay s

d oub le contact reverse
power re l ay s has the same d isa d vantage as any other bal anced
scheme i n that troub le that o c curs on the busbars or on a ll the
f eed ers sim u l taneous ly c annot be automatica lly\c leare d
Another disadvantage i s encountered when an attempt i s
ma d e to cut in a new fee der
Assume that the feede r s are
heavi ly l oade d an d arrangements are being made to swi tch
in a new on e
f the attempt i s made t o c l ose the switch on
the substation end rst the new fee d er wi ll be tripped out
whereas if it is rst c l osed i n from the generating station en d
the fee d ers carr ying the l oad wi ll be tr i ppe d out When on ly
one l ine i s i n servi ce the chan c e of tripping ou t the new l ine
whi l e switching it in from the substation end is the same as the
c han c e of tripping out the l oaded l ine b y doing the switching
from the generator en d but in either case there is no d anger un less
the l oaded line is c arrying a current twi c e as great as the re l a y
As the numbe r of l ines in servi c e is increase d the
setting
or

P ROTE C T

1 72

IV

h h

RE L AYS

poss i bi li t y of tri pp i ng out the new li ne at t e substati on be

comes greater whi le the possibilitgr of tri pp i ng out t e l oa d ed
,

FI G

1 64

C on n e

c t i u i G v d t c t i d u b c t ic t
uu t tt ht t t t tu t t t

E o e loa r elays
o n s of
o l e o a p o w er
l a y r elays for p o e o n of p ar allel l n es
d a
.

t i on al an

di r e c

lines at the generat i ng stati on be comes l ess as shown b y the

fo ll ow i ng tab l e :
N mb
f im
l oad p f d m b
g a
a la t i g i d t o
N umb
f li
ak
p
at
b ai
a g ai g ai
er o

re

er o

I n s er V I ce

er

es

n re

ri

n es

on

se

re

er - e e
n

er

n or

er

er

en er

1%

1%

1%

on

P RO TE C T

1 74

IV

RE L A YS

The sa m e troub l e i s l ike ly to be e n c ountere d i n case one

line shoul d be O pened acci deii t al l y The obvi ous remed y
for this c ondition is to give the overl oad e l ements of the re l ay s
so high a setting that the nor m a l l oa d current cannot possibly
operate them
By doing this however the prev i ous ly state d a d va n tage
of setting re l a y s to t ri p on a fau l t current l ess than fu ll l oad
i s l ost
t then becomes ne c essar y to choose which g i ves the
most des i rab l e prote ction The possibi l ity of tripping ou t
the breaker when a new feeder is c ut i n can a l so be overcome
by mechan i ca lly ho l d ing the substation re l a y of that fee d er whil e
c utting i n rst at t h e substation an d t en at the generating
stati on
Another m et o d of protect i ng para ll e l fee d ers b y t e di ff er
1 64
Thi s m etho d uses a
en t i al m etho d is shown i n F i g
po lyp ase d oub l e contact power dire c ti ona l re l a y i n connect i on
wi th three overl oa d i nduction ty pe re l a y s There are i n a d dition
two auxi li ary re l ay s in the trip circuit wh i ch as wi ll be seen from a
stu d y of the connections , prevent the tripp i ng of the seco
d
breaker ( after the rst as tri ppe d ) d ue t o t h e reboun d of the
disk i n the re l ay
Add itiona l d iagrams i llustrati ng the conne c t i ons of a power
dire c t i ona l re l a y an d over c urrent re l ay are shown i n F igs 1 65
an d 1 66
.

h
h

I
I I

C HAP T E R X I I

RAD AL R N G

P RO TE CT I O N O F

AND NE TWO RK

S Y S TE M S
On e

of

the most i mportant uses of the protecti ve re l a y 1 8 t o

l o c al ize and iso l ate a defective feeder or piece of apparatus
in a radia l sy ste m of transmission whether the transm i ss i on
be c onned to sma ll units in on e bui l ding or a s y stem cover
ing mi les of lines The prin c ip l e of app li cation an d des i red
resu l t is a ll the same A radia l s y stem is one in whi c h there
,

FI G

1 67

On e

i di m i m di t m

l e

ag a

E F
I

of s

p le r a a l sys e

i s a ma i n generator or generators feed i ng a mam bus ( some

times sectiona l ized ) whi c h in turn feeds severa l sma ll er busses ;
these in turn ea c h feed severa l more fee d ers or machines and
so on
ach subdivision i s prote c ted b y cir c uit breaker and
over l oad rel ays
igure 1 67 shows the diagrammati c l ay out
of a radia l s y stem
n A O t r an sm 1ss1 on three ph ase i s gen
er al l y used but instead of showing the three wires in t e di agram
the three wires are represented b y a singl e l ine
The m ain gener ators A B and C supp ly the main bus
F rom this bus ar e sho w n two three phase
D w ith energ y
,

1 75

P RO TE C T

1 76

IV

RE L A YS

lines E an d F w h i c h in turn supp ly the busses G and H

n
general pra c tice there wi ll be a l afg e number of lines taken from
bus D but for the sake of c l arity only t w o are shown T he
busse s G and H ma y be in substations man y mi les awa y and
E and F l ong distan c e high tension transmission l ines or
G and H ma y be distribution boxes in a factory or p ower p l ant

and E and F a few feet of cab l e or bus

Tappe d o the busse s G and H are l ines I J K and L w hi c h
supply busses M N O and P These busses have more feeders
tappe d on Al tho ugh at ea c h subdivi s i on on ly two l ines are
,

CI R
CUI T
BR
EAK E

m t di m ch h
Re a r

FI G

68
Co
.

ple e

ag a
r

V ie w

of ea

elay s o w

in F i g

1 67

shown i t must be remembered that the number of lines is

un limite d e lectr i ca lly F or instance bus G might supp ly a
do z en feeders an d bus H might supp ly another 20 or 3 0
feeders and busses
m mediate ly as ea c h li ne leaves the bus it is supp lied with
a c i rcui t breaker and right after the c ir c uit breaker comes a
current transformer w hi c h a c tuates an overl oa d re l a y which
i n turn i s arranged t o trip the breaker
represents three separate wires
As state d before the l ine
i n actua l pra c tice The re l a y is in rea l it y three separate re l ay s
operate d from three current transformers and the circui t
breaker is a three po l e breaker
n other words if i g 1 67
were fu lly d rawn ou t ea c h feeder re l a y and breaker wou l d

1 78

PR
OTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

Say t at re l a y
is set accor d in t o curve 3 re l a y T curve 2
g
an d re l a y Z curve 1 Now suppose the overl oa d a m ounte d
to 200 per cent of fu ll l oa d Re l ay Z tri ps rst ( in 1
re l ay s T an d Qw o ul d requ ire 4 an d 6 se c respecti ve ly So the
action i s perfectly sele ctive at 200 per cent l oad
Suppose the over l oad was 400 per cent R e l ay Z s t i ll tri ps
But an actua l short circuit mi ght d raw
rst ( in
see )
o
r
n
s
about
r
cent
i
n
a
c
a
over
per
cent
l
oad
e
e
p
y
Cons id er the curves at this po i nt The y i ntersect Therefore
,

s
d

5
7
.

n
e
i

im d cu v ti h uh b t v d
I
0

FIG

1 7 0 T
.

2 00

e loa

400 600 800 lOOO IZOO l490 l600 l600 2000

Perc nt Load equrred t o Tr i p
'

e
e s of

9.

Wes

g o s e e llo w s y p e o e loa

elay

the acti on i s n o l onger se lective but at eavy over l oa d s the action

is a l most i nstantaneous Therefore re l ay s havi ng curves
si mi l ar to F ig 1 70 are n ot suitab le for radia l protection

D en i t e T im e
Let us consi d er the den i t e time li mit
re l a y R e l a y Z may be set for 1 sec re l ay T for 2 sec and
re l a y Qfor 3 sec
t is now evident that no matter what the
overl oad if the re l ay s act accordi ng to the i r setting the m ost
distant fee d er wi ll g o out rst S o it wou l d see m that a den i t e
ti m e l im i t re l ay shoul d be satisfa c tory
B ut it i s n ot ne ce ssary to trip a 1 50 per ce nt l oad as quick ly
as a short circuit Nor i s i t we ll to sustai n a short on line
,

RAD

I I

R NG A N D NE T WORK

AL ,

1 79

S YS TE M S

for 3 sec The obvi ous reme dy i s to set t e time cl oser

How
ever there may be four or ve subdivisions of the rad ia l sy stem
and practice has shown that it is use less to depen d on a bell ows
re l ay for such c l ose time
n the rst p l ace it takes considerab l e
time t o test and set the correct t i me and then i t i s n ot per
manent as the leather often dries out an d changes the time
so that at a crit i ca l moment the re l a y wi ll not i so l ate i ts feeder
l ine proper ly

I n ver se d en i t e m in im u m T i m e
vid ently the l ines m ust

be protecte d by an easi ly set permanently accurate re l a y an d one

w hi c co m b i nes the features of an inverse time li m i t re l ay at
.

d
n

o
c

n
i

e
i

i
c
i d c v h ti h i d cti t v dh
0

FIG

171

T m e loa

1200
lOOO
I4OO
600
600
P r cent Curr ent equ r
t o Close Cont a t s

200

400

IGOO

R ed

u r e s of a Wes

g o use

y p e o e r loa

elay

m o d erate overl oa d s wi t those of a den i t e time limi t at eavy

over l oads The i n d uction re l ay s d escribed in a pr ew ous chapter
meet these c onditions very satisfactori ly Consider the curves
of the i n d u c ti on re l ay shown i n F ig 1 7 1
Say re l ay Z is set according to c urve 3 ;re l ay T t o curve 8
and re l ay Qt o curve 1 0 Consider 1 50 per cent l oa d R e l ay
Z trips i n
sec The time is now se l ective The farthest
re l ay takes
sec ;the next 1 % se c ;the next 2 sec Thus
the time i s a l wa y s se l ecti ve w ith a re l ay of this ty pe F igure 1 7 2
gives curves of another ty pe of i n d uction re l ay

M in i m u m T i m e
The next questi on i s how man y l ines
or subd i vi sions c an be prote c ted
or in other words h ow c l ose
c an the setti ngs be an d sti ll ave accurate se lect i ve acti on
-

'

P RO T E C T

1 80

IV

RE L A YS

I t is not safe to sustain a short cir c uit more than 2 se c

the
generator ; this l imits the rs t?divi sion to 2 sec The l ast
sub di vi sions may be instantaneous The number of divi sions
on

0V

FIG

1 72

i m d c u v G i d u c ti t
I J

77m

e loa

79 C ur r an t
a/

e s of a

yp e r elay

in between d epen d s on the ac c ura cy of the re l a y and the time

it takes the breaker to O pen
igure 1 73 gives the time taken by vari ous bre akers between
the instant of tripping and O pening of the c ircuit whi c h re lieves
the over l oa d
t wi ll be note d that
se c is a fair val ue t o a ll ow

d
n
c
e

S
h

8
3

d
e
r
d

H
n
e

IS

m6
'

i
c
t
i
m
c
h
c
t
i
t
i
c
i
c
i
c
u
i
t
b
vt m m m vt
T

lO

l n ch e s
r

l3

l2

l4

Tr a ve l

of

FI G 1 7 3 T y p al
e a a e s s of o l
o l s 2 000 a p e es ( 2 )
vol s 3 00 a p e es
3 00 a pe es
.

( 1)

ll

ea ke s
r

(3)

ol s

Therefore i f the re l ay s were perfe c t ea c h sub di vision cou l d

be set with
se c to maintain se l e c tive a c tion Bu t the
time of the c ircuit breaker may vary s lightly so it is better
to a ll o w
sec Then all ow
sec for an y i na cc ura c ies
,

PR
OTE C T

1 82

IV

RE L A YS

set E an d F for
se c and G and H instantaneous T he reverse
power re l ay s are set very c l ose fa instance about
se c Now
if a short c ir c uit o ccurs on an y line the reverse power re l ay s ki c k
ou t the breaker at the re c eivin g end in
se c
f the short had
oc c urred on a feeder betwee n G and M the over l oad re l ay s at
G wou l d nish i so l ating the shorted fee der in
se c l eaving the

good feeders to hand l e the l oad w ithout a se c ond s interruption

f the short had been between D and G the reverse power re l ay s
wou l d have iso l ated on e end of the defe c tive line in
se c and
the re l ay s at D wou l d have iso l ated the other end in 2 se c again
a ll owing the good fee d ers to assu m e the total un i nterrupted l oad
.

FI G

i t m m i tw

Ind icates Over load R

e lay
lf U
l
dK Q
mdm
cchonal R
ev
ers e Power
elay
lndlcol cs a f mnllol lyConnected ev
erse P
ower R
elay

Ra d

1 75
.

a l s ys e

fo

g ne

k
.

f however all the l ines between D and G shou l d be come

shorted as might be the case if all were carried on the same
po l e l ine then the stations G M and N and a ll their l oads wou l d be
dead un l ess other means were taken to supp ly them Suppose
station G inste ad of being d iametri c ally O pposite to station
H shou l d be about an angl e of sa y 3 0 or 40 deg
t wou l d not
cost mu c h to have a l ine run from G to H Then if all the l ines
from D to G go out the stations G M and N wou l d be fed over
the tie l ine between H and G
n a simi l ar manner if

the li nes between D and H went ou t then H s l oad is assume d

by G
n a si rri il ar manner a l ine may run from M to 0 so even if al l
the l ines from D to G or from G t o M or if G itse lf goes out of
commission the rest of the s y stem is sti ll supplied
,

RADI AL RI N G AN D
,

N E T WORK S YS TE M S

1 83

t wi ll be noted that power may ow from G to H and from

H t o G ;or from M to O and from O to M
To pfot ect these
feeders properly as we ll as to prote c t an y parallel feeders in
whi c h the power m a y ow in either dire c tion the power di fferen
tia l re l ay i s use d This does not dis c riminate between dire c tion
of power ow as l ong as the l oad divi des equa lly between the
two lines Bu t i f the power in one li ne reverses due t o a short in
that line the re l ay immediate ly d etects it and trips that breaker
Another t y pi c a l network s y stem with its t im e setti ng is shown in
.

F ig

1 75
.

When severa l substations are fed from

Th e Rin g S ystem
one main generating stat i on and their geograph ic a l l ocation is
favorab l e the ring s y stem forms on e of the best wa y s of se c uring
uninterrupte d servi c e with a minimum of expense for feeders et c
The ring s y stem in its e l ementar y form h as been treated under

the c hapter on App li c ations of D C P ower D irectional R e l ay s

W hi l e the conditions of servi c e experienced such as l ow vo ltage
an d phase d istortion have been treated under t e chapter on

Characteristi c s of E le c tri c a l D isturban c es

Whi le theoretically it i s possib l e to in c l ude an y number of
substations in the ring , yet i n a c tua l practice the number is
limite d to four or ve for t w o reasons : F irst the best re l ay s made
wi ll not se l e c t with abso l ute precision c l oser than
or
of a

second and se c ond the max i mum time that a short shou l d be
he l d on before c leari ng is about 2 sec Of course , this ru l e
i s n ot rigid but represents the best practice
L et us consider the e lementar y ring again as S hown i n F i g
There is a main generating station at A w i th substations
1 76
at B C D and E
Al though the t r an sm 1ss1 0n l ine is shown
by a s i ng le li ne for the sake of s i mp licit y yet it wi ll be under
stood that each line i f drawn out with transformers and re l ay s
wou l d assume the appearan c e of the insert At station A
the lines are prote cte d b y simp l e a c curate over l oad re l ay s
whi le ea c h substation has A O power d irectional ( reverse
power ) re l ay s at both en d s These re l ay s are set so that the y
wi ll never trip when power ows into the substation no matter
what its magnitude but wi ll only tri p w e n an overl oa d ows
away from a substation
the re l ay s
G oing around the rin g in the dire c tion
.

h
-

,
,

IV
h

1 84

P RO TE C T

RE L A YS

on the furt est s id e of ea c stati on are set wi t d ecreas i ng time

B
2 set
1% sec
e lement ; for instan c e A
C
1 sec
D
sec and E
instantaneous G oing around in the dirce
ti on
the re l ay s on the outgoing s id es w ou l d be set as
2 sec
E
fo ll ows : A
D
C
1% sec
1 sec
se c
i nstantaneous
B
.

FI G

1 76

ic m c t dicti mdi c m c ith it cht tmti t h w th

h
h

On e l n e o n n e

o ple e

on
ag a
r

ag a
of o
r

of e g s ys e
I se
e o s a ea s a o
r n

nn

s o s

n.

N ow remember i ng t at a re l a y starts to funct i on only w en t h e

power ows awa y from a substat i on consi d er the e ff ect of a

short at X P ower starts to o w from A through B an d C

i nto X an d al so through
an d D i nto X Thus the re l ays
on the far s i des of B an d C start to O perate but as C i s set for
1 se c an d B for 1 % sec i t i s evi dent that the breakers at C wi ll

open an d re li eve the short from both B and C On the other

si d e of the ri ng t h e re l ay s on the far s i de of E an d D start to
operate but since D i s set for 1 sec an d for 1 % sec i t i s agai n

P RO TE C T

1 86

IV

RE L A YS

tan c e inductan c e and c apa c ity f the original l ines and de ter
o
mining the divisions of l o ad from this mini ature s y stem
n actual ope ration it wi ll usuall y be found that there are
severa l feeders or substations whi c h ma y be iso l ated in an e ff ort
to l ocate the troub le if it is not iso l ate d b y automatic pr ot e c
tion This condition ma y be obtained b y having a number
of breakers O pen at the rst instant of troub l e F or instance
in F i g 1 7 5 i s shown a feeder between stations N and S whi c h
is use d most for maintaining c orre c t vo l tage regu l ation
n
c ase of troub l e however it wou l d be possibl e to dispe nse with
this unti l the troub le was c l eared up on the rest of the s y stem ;
We have therefore assumed that the c ir c uit breaker on section
A in the substation is equippe d with an instantaneous re l a y
If
it shou l d happe n that the troub l e is on this se c tion of line the
re l a y in station S wi ll O perate after
se c and c lear the troub l e ;
but if the troubl e i s n ot on this particul ar fee der no harm
wi ll be done and the l oad that i s supp l ied from it wi ll not be
interrupte d
n order that s y n c h ronizing and other swit c hing
on the s y stem sha ll not cause in t erruptions
it is assu m
ed that
the minimum ti me limit of
se c is necessary
f such a
setting i s use d and a short c ir c uit o cc urs at the point Z the
re l ay i n substation N wi ll require
se c to operate an d there
wi ll be a further
se c re quired for the c ir c uit breaker to ope n
T he re l a y s at substation P wi ll not begin to operate unti l the
switch at substation N has O pened be c ause it is assume d that the
short c ircuit is c l ose to the l atter substation and there is c on
sequent ly no unbal an c ing at substation P
There wi ll therefore
be sti ll further de l a y of
sec at substation P before the troubl e
is na lly c l eared
t is for this reason that the deni t e time
l imits in the tie feeders be tween substati ons P S an d T have
been shown to be h igher than appears ne c essar y at rst sight
With the setting shown in these substations it will require more
than 2 se c to c l ear a case of troub le sho ul d it occur in either
section B or C F or this reason it ma y be thought advi sab l e
to adj ust the re l ay s at substation T so that the y have a l ower
time setting with the resu l t that one of them wi ll operate on
pra c ti c ally all cases of troub l e but as i n the case of se c tion A
this wi ll n ot resu l t in an y interruption of servic e ;it wi ll mere ly
trip out a c ir c uit breaker that c an l ater be c l ose d b y the atten d ant
,

RA D IAL RI N G
,

AN D N E T WORK

1 87

S YS T E M S

T hese i ll ustrations sho w how to adapt re l a y s to c ompl i c ated

sy stems thus se c uring a ll t h e advantages whi c h c an be obtained
from a c l ose inter c onne c tion of stations and substa t ions
,

P RO TE CTI O N O F

S YS T E M S BY U N D E R V OL TAG E AND E X C E S S
C URRE NT RE L AY S
-

Another s y stem successfu lly emp l o ye d t o protect a ring

s y stem uti l i z es a combina t ion of un d er vo l tage and excess

current re l ay s I n thi s s y s t e m all t h e breakers at each sub
station are me c hanically l ocked in c l ose d positio n and this
l o c k can never be opene d b y excess c urrent but on l y by l ow
vo l tage When the vo l tage fall s to a certain pre d eter mi ne d
val ue generally about 70 per cent of normal the un d er vo l tage
-

POTENTI AL

THE) ( OCIIS

TOCU

FI G

1 77

C on n e

c ti d i m t c ti c t d v t
h h h
o

a gr a

for

pr o e
r

elays

o b y ove r u r r e n
n

an d

u n e r ol a ge
-

re l a y O perates an d opens t e l oc kon t e breaker ;t en an excess

current operating the excess current re l ay is free to trip the
brea ker The obj ect of this arrangement i s that the vo l tage
wi ll fall on ly i n the immed i ate vi cinit y of the short c ir cuit
so a l though t h e short circuit current exte nds all the w a y back
to the generators yet on ly the breakers in the imme d iate vi
ci n i t y of the short c ircuit wi ll be un l ocke d an d a ll o w e d to trip
upon the ex c ess current
When stations are quite c l ose together the breakers i n an
unaffe cte d se cti on m ay so metimes be un l ocke d on the occurrence
-

1 88

P RO TE C T

IV

RE L A YS

a eavy di sturbance but in this c ase the short circu i t wi l l

usually be l ocal i z ed b y the iver se time e l ement se le ctivity
of the excess current re l a y s w hich wi l l c l ear the troub l e before
the other re l a y s trip the u nl o cked breakers
F igure 1 7 7 shows the diagram of connections of thi s com
bination
The potentia l transformers supp ly the under
vo l tage re l ay s whi c h norma lly have the ir contacts open
The au i liar y re l a y is energi z ed b y a servic e transfor m er
and this re l ay i n turn O perates the e l e c tri c a l l ocks on the breaker
using the same transformer for its energ y supp ly Both the
auxi liar y re l ay and the l ocks on the re l ay s are normally energized
and are de energi ze d e i ther b y the functioning of the under
vo l tage re l ay s or the l oss of station vo l tage As i s shown
in the diagram on e set of re l ay s may c ontro l a number of c ir cuit
breaker l ocks an d ea c h l o c k is provi de d wi th an individua l
cut ou t swi tch an d a pa ll et s witch t o open i ts circuit after
functioning
When the li ne potentia l dr ops to a pre d eterm i ne d value
on e or more of the under vo l tage re l a y s c l ose their conta c ts
thus d e
energi z ing the auxi liary re l ay whi ch in turn de energizes
the e l ectrical l ocks on the breaker thus re l easing the l at c h
and l eavi ng the breaker free to be tripped b y the ex c ess c urrent
re l ay s
f the vol tage does n ot fall l ow enough then the
breakers cannot be opene d by an ex c ess current
of

x
.

P RO T E C T

1 90

IV

RE L A YS

gi ve warning of such abm r m al con di ti ons or a c tua lly

to disconne c t a circ ui t sho ul d practic e so determine an over
vo l tage or an un d er vol tage re l ay may be install ed Such a
re l ay is shown i n F i g 1 78
t i s the same in constru c tion and
prin c ipl e of operation as the previously des c ribe d overl oad
rel ay s except that the w 1 n di n g s are wound to stand the im
pressed vo l tage
n the over vo l tage re l ay s the conta c ts
c l ose when the vol tage exceeds a
c ertain predetermined point whi c h
either trips a breaker rings a gong
or
gi ves some other signal to the
operator that the vo l tage is too high
and requires attention
The tripping vo l tage may be varied
over wi de ranges generally between
7 5 per cent and 1 60 per cent of
normal an d a time de l ay may be
obtained if desire d
So if a c ir c uit
is normally running at 1 1 0 v it be
c omes possib l e to trip it or ring a
be ll if it goes to 1 1 5 or 1 20 v or
higher
n the under vol tage re l ay the
windings are arranged so that the
vo l tage tends to ke ep the contacts
O pen Then shou l d the vo l tage drop
F I G 1 7 9 S ole o
ype u
to 7 5 or 80 or whatever the rel a y
r elay
3
( e e al
is
et
there
i
s
no
l
onger
torque
s
$23 333
enough t o hol d them O pen so the y
c l ose an d genera lly sound an al arm
Th e So l e noi d Rel ay The so l enoi d p ri nc i p l e as well as the
i nduct i on princip l e m a y be used to i ndi c ate the cond i tions of
over vol tage an d un d er vo l tage but i ts action i s mu c h rougher
in adjustment than the induction
n the over vo l tage rel a y
the p l unger is arranged to move upwar d and c l ose c ontacts on
over vo l tage On the under vo l tage the sol enoid normally hol ds
the pl unger up and contacts open but on a fall in vol tage the
pl unger drops and the c onta c ts c l ose A sol enoid re l ay is shown
in F i g 1 79
To

,
.

'

id tG

IlI I S CE L L AN E O US
/

RE LA YS

191

I n connecting , the potentia l c ir c uit is c onne c ted d i re c tly

of h i g h

a c ross the l ine l ike a vo l tmeter ;or in t h e c ase

tension
work it is c onne c ted to the se c ondary
of the potentia l transformer

n d e r c urr en t R
e l ay s
I n su c
cir
c uits as the c onstant current ar e s y stem
some signa l must be given if the c urrent
drops t oo l ow
n other p l aces there
ma y be c onditions whi c h require an i n
T o provide
di cat i on of l ow c urrent
this a regu l ar indu c tion ty pe re l a y is
used ex c ept that the c urren t tends to
keep the c onta c ts open
T hen if the
c urrent drops to a c ertain predetermined
va l ue there wi ll no l onger be enough
c urrent to ho l d them open and thus the y
cl ose and give a signa l or trip a breaker
These re l ay s are a l so used to shut down
F I G 1 8 0_Wes
g o se
automat i c substat i ons
t l g m ph t
e D C ove
1
0 d
I
s
a
a
n eo u s

O ve r l o ad T e l e gra ph Rel ay
I n F ig
mp
1 80 is shown a t y pe of simp l e over l oad
re l ay whi c h is c onne c ted b y c ir c uit to a shunt
n the diagram
mati c s c heme of parts F ig 1 8 1 the
iron armature A c arry ing the conta c t
B and pivoted at C i s he l d i n its
norma l position ( c onta c ts B and D
open ) b y the tens ion of the spring
E
This spring is attached to an
adj ustab l e arm F se c ured to the frame
G b y the thumbs c rew H
Ar m F
carries a s c a l e cal ibrated in mi ll ivo l ts
T he ar m that carries conta c t D is
insu l ated at I from the main frame

G
The terminal s K and K of the
_
c oi l J are c onne c ted to a shunt whic h
FIG
dia
181
s e a
g a of O ve loa
e leg a p
is in seri es wi th the line an d t here
yp e r elay
fore takes a current pr opor t l on al to
the main current
f the re l ay i s set for 50 m v then when
the c urrent in the shunt produces a drop of 50 m v the
,

typ t it h u

e e

c
h
m
t
i
c
mt d t h
I
.

PR
OTE C T

1 92

IV

REL A YS

armature A is attra c ted cl osi n g t h e c onta c ts B and D which

.

c l oses a c i r cuit from L and L to the c ir c uit breaker s trip coi l

i gure 1 82 gives the diagram of conne c tions of the rel ay and
c ircuit breaker under normal l oad the path of the c urrents
being shown by arrowheads An over l oad causes the re l ay
conta c ts t o c l ose the trip co i l cir c uit to the breaker an d the
l atter opens the c ir cui t thus re l ievi ng the over l oa d on the
s y stem
n install ations where the potentia l trip c o il circuit
is conne c ted to the cir c uit to be contro ll ed the overl oad trip
,

FI G 1 82
.

eleg a p
r

h t c c t d th ci c ui t

y p e r elay o n n e e

in

attachment on the breaker shoul d a l way s be c onne c ted i n the

c i r c uit since dea d short c ir c uit on the l ine ma y c ause the vo l t
age to drop so l ow that it wi ll not O perate the potential tri p
c oi l on t h e breaker This a ll ows the overl oa d atta c hment
on the breaker to be set high for protection against short
c ircuits or other vi o l ent disturbances but the re l ay i s set so as
to g i ve protection against moderate overl oa d s
-

P RO TE CT I O N AG AI N S T

RE VE RS E D

P HAS E

f a three phase motor is disconnected from a c ir c uit an d the

phases reversed when it is reconnected it wi ll naturally run back
war d Such a reversa l m ay occur an d has o c curred when
the motor i s d i s c onne c te d for repairs through an error i n recon
n ect i n g l oads at the power house or substation or fro m a number
of ot er causes
-

PR
OTE C T

1 94

IV

RE L A YS

ma lly the vo l tage tends to rotate the disk to the right and keep
the contacts open But shou l d one phase be r eversed or sho ul d
or shou l d the vo l tage dr Op be l ow 7 5 per cent
on e phase fai l
of norma l then the conta c ts c l ose and O pen a breaker
R eversa l
of a phase a c tually reverses the direction of rotation c ausing
the contacts to c l ose ver y quickly This re l a y wi ll not prevent
a t h ree phase motor from running sing l e phase if on e phase
opens whi l e running
t w i ll however prevent the motor
,

FI G

1 84

ch m tic Idi m c cti

e a

ag a

of o

nn

e o

f or

eve se p ase elay

r

from start i ng aga i n

n the c ase of an e l evator motor this is an
advantage as i t a ll ows the c ar to run to a oor and stop even
though one phase shoul d O pen whil e the car is between oors
S er vi ce r est or i n g Rel ays There are man y cases i n whi c h
it is ne c essary a c tua lly to open the breaker to c l ear a short
c ircuit as for instance an arc a c ross two li nes w hi c h is
ki ll ed the i nstant the breaker O pens This perm i ts the feeders
t o be put ba c k in servic e i m m ediate ly
f the cir c uit breaker is re c l osed automatica lly within a
se c ond after the transient troub le has occurred the servi c e
wi ll be restored in t im e to prevent i n d u c t i on motors from
sta ll ing
.

S CE LL ANE O US

RE L A YS

1 95

T he servic e restor i ng re l ay sy ste m has been d eve l ope d to

perform t h is ope ration within the shortest possib le t i m
e and
thus re d u ce a ll disturban c es to a minimum thereb y great ly
improvi ng the servi c e Shou l d a permanent defect occur
the s y stem wi ll a ll ow the breaker to rema i n O pen unti l the
defe c t i s c leared
A s c hematic diagram of O peration i s shown i n F i g 1 85
An y ty pe of over l oad re l a y ma y be emp l o y ed to trip the cir c uit
-

1 8 5 C
.

c ti u t m t i c i c t i t m

o e o s of a o a
nn

se v e es o
r

r n

s ys e

breaker on overl oad as previ ously des c ribed A vol tage trans
form er on the feeder outside the c ir cuit breaker i s c onne c ted so
that i ts potential O pposes that of another voltage transformer
c onne c ted to the busbars
The restoring re l ay whi c h is
simi l ar to a magnet swit c h is c onne c ted in series with these
two vol tage transformers Before a short
c ir cuit o cc urs both
vo l tage transformers are subj ected to the same c onditions
so that no c urrent will ow through the restoring re l ay ;but
when a short c ir cuit o ccurs and the cir cuit breaker has been
opened by the overl oa d re l ay c urrent will be for c ed b y the
busbar transform er B into the feede r transformer A through
the restoring re l ay The restoring rel ay wi ll then c l ose i ts
.

hh

196

P ROTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

c ontacts w i c i n turn wi ll c l ose the c ir c uit breaker whi c h

of course must be of the el ect
cal l y c l osing t y pe as we ll as
e l e ctr i ca lly tripping
n c ase of a permanent defe c t on the fee d er the restor i ng
re l ay wou l d continue to O pen and c l ose the c ircuit breaker
indenite ly as each time the breaker c l oses the over l oad
rel ay ope ns it T o prevent this a l imiting re l ay simi l ar to the
over vo l tage re l a y but equippe d with weaker spring an d heavi er
da m ping magnets so that its action is s luggish i s conne cted
,

l
9
9

Io

'
1 3

lo

m t di m cmm cti tc h wi c t witch hic

E
h
g

o
o

.0
l o

'o

o
,
lo

l0

of

Contr ol 6t

FI G

1 86
C o p le e
.

ag a

of o e o s s o
a ee e
nn

r,

g o

ol s

g ap
r

in such a manner that whi le the c ircu i t breaker i s O pen it i s

subj e c te d t o the same di fferen c e of potentia l that is O perating
the restoring re l ay
ver y ti me the c ircuit breaker O pens t e
l imiting re l ay c ontacts begin to c l ose and d ue to i ts heavy
d amping the y do not return to the starting point immediate ly
after the circuit breaker is c l ose d Af ter the c ircuit breaker
has ope ned and c l ose d a predetermined number of times this
re l a y c l oses its contacts thus short circuiting the res t or i ng re l ay
and prevent i ng further O pe ration
This s y s t e m is often install e d at substations having no
,

1 98

P RO TE C T I

RE L A YS

ta c ts thus energi zi ng the c l os i ng cOi l of the breakers This take s

se e as wi l l be see n from the fourth

c onsiderab l e c urrent and
l ine
m mediate ly on the c l osing of the breaker the current
in the restoring re l ay ceases ( rst line ) ; the c l os i ng coi l i s
de energized and the current c ontinues norma l i n the fee d er as
shown in the second li ne
Thus it wi ll be seen that on ly
see i s requ i red from the
rst instant of over l oad to the i nstant of resumed servi c e
f however the short circui t is not remove d upon the opening
of the breaker then when the breaker rec l oses the short circuit
,

FIG

c h c d h wi ti m t h t

1 88 O s i llogr a p
.

e o

s o

g o pe a o n
r

on

a pe

a e
n

"

s o

"

current i mmediate ly operates the over l oa d re l ay and again trips

the re l a y unti l the s l uggish l imiting re l ay prevents further action
This i s p l ain ly shown in F i g 1 88 where the short is shown
interrupted as before and the breaker c l osed again but instead
of resuming norma l c urrent
the c urrent i s again excessive
as shown
The servi ce restoring s y stem has proved its e ff e c t i veness
in man y cases and is re c ognized as an inva luab l e aid in securing
c heap ef c ient and e ffe c tive servi c e

Bel l r in g in g Rel ay s
I f a c ircuit breaker i s tri ppe d ou t
and the station atten d ant instead of being near at hand where
he c an see and reset i t i s some distance away a be ll ringing
re l ay may be use d This must ring the be ll or a l arm unti l
some noti c e or a c tion i s taken i f the breaker O pens due to the
protective re l ay s tripping but it is not necessar y to ring the
h e ll if the breaker has been O pene d intentiona lly
The re l ay
shown in F i g 1 89 wi th the c over removed wi ll meet the fore
going requirements A s chematic conne ction diagram i s given
in F i g 1 90 and the O pe rat i on i s as fo ll ows :
.

RE L A YS

S CE LL AN E O US

1 99

T he t w o e l ectromagn ets A an d B are arranged t o attra c t

the iron arm ature C pivoted at D wh i ch c l oses Contacts E
,

FIG

FIG

1 89

1 9 0
.

Bell

i i ci c it b

r n

g g r elay for
n

eaker s

D i m c c ti i i
ag a
r

of o e o
nn

fo r

b ell

r n

g g ela y
n

and F when attra c ted

The so l enoid A is pl a c ed in series with
the trip coi l and re l ay contacts of the breaker so that when the
.

P RO TE C T

2 00

IV

RE L A YS

re l ay c l oses i t energiz es so l eno i d A T hi s attra c ts armature C

and c l oses both contacts E and F C ontact E c l oses the c ir cuit
t o so l enoid B t h rough a resistance G and contact F c l oses the
c ircuit to a bell or al arm H N ow even though the c ir c uit
to A is O pened as it wou l d be if the breaker O pened so l enoid
B sti ll ho l ds the c onta c ts c l osed and the be ll wi ll continue to
ring unti l the swit c h I is O pened for an instant which a ll ows the
armature to drop and the conta c ts to open These rel ay s
can be used when a dire c t current circuit is avai l ab l e for tripping
the breaker
t wi ll a l so be seen that shou l d the breaker be
tripped b y hand the re l ay cannot O perate consequent ly
the be ll rings on ly on automatic tripping

When l arge power un i ts are used

T e mper atur e Re l ay s
in generating an d transforming e l e c tri c energy some means
must be emp l o y ed to keep the windings coo l when the y are
heavi ly l oaded as the capa c it y of a ma c hine is l i mited l arge ly
b y the maximum temperature whi c h the i nsu l ation wi ll stand
F rom this it fo ll ows that if apparatus is insta ll e d to remove
the excess heat and keep the temperature wit hi n a ll owab l e
l imits then a given ma c hine wi ll have a greater capacity than
one i n whi c h no such coo l ing devi c es have been emp l o y ed
There are severa l methods of coo l ing e l ectric machines T he
simp l est is b y immersing the who l e ma c hine i n a tank of oil
( as in the cas e of an oil c oo l ed transformer ) where the heated
c oo l s OE and sinks again to carry awa y
oi l rises to the top
more heat The coo l ing of the oil i s sometimes hastened
b y insta lli ng coi l s of pipes in the t op of the oi l an d pumping
c o l d water through the pipes
t i s ob vious that these methods c annot be use d for genera
tors or motors so co l d air i s resor t ed to l arge motor
operated
b l owers forcing the a i r th rough suitab l e du c ts or channe l s in
the i ron and windings
n a fe w instances the l ight l oa d l osses have been so l ow
that there is no necessit y for operating the b l ower motors
when the ma c hine is un l oaded N either is it necessary t o start
them for a short t i me heavy l oad
t is when the units get
h ot that the b l owers m ust start
F or this purpose temperature
rel ay s may be used The y start the b l ower mot ors when the
protecte d apparatus rea c hes a c ertain high temperature and
.

I
I

P ROTE C T

202

IV

RE LA YS

c oef c ient and are ea c h equa l t resistan c e of the copper w i re

2
exp l oring coi l B at its norma l temperature T he four resisto rs
are c onne c ted in bridge arrangements the potentia l being sup
p lied at 1 and 2 and the movi n g c oi l ( in p l a c e of gal vanometer )
at 3 and 4
.

NOV D C

t
d
i
m
c
c
t
i
t
m
t
u
F
I
FIG

1 92

E x e r n al

ag a

of o e o s of

nn

D C
.

e pe a
r

e ela y
r

or a moment c onsider F igs 193 a b and c

n the
rst F i g 1 93 a the resistan c e of the exp l oring c oi l is l ess than
the other three so current ows from l eft to right
Then
as it gradually gets warmer its resistan c e in c reases un t i l i t
,

6
'

h wi t h d i c t i c u t t h m i c i c i c u i t
LOW

FI G

1 93 S o
.

of

rr

in

ov g o l
n

"

becomes equal when no current ows ( F i g l 9 3 b) A further

in c rease in resistance ( temperat u re ) c auses the c urrent to reverse
and the higher the resistance the greater the c urrent in the
m oving c oi l
Now returning to F ig 1 92 it will be seen readi ly that if the
.

MI S CE LL AN E O US RE L A YS

203

c urrent causes the coi l t o turn to the right then when it rea c hes
'
a c ertain amount the contacts G wi ll c l ose T his comp l etes
the c ir c uit to the c l osing c oi l I whi c h c l oses a breaker and starts
the motors bl owing or rings a be ll et c When the breaker
c l oses auxi l iary conta c ts open the c ir c uit to re l ieve the re l ay
c onta ct s The apparatus gradually gets c oo l er and the resistance
of the c opper wire exp l oring c oi l whi c h is wound in the ma c hine
decreases unti l the current i n the moving c oi l has reversed
to such an extent that conta c t H is c l osed This c omp l etes
the c ircuit to the trip c oi l J and the breaker O pens
I f t h e vo l tage of the D C circuit varies it wi ll a ff ect the
a cc ura c y somewhat but this error is extreme ly small at the
ba l an c ing or reversing point consequent ly this is the point
genera lly chosen at whi c h the re l ay c l oses its c onta c ts on high
temperature Whi l e this arrangement m ay be used to prote c t
either A O or D C apparatus it requires a constant D C
source for its operation

When i t i s desirab l e to have

A O T e mper at ur e Relays
the re l a y trip out the cir c uit i n the event of ex c essive tem
per at u r e the A O temperature re l a y is genera lly used as it
ma y be arranged to trip out the c ir c uit on high temperature
but on ly if the excessive current is sti ll owing F or instance
say it is a generator that is being protected The exp l oring
c oi l wou l d be w oun d an d i mbedde d i n the stat i onar y part and
c onsequent ly attain the same temperature as the part in w hi c h
it is imbedde d D ue to a quick heavy l oad on e portion of
the m a c hine m ay attain a qu i te high temperature but before
this temperature can reach the search coi l the l oad ma y decreas e
Bu t the heat in dissipating from the hottest part ma y sti ll
continue to raise the temperature of the coo l er parts and the n
i n a short time the sear c h co i l ma y g et h ot enough t o trip the
re l a y Sti ll there being very light l oad the machine , as a who l e
i s actually coo l i ng and wi ll continue t o coo l
This shows the ne c essity of us i ng a re l a y that w i ll n ot trip
when the temperature is high un l ess there is a l so a heavy l oad ;
n or wi ll i t trip on a high l oa d un l ess the temperature i s high
t takes both high temperature and high l oad t o O perate the
re l ay The conne c tions internal and external of this re l ay
are shown in F ig 1 94 This shows the regu l ar induction ty pe
,

P RO T E C TI

2 04

RE L A YS

e l ement A wi th d is k B arrange d i n the regul ar manner so that

movement of t h c d isk c l oses t h e con t act s C

t wi ll be noticed
that the cu rrent transformer supp lies two circuits ;one ex c ites
the ma i n coi l of the re l ay and the other furn i shes po tential
to the bridge arrangement T his br i dge arrangement consists
of two unchanging arms D and
( usua lly p l ace d insi d e the
.

TR
ANS

FI G

1 94

C on n e

cti di m t m tu
h
o

ag a
r

of A O e pe a
.

e r elay

re l ay ) and two sear c coi l s imbedded in the winding of the

generator or transformer being protected
The other actuati ng winding of the re l ay ( on the two po l es )
i s used in p l ace of the ga l vanometer Sin c e the torque on the
disk i s the r eacti on or the mu l tip l ication of the currents in the
two windings it is very evi dent that even though there is a
heavy c urrent owi ng in t h e main coi l it will not trip if there
is n o current in the other two po l es ( due to unba l an c e of bridge ) ;
neither can the rel ay act if the sear c h c oi l s get h ot enough to
.

206

P RO TE C T

FI G

FI G

195

196

Rela y s

IV

RE L A YS

wi t c h w i th c c t c t

Rela y s w

a bo
r

o a s
n

itch w th c t ct tt
i

o a s a op
n

M S CE LL AN E O US

RE L A YS

207

disk C against the two stat i onary c arbon c onta c ts D and D

Short c ir c ui t ing these c o nta c ts c l oses the c ir c uit of the shunt
trip c oi l on the c ir c uit breaker T he c onta c ts being of c arbon
wi ll c arry a heavy c urrent and wi ll not sti c k
n another form
of re l a y swit c h F i g 1 9 6 the p l unger simp ly pushes up a pivoted
arm thus c l osing the two c onta c ts D and D
-

'

FI G

1 97
.

Wes

t i h u m u ti c t c t
I
n

g o se

o a
n

elay

Sometimes it is desirab l e to trip two or more breakers at

on c e with the same re l a y swit c h
n this case the disk is
genera lly made of Oopper and two or three sets of stationar y
c onta c ts are used thus c l osing two or three c ir c uits si m u l t a
n eou sl y
Another mu l ti c onta c t re l a y is shown i n F ig 197
.

P RO T E C T

208

IV

RE L AYS

I t mus t be remembered that the ar c ing at the rel a y conta c ts

wi ll a l way s be a great dea l morg severe when O pening a c ir c uit

than when cl osing one F or this reason a re l ay shou l d never
open the trip c ir c uit once estab l ished I f the trip c ir c uit is fed
from the l oad side of the breaker it wi ll be opened automat
i call y when the breaker O pens and the c ir c uit will be dead when
the re l ay s reset Shou l d it be ne c essary to c onne c t the shunt
.

FI G

1 98

Wes

ti h u t
n

g o se

a sfe
n

elay

trip c i r c u i t to the l ine side of the breaker or if a separate c ir c uit

i s used then a swit c h must be arranged to open the trip c ircuit
as soon as the breaker O pens thus re l ieving the re l ay c onta c ts
of thi s dut y

Tr an sf er Relays T o prevent the fai lure of trip c ir

cui t s as we ll as to app ly re l ay s where a direct current is not
avai l ab l e series trip or c ir c uit opening re l ay s ma y be used
but the ir inherent fau l t of O pening a breaker on s l ight vi bra
tion has dis c ourage d their use H owever b y us i ng a transfer

re l a y as it i s call e d the advantage of the series trip re l ay may

,

210
l

PR
O TE C T] V E

RE L A YS

in oppos i ti on to t e c urrent i n c o i l J ten d s t o d e m agnetiz e the

c ore M and it l oses its at t r act i an for the p l unger I all o win g
coi l H to pu ll it up This changes the switch at the t op t o
the position shown in F i g 200
t wi ll now be noted that the
current i s o wi ng through the trip coi l L w hic w i ll trip the
breaker
.

i m t h d c t i c t d th h c i c u i t t
F h h
I

FIG

2 01

D a gr a

of

a sfe
n

ela y o e e
a
elay p p e

on

nn

ee p ase
-

Le

i gure 201 s ows t ree s i ngl e phase re l ay s protecting a three

phase line i n connection with thr ee transfer re l a y s When the
p l ungers are a ll d own the trip coi l is entire ly insu l ated from
the ser i es circuit
f an y on e t w o or three re l a y s operate
the y will comp l ete a cir cuit through the tri p co i l an d current
transformers un d er an y conditions that may ari se The over
l oad re l a y A gi ves the necessar y ac cura c y whi l e the transfer
re l a y gi ves the a d vantage of a series trip or circuit opening
s y stem

I n using an overl oa d re l a y on a high

Hi g h t en sio n Rel ay s
tension cir c uit it has genera lly been customary to use high
-

RE LA YS

S CE LL AN E O US

211

tension c urrent transformers whi c h of course thorough ly

insul ate the re l ay c ir c uit from the high tension primary and a ll ow
the re l ay to be p l a c ed on the board When the c urrent is over
a straight wire ) in the
1 00 amp it requires on ly on e turn
primar y and c onsequent ly the insu l ation of the primary becomes
a comparative ly eas y matter C urrent tra n sformers of on e
turn are often bui l t right around the termina l bushings of a
c ircuit breaker using the termina l
rod itse l f as the primar y
When the c urrent be c omes l ess
than 1 00 amp the primary must
consist of more than one turn an d
the i nsu l ation be c omes a dif c u l t
matter espe cia lly on an extra h igh
tension c ircu i t as for i nstance a
v or a
v l i ne
To overcome this the comp l ete
re l a y su c h as the p l unger ty pe may
be mounte d on a pi ll ar insu l ator and
c onnected dire c tly in the high tension
l ine Then if the p lunger is atta c hed
upward due to overl oad it pu ll s t h e
l ong insu l ate d c hain whi c h me
ch an i call y operates a set of trip c on
ta c ts thus c l osing the trip c ir c uit to
the breaker This c hain is made ou t
of m i car t a l inks the number var ying
F I G 2 02 _ wes
g o se H
T
r elay
C
e
o
e
o
"
;
ac c ording to the potentia l
i
p O t m s u l at m
A
v c ir c uit shou l d be sup
p l ied with 1 2 l inks on ac count of surges ;a
with 20 l inks
and a
with 3 0 l inks This a ll ows the so l enoid t o be
moun t ed on a dis c onne c ting swit c h or other insu l ate d support
and the trip c onta c ts to be in the most c onvenient l ocation

W esti n gh o us e High tensio n r el ay C o mbin ati on Reali z

i ng the great advantage of an a ccurate h i gh tension re l a y
and the inabi l it y to se c ure a cc ura c y with a so l eno id t y pe the

high tension indu c tion and transfer re l ay shown i n F i g 202

was deve l oped
t consists of the a ccurate i nduction t y pe
re l ay ( previous ly d es c ribed ) and a transfer re l a y mounted on
,

'

tmi uh tud

l n

'

P RO TE C T

2 12

IV

RE L A YS

a sma ll pane l whi c h in turn is mounted on a pi ll ar insu l ator

n stead of the transfer re l ay p l unger operating the swit c h
it mere ly pu ll s the m i car t a c hain whi c h c l oses the l ow tension
trip cir c uit c onta c ts
The indu c tion rel ay retains a ll its inherent chara c teristi c s
of inverse d en it e min i mum time its se l e c tive a c tion perma
and the transfer re l ay adds the positive
n en ce of ac c ura c y etc
tripping mot i on using the A O c urrent energy for operation and
not depending on an auxi l iary trip c ircui t Together the y form
an unexce ll ed prote c tive re l ay for high tension cir c uits being
readi ly adapted to simpl e c ir c uits radial s y stems an d parall e l
feeders
.

TI M IN G

RE LAYS WI TH

A CYCLE C O UNT E R

Before

the introduction of the cy c l e c ounter the genera lly

approved metho d of determining the time d e l a y of a protect i ve

re l a y was to use a stop wat c h or c h ronometer starting the

wat c h simu l taneous ly with the app li cation of over l oad and
stopping it at the instant of tripping With the o l der re l ay s
havi ng a time de l a y of severa l se c onds thi s method gave satis
fa c t or y resu l ts but with the present day re l ay s designed with
watt hour meter a cc ura c y and capab l e of being set wit hin
fractions of a se c ond it is O bvious that the stop wat c h method
is n ot at a ll suitab l e
A stop watch at best cannot be re li e d upon c l oser than about
sec and when to this i s added the persona l error of
starting and stopping it gives a possib l e error al m ost as great
as the time between various sectiona l i z ing re l ay s
t is not at
a ll unusua l to set sectiona l izing re l ay s in a radia l s y stem on ly
sec apart and in some cases good resu l ts have been obtained
with re l a y s set on ly
sec apart
T o meas u re the time d e l a y of a prote c tive re l a y ac c urate ly
and au t omati c a lly is the fun c tion of the c y c l e counter This
ig 203 whi l e t w o interior views are
i nstrument is shown in
shown in F igs 204 and 205

P r in cipl e of O per ati o n

T he c y c l e counter consists essen
t i all y of a se l f winding c l o c k in which the es c apement whee l
or pendul um i s rep l aced b y a po l ari z ed re l a y The diagram
,

PR
O TE C T

2 14

IV

RE LA YS

of attracti ng an d repe ll in g oppcni t e ends of the armature T he

a c tion i s as fo ll ows :
Assu m e that d ur i ng the rst cy c l e of app l ied current the
.

FI G

FI G

2 07

C o n n e

2 06

ch m tic di m c c c u t
e a

ag a
r

of y l e o

er

c ti t t i c i c u i t c i i t h c c c u t
h
o s
n

for

es

l os g elay w
n

y le o

r.

current ows from the j: to the T term i na l Thi s w i l l pro d uce

an N po l e on the armature en d of the right hand e l ectromagnet
and an S po l e on the corresponding end of the l eft han d e l ectro
magnet As both en d s of the armature are po l ar iz ed N the
right han d en d wi ll be repe ll e d an d the l eft an d en d attracte d
.

Ih h h
S CE LL AN E O US

RE L A YS

2 15

alf of t e cy c l e t e current i s r everse d

'
and n ow the r i ght hand end is attracte d an d t h e l eft hand
en d repe ll ed which natura lly resu l ts in on e oscil l ati on of the
bar B and the escape m ent of on e tooth
rom this i t wi ll
rea d ily be seen that the w hee l moves one tooth per c y c l e as
l ong as the e l e c tromagnets are ener g i zed A sma ll e l ectric
motor contro ll e d automatica lly r e w i n d s the mai n c l ock
spring when i t has unwound a certain amount This keeps
an even tens i on on the escapement and the e l ectromagnets
are thus not d epende d on to dr i ve t h e m echan i s m , but si mp ly
to regu l ate its spee d

T i mi n g a Cir cui t cl osin g Relay D eterm i n i ng t e time

de l ay n ow beco m es a prob l em of energi zi ng the e l ectro m agnets
Dur i ng t h e secon d

Coon fer

FIG

2 08

C o n n e

c t h t ti c i c u i t i i t h c c c u t
i

on s

es

for

o pe

n n

g elay w

y le o

er

s i mu l taneous ly wi t t h e appli cat i on of l oa d ami d e en er g i z

ing the m upon the i nstant of tr i pp i ng Th i s i s m ost easi ly
d one b y temporari ly di sconnect i ng the re l a y fro m the circuit
an d connect i ng to a test c ircu i t w i th connect i ons as shown
i n F i g 207 using a l a m p bank or other suitab l e res i stance
for the l oa d and a switch b y whi c h t hi s l oa d m ay be qui ckly
app l ie d
Whi l e adj usti ng the l oa d it i s best t o di sconnect the
l ead at A t o a vo i d unnecessary wear on the counter Another
sw i tch ma y be provid e d for this purpose i f d esire d
After
adjusting the l oa d the mai n testing swi tch i s opene d the re l a y
a ll owe d t o reset fu lly and the c y c l e counter pointers set on
z ero Then the switch i s c l osed thus app ly ing l oa d an d poten
tia l t o the re l a y an d counter The counter revo l ves on e tooth per
-

P RO TE C T

216

IV

RE L A YS

c y c l e unti l the rel ay contacts c l ose when the y short cir c u i t the
es c apement e l ectromagnets and thu s stop the counter instantly
The number of c y cl es indi c ated divi ded b y the normal fr e
quen oy of the testing c ir c uit wi ll give the time de l ay in se c onds
F or instance i f used on a 2 5 c y c l e circuit and the c ounter indi
cates 50 c y c l es the time wi ll be 2 se c ;if on a 3 0 c y cl e c ircuit then
the time wi ll be 1 % se c and so on
A number of operating companies d o not re d uce the c y cl es
to seconds but the testing reports and c ur ves g i ve the time de l ay
dire c t ly in c y c l es thus a or din g units which are more easily
han d l e d than fra c tions of a second

Ti m in g a C ir cuit O peni n g Rel ay I n determining the time

de l a y of a circuit opening re l a y it is simp ly ne c essary to con
n ect the es c apement so l enoids in series with the re l a y c onta c ts
as shown in F i g 208 C l osing the main testing swit c h energiz es
both re l ay an d c ounter simu l taneous ly an d the counter stops
the instant the conta c ts O pen
-

'

FIG

2 09

C on n e

cti t ti c m t t cti ui m t
o sf
n

Ti m in g th e Br eaker

or

es

g o p le e p o e
r

ve e q p e

Switch R eal izing that i t i s

necessary t o make all owance for the time taken b y the breaker
or oi l swi t c h an d its auxi l iar y equipment to open the c ircuit
it is sometimes preferab l e in a c l ose ly set s y stem to time the
or

O il

2 18

PR
OTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

feeder s

a r i ng sy ste m T i s t i e
prote c ted by reverse overl oad
re l ay s
Re l ay s 3 shoul d be set for about 2 sec ;re l ay s 5for 1 % sec ;
re l ay s 6 an d 7 for
sec ;an d re l ay s 8 for 1 sec
.

'

GI M

F A T

ES
/

5 05

d
i
c
t
i
t
h
u
hh

FI G

2 1 0 In
.

e s e of elays
r

on

t ic t t

y p a l po w er s a i o n

The i g tens i on i s steppe d d own b y t w o transfor m ers at

A These are protect ed b y i nstantaneous d iff erentia lly con
n ect ed re l ay s 4 an d over l oa d re l a y s 9 set l o w about 1 sec
The
-

S CE LL AN E O US

RE L A YS

2 19

l ow tension bus feeds three rotary converters whi c h feed a

three wire dire c t current s y stem a storage batter y a ri d a dire c t
current motor l oad R e l ay 1 0 ma y be an overl oad re l ay with
under vo l tage and over vo l tage auxi l iar y re l ay s R e l a y 1 1
shou l d be a high grade reverse c urrent re l ay Over vo l tage
over l oad under l oa d an d under vo l tage re l ay s may a l so be used
sec or instan
Re l a y 1 2 shou l d be an over l oad re l ay set about
-

t an eou s

At substation B the high tension i s stepped down an d pr o

as before This se c ondar y bus may feed a l oa d of

s y nchronous motors a three wire a l ternating c urrent s y ste m and
a c onstant c urrent l ighting cir cuit R e l ays 1 3 ma y be over l oad
or reverse phase R e l ay s 1 4 shou l d be over l oad with addi
R e l a y 1 5 shoul d
t i on al un d er vo l tage and over vo l tage re l ay s
be an underl oad re l ay
F rom the main station is run a radia l s y stem of para ll e l
feeders
R e l ay s 1 7 1 9 and 2 1 are reverse power re l ay s set
about
se c ; re l ay s 1 6 1 8 an d 20 are accurate over l oad
inverse d en it e minimum re l a y s of the indu c tion t y pe R e l ay s
sec At
1 6 are set for 1 % sec ;1 8 for 1 sec ;and 20 for
ea c h substation bus are taken off a various number of l oa d s
and ea c h is prote c ted b y re l ay s which ma y be of the p l unger
t y pe as l ong as the y O perate in qu i cker time than the protecting
sectional izing re l ay s
I t is evid ent that no one l ay out wi ll sufce for a ll s y stems ;
neither c an invariab l e ru l es be l aid ou t for the use of an y re l a y
I t becomes a stud y of each indivi dua l s y stem bu t wi t h a know l
edge of the various l oads and h ow the y divide in the event of
short c ircuits together with the know l e d ge of the maximum
currents it becomes comparative ly eas y t o app ly re l ay s an d set
them to give adequate prote c tion and reduce unintentional
i nterruptions to an a l most neg ligib l e quantit y

t ect ed

C H AP T E R XV

TE S TI N G D IRE CT C
-

RRE NT RE LAY S

N o matter how c arefu ll y a re l a y is c onstructed

tested it
i s a l way s we ll to remember that no pie c e of apparatus is i n fal
li bl e
F or this reason a ll re l ay s shou l d be tested before insta ll
ing an d shou l d be subj e c ted to periodi c tests after insta ll ation
n we ll equipped meter shops wi ll be found adequate appa
ratus su c h as meters l eads and batteries for making simp l e
or e l aborate tests as the c ase ma y be
T hi s c hapter wi ll there
fore treat mai n ly of tests made on the re l ay s whi l e in servi ce

P ractica lly ever y manufa c turer gives c omp l ete

n stall in g
an d e l aborate d ire c tions for the insta ll ation of his particu l ar
ty pe of re l ay and these instru c tions of c ourse shoul d be c are
f ully fo ll owe d to obtain correct resu l ts
n genera l the y dea l
with me c hanica l features su c h as seeing that the moving parts
are free ;that there is no dirt or pa c king materia l in the re l a y ;
and that there are no l oose s c rews or nuts or dam aged parts
A diagram of c onnections a l so a cc ompanies ea c h re l a y and this
shou l d al way s be used in the absence of another authoritative
diagram whi c h might be used to inc lude other instruments
in the same cir cuit A re l a y shou l d a l way s be mounted on a
t must be a cc es
r m so l id support su c h as a switchboard
sib l e for eas y inspection an d testing and never mounted in a
p l ace where i t wi ll be subj e c te d to ex c esses in temperatur e
moisture destru c tive fumes or stra y e l ds
n case a re l ay
must be insta ll ed in a dusty p l ace for instance a our mi ll or
cement mi ll it must never have open conta c ts ; the y must
a l wa y s be enc l osed ;preferab ly i n a g l ass cover
f a c over d oes
not accompan y the re l a y the re l ay shoul d be en c l osed in a gl ass
covered dust proof box
The cir c uit breakers and swi tches t oo must receive peri odi c
attention i n order that the y shoul d n ot fai l at a c riti c a l moment
n fact manufa c turers sometimes re c ommend that the who l e

I
I

or

2 20

P RO TE C T

2 22

IV

RE L A YS

connecte d p l us
v When a separate tri p i s use d the live
parts of the trip c i rcu i t shoul d be tested for grounds A test
shoul d a lso be made bet w een the coi l c ircuit and trip c ir c uit
On e
terminal s
i gure 2 1 2 shows the metho d of procedure
l ead is he l d on the frame preferably on an unename ll ed s c rew
hea d an d the other i s touche d to termi na l A an d B
f nothing
,

G u d t ti b t
h h h I
I
E

FI G

2 12

D C

es

g a e llo w s yp e r elay

happens t e l ea d i s t en touc e d to tri p term i na ls C D and E

I f this shows intact i nsu l ation touch one l ea d to t er mm al A
and on e l ea d to C D and E i n su c cess i on
f a dea d m eta l to
meta l connect i on i s present l amp 2 ( F i g 2 1 1 ) wi ll l ight ;other
wi se nothing wi ll happen
f due to insuf ci ent i nsu l ation
the groun d wi ll often show up b y a s li ght arc or smoke The
,

FI G

F I

2 13

G u d t ti

ro

es

A
n

ga

C
.

D Ar s on val

y pe r elay

re l ay cover shoul d a l way s be on during ground tests and often

i t is a d v isab l e to test rst wi th the contacts O pen an d then
again w i th them c l osed

igure 2 1 3 shows how t o test a moving c oi l D Ar son val

ty pe re l ay
n this there are three separate cir cuits so i t is
.

T E S T NG D I

ENT R
E L A YS
RE C T
C URR

2 23

ne c essary to test between ea c h c ir c uit and frame and from ea c h

c ir c uit to the others
f A and F ;B and E ;and C and D are
c ir c uit termina l s rst tou c h one l ead to the c ase and one l ead
to A B C D E and F in su cc ession ;then tou c h one l ead to A
and one l ea d to B C D and E in su cc ession ;then one l ead to B
and one l ead to C and D

Testin g Rel ay Swit c h es The rel a y swit c h is perhaps the

easiest piece of prote c tive apparatus to test F irst make
sure that a ll s c r ews and nuts are tight ; that it is rm ly
mounted ;no l oose conne c tions ;and that the c onta c ts ( if meta l )
are c l ean and bright and not burnt
f they are burnt or pitted take a pie c e of ne emery c l oth
( never use cro c us paper it l eaves a mudd y deposit ) and doub
l ing it work it ba c k and forth between the c onta c ts whi c h shou l d
be he l d rm ly against the emery
n this wa y gri nd the sur
fa c es unti l the y meet a cc urately
Then energize the so l enoid b y c onnecting to a c ir c uit of the
c orre c t vo l tage and see that the p lunger rises free ly and qui c kly
and c l oses the c onta c ts positive ly and rm ly
f the trip
c ir c uit is operated from a storage battery it is we ll t o see that
the p lunger rises satisfa c tori ly when the so l enoid is energized
This
on 7 0 per c ent and 1 3 0 per c ent of the norma l vo l tage
is to insure correct operation no matter ho w l ow or high the
battery vo l tage may go F ai lure to operate shou l d be c are
fu lly investigated and the c ause removed
t may be due
to foreign substances bent parts or rubbing magnetic surfa c es

Var io u s T e stin g L o ad s I f a D C cir cuit i s avai l ab l e and the

re l a y to be tested i s of the mi ll ivo l t t y pe a portab l e l amp bank
or a l oad box as shown in F i g 2 14 ma y be use d with c onnections
as shown in F ig 2 1 5 I f undesirab l e to trip the breaker in
making the test substitute a l amp as shown

Load s for S er i es type Rel ay s T he series ty pe su c h as the

p lunger re l ay s are not so c onvenient to test as the who l e l oad
f at a ll possib l e
must be passed through the series c oi l
this i s done b y bui l ding up the l oa d unti l the breaker trips
This test c an often be made at night when an occasional
interrupti on does not harm the servi c e
f the l oad i s l arge
water rheostats may be used A l arge barre l ll ed with water
with an e l e c trode at the top and bottom wi ll hand l e c onsider
.

,
.

2 24

P RO TE C T

IV

sal t meanwh i l e watch i ng the

at w hi c the re l a y trips As
,

FI G

2 14

RE L A YS

m
an

eter and not i ng the point

i ll ustration of o w great a

ic i t c db

T yp al r es s a n e loa

ox

es

P ROTE C T ] VE

2 26

RE L A YS

in c ompress i ng the c arbons and p l at es and l owering the rosis

t an c e thus in c reasing the curre nt
A box 1 2 i n l ong b y 6 in w ide by 6 i n deep sho ul d carry
20 amp continuous ly at 4 v an d wi ll regu l ate as high as 200
amp for short interval s of time The regu l ation is ma d e in
i n ni te ly sma ll steps
Lea d s with heavy spring c l ips on the ends will be found very
convenient for making quick conne c tions and wi ll carry several
hun d re d amperes An exce ll ent make of c l ip is shown i n F i g 2 1 7
,

FI G 2 1 7
.

Bi g Br

u t t ti c i u c
e

es

g lp

e lle

(M

le

Co )
.

S ay for examp l e a mi ll ivo l t

Te stin g a M il l ivolt type Rel ay
type re l ay must trip when the l oad rea c hes 800 amp but it is
impracticab l e to get this l oad F i rst dis c onnect the l eads at
G ive the usua l
th e sh un t and the trip l eads at the re l ay
mechani c al inspect i on c l ean the c onta c ts and ground test
Note the capacity of the shunt ;say it is 50 m v at
amp ;
therefore at 800 amp it wou l d give 40 m v
50
8 00
n stea d of say ing that the re l a y must trip at 800 amp
we can say that i t must trip on 40 m v then it simp ly be c omes
a prob l em to obta i n 40 m v from an externa l source Take
a stan d ard shunt givi ng 50 m v at 5 amp and c onnect i n series
with the testing l oad G radua lly in c rease the l oad unt il the
m i ll ivo l tmeter reads 40 m v and adj ust the re l ay so it trips
Severa l trial s may be ne c essary Note that the current is
unknown exact ly but that it takes approximately 4 amp i n the
shunt t o produce exa c tly the same e ff e c t on the re l ay as 800
amp in the station shunt Then , reconnecting the re l a y to the
-

TE S T NG

D ] RE C T

C URRE N T

RE L A YS

2 27

station shun t we know it wi ll trip on 800 amp a l though we

on ly tested it with a 4 amp l oad

T e stin g P lung er type , I n stantan e ou s tr ip Relays G ive the

re l a y a thorough me c hanica l inspe c tion carefully try ing ever y
nut and s c rew and l ooking for burnt c oi l s an d l oose con
n ect i on s ; c l ean
the c ontacts and then ground test I f the
,

FI G

218

c ti t t u c t h t ti d
I

o e o s o b oos
nn

or

e s a o n loa

current c apa c ity is l ow sa y be l ow 25 amp it ma y be pref

er abl e to c onnect a j umper around the re l a y to comp l ete the
cir c uit and t hen dis c onne c t the re l ay from the c ir cuit , recon
n ect i n g it to the test l oad
f of a l arger capac i ty it i s preferab l e
t o bui l d up the l oad on the circuit itse lf if this can be do n e
without interfering with the ser V 1 ce Otherwise connect
a storage batter y and rheostat as shown in F ig 2 1 8
being sure to inc l ude the stat i on shunt in the battery circuit
,

,
.

P RO T E C T

2 28

IV

RE LA YS

T his enab l es the main l oad c urrent to be used i n addition

t o the test current ;or if the l Gad current is a lread y too high
for the l ower sett i ngs reverse the battery an d buck the l oad
c urrent d own
F or instance if a re l a y m ust trip on 600 a m p and the l oad
c urrent i s only 500 amp then the battery must supp ly the
extra 1 00 amp
t i s n ot necessar y to measure these separate ly
but the station a mm eter will read their sum

T estin g T i m e l imi t Rel ays

After making a ll c onnections
so the l oa d or overl oa d can be qui c kly app l ied the time may
be determined wi th a stop watch
i rst carefu lly set the rheo
stat to g i ve the desired current at wh i ch current it is desired
to take the time ;disconnect and let i t fully reset Then quickly
app ly the l oad and press the crown to start the w atch ; both
at the same i nstant P ress again to stop the watch when
the conta c ts c l ose The watch hand indi c ates in fths of
a second the t i me required to c l ose at that parti cu l ar current
A th ird press resets the wat c h for the next tria l
f impossib l e to app ly the l oad qui c k ly quite c l ose resu l ts
can sometimes be obtained b y bui l ding up the l oa d an d ho l ding
down the p l unger by han d re l easing it and snapping the watch
at the same instant
By vary ing the l oad and the t i me settings the t i me of the
various comb i nations can be obtained
-

C URVE S AN D T ABL E S

Whenever re l ay s are tested the resul ts of the test shou l d be

permanently re c orded i n c urves or tab l es On re l ay s without
t i me de l ay e l ement the a c tua l amperes may be p l otted agai nst
the setting as i n F ig 2 1 9 To do this set the re l ay for the
l owest setting ( say 4
then s l ow ly raise the current
and note the reading of the ammeter j ust as the p l unger r i ses
Sa y i t takes 4 amp M ake a dot where the 4 amp hori
z on t al
an d vertical l ines interse c t Change the setting to 5;
then i t may take on ly
amp So m ake a point where the
hori z onta l l ine i nterse c ts the 5 verti c a l
n the same
w ay l ocate the currents requ i re d for 6 7 and 8 amp an d d raw
a curve t rough them
,

I
I

P RO TE C T

23 0

IV

RE L A YS

CO N CI U S I O N

n mak i ng very accurate tests in whi c h the tri p circuit has

been dis c onne c ted time must be a ll owed for t h e c l osing of the
re l a y switch and opening of breaker
n genera l this wi ll be
or
found to be
se c so when setting the re l ay s for actua l
operation it must be remembered that the breaker does not
actua lly open until
or
se c after the c ontacts c l ose
n setting time a cc urate ly the ty pe of re l ay must be con
si d er ed and its l imitations taken into ac c ount
This is espe
The be ll ows unl e ss
ci all y true of the be ll ows and dashpot re l a y s
carefu lly oi l e d ever y few months wi ll harden and the time of
trippings cannot be depended upon at a ll The dashpot re l ay s
wi ll give great ly vary ing time due to a change in the vi scosit y
of the O i l if used where the y are subj e c ted to extremes i n tem
The oil supp l ied b y the maker shou l d be used t o
per at u r e
the exc l us i on of a ll others
When making tests it must be c onstantly borne l n m m d
that the c ircuit is l eft w i thout prote c tion and great caut i on
must be used that an over l oad does not oc c ur i n the interva l
of test i ng
Some modern boar d s have their rel ay s arrange d
with testing switches wh i ch automatica lly disconnect a re l ay
bu t connect i n a spare re l ay for protection during test
Bu t
even in this case t oo mu c h c aution c annot be use d to i nsure
aga i nst materia l damage persona l i nj ur y and avo i dab l e
interruptions
,

C HAP T E R X V I
TE S T I N G ALT E RNATI N G C
-

RRE NT RE LAYS

Sin c e prote c tive rel ay s use the same pr i nc i p l es of operati on

as are used in in d i c ating instruments it fo ll ows that the y wi ll
require the same c l asses of instruments an d apparatus t o test
them
or testing purposes the re l ay s may be d i vi ded into
three c l asses : Those requiring current a l one for their opera
tion ; those requir i ng vo l tage a l one ; and those requ i ring both
c urrent and vo l tage Sin c e the maj ori t y o f re l ay s O perate on
current a l one this c l ass wi ll be cons id ered rst
R e l ay s l ike every other piece of me c hani c a l apparatus are
prone to deve l op ina c curacies and i rregu l ariti es ; consequent ly
a comprehens i ve periodic s y stem of testing shou l d be deve l oped
and rig i d ly fo ll owe d ou t Some companies make i t a practice
to test re l ay s every si months ; others test after ever y dis
This practi c e
t ur ban ce whi c h causes the re l ay s to O perate
is often necessary on the be ll ows ty pe re l ay s but i s quest i onab l e
for the i nduction ty pe
.

RE LAY S RE Q
UIR
I NG

C UR
RE NT O NL Y

When cons id er i ng the testing of c urrent re l ay s there are

ve main points t o be considered F irst the source of testing
s upp ly ;second the l oad and its regu l ation ;third the m easur
i ng i nstruments ;fourth the trip circuit ;f th the m easurement
of the re l ay time of operation
f possibl e there is on ly one correct way to test a re l a y an d
that is to make a d ea d short c i r c uit on the protected apparatus
an d see if the re l ay O perates and O pens the breaker H owever
this is se l dom possib l e or desirab l e as i t n ot on ly throws a
heavy strain on all the apparatus i n c luding the generators
but entai l s a momentar y i nterruption to the serv ic e H owever

an occas i ona l acc id enta l

short
whi c h i s proper ly c l eare d
,

23 1

P RO TE C T

23 2

IV

RE L A YS

is the best assurance that the protect i ve apparatus as a who l e

is fun c tioning proper ly
I nstead of waiting for the ac c identa l short
T h e S o ur c e
c ir c uit to occur it i s customary to subj ect the rel ay s and auxil
iar y apparatus t o periodi c tests which indi c ate that they are in
condition to c l ear actua l troub l e Thus i n testing the re l ay s
are dis c on n ected from the circuit an d current supp l ie d from
an i ndependent source The trip is a l so dis c onne c te d from
the cir c uit breaker and a signal l amp or c y c l e counter connected
in to determine the time Since the independent source of
testing supp ly need only supp ly the l osses of the re l ay and
these l osses amount to on ly a few watts ( 1 00 at the most ) i t i s
c ustomar y to use the ordinar y l ighti ng c i rcuit as the source
Oftentimes when there are a l arge number of re l a y s i n on e l oca
tion to be teste d a l ine or source i s c onvenient ly supp lied
Of c ourse the source must be the same frequenc y as the norma l
frequen c y upon whi c h the re l ay works and i t must rst be
as certa i ned that the l ighting cir c uit is not fed from a storage
battery or spare unit as is often the case i n order t o provide
an unf ail ing sour c e of l ight in case a ll other apparatus fai l s

Th e L oa d
The re l ay i tse l f must n ow be considere d
t
ma y be of the series ty pe in whi c h c ase the w i nd i ng i s generally
heavy often being of heavy Copper strap wound on edge and
in man y c ases a singl e bar passing through the re l ay This
is known as the pri mar y ty pe Or it ma y be wound to O perate
from the se c ondar y of a series transformer This is known
as the se c ondar y ty pe and the standard pra c ti c e i s to use appr oxi
mate ly 5 amp for its operation Loading up a primar y re l ay
sometimes becomes a dif cu l t matter espe c ia lly in the l arger
si z e but l oading a secondary re l a y becomes a very simp l e
matter As a 5 amp re l ay requires on ly a few vo l ts to force
the ne c essar y current th rough i t an additiona l current l imiti ng
resistan c e or rea c tan c e is genera lly used i n series if the current
i s to be taken from a 1 1 0 v c ir c uit This may be a l amp
bank a resistance un i t a resistance or l oa d box , or a choke
coi l or rea c tance or impedance c oi l
R ea c tan c es are se l dom used as the wave for m of their currents
is l iab l e to be peaked and whil e present da y re l ay s are but
s l ightly affected b y di storted wave for m s it is undesirab l e to
.

PR
O TE C T

23 4

IV

RE L A YS

in ser i es Between each un i t an d at the ends i s connecte d a

singl e po l e doub l e throw knife Swit c h Now if the rst swit c h
i s p l aced up the second down ( as shown in F i g
then the
rst unit is c onne c ted dire c t ly a c ross the two termina ls
f
the thir d swit c h is p l aced up then the thir d unit is p l aced in
para ll e l Then a sw i tch may be l eft O pen and say the f th
swit c h i s p l aced down Then units 3 and 4 are in series but
the two in series are i n parall e l with 1 and 2
T hus it is evident that this arrangement permits of a varia
tion from a ll in para ll e l to a ll in series with an y c ombination

FI G

22 2

b h tt

C ar o n

eos a

of ser i es parall e l
f 1 00 oh m 1 00 watt units are used the r e
si st an ce of the
arrangement may be varied from 1 6% ohms
to 600 ohms or i n terms of c urrent on a 1 00 v c ir cuit from
6 amp to
amp
F or heavy l oads a water rheostat i s often used
This mere ly
c onsists of two meta l p l ates p l a c ed in a pai l or barre l of aci du
l ated or sa l te d water The current strength i s varie d either
by var yi ng the distance between the p l ates or b y varyi ng the
densit y of the so l ution
n thi s ty pe the p l ate i s l owered in t o
the so lut i on thus present i ng more an d more a c t i ve s u rface
and increas i ng the resu ltant current accordingly
h eo stat
C ar bon R
Another form of l oa d wh i ch i s qu i te
w i de ly use d i s the carbon compression rheostat This util i z es
the vary ing resistance pro d uce d between a meta l and carbon
-

TE S T

AL TE RNA T

NG

NG C URRE N T RE L A YS

23 5

un d er vary ing pressure A very usefu l carbon rheostat is shown

p l ainly in F i g 22 2
S l i d e Resi stor Oftenti mes due t o a variabl e l ine vo l tage
the proper c urrent cannot be obtained exa c t ly To overcome
this a very ne variab l e resistance is emp l o y ed simi l ar to
This i s an i nsu l ated tube woun d with resistan c e
F i g 223

w i re and arranged w ith a s l ider whi c h m a y be move d

back and forth thus cutting i n or ou t resistance i n ver y
sma ll steps This resistan c e ma y be conne c ted i n para lle l
with the l oad but the genera l pra c tice i s to connect a s l ide of
.

FI G

2 23

hmic i i t

sl d e es s o
r

about 200 oh m s i n ser i es w i th another res i stance of 50 or 1 00

ohms thus l imiting the current to a tota l variation of about
1 % amp and O btain i ng l arger variations on the m ain l oa d box

The vo l tage requ i re d t o f or ce current

P h an t o m L o ad s
through the re l ay windings i s ver y l ow amounting to less than
f current is d rawn from a 1 1 0 v circuit
5 v in man y c ases
b y a series l oa d i t i s evident that on ly 5 v i s actua lly used
l eaving 1 05 v to be waste d in for c ing c urrent through the l oad
n stead however of using 5 amp at 1 1 0 v merely to O btain
5 amp i n the re l a y we ma y transform from 1 1 0 to 5v an d wi ll
get 5 amp at 5 v fro m the secondar y whi l e the primar y on ly
supp l ied t h e same watts p l us the pr i mar y l osses at 1 1 0 v
The gure 5 was on ly assumed in the foregoing cases to i llus
trate the necessity of secondary vo l tage
n ac tua l practi c e
the vo l tage is neither known nor desi red to be known as it is
varie d unti l i t produces the proper current which a l one must
,

,
.

P RO TE C T

23 6

IV

RE LA YS

measured regar d l ess of whether the vo l tage i s 1 or 2 or 8

This is call e d a ph an t Om l oa d as it permits of a l arge
or 1 0 v
testing current an d sti ll draws on ly a sma ll current from the
test i ng supply This will be given further considerat i on under
testi ng connections T y pica l phantom l oa d s are sho w n in
be

F ig

2 24

FI G

224

ic h t m db t t

T yp a l p a n o

loa

o es
x

(S

ae

Co )
.

Stan dar d s The

standard instrument for testing current

Th i s shou l d be a high c lass instrument
r e l a y s is an ammeter
having re l iab l e accurac y rugged i n constru ct i on dead beat
when current is app l ied it shou l d not overswing the mark
but indi c ate it qui c kly without os c i ll ation or v i brat i on )
t
shou l d be corre c t on wide variations in frequen cy an d have
l arge O pen divisions making it easi ly rea d The se l e c tion
of an ammeter is a proposition demanding careful c onsi deration
from a great man y points of v i ew
The indu c tion prin c ip l e is genera lly concede d to be the best
for an all around good instrument and an exponent of the induc
tion ty pe is shown in F ig 225 This embodies a ll the above
enumerated points and wi ll give good service if hand l e d cor
This ammeter is arrange d with two capac i ties F or
r ect l y
instance i f the two l inks span the two outside posts m arked

as i n the i llustration the po i nter de ects to

1 0 amperes
fu ll scal e on 1 0 amp but if the l inks span the t w o posts marke d

5 amperes then fu ll sca l e de e c tion is obtained on 5 amp

When the re l ay s to be tested are a ll about the same capacity
and are 1 20 amp or l ess it is possibl e to get an ammeter which
reads full s c al e on the d es i re d current F or i nstance instead

P RO TE C T

23 8

IV

RE L A YS

former F or higher current the transformer in F ig 2 27 is used

T wo ranges ma y be supp l ied 400 amp and
amp T he
pr i mary is formed mere ly b y passing the wire or cab l e thr ough
the ho l e The ammeter is conne c ted t o the se c ondary terminal s
By pass ing two turns through the ho l e the ratio is c hanged
from
to
or from
to
according to the
transformer used F our turns change the ratios to 1 00: 5 and
400:5respective ly
f the c urrent is greater than
amp the
1 0 amp range on the meter is used ma king it possib l e to measure
up to
amp using the same ratio or rather
There
is a s l ight error when used in this manner

The simp l est way to test the tr i p circuit

Th e Tr i p C ir cui t
whi c h operates from a separate sour c e is t o dis c onne ct the
l eads from the breaker and substitute a l amp
f this is i m pr ac
t i cabl e the l eads shou l d be disconne c ted from the trip c ir c uit
of the re l ay and the terminal s c onne c ted to a sour c e of supp ly
in series with a l amp
f the re l a y is c ircuit c l osing ( shunt trip )
the pi l ot or signa l l amp wi ll l ight when the re l a y trips
f the
re l a y is of the cir cuit
O pening t y pe ( series trip ) the l amp is
normally l ighted but goes ou t when the re l ay trips When
testing a shunt trip re l a y the c ontacts open the circuit when the
re l a y resets and may burn them s lightly Therefore use
a sma ll l amp i n testing and before the l ast time the re l ay c l oses
c l ean the conta c ts thorough ly with a piece of ne emer y c l oth
N ever use the red c ro c us paper as it often l eaves
or paper
a mu d d y coating on the contacts whi c h prevents good e l e c trica l
contact
t i s goo d pra c ti c e after c l eaning the c ontacts t o
d raw a p i ece of ordinar y paper or c l oth between the contacts
i n order t o remove all traces of emer y dust
After c l eaning try t h e re l a y j ust once t o make sure that
nothing was d amaged in c l eaning
T i m in g th e Relay F or ord inary rel ay s except those used
for sect i ona liz ing a stop watch does very ni c e ly for determining
the time
irst the l oa d i s adj uste d at whi c h the re l ay i s t o
be t i med ;the re l ay is a ll owed to reset fu lly and then the wat c h
i s snapped t o start i t an d the l oad swit c h c l osed at the same
instant The instant the re l ay tr i ps (l ights the signal l amp )
the wat c h is stopped an d the time noted The thir d snap
resets the wat c h on z ero , r ea dy for the n ext tr ia l
,

T E S T NG AL TE R
NAT NG C URRE N T
-

RE L A YS

23 9

more a cc urate ti me as 1 s requ i red for sect i on ali z i11g re l ay s

on a radia l or ring sy stem it is ne c essary to use a cy c l e c ounter
T his was descri be d i n a previ ous chapter
F or

T HE AC T UAL TE S TIN G

When all t e apparatus i nc luding l oa d box a m meter stan d

ar d trip l amp and various l eads an d too l s are ready an d before
touching the re l a y there are two things to be done on e of
paramount importan c e and on e a small er detai l
i rst sh ort
ci r cu i t
th e cur r en t tr an sfor mer right at the secondary l eads
A current transformer m ust never be open circu i te d w hen there
,

n n e cf ea

e
i

i s c on n

th i u i t t ti u c t i ci cuit
C[I

FI G

2 28

e c fe d

T es

CU

H
'

g a ela y s g a se p a a e e s
r

g so

an d

is l oa d i n t e pr i mary as i t n ot on ly may harm the transformer

but it ma y i ndu c e a vo l tage of severa l thousand vo l ts making
it a source of great persona l d anger No har m can come of
short cir c uiting a current or series transformer M an y modern
install ations have a permanently mounte d switch whi c h short
c ir c uits the secondary but i n i ts absence a short l ea d with two
heavy spr i ng testing c l i ps shou l d be use d and fastened so that
the y c annot possib ly drop off The second po i nt i s t o wipe
off a ll the dust or d irt from the cover before removi ng it
Assuming for the rst examp l e that i t is a 5 amp be ll ows
re l ay whi c h is to be tested
t O perates from a series transformer
,

P RO TE C T

2 40

IV

RE LA YS

p l a c ed in the high tension line A separate sour c e is ava i l

ab l e for testing and a l amp lOad i s used The transformer
is short circuited the re l ay disconnected at both t op and bottom ;
the l oad ammeter re l ay coi l and swit c h a ll c onne c te d i n series
a c ross the li ne ;an d the trip connected in with a signal l amp as
i n F ig 228
Of c ourse if the ci rcu i t ma y be i nterrupted i t is n ot nec
essary to dis c onne c t the trip ;the breaker itse lf actua lly may
be O pened when the re l ay trips This is really preferabl e but
often impossib l e to do T he switch is c l osed the l oad adj usted
unti l the m eter shows the c orre c t c urrent passing ;then the swit c h
is opened and the re l ay fully reset Q
ui c kly cl osing the swit c h
snap the stop wat c h to start in and the instant the l amp l ights
( or the breaker trips ) snap the wat c h to stop it This gives the
time of de l ay between over l oa d and trippin g

Th e Cycl e C ounter
To obtain ver y a cc urate time as is
ne c essar y wi th sectiona l izing re l ay s a cy c l e counter is conne c ted
in to automatica lly time the de l a y The se lf winding c l o c k
is permanent ly c onne c ted a c ross the sour c e of supp ly T he
es c apement magnet i s conne c ted i n series with a resistor and is
energized as soon as the swit c h is c l osed Then it starts count
ing the c y c l es unti l the re l ay conta c ts c l ose thereb y short
c ir c uiting the es c apement magnets and stopping the counter
instantly The cy c l e c ounter then indi c ates the number of
c y c les wh i ch have e l apse d between the instant of l oa d an d c l osing
of c ontacts
D ividing thi s number b y 60 gives the number of se c onds
on a 60
c y c l e cir c uit and dividing by 2 5 gives the seconds on
a 25 c y c l e c ir c uit
f a c ir c uit opening re l ay i s use d the es c apement m agnet
is p l a c ed in series wi th the c ontacts wi th one swit c h c ontro l
l ing both l oad and trip Then the counter starts when the swit c h
i s c l ose d and stops when the s w i t c h i s O pened
Some engineers prefer to l eave the ci rcu i t i ntact an d conne c t
in the testing l oad as shown in F i g 229 T hi s scheme is ex c e l
l ent prov i ded the primar y of the current transformer is not
energi zed and there i s no possibi l ity of its being short c ir c uited
n this c ase the n at u r r l impe d ance of the trans former se c ond
ary prevents an y apprec i ab l e current being di verte d fro m the
-

242

P ROTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

ows i n t e re l ay c ircu i t This is measured ac c urate ly b y the

transformer B and the meter C
F or instance usin g transformers 400 to 5 amp when meter
C reads 5 amp it w i ll be known that there is 400 amp in the
re l ay circu i t
t may however take about 6 amp fro m the
line to produ c e this current Shou l d one turn i n tran sformer
A n ot gi ve enough current the tu r ns m a y be i n crease d t o
.

,
.

Loa d

o
i

s con n e c f

FIG

J oi n f

i i t d i ctu t m t u h h t m
h
h

M a i n Li n e

23 0
Us

m n ear e s f

an

ve e se e s
r

a sfo
e
n

rr

e o s p p ly a eavy p a n o

t hr ee an d t e c urrent fro m the l oa d i ncrease d accord

in g ly
A goo d combinati on for 400 a m p i s to use a
to 5
transformer at A w ith four turns of heavy w i re for the primary
The trip c i rcu i t may be connecte d wi t a l amp or c y c l e
counter as previ ous ly descr i be d

M aki n g th e Adju stm en t

T here are so man y different makes
of re l a y s and princip l es of operati on that i t i s i mpossib l e to
give exp li c i t directions for the adj ustment of each and every
one T hi s however i s hard ly necessary as each manufacturer
gives directi ons for readj usti ng his particul ar re l ay and of course
these shoul d be fo ll o w e d There are i n genera l , two separate
two

or

T E S T I NG AL T E RN A T I N G C URRE N T

RE L A YS

24 3

obj ects to be obtained by adj ustment star t ing c urrent and

time del ay on a denite c urrent

n the p l unger ty pe re l ay s the star t i ng c urrent is adj usted
b y var yi ng the position of the c ore on the stem T i s stem is
genera lly threaded , and the core or p lunger screwed i nto position
and l ocked with a setscrew or l ocknut When adj usting l oosen
t hi s set then raise the p l unger ( s c rew it up ) to l ower the start
i ng current or l ower it to raise the amount of starting current
When the corre c t position i s found l ock the p l unger rm ly
i n position so that the ex c essive vi bration found in this t y pe
f there are springs whi c h ten d
of re l a y cannot j ar i t l oose
to o ffset the weight of the p l unger these may al so be ca ll e d
into p l ay to c hange the starting current
n the i ndu c tion t y pe the adj ustment i s generally d one by
p ul l ing ou t or l etting in some of the spira l spring whi ch resists
the turning e ff ort of the disk This i s a d e licate job an d shoul d
only be undertaken b y an experienced i nstrument man S l ight
adj ustment can sometimes be made b y c hanging the position
with respect to the base This
of the torque c ompensator
changes the amount of l eakage ux as the base diverts more
or l ess of it but t hi s changes the shape of the c urve m ore than
the starting current
The t i me of the be ll ows and oi l l agge d re l ay s i s var i e d both
by the distan c e of conta c t trave l an d the si z e of the openi ng
in the need l e va l ve The c ontact di sk i s genera lly p l aced
l oose ly between t w o nuts on the threa d e d shaft and ma y be
ra is ed or l owered thereb y making the p l unger tfavel a l onger
or s orter distan c e and giving a l onger or shorter time de l a y
T o obtai n l arger variati ons i t is necessar y to grind a at p l a c e
on the va l ve to a ll ow greater escape of a i r or oi l on l ong time
settings Care must be taken however that the va l ve is n ot
ground t oo mu c h
t i s preferab l e not t o touch the va l ve
but to make a curve or set of rea d ings an d set the re l a y time
/
according t o t hi s curve
The time of indu c tion ty pe re l a y s is varied b y movi ng the per
manent magnets in or out
M ovi ng the magnet in toward the center of the d isk g i ves a
shorter time and movi ng it ou t ( t o withi n
in of the e d ge )
gi ves a l onger time G reat care must be taken that the disk
.

P RO TE C T

244

IV

RE L A YS

does n ot tou c h the magnet as i t turns and that there is no iron

dust or l ings on the magnets wh i c h ma y in time rub on the disk
A feather or a pie c e of soft iron wire ( such as an unbent paper
c l ip ) are ex c e ll ent in removing lings
Before l eaving a re l ay make sure that every accessib l e screw
and nut is tight ;see that the contacts are c l ean ;no l oose con
n ect i on s ;no burnt c oi l s or insu l ation ;no dirt or dust ;and that
a ll movi ng parts move free ly wi thout sti c king or rubbing Al so
see that the l eather on be ll ows re l ay s is soft and p l iab l e using
if necessar y a li tt l e n eat sfoot oi l to keep it soft M ake sure
that a ll connect i ons are returned exact ly as found
f there are
severa l co n nections to be removed and there is any possibi l ity
of getting them twisted make a sket ch of the re l ay s and t erminal s
and number ea c h terminal 1 2 3 etc on the sket c h Then
as the wires are removed tie a small tag on each on e marked
1 2 3 etc so there wi ll be abso l ute ly no danger but that the
l eads are correct ly rep l aced Then after all conne c tions are
comp l eted remove the short on the series transformer Conne c t
an ammeter in parall e l with the c urrent c oi l and see b y its indica
tion that current is owing The ammeter wi ll divert part
of the c urrent from the re l a y Conne c t a vo l tmeter a c ross
the trip c ir c uit terminal s and see b y i ts i ndi c ation t hat the trip
cir c uit i s inta c t right up to the re l ay c ontacts

P l otti ng th e Re s u l t s
T he time resu l ts under vari ous l oads
are easi ly p l otted in curve form or tabu l ated thus rendering
a permanent re c or d of the action of the re l a y under various
c ondit i ons and forming a read y sour c e of referen c e b y whi c h
the time of the re l ay ma y be easi ly c hanged in denite manner
as might be ne c essar y due to a c hange in the distribution of the
l oad or the addition of various equipment
f the resu l ts are tabu l ated the y shou l d be somewhat simi l ar
to the tab l e shown in F i g 23 1 The verti c a l co l umns are the
resu l ts of the var i ous l ever settings and the horizontal l ines
are the various l oads P ro c eed with the test as fo ll ows : Set
the re l ay to No 1 setting and adj ust the l oad to on e and on e
half times the tap setting Thus if the 5 amp tap is used the
current must be 7 5amp The c o lumn may be in actua l current

per c ent l oa d
t
App ly the l oad and note the t i me
or in
is
sec ( 3 0 c y c l es on the c y c l e counter on 60 cy c l e c ir c uit)
,

P RO TE C T

2 46

IV I

RE L A YS

rst and then the curves p l otted

n termediate time is easier
to l ocate on a curve than on a t abl e
Another i mportant feature on a l arge s y ste m is the keeping
of a c ard s y stem givi ng comp l ete data on each re l ay together
with its actual time and l oad setting The l ay out of the s y stem
wi ll gi ve the i dentifyi ng number on each re l ay on ea c h c ir c uit
and then by referring to this number in the car d i ndex the per
.

e co n

d s

u tt

=
i
A Co n t a ct s s et f o r 2 M i l l w o tte t r p, 118 Pe r Ce n r No r m a l Vo h s

B
C
B"

a
,

a
9

10

FI G
for m an ce

23 2

as

,1

39

9
a

59

ves of

r s

a ble

in F ig

23 1

this re l a y under c ertain c ombinations of l oa d condi

tions c an be ac c urate ly fore c ast This al so forms an accurate
method of retim i ng a s y stem in case of revisions or add i tions
to the l oad
of

TE S TI N G V OLT AG E

RE LAYS

The apparatus genera lly used for t est i n g vo l tage re l ay s both

under and over is a sma ll portab l e transformer a means of
var yi ng it and a re l iab l e standar d Of c ourse if a h igh enough
source i s avai l ab l e i t is unne c essar y to have a sma ll step u p
transformer but on ly means of cutting the vo l tage down to the
proper amount A small portab l e transformer is shown i n F ig
23 3
Whi l e designed to step down from 400 or 200 to 1 00 v
wit accurate ly compensated ratio i t may al so be used to step
up fro m 1 00 to 200 or 400 v with good resu l ts The potential
is varied b y means of the adj ustab l e sl ide This sl ide is con
,

'

C URRE N T
TE S T I NG AL TE RN A T] N G

RE LA YS

24 7

di rectly across the l i ne whil e the potential i s. taken be

tween on e li ne and the s lide thereb y insuring a c l ose graduation
from z ero to maxim u m vo l tage
On e form of a rel iab l e stan d ar d vo l tmeter i s of the m oving
coil d y namometer ty pe w hi c h is w ithout question the best
pri n c ip l e of operation to use for an a cc ur ate re l iab l e rugged
test instrument Vo l tmeters come with two or m ore ranges i e
the y i n d i c ate full s c a le on 1 50 v or b y c hangi ng t o another

n ect ed

FI

G.

23 3

Wes

ti h u t b v t t m
n

g o s e p o a l e o l a ge
r

a sfo
n

termi na l the y i n di cate full sca l e on 3 00 v ;or on 3 00 an d 600

A goo d co m bination is a 7 5 and 1 50 V vo l tmeter with an exter
na l mul tip l ier making fu ll s c a l e 3 00 v and 600 or 7 50 v
n approaching an install at i on the rst thing to do i s to
dis c onne c t the tri p c ir c uit and then open c ircuit the potentia l
transformer Never short cir c uit it ( as in the case of a series
transfor m er ) as it w i ll invar i ab ly b l ow a primary fuse or burn
up the transformer Then c l ean the dust and dirt from the c over
before opening it
Conne c t the apparatus as i n F i g 234
n spect the re l ay
me c hani c ally tightening all s c rews and nuts ;c lean the c onta c ts
,

248

P ROTE C T

IV

RE L A YS

and see t at all m ovi ng parts are free to turn without rubbing

or fri cti on ;see that the spr i n g s ar e inta c t no burnt c oi l s and

n o l ings c l ingi ng to the magnet
Then c l ose the test s wi tc and see that the c onta c ts c l ose
Tr a n s f

me r
Por j a bl c
Tra n sr or m e r;

FI G

t
i
t
m t uc
h h I

23 4

T es

g a vol a ge elay f o
r

a se p a a e so

pos i t i ve ly at t e r i g t vo l tage
f d es i rab l e a tab l e or curve
may be ma d e showing the re l at i on between l ever setting s an d
c l osing or O pening vo l ts Or a c urve may be made showi ng
the l ength of time required to c l ose the conta c ts Another set
of test connect i ons are shown in F i g 23 5
.

-p

1M P
BELL URI /

FI G

23 5
C on n e

P o w er d ir ection al

c ti t ti v t
o s fo e s
n

Relay s Tests

g a ol a ge elay
r

a reverse power re l ay
genera lly comprise a c omp l ete test on the over l oad e l ement
the same as des c ribed previ ous ly an d a thorough m echani c al
i nspe ction i s g i ven to see that a ll parts are free to move without
-

on

P RO TE C T

250

IV

RE L A YS

un d er var yi ng con di t i ons an d na lly to devi se a sy stem of pr ot ec

tion w hi c h wi ll cover the great m aj orit y of points for it is frankly
a c know l edged that ever y point cannot be covere d b y an y re l ay
or combination in ever y case
The subj e c t of re l ay s and the i r protection of circu i ts and
apparatus is an engineering profession b y i tse lf an d i s capabl e
of great possibi l ities i n improvement
H owever even w ith the present re l ay s an d s y stems the y are
so l itt l e understood that the economies and i mprove d servi ce
resu l ting from the use of re l ay s have not been taken advantage
of b y operators as fu lly as the y shou l d be
The n too man y
operators have not y et rea l i z e d these advantages Others
that have used re l a y s to a li m it ed e tent have in no w a y exhauste d
their possibi l ities
The e l ectr i ca l engi neers of t e countr y ar e sti ll at w or k on
the subj ect of protection and uninterrupte d ser vi ce an d are
gradua lly an d thoroug l y i nvestigating each an d every possi bl e
protection prob l em and each y ear sees man y ol d prob l ems
successfully so l ve d So i t i s to be hoped that soon s u ch things
as burnouts an d short c i rcu i ts i nterrupti ng servi ce wi ll be
m atters of t e past
,

xh

L OCATI N G

FA

C H AP T E R XV I I

LT S I N

F E E D E RS AND

W RI N G

Al though

prote c tive re l ay s m ay se c tiona l ize and iso l ate

defe c tive feeders and apparatus with more than human speed and
a cc ura c y y et it is often a di f cul t matter to l ocate the a c tual
fau l t
n the fa c tory the faul t may be in a c onduit or d u c t
in an underground distribution sy stem i t may be in a subway
between manho l es ;or in a l ong distan c e transmission s y stem
t h e l o c ation of the fau l t ma y require mi l es of l ine patro lli ng to
a c tually see where and what the troubl e m
ay be
t often
happens that re l ay s may isol ate a l ine and then cons i derab l e
time is spent in trying to l o c ate the faul t where i n other cases
it ma y be that the faul t cl ears immediately upon i sol ation
The foll owing c hapter whil e not a c omp l ete exposition on
the detail s of fau l t l o c ation espe c ially as app l ie d to high tension
l ines will neverthe l ess gi ve the bas ic principl es of the methods
used in nding th e exact l o c ation of the faul t
T he most commonly met defe c ts or faul ts i n th e w i ring of
an y s ystem are : ( 1 ) O pen
cir c uits or breaks caused b y a broken
wire or b l own fuse ;( 2) short circuits or crosses cause d b y two
meta l condu c tors of different potential s tou c hin g each other ;
and ( 3 ) grounds caused b y a l i ve metal conduct or touching a
metal conduit or other foreign metal An open c ir c uit is in
real ity a compl ete break or c ondition of inn i te resistan c e
in a supposed ly continuous condu c tor but there are condi
tions when the faul t may have an y resistan c e from a few ohms
to many thousan d
n su c h c ases however the faul t i s usually
accompanied b y a ground as for instan c e if a fee d er i n a meta l
c onduit shoul d beco m e O pen c ir c uit the vo l tage m ight c ause
the two ends to we l d fast to the c onduit thus introduc i ng only
a sl ight res i stan c e i n the l ine produ c ing a groun d

A short c ir c uit ma y be either a l ow resistance or dead

short or a high res i stan c e s hort cir c uit , c o m mo nl y call ed a
.

251

P RO T E C T

252

IV

RE L A YS

l eak A dead short wi ll usually manifes t itsel f in a viol ent

manner b y b l owing a fuse or breaker and the fuse c annot be
rep l a c ed or the breaker reset until the faul t is l o c ated and
c l eared A hi gh resistan c e short ma y not draw enough c urrent
to b l ow a fuse but it constitutes a waste of c urrent and if the
l eak be c onned to a small spa c e the resul ting heat may start
a re As before short c ir c uits are often a cc ompanied b y O pen
c ircuits and grounds due to the vi o l en c e of the short c ir cuit
either burning the wire in two or we l ding i t t o the metal conduit
On l ow
potential cir c uits a singl e ground cannot c ause an y
damage ;but shoul d a se c ond ground oc c ur on a wire of opposite
po l ari ty the two grounds wi ll c ause a short c ir cuit its vio l en c e
depending on whether the grounds are of high resistan c e or
l ow resistan c e T here are a great man y cases where it is advi s
ab l e to ground a ma c hine frame or wire in order to l imit the
potential between any part of the c ir c uit and the ground ;for
instan c e the se c ondary of a 1 1 0 v l ighting c ir c uit is usually
grounde d so that there can never be a dangerous potential be
tween the wi ring and ground in case the transformer shoul d
short ci r c uit between primary and se c ondary Another c ase is
where the neutral of a three wire s y stem is grounded so that
the potential betwee n either outside wire and the ground c an
never be greater than the potential between either outside wire
and the neutral
n testing for fau l ts it must be remembered
that all grounds are not accidental ;some are intentiona l and
must be tak en into a cc ount i n th e test

Apparatu s Re quir e d
P erhaps the most commo nl y used test
ing apparatus is a magneto and po l ariz e d be ll su c h as are often
found in the Ol d styl e te l ephones T h is is shown i n F i g 23 6
T he magneto and be ll are mounte d i n a compa c t portabl e
c arry ing case conne c ted in series and suppl ie d with a l ong pair
of l eads This outt is used extensive ly to test w iring for opens
shorts an d grounds as wi ll be des c ribe d l ater A specia l fuse
testing pane l is shown in F i g 2 3 7
On l ong l ines however the magneto an d bell test for open
c ircuits or rather for c ontinuit y must be use d with great c au
tion and intell igence as often there will be enough c apa c ity
or c ondenser e ff e c t to a ll ow the be ll to ri ng even though there
be an O pen c ir c uit

P RO TE C T

2 54

IV

RE L A YS

I f l ow po t entia l al ternating. c urrent is avai l ab l e , a sma ll

-

potential transformer properly equipped with prote c tive l amps

and test l eads forms an ex c e ll ent piece of apparatus for testing
for grounds opens and shorts
n this the primary is con
n ect ed i n series with a fuse to a
1 10v A C
c ir c uit T he
se c ondary shou l d have taps c onne c ted to a dial switch so that
any vol tage from 1 00 to
may be obtained in 1 00 v
steps
A gal vanometer or a l ow reading vo l tmeter may be used
in series with a few dry c ell s for the same purpose T his has
the advantage that the resistan c e of the ground open or short
may be rough l y cal c u l ated from its indi c ation

L et us assume a
T estin g for O pe n s , S h ort s or G rou n d s
factory running a number of motors and l ighting cir c uits ;say
one d epartment reports that a c ertain motor wil l not run
The
repairman takes his vol tmeter an d magneto set and going
to the department where the motor stopped shoul d rst con
d uc t an i nvestigation among the ones who O perate the m otor
and d iagnose the case m u c h in the same way as a ph y si c ian
diagnoses human i ll s Was there any unusually heavy l oad
app l ied when the m otor stoppe d ? Did the motor heat up
ex c essive ly ? Di d someone throw the starting compensator
handl e fro m start i ng t o running position t oo quickly ?
f the troub l e i s mere ly a b l own fuse the cause of b l ow i ng
shou l d be deter mined to avoid recurren c e
f no on e c an report
any dif c u l t y remove the fuses and test the vo l tage on the l ine
side of the fuse Then test the fuses separate ly with the magneto
or with a specia l fuse testing pane l such as shown i n F ig 23 7
T o do this con nect the t w o fuse terminal s to the magneto out
t and turn the hand l e
f the be ll rings the fuse is inta c t

but if it does not ring then i t i s b l own out On a two wire

c ir c uit the vo l tage ma y be tested on the l oad side w ithout
removi ng the fuses where a l a c k of vo l tage wi ll i ndi c ate a bl own
fuse But thi s cannot be done on a three w i re or a po ly phase
c ircu i t unl ess it be denite ly ascertained that there i s no con
n ect ed l oa d as the current from another phase ma y feed ba c k
war d through the l oad an d operate the vo l tmeter thus giving
an i n d icati on of good fuses
t takes at l east two b l own fuses
to ki ll t h e secon d ary vo l tage of a po ly phase c ir cuit with a c on
,

LOC A T

NG

F A UL T S

F E E DE R
S AN D

Ih I

W R NG

255

us ete d l oa d F i g ure 23 9 shows the proper met o d to pursue

in l ocat i ng a b l own fuse
As w e are d ea l ing w i th fee d er an d wi r i ng fau l ts assume that
the fuses are good but there is n o vo l tage ;or on a po ly phase
circui t that there is no vo l tage on at l east on e phase P roceed
to the next fuse j un c t i on nearest to the so urce and perform
the same test P erhaps a b l own fuse wi ll be foun d here that
ki lls the vo l tage at the motor fuse b l ock Assume for the rst
c ase that a b l own fuse is foun d and upon rep l acement i t b l ows
out i mmed i ate ly Since the other end of the l ine i s open
circu i ted i t shows that there i s a short or a groun d i n this
.

t m et er
or

L amp

t
h
d
i
d
i
c
c
t
d
u
t
t
db
c
c
t
i
vi htm t tib t u dhth i i u th d id th
I
h
FIG

ol
r g

23 9

e er
es

lef w e n loa s s o e e f s es a e e s e y o n e
e w ee n e l n e s e of o e f s e an d e loa s e of a o er
g ar o
e f u se
-

At

nn

N ow

At

move

al l

fuses or con n ecti on s on both en ds Of th e

li n e
f the l ine is i n meta l conduit connect on e magneto
l ea d to the meta l condu i t or i f i t is open wiring connect t e
l ead t o the nearest w ater pipe Connect the other magneto l ead
to on e of the wires i n the iso l ated section Turn the magneto
briskly and if the bell rings the w i re i s grounded ; no ring
indicates an ungrounded l ine Tr y the other l ines in succession
Assume for t he present that all li nes i n the secti on un d er test
are free from grounds
Now conne c t the t w o magneto l ea d s on e t o each of two wires
i n the sect i on u nder test an d turn the hand l e A ring i ng be ll
ind i cates a short c ircu i t between two w ires , w hich i n this case
wou l d be the cause of the b l own fuses
t is very se l dom that a feeder or heavy w i re w i ll open cir c uit
but the test i s ma d e by groun di n g the far ends of the wires in the
l ine

re

P RO TE C T I

2 56

RE L A YS

se c tion under test an d then te s ing with the magneto between

t
ea c h at the opposite end A l n wi ll indi c ate a c ontinuous
c ir c uit whil e no ring wi ll indi c ate an O pen c ir c uit
Open cir c uits frequent ly o c cur in l amp c ord and l ight wiring
b y the wire breaking insi d e the insu l ation whi l e on the outside
i t appears to be intact These c ases however are not difcu l t
t o nd as the y genera lly o cc ur in sing l e units su c h as l amps
and sma ll motors and se l dom on distributing feeders w hi c h c arry
a heavy l oad
Acc urate ly L oc ati n g th e S h or t cir cuit
Af ter l oca li zing the
fau l t to a se c tion between two fuse centers the fau l t often
ma y be a cc urate ly l o c ated b y a carefu l inspe c tion espe c ially
in open wiring but if it is in conduit and quite a l ong run in the
se c tion under test some method is ne c essar y t o determine the
approximate l o c ation so that on ly the wires a ffe c ted in s m all er
se c tion between two out l ets need be pu ll ed ou t
A short c ir c uit ma y be most easi ly l o c a l ized b y a d ire c t
c urrent reversing c ommutator and a c ompass Or a simp l e rever
sing swit c h operated b y an assistant has the same resu l t F irst
make sure that the line is d ead at both ends ;then c onnect a
6 v storage battery through an adj ustab l e resistor ammeter
and doub l e po l e doub l e throw reversing switch to the fau l ty
l ine Adj ust the resistan c e so that 5 or 1 0 amp ows through
the short The assistant is instru c ted t o reverse the swit c h
about ever y 1 0 se c The c over is removed from the nearest
j un c tion box and the compass he l d against the wire
f the
faul t is past this bo x the c ompass wi ll reverse ever y time
the assistant reverses his swit c h
f the compass reverses
pro c eed to the next box and see if the compass works
f so
it shows the fau l t to be further on so a test is made at the next
box and so on unti l a j unction box is rea c hed where the compass
does n ot de e c t
A simi l ar metho d that may be use d where a l ternat i ng current
is avai l ab l e is formed b y passing 5or 1 0 amp through the fau l ty
c ab l e and the short c ir c uit
n stead of the compass a sma ll
piece of transformer i ron about 1 in wide and severa l in c hes
l ong is bent in a semi c ir c l e and about 1 0 turns of No 1 8 or
S gage insu l ate d magnet wire wound around the
20 B
center F l exibl e l ea d s are use d to connect this w inding to a
'

P RO TE C T

2 58

IV

RE L A YS

fo ll ow ou t the wi res that indi c ate grounds or shorts unti l the

fau l t is found

Cal cul ati n g th e Lo c ati o n of S h o r t or Gr oun d

I f the short
or groun d is on a sing l e line which ma y be iso l ated b y discon
n ect i n g at both ends and i f the resistance is a c curate ly known
then the l o c ation of a fau l t may be qu i te accurate ly foun d

b y a measurement of the resistan c e either b y a Wheatstone s

bri d ge or b y the vo l tammeter method
F or i nstance assume two wi r es 500 ft l ong and each wi re
measuring
oh m
P assing 1 0 amp ( adj uste d b y r eostat and measured b y
an a c curate ammeter ) through the short assume the potentia l
drop a c ross the cab l e to be
v or 800 m v The resistan c e
of the t w o sections of wire as far as the short p lus the resistance
oh m
is
Now connect the two far en d s of
of the short
the cab l e tight ly together an d measure again Assume the
vo l tmeter n ow shows
v or 7 7 3 m v thus in d icat i ng that
parall el ing the resistance of the short with the remaining se c tion
of good c ab l e redu c es the resistan c e from
ohm
to
C onsequent ly the resistance of the good cab l e as far as th e
sh or t m a y be ca l cu l ated from the formu l a :
.

in which X
b

Or

in

ou r

)(

a c
-

the tota l resistance of cab l e to short

the tota l known resistan c e of good wi res
resistance measured with ends O pen
resistance measure d wi th en d s c l ose d
.

examp l e :

whi c h equal s
ohm
This is the resistance of two wires t o the short so eac w ire
oh m
wi ll be
f the resistance of 500 ft is
oh m
then
show i ng that the short
oh m wi ll represent 3 00 ft
is 3 00 ft fro m the beginning of the cab l e
A groun d ma y be l o c ated in the same manner i f t e res i stance
of the cab l e be known b y measuring the resistan c e between cab l e
and groun d w ith the far end of cab l e insul ated and then m easur
ing the res i stan c e with the far en d groun d e d , a l though in this
.

W RI NG

L OC A T NG F A UL TS I N F E E DE RS AN D

2 59

case accura cy i s n ot high un l ess the l ine be comparati ve ly l ong

and high resistan c e and the ground resistance pr act i lcall y z ero

Another wa y of approximate ly
Tw o amm et er M eth od
l o c ating a ground in a heavy feeder is b y the two ammeter
method conne c ting an ammeter i n ea c h l eg of the ci r c uit and
noting the division of the c urrent To d o this rst c l ear both
ends of the l ine and then j oin the t w o far ends together tight ly
Then conne c t a 5
amp D C ammeter in series with ea c h wire
c onnecting the opposite side of the ammeters together ; fro m
this j oint c onne c t a storage batter y and resistor to the ground
The c onne c tions are shown i n d iagram i n F i g 24 1
.

E n ds

C abl e

un

con n e c e d

d e r T e st

Res i s t or
Acci d en

FI G

24 l

al

G r oun d

c ti cu t hmm t d b m u i th divi i
S

t og et h e

L o a

tt

Ba

or ag e

g go
r

rr

ery

on

a e avy fee e
by a
ee sA

eas

an d

r n

s o of
n

The current through meter A needs to go on ly through part

of on e feeder to reach the break but the c urrent through meter
B must not on ly traverse the tota l l ength of on e cab l e but a l so
the remaining se c tion of the g r ou n ded cabl e S in ce t h e currents
d i vi de inverse ly proportional to the resistan c e of the cab l e
the y must trave l and since th i s resistan c e is pro portiona l to the
l ength it fo ll ows that the ratio of the two meters is inverse ly
proportiona l to the two l engths of cab l e Or the ratio of on e
reading to the sum of the two readings is the same as the ratio
of the O pposite se c tion to the break is to the tota l l ength
F or i nstance i f meter A reads 3 amp and meter B reads 2 amp
and s i nce this division is inverse ly proportiona l to the resistances
AG BG Or c a ll the who l e c ir c uit 1 00
the proportion is 3 2

1
AG) AG or 2 :5 X 1 00 So l vi ng
per c ent then 3 2
0
0
(
this for BG or X gives 40 whi c h means that the fau l t is 40 per
c ent of the tota l l ength of the c ab l e awa y from the meters
,

'

P RO TE C TI

2 60

F or

RE L A YS

VE

a ccu r a t e resu l ts with the two ammeter method

it is necessar y to gure the r east an ce of the ammeters and con
n ect i n g cab l es as so man y feet of equival ent cab l e
F or instance
if the cab l e being tested is 500 ft l ong
ft for two con
du ct or s) and has a resistance of
oh m per 5
00 ft and if
the resistance of the meter and connections from the dividing
point to the cabl e is o und to be
oh m then it is evident
that the meter and connections have a resistance equival ent
to 20 ft of cabl e T o measure the resistance of the meters
pass about 5 amp t hr ough the meter on al l connections
and then with a mi l l ivol tmeter take the drop from the dividing
point between the meters to the nearest point on the cabl e
incl uding all connections and j oints S a y this is 1 00 m v
ver y

Then the resistance is R

or

5 amp

oh m

S ince the cabl e is

it fol
oh m per ft
X 500 ft or
l ows that i t takes 20 ft t o make up a resistance of
ohm
I f the other meter measures the same then in making the nal
cal cul ation it is necessar y to gure the total l ength of cabl e
20
20) or
as ( 500
ft instead of merel y
500
ft S o in our previous exampl e the faul t woul d gu re 40 per
cent of
or 4 1 6 ft awa y from the end being tested Bu t
we al read y know that the meter is equival ent to 20ft so we must
20 or
subtract this making t h e actual l ocation of the fau l t 4 1 6
3 9 6 ft awa y

Th e F aul t L o cali zer

A muc h safer met h o t o l ocate a ground
in a heavy cabl e or feeder is b y the Westinghouse faul t l ocal
Thi s instrument a diagram of which is shown in F ig 24 2
i z er
has three terminal s two of whi ch are connected to the respective
wires in a two wire feeder and the other t h rough a sour ce of
D C potential ammeter and l amp bank to the ground
The
central knob is then tur ned unti l the gal vanometer shows
no de ection up on pressure of the ke y The point on the scal e
that now l ies direct l y bel ow the 0 mar k indicates directl y the
percentage of cabl e l ength t o the ground On e post is marked

red and one bl ack so if the reading appears in red on the

sca l e then the ground is on the l ine connected to the red

post F or examp l e if the scal e showed 60 per cent in bl ack
then it wou l d be kn own that the l ine connected to the bl ack
.

2 62

df

P ROTE C T I VE RE L A YS

part l y overcome thi s i cul t y t h e Leeds

N orthrup
power bridge has heavy l eads permanentl y connected to the
bridge an h eavy cl amps on the ends for securel y c l amping t o
the cabl e T hi s is shown in F ig 243
I n princip l e of operation , t hi s bridge consists of a sl ide wi re
bridge wit h a very sensitive gal vanometer mounted in the carry
ing case The l ow resistance sl ide wi re is mounted on a circul ar
To

FIG

243

L e ed s

N or t h r u

pp w b i g
o

er

b l ock inside the case and arranged wit h a ver y positive movabl e
contact T his contact is rigid l y attac h ed t o a s h a t whi ch
carries a k nob and pointer m
oving over a cal ibrated scal e The
wire is made l arge enoug h to carr y about 5 amp thus giving
a readab l e de ection for a s h ort movement of the contact I f
the occasion demands this current ma y be increased to 8 amp
to obtain ver y accurate resul ts but this heavy current shoul d
not be l eft on l onger than is abso l utel y n ecessar y
T h e scal e is divided into
divisions but the l eads are
arranged to equal 1 0 divisions of the s l ide wire so the pointer
wi l l on l y go from 1 0to 9 9 0on th e scal e I t wi l l thus be seen that
.

L OCAT I NG F A UL TS I N F E E

ER
S AN D

WI RI NG

2 63

the sl ide wire actual l y begins at the ends of the cab l e thus entirel y
e l i m inating l e ad resistance
I n using the instrument to l ocate grounds the l ine is rst
cl eared at both ends and then on e end of the cab l e is tightl y
c l amped together C are must be taken to avoid contact r esis
tance here
The batter y is connected to posts marked Ba The post marked
Gr must be secure l y grounded
S ufficient batter y must be
used to obtain a readab l e de ection from a s l ight change or
resistance must be inserted if the current is t oo l arge The
connections are shown in Fig 244
,

FIG

2 44

ig m c ci
a ra

of

on n e

on s o f

pw bi g
o

er

The bridge l ocates the faul t b y the M urra y l oop method

I f for instance the bridge is bal anced so that the gal vanometer
shows no de ection when the pointer is at 3 00 and the ke y is
pressed then it means that the distance r om bl ock A to the
,

3 00

fau l t is

L O CATI O N

of

the tota l distance

F AULT S

OF

W HE N

LO OP

T HE

M
B
IS

D I F F E RE NT CROS S S E C TI O N CA
-

ca bl es

of

CO

P OS

ED

OF

LE S

When there are

vary ing cross sectio n in t h e l oop
being tested the faul t is usua ll y l ocated b y reducing t h e cabl es
to equival ent l engt h s of on e size cabl e
F or instance in diagram Fig 244 assume that there are
three sections of cab l e of various sizes and that these sections
are as fol l ows : L engt h A to E is composed of 550 y d of
cir mi l s l ength E F is 500 y d of
cir mi l s and l ength
F 0 is
y d of
cir mi l s These l engths must be
reduced b y cal cul ation to equival ent l engths of one size and for
this purpose it is best to sel ect the l argest size S ince the
-

P ROTE C T I VE RE L A YS

2 64

resistance is inversel y pr opor t on al to the cross section and

direct l y proportional to the l en g i it fol l ows that the cal cul ation
is merel y an inverse proportion To reduce the rst l ength
the equation becomes :
'

550

x:

which gives a: as 880 y d meaning that 880 y d of

ai r
m i l cab l e is equal in resistance to 550 y d of
Ci r m il cab l e
Reducing the rest in a simi l ar manner gives the foll owing :
-

550 y d

500 y d

of

of

cir mi l s
cir mil s
cir mi l s
.

of

880 y d

cir m i l
cir mil s
cir mi l s

of
500 y d of
y d of
.

This makes the total resistance of the l oop equival ent to

y d of
N ow if the bridge bal ances at a reading
of
t his indicates that the faul t is
per cent of the total
distance or
equival ent y ards r om E
Of this 880
are in the stretch AE l eaving on l y
880 or
yd
whic h is the distance from E to the faul t

Bur n i n g O u t t h e F aul t
Wh en the faul t either cross ground
or p artial O pen is of a high resistance and it is impossib l e to l ocate
it b y ordinary methods it is sometimes permissibl e t o burn
it out This however must be attempted on l y with the greatest
precautions such as having pai l s of sand or rel iab l e re ex t in
l
read
y
for
immediate
use
shou
d
the
burning
process
i
h
o
u
t
s
e
r
s
u
g
start a re
To do t h is connect a hi g h potential so t h at it feeds current
through the faul t and then increase the current unti l some
thing happens T his something ma y be a re a mel ted con duit
a ruined section of wire additional troubl e communicated to
other sections of wire or merel y a carbonizing of the faul t
I f the fau l t becomes carbonized su fcientl y t o pass about
5 amp t hrough from a l ow vo l tage batter y then it is eas y to
l ocate the faul t b y the previousl y described methods
I n an y case burning out a faul t is a method which must be
resorted to onl y in an extreme case as practical l y al l fau l ts
ma y b e l ocated in a much safer and gent l er manner b y a l itt l e
c l ear thinking an d sound reasoning
.

D
i c km g mm ic c mc my
iym c g c c i ic g y z i c
c g y gm
c i gy c y
wwi g
g gg i gg
i gg y
g g yg g
g
g
c
c
c
g
m i
c
y
y
c
c
y
m gy g
z

wg c
gi w
y
y
c
i y cy w c
y c mc g i c i y y w i
ym c i c D ymi g c g g
g c i D my y

266
C

u it b r ea

rc

di a

ers ,

he

C u r r en t t r an sfor

at

ra

e,

r el eases, see

Rel eases

h ar a ter

st

s,

t cl osin

di a

r el a s ,

G E
lo

ra

1 7,

s,

s,

39

West n h ou se over l oad bel

lo

2 9, 3 1

s,

t op eni n r el a s 18
d i a r am s 40 42
G E d ashp ot i n verse over
l oad 3 8
C li p s for testin 226
C om p ass test 2 76
C o pen sat on i n cu rr en t tr an s
f or m er 1 1 3
i n poten ti al t r an sfor m er 124
for tem p er atu r e i n G E r el a 8 1
C o p ensator stor qu e 69 92
Westi n h ou se d i a r am 70
C on dit r el a s 24
ov er l oad h or i on tal bu s 2 5
-

i n verse over l oad bel

r el a

of

ver t i cal bu s, 2 5

2 46

fu se

20

G E
of G E
of G E
of

an d

229

t i m e l oad , 77

t ab l es an d , 228

al t er n a or

ur a

r esul s,

C on stan ts ,

3 4, 41

r cu i

f ts of se on d ar l oad 1 1 5
h ol e t p e 23 7
i n h er en t er r or s 1 1 3
m a n et i at on of or e 1 1 4
n e essi t
for 3 on 3 p h ase 1 19
op en n
of se on d ar
1 22
r ati o er r or s 1 1 3
si n l e p h ase
r ou p n s 1 1 7
temp er atu r e ri se 1 1 6
th r ee p h ase r oupi n s 123
th r ee w i r e 1 1 7
th r ou h t pe 2 3 7
t w o p h ase r oup i n s 1 1 7 1 1 8
Westi n h ou se 2 3 7
onn ecti ons 1 1 9
w r on
C u r ves u r r en t d e r ease on en er a
t or sh or t 1 00
r ati o err or
in
u rr en t tr an s
for m er s 1 1 4
,

1 80

t ur n s,

ef e

ui

p er e

er , a

1 16

t i n 2 16
t pi al ti me

Cir

EX

IN

tr an s

for mer 1 05
C on tactor s i t h 7 1 9 0
di a r am of m od er n 72

b ell ow s 2 0
d e ni te ti m e 2 1
i n du cti on over l oad
,

of

of ol d ,

of

73

r el a

s s e

C u r r en t,

al

er

di r e

r el a s,

66

no

l atur e, 5

cl e

ou n t er ,

22,

2 12 , 2 40

D Ar son val t p e r el a
t i on al , 46
p r i n ci pl es of

po

er

G E
.

d u ti on

Westi n h ou se i n d u t on
l oad 69

over

45

te p er atu r e 2 01
test n for r ou n ds 222
in
ash p ot t p e ci r ui t op eni n
verse over l oad 3 8
e d el a s 6 21 26
e n i te ti
,

over

di r ec

t on

o er a

l oad , 7 8

v er l oad

t i on al

di sadvan ta e of 1 7 1
ul ati on of sh or t c r u t
s,

pl ates

on

74

1 01

t ap

i n du ct

1 65, 1 69

s,

en

33,

1 79

s,

1 78

72
vi ew , 73

xp l od ed
l ocati on i n r el a
C on tacts 7 1
C on t n u i t i n d i cator
C r oss con n e ted p o
e

Westi n h ou se b el l o

r el a

s,

29

DD mi cgc c
iDi g y
g
D g g yg
c
gg
ggyy
g
y
yg y m
g i ci
l ki c g w
cg igwi c y m
wy y
m

Di g mic i i i gw ky
ci c y
gg
g c
y
y
g y cg cy g
im g y
m
y c gy w
g
w
D c
c
Di c
yc g y yg c

I ND E X

ti on s

el a, con n e

an d

p h ase r otati on

ni n

e er

dvan t a

sa

of

st em ,

ser v

c r os s c o n n e c t e d
~

171

ia

41

West in h ouse

p eni n

st an

d ar d

34

D C r in s
di ff er en ti al
.

st em ,

p r oteo

di al

ra

ri n

st e

for

3 0, 1 75, 1 7 7

t
1 84
p r i me m over s

167 ,

in t ern al , 94

t on testin 222
m od er n con tact or s i tch 72
n etw or
p r ote t i on 1 87
ol d con ta tor s
t h 72
over vol ta e s
n al 65
p ar al l el feed er radi al s st e
a

181

p o er direct i on al r el a
p r otect i on of b at ter
tar 58
of p ar all el feed er s

s,

165, 1 66

an d r o

of

t r an sfor

Pr otecti on

er ,

1 54, 1 55,

1 45,

p r ot ect i on

in

q p m en t

e ui

2 16

r el a

2 09

p h ase over l oad

t p i al l a ou t 2 1 8
Westi n h ou se b el l o
cr oss con n ected

er

on

134

1 68

i n su

tw o

2 55

ded 1 3 9
u n r oun d ed 1 3 8
for t w o p h ase 1 3 7
West i n h ou se for i n d u ti on
over l oad 1 3 5
for p ow er di rect i on al 1 66
w att r el a s 1 2 9
t emp er atu r e r el a s 1 92 204
test i n vol t a e r el a s 248
w it h c cl e ou n t er 21 4 2 3 9
w i th ou t di scon n e t i n
2 41
th r ee p h ase over l oad 1 3 4
t h r ee w ir e curr en t tr an sfor m er
r oun

w i r e, 1 1 7

59 , 60

p ow er d r e t on al

1 40

t w o- curr en t t r an sf or

s em ,

fail ur e of
fuse tes t in
G E

tr an sfer

6 1 , 85

13 3

p ar all el feed er s

117

t i on al , 1 70, 1 72

d p r ot ect i on

di r ec

over l oa

el em en t ar

63

t ion 1 49
d oub l e con tact p ow er

1 8 , 1 95

pli t
d
s em 1 5
9
stan d ar d G E for S P i n d u c
t on over l oad 1 3 6
for t h r ee p h ase fou r w i r e
u t or s

on

74

r el a s,

e r es t or n

41

en er a or

40

42

1 7 6, 1 8 2

G en er al E l ectri c,

Westi n h ouse
C on ti n ui t i n di cat or

18, 40

tr p

or

ne

ti c sch emes see S ch e

m ati c di a r am
s
r am s b atter
p r ot ecti on 56
ci r cui t cl osi n
sep ar ate tr i p 1 7
si n l e p h ase 3 4
stan d ar d
G en er al E l e t ri c

a r am m a

s, r a

ser i es

13 1

d al

a ra

t i on t ab l e, 1 2 1

on n e

1 20

267

als o see

s,

3 4, 4 1

1 69

i n du cti OI L over l oad, 1 3 5

over l oad t el e r ap h , 1 9 2
p o er di r ect i on al , 1 70

p h ase 1 94
t or qu e compen sator
r ever se

con n ect i on ,

i ff er en t i al

70

1 22

p ow er di r ecti on al

9 6,

1 70

n om en

l atur e, 6

p r ote ti on p ar all el feed ers 1 56

r ect
u r r en t p ow er di r ect i on al r e
,

ppli cati ons

r el a s t esti n
a

r in

Di r e ti on al

st em s,

r el a

55

220

62

m
en
n
o
,

l atu re, 5

D
DDi c c c l y c i c
c wg y
yc c
cg y m g g g
yy
i
wc y
k
m gy g D g m ig y y y g
yz y y
w
y
i
yc z gc
m
k
c
g
cy y k y k c y
c
c
g
c i ym y
w
g
cyy w
gw
g
ywc
c

268

st

IN

u r b an

AC
.

ubl e

h ar a te r i s t

es,
.

98

1 72

fr equen

of

er ,

1 24

v ol ta e 1 05
of ov er l oad 98
l oad 1 1 5
of secon d ar
el ds 92
of str a
of u n b al an ced sh or t ci r cu its 1 06
av e for m 1 2 4
of
E l ectri al l
op er ated ci r cui t b r ea
of

l ow

dia

en ar

an d

r am s, see

ia
S ch em ati c

al so

ms

ra

ra

for m er

di a

Heav curr en t r el a testi n

H h ten si on r el a s, 21 0

t tr an s

c r r en

1 13

Hol e t p e tr an sfor m er 1 1 3
H or i on tal bus t p e r el a s
-

p ri me m over s
of r otar
on ver ter
of

Con d

59
58

b u r n i n ou t 264
l ocati on of 2 51
F eed er s see Par al l el feed er s
F i r e r i s fr om fuses 1
F i r st fu se 1
F l exi b l e l amp l oad 23 3
F r equ en
r el a
n om en cl at ur e
F ul l au tom ati c ci r cu i t b r ea er
F uses r e r i s fr om 1
testi n 253 255
ti me l oad curve of 20

y
y

p ed an ce over h ead li n es 1 02
thr ee con du ctor cab l e 1 03
I n d ex p l ate G E i n d u cti on r el a

77

p er ator s tr an s ri p t 78
Westi n h ou se i n du cti on

5
7

r el a

I n di

G en er al

tri c Rel a s b ell o s

over l oad 3 9
d ashp ot t p e 3 8
i n d ucti on over l oad 7 5
p ow er di r ecti on al D C 48
E le

AO
.

r el a

it

93

2 06

t
tin uit 74
I n d u tan e over h ead li n es 1 02
I n d u t on a m eter 2 3 7
I n du cti on t p e rel a s 66
G E over l oad 7 5
p o er di r ecti on al 93
vs sol en oi d p l un er 82
Westin h ou se over l oad 65
p o er di r ecti on al 90
r everse p h ase 1 9 3
temp er atu r e l oad 203
v ol ta e 1 89
I n d u stri al p l an ts p r ot e ti on of 1 1 0
a or , con

69

25

2 60

F aul ts,

G E p o er di r ecti on al , 49
How t i m e d el a s ar e ob ta n ed , 23
.

al i er ,

241

o er l oa

F aul t l o

E r r or s, i n h er en t i n

F ai l ur e

er s,

Ele

tr an sfor

on

E ff ect

tric Rel a s sol en o d

vol ta e 1 90
ou n d ov er l oad 2 7
st r ap
u n i t t p e 28 3 5
G en er ators p r ote cti on of 13 2 1 48
G r oun d s al cul ati on of l o ati on 2 58
p r otecti on a ain st 1 50
testi n for 22 1 254
G r oup i n s tr an sf or m er cu rr en t si n
g l e p h ase 1 1 7
t w o p h ase 1 1 7
thr ee p h ase 1 23
p oten t al t w o p h ase 125
th r ee p h ase 1 26
E le

G en er al

on act r e a s ,

of

EX

D
yg m c y ww cgc c y
cg g
y
c
i
m
y
c
gg
c y
c
g
c
ygc g y
gy yc
yg y c
gy w
gy y
gi
gg
i
g
y
yz y y
g
y g g i m im i z g
c
c
y
i
i
i
k
m w m cy
w
c
y g i g c yc i
wii
g

27 0

Op en

IN

p hase r el a
Open s t esti n for

no

Over

an d

en

l atu r e, 6

Po

254

EX

.P o

un der vol t ag e

r el a

er

b r i d e 262
di r e ti on al r el a
,

er -

s,

u r r en t

Over h ead l in es,

r esi s t an ce , et c

Over l oad , eff ect of, 9 8

el em en tar
p r ote t
r el ease,

1 02

85

1 65, 1 69

l eadi n

3 0 de

130

r ees,

di ff er en ti al 96
d oub l e con tact
,

on

fr o

13 3

1 70, 1 72

A O , 66
.

86, 92

G en er al E l ectr i c, 28, 3 8, 75
Westi n h ou se, 29, 3 1 , 1 9 1
Over vol ta e p r ot ecti on , 64

G en er al E l e tr i c, 93
i r on l ad t p e, 87
-

d evel op m en ts 89
n om en cl atu r e 5
p r acti cal req u i r e m en ts
l atest

13

p r ote ti on

p ar al l el fee d er s 1 64
of r i n
s stem s 1 83
r el a
sp eci
ati on s 96
star d el ta c o n n e c t i o n
,

testi n
u sed

la

D C
.

s t or a e

1 12

44, 55
c,

b att er

49

pr ot ec

tion 58
Westin h ouse
,

D Ar son

val , 46

44

Gen er al E l ectr

90

re

95

s,

ppli cat ons

C on di t 51

Pol ar i ed p ow er di r ect i on al r el a 47
Pol p h ase p oten t al tr ansfor er
r oup i n s 1 2 4
t r an sf or m er p r otecti on 1 4 7
Pote n ti al tr an sfor mer s a u r a

cl at u r e,

ver l oad

i th

248

Westin h ouse

13 0

en er a or s,

of

of

1 49

88

Par al l el feed er s di r ect ur r en t 60

el em en tar
di a r ams 6 1 8 5
p r ot e ti on of 1 52
savi n s eff ected b
u se 1 5
2
Ph an tom l oads 23 5 242
Ph ase r otati on 1 3 1
r el a
n om en l atu r e 5
Pil ot wi r e s stem 1 60
Pl otti n t h e r esul ts 244
Pl u n er t p e r el a s 24
Con di t 24
Ge n er al E l ectr i c 3 5
testi n 22 7
vs i n d u cti on 82
Westi n h ou se 2 6 29
Pol ar it di r ecti on al r el a n omen

pol ar i ed 47
Pr ecaut on s in testin 23 0
Pr e m overs fail u r e of 59
P r i n ci p l es o f O p er at o n
,

c rc

br ea ers 7
Con di t over l oad 23
po er dir ection al 52
on tact or sw i t ch 7 2
l e cou n ter 2 1 2
G en er al E l ectr c air val v es
,

p en sati on 1 24
eff ect of fr equ en
co

of

rel a s on

r el ease,

on n ect ed ,

r oss-

1 89

AC

s,

ave

f or

p o l p h ase

temp er atu r e

ro

1 24

12 4

up i n

r se,

s,

1 24

u se on over vo l a e,

1 24

1 24,

3 6, 3 7

D C
.

po

er

d r ect on al

50

i
li i c i c i m clyg
w
i
i
i
ig g
c
ii g i ymm icki y g i mg
g
i g m i i iw ki y m
iy gi g
i
i
i
i
y
m iiz im y i ic
ig iz
iwi cwc i i l
i
g
i
y
m
i
cg i g mm y
l i c ig k
imi i
g
wl k g
ii mc cyic i w
yi y m f m
ci c
i g gyc m i
ic g y w
yc m m i
iy i gy i
ig
ic i

27 1

Pr in cip l es

p er ation
ect r c in d u t

of

G en er al

on

over

l oad , 7 5
ser es o v er l o ad , 2 5

Leeds

Nor t h r up

an d

Pr ot ect on u n d er cu r r en t 64
u n d er vol t a e 65
Pr o t e t v e r el a s 1 3
no
en
atu r e 5
p r n c pl es of op er at on
Pu n tu r e test 221

po

er

br d e 2 63
o v er l oad r el eas e 9
o ver vol ta e r el eas e 1 3
pr otect ve r el a s 4
sh u n t t r p att ach
en t 1 0
test n tr an sfor er s 22 1
u n der l oad r el ease 1 1
u n d er v ol t a e r el ease 1 2
West n h ou se A C t e p er a
tu r e l oad 204
b el l ows over l oad 3 2
b ell r n n 199
c cl e cou n ter 2 1 4
,

u lf
Q
u
Q
a

in

t er

s,

tt n

air

r ese

val ves, 3 6

D Ar son val , 45
D C d e n te t

D C
.

2 7, 29

e,
,

2 01

f au l t l ocal er 26 1
in d u ct on 66
p ol ar ed 47
tel e r ap h 1 9 1
tr an sfer 209
Pr op er con n ect on s for 3 ph as e 1 20
Pr ote t on el e en tar o v er l oad dia
,

ra

133

en er at or s,

ro

un d

d ust r

1 48

pl an t s

1 10

79

Rel a

h ar acter st s 1 08
con tact s 7 1
at on s o ver l o ad 83
s p ec
p o er dir ect on a 96
t h es 1 7 205
s
test n 223
Rel a s an d tr ans for er s r equ r ed
c

133

Re eas es for c r u t br ea er s 7
o v er l o ad 9
o ver v ol ta e 1 3
s h u n t tr i p 9
u n der l oad 1 0
u n d er vol ta e 1 2
Requ r e en ts pr a t al po er d ir ec

t ion al

s,

1 83

v er ter s

r o ar

on

st or a e

b at t er

es,

r el a

88

Res s t an e o v er h ead l n es 1 02
t h r ee on du t or cabl e 1 03
u n t s 23 3
Resul t s cu r v e of 246
pl ott n 244
t abl es of 245
Rever s e u r r en t r el a s see Po er
dir ect on al r el a s
p h as e pr ot ect on a a n st 1 9 2
,

1 47

13 9

55

h r on ou s otor s 1 3 6
th r ee ph ase cir cu t s 1 3 4
tr an sfor er s 1 40
t w o p h ase c r u t s 1 3 4
s

st e

t
132
n et
or s 1 7 5 1 85
o v er v ol t a e D C
64
p ar a el feeder s 1 52
pol ph ase tr an s or er s
r ad al s ste
s 1 75
r e v er s e p h as e 1 9 2
s

o or s,

r n

1 50

n es,

1 50

al

te p er atu r e

Rad al d str b u t on s ste 3 0

1 82
n et or
p ar al l el feed er s 1 8 1
pr otect on of 1 75
Rat o er r or s 1 1 3
Rel at on of var ou s p ar ts G E r el a

r el a s,

test n

1%

249

D
i g y cm i g c ci c i mi g i mg
i mc m y i g m
m ci c
yi c i iig l y g im g
i
i mg i g i i i i gg y
i
c
i
g
i
g
y
i i k w ccic i i c cg i y
w
c
i
g
y ci i w li y c i yi gm
m
k
ii yw
c
i
m

gw i g y iz i
ig l
g w wi
gc wm ic cii g
ci i iml g
iy c i c i
cmi i y im i i k i y y i mc i ic
ic yic y y
iy c il y
g
g
i i i g y y c ig yc m i
i c
wi g c m

272

IN

Rn

ste

u r r en t

tn

al ern a

s,

EX

u ts test n

S h or t

rc

175

d ir e

ve t or

c r r en

a ra

S hu n t

62

th an on e sou r e 1 85
par all el feed ers 1 85
p r ote t on of 1 83
Rotar on ver ters p r otect on of 1 3 9
Rotat on of p h as es 1 3 1
or e

for , 2 54

1 07

s,

tr an sfor ers 1 1 2 1 22
S hu n t tr p 9
atta h
en t 1 0
el e
en tar
d a ra
17
s ch em at c di a r a
9
S n al r el a n o en cl atu r e 6
S n e p h as e r oup in s 1 1 7
S l d e r es is t or 2 3 5
S ol en o d pl u n er r el a s 24
over l oad 2 5
,

p ar all el feed ers 1 52

at c dia r ams al so see Pr n c
pl es of op er at on

S av n

s, u s e of

S ch e

vol t a

b ell

r in

r el a s ,

1 99

u t br ea ers 9
D C
po
Con di t

c rc

dir ce

er

u n ter

24

214

t t pe 3 5
i nsul ation test ou t t 2 2 1
s h un t tr p 9
u n d er l oad r el ease 1 1
un d er vol ta e r e ease 1 2
Westin h ous e bell o s o v er
l oad 3 2
D C po er dir ect on al 47
d e n te t e 27 29
in d u t on o v er l oad 67
over l o ad te e r ap h 1 9 1
S e on d ar l oad eff ect of 1 1 5
au t om at c c r cu t b r ea er 7
Se
S er es tr an s f or er s 1 1 2
S er i es tr p 1 8
o b je t on s t o 1 8
S er ies t p e r e a s G E o v er l oad 28
testin 223
,

t ect ion

u ts

c rc

acc r at el

tn

bu s, 53
r el a s, Con d t, 51
G en er al E l e tr c, 25, 48
el ds, eff e t of, 9 2
al

ver t

S tr a

S uper vis or

Sw

ut

c rc

t on

of c r r en

t of u n b al an ed

eff ec

n a ur e of,

1 00

r el a

205

tes tin 223

h r on ous otor s p r otect on
,

of,

13 6

1 01

1 06

74

tch es au to at oil
17
r el a
aux l ar
on t a t o r 7 1 90

256

cal cul a

lo

S h or t

19 4

r el a s ,

147

r es t or in

pr o

t on 1 3 0
S tat es C o p h an to
l oads 23 6
S tor a e b atter
pr ot ect on 55
test n 225
S tr ap ou n d h or on tal bu s 53
p l u n er over l oad 24
p o er di r e t on al 51
s he
at
d a r am 52

S er v ce

of,

c on n e

s,

83

G en er al E l e t r c, D C po er
dir ect on al , 51
in du ct on o v er l oad , 2 5
o u n d o ver l oad , 2 8
str ap
un

er over l o a

c cl e- co

t i on al , 52

pl un

1 90

d u t on 8 2
S ou r e for tes tin
23 2
S our es t r p ir u t 16
S p ec
at on s o v er l o ad r el a
po er dir e t on al 96
S p t con d u t or s st e
1 58
S tan d ar ds for t est n
23 6
S tan d b b atter es 58
S tar d el ta t r an sfor er b an
vs

e,

T abl e

ho n
d el ta

121

p ar ison

an d

2 74

IN

iii

yg c
i
yy y
m
g
i
k
g
i yi
g m g ig
i
g m cgg i g
g yg
g y
x

an d

e,

p r otect on
p r otection 65

e cess

of,

Un it
Use

u rr en t

V ar

r el a

V ector

t on s

on

pol ar

in G

125

p h as e

V er tical bu s
Vol ta

r el a s,

e r el a s ,
no

2 5, 50

1 89

men cl atur e, 5

47

67

203

u r r e n t t r an s
f or er r oup n s 1 1 8
p o t en t i al t r an s f o r m e r
r oup in s 1 25
con n ection
1 20
Z
two

s,

p in

Ar

46

h h tens on 2 1 1
in du ct on o v er l oad
te per at u r e l oad
vol ta e 1 89

di a r ams sh or t cir cu it s 1 07
thr ee p h as e cu rr en t tr an s
for er r oup n s 1 23
p o t en t a l t r an s f o r m e r
r ou

son val ,

122

b el l ows over l oad 29 3 2

b el l r n n 1 99
c cl e cou n ter 2 1 3
D C po er di r e t on al D
,

ers

79

conn ec

qu c r es et tin 3 6
ou s p ar ts r el ation of

90

V al ves ,

1 1 2, 1 22, 247

ers,

War d Leon ar d r esistan ce u n ts 23 3

no
en cl atu r e 5
att r el a
Wes t in h ou se faul t l ocal er 260
A C po er dir ect on al
r el a s
,

246

12

t p e r el a s 28 3 5
tr an sfor
of po ten ti al
over vol ta e 124

test n

1 89

r el eas e,

s,

r el a s,

e re a

tr an sfor

1 87

g l ym i g
i
W gy y m w iz i
iy gwi g c i
i
z
ig m i i
gki g

i
i
m
g
yi i c i g
i
y
g
ci i g
EX

V ol ta

Un b al an ced s h or t c r cu ts, eff ect

1 06
Un d er cur r en t p r o t ect on , 64
r el a s, 1 9 1
Un d er l oad r el ease, 1 0
Un d er vol ta

in t er l oc

96

m ul t icon t act , 207

o b sol ete d e n te t
e, 2 6
o v er l o ad tel e r ap h , 1 9 1
r el a
s w t h , 206
re

v erse p h as e

193

s er v ce r es t or n

194

tr an s f er 1 9 208
Wh at ar e pr ote ct v e r el a s 1
Wr on con n ections on thr ee p h ase
,

1 19

t on s

on n ec

var ou s

1 22

a van a es of,

1 20