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Course 1
CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP
Max. Marks:
ii.
100
Time: 3 Hours
(Theory: 80, Internal: 20)
Unit-I
1.
Child Development
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and knowledge acquired can remain for a reasonable long period and
perhaps for the entire life.
Development is a continues and gradual process
Development does not stop at any time. It continues from the moment
of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at a
slow or a rapid rate but at a regular pace rather than by leaps and
bounds. For example, speech does not come over-night. It has
gradually developed from the cries and other sounds made by the baby
at birth. Each stage of development has its foundations built upon a
preceding stage and has a definite influence on the succeeding stage
of development. There may be a break in the continuity of growth due
to illness, starvation or malnutrition or other environmental factors or
some abnormal conditions in the childs life.
Development proceeds more rapidly during early years
The rate of growth is not uniform. The child grows more rapidly during
early years and slowly during the later years. Growth during early years
is so rapid that it is easily noticeable and growth becomes slow at the
later stages.
Development is a product of heredity and environment
Heredity and environment have considerable impact on the growth and
development of the child. The child is born with some genetically
endowments and develops by interacting with his environment. Neither
heredity nor environment is the sole factor responsible for the
development of a child. Nutrition, home climate and school
environment regulate social, emotional and intellectual development
while child inherits physical stature and different traits from his
parents.
Development depends on maturation and learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth
and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order in
the brain and nervous system and give children new abilities. These
changes in the brain and nervous system help children to improve in
thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Development proceeds
from simple to complex. In the beginning children can only learn with
the help of concrete item but as they grow and develop they are able
to learn only using symbol like pictures and finally they can learn
abstractly.
Development is predictable
In many cases it is possible to predict the type of probable
development a child will follow, because the rate of development
follows a Pattern. As it is possible to predict intelligence of a person
with the help of an intelligence test given in earlier years. 'X'-rays of
the bones of different parts of the body will tell approximately what will
be the ultimate size.
Development is individualized and unique process
Development is individualized process. Although the pattern of
development is similar for all children, they follow the pattern at their
from his conception. There are different types of environment such as physical environment,
social environment & psychological environment. Physical environment consists of all outer
physical surroundings both in-animate and animate which have to be manipulated in order to
provide food, clothing and shelter. Geographical conditions i.e. weather and climates are
physical environment which has considerable impact on individual child. Social environment
is constituted by the society-individuals and institutions, social laws, customs by which human
behavior is regulated. Psychological environment is rooted in individual's reaction with an
object. One's love, affection and fellow feeling attitude will strengthen human bond with one
another.
So Growth and Development are regulated by the environment of an individual where he
lives. Human growth and development is affected by a large number of factors. Further, it can
be divided into two parts
(i)
Internal Environmental Factors
(ii)
External Environmental Factors
(i)
Internal Environmental Factors:
Internal factors are conditions within the body. These conditions are formed as a result of
actions of our human body system. These system maintains the system of our body but some
time due to illness, to keep the internal environment in static condition becomes impossible. If
these conditions are not proper, the growth and development of the child will not be proper.
(ii)
External Environmental Factors:
There are various external environmental factors which influence growth and
development.
(a) Climate: Climate influence the growth and development of a child. Usually, it is
observed that a mild cold climate has a positive effect on growth and development.
Along this, altitude also plays in the height of the individual, that is why animals as
well as human beings are short statured on his altitudes. In the same way, proper
development is not possible in extremely high and low temperature.
(b) Density of population: Has a deep impact on individuals growth and development.
Growth and development do not take place if density of population is more. On the
other hand, proper development will take place if the density of population is less. In
the same way when we sow many seeds in the small area, they will not grow
properly.
(c) Local Environment: Local Environment also plays an important role in growth and
development of an individual. If the local environment is neat and clean, the growth
and development will take place properly. If the local environment is full of dust,
particles and smoke, there cannot be healthy growth and development of children.
(d) Standard of Living: Standard of living do have an effect on growth and
development of children. If there is proper standard of living of a family, the children
of that family will develop properly. Their heights will be sufficient. Their physical
and mental growth will take place properly. In absence of proper standard of living,
they will not grow properly. There will not harmonious development of children.
3.
Socio-cultural Factors: Who do not know about the growth and development of the
Greeks? In fact, the growth and development had reached at apex point only due to their social
and cultural activities. In the same way there are some countries in this world, whose sociocultural background is clearly visible on the growth and development of the people. Due to
this fact, Brazil and Argentina are famous in football.
4.
Personal Factors: There are various factors which are responsible for growth and
development of the individual. These factors are given below:
(i)
Physical Exercise: For proper growth and development of an individual proper
exercise is essential. As a matter of fact, various types of exercises enhance the growth of all
the organs of body. If we do not exercise daily our growth and development will not be proper.
So physical exercise influences the growth and development of an individual.
(ii)
Balanced Diet: Growth and Development of the child mainly depend on his food
habits & nutrition. Balanced diet also plays an important role in the growth and development
of an individual. If balanced diet is not taken various organs of our body will not be developed
properly. Due to the lack of various constituents of food, growth can not be proper. It is
usually seen that the poor people, who are not in a position to get balanced diet have weak
structure of body. They do not attain proper weight and height, whereas the people who get the
balanced diet regularly, attain proper height and weight. Along this they do not fall prey of
disease. The malnutrition has adverse effect on the structural and functional development of
the child. So balanced diet in enough quantity always enhance growth and development of
individual.
(iii) Glands: Glands directly affect the growth and development of an individual. Every
individuals physical, mental and emotional development depends on the function of glands.
Again, an over-active thymus gland will retard normal development and keep the child
physically and mentally at a disadvantage. The pituitary gland is such a gland that is mainly
responsible for physical growth. If it secretes it fluid in more quantity in very young age, an
individual can become a giant. On the other hand if it secretes less fluid, an individual may
remain a dwarf. Other glands such as parathyroid and thyroid glands also affect growth and
development in an important manner.
(iv) Hormones:
Hormones are physiological substances having the power to raise or lower the activity level of
the body or certain organs of the body. For example, the gland pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice, not into the blood, but into the intestine. Here it acts upon food and plays an important
part in digestion of food. This pancreas also discharges into the blood, a substance called
insulin. This being carried by the blood to the muscles enables them to use sugar as a fuel to
add strength to muscles. It the pancreas fails to produce the secretions, the organism lapses to
the unfavorable conditions of growth and development. Similarly, the adrenal glands are very
close to kidneys. These make a secretion of adrenaline, a very powerful hormone, which is
responsible for strong and rapid heart-beat, release of stored sugar from liver and which
controls blood pressure. Gonads are glands, which secrete hormones that have important
effects on growth and sex behavior. A balance of male hormones controls development in the
direction of masculinity and that of female hormones steers it toward feminist. At puberty,
these sex hormones promote the development of genital organs. Lacking the gonads,
individuals of either sex develops into rather a neutral specimen without strong sex
characteristics. Pituitary is called the "master gland". It is attached to the under side of the
brain and its secretions controls the brain function and also the blood pressure. It stimulates
other glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active in childhood, the muscles and
bones grow very rapidly and the individual may become a giant of seven to nine feet tall.
(iv) Rest, Relaxation and Sleep: Rest, relaxation and sleep also affect growth and
development of an individual. It is a fact that the people who sleep long hours, tend to gain
weight. On the other hand, the people who work for a long period and take less rest and sleep,
tend to gain less weight. It means the people who work for long hours make maximum
expenditure of their energy, hence they tend to remain in the same weight or lose their weight.
(v)
Intelligence: Intelligence also affect the growth and development of children. Low
grade intelligence is associated with retardation, slow learning and poor performance. On the
other hand, high grade intelligence is associated with acceleration, quick learning and
excellent performance. There is always rapid development among the children, who have high
intelligence. According to Terman, Very intelligent children learn to walk in 13 months,
normal in 14 months, fool in 22 months, and stupid learn to walk in 30 months.
(vi) Disease and Injury: Typhoid and head injury hinder the growth and development of a
child. Due to some disease the individual starts to loose body weight.
(vii) Will Power: Will power also influences the growth and development of an individual.
5.
Other Factors:
(i)
Sex
Sex acts as an important factor of growth and development. There is difference in growth and
development of boys and girls. The boys in general taller, courageous than the girls but Girls
show rapid physical growth in adolescence and excel boys. In general the body constitution
and structural growth of girls are different from boys. The functions of boys and girls are also
different in nature.
(ii)
Races
The racial factor has a great influence on height, weight, colour, features and body
constitution. A child of white race will be white & tall even hair and eye colour, facial
structure are governed by the same race.
(iii) Learning and Reinforcement
Development consists of maturation and learning. Without any learning the human organism
is a structure of various limbs, all other internal organs with muscles and bones. Learning
includes much more than school learning. Learning goes to help the human child in his
physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social and attitudinal developments. All knowledge
and skill, all habits, good and bad, all acquaintances with people and things, all attitudes built
up in your dealing with people and things have been learned. Reinforcement is a factor in
learning. Exercise or activity is necessary for learning. It may be a motor activity, as in
playing on a musical instrument.
(iv) Growth & Maturation
Many people use the words growth and maturation interchangeably. In psychology, though,
growth and maturation are a little different. Growth is the physical process of development,
particularly the process of becoming physically larger. It is quantifiable, meaning that it can be
measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics. For example, the year that she was 11,
Keisha got taller by two inches. This is an example of growth because it involves her getting
physically taller and is quantifiable (two inches). On the other hand, maturation is the
physical, intellectual, or emotional process of development. Maturation is often not
quantifiable, and it too is mostly influenced by genetics. For example, as Keisha became older,
her brain developed in a way that meant she was able to handle more complex tasks than she
could before.
(v)
Cultural
The physical growth of human beings is definitely affected by cultural factors. Culture differs
from ethnic group to ethnic group. Children from different socioeconomic levels differ in
average body size at all ages that have been investigated. The upper groups being always more
advanced along the course to maturity. The cause of this socio - economic differential are
probably multiple. Nutrition is almost certainly one, and with it all the habits of regular meals,
sleep, exercise and general organization that distinguish, from the point of view, a good home
from a bad one. Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions than to
the strictly economic status of the families and home conditions reflect the intelligence and
personality of the parents. Size of family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. Ina
large family with limited income the children do not get proper nutrition. As a result the
growth is affected. The number of children in the family exerts an effect on the childrens rate
of growth. Children in large families have been shown to be usually smaller and lighter than
children in small families. Possibly this is because in large families children tend to get less
individual care and attention.
coordination to catch and throw a ball. Within a few months they are able to identify their
mother by sight, and they show a striking sensitivity to the tones, rhythmic flow, and
individual sounds that make up human speech. Even young infants are capable of complex
perceptual judgments involving distance, shape, direction, and depth, and they are soon able to
organize their experience by creating categories for objects and events (e.g., people, furniture,
food, animals) in the same way older people do. Cognitively, learning and remembering
abilities continue to develop, and children develop the ability to use symbols and to problemsolve by the end of the second year. Infants make rapid advances in both recognition and
recall, and this in turn increases their ability to understand and anticipate events in their
environment. A fundamental advance at this time is the recognition of object permanence
i.e., the awareness that external objects exist independently of the infants perception of them.
About 18 months of age, the child starts trying to solve physical problems by mentally
imagining certain events and outcomes rather than through simple trial-and-error
experimentation. The infants physical interactions with his environment progress from simple
uncoordinated reflex movements to more coordinated actions that are intentionally repeated
because they are interesting or because they can be used to obtain an external goal.
relationships, and the development of a sense of right and wrong take place. Gender identity
develops, and play becomes more imaginative and more social, while altruism, aggression,
and fearfulness are commonly seen. The ability to appreciate the feelings and perceptions of
others and understand their point of view contribute to the childs moral development, which
typically begins in early childhood Although the family is still the center of social life, other
children begin to assume a more important role in a childs life.
(iv) Middle childhood, ages six to eleven, physical developments include slowed growth
and the improvement of strength and athletic skills, while body proportions and motor skills
become more refined. It is noted that, although respiratory illness is common during this stage,
children are generally healthier at this time than during any other developmental stage. The
cognitive development of middle childhood is slow and steady. Children in this stage are
building upon skills gained in early childhood and preparing for the next phase of their
cognitive development. Children are learning skills such as classification and forming
hypotheses. Children in this stage still require concrete, hands-on learning activities. It is a
time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can become a
motivating factor as children work toward building competence and self-esteem. Social skills
learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability to participate in
meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the challenges of
adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these relationships
may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships.Cognitive developments
consist of diminished egocentrism and increased logic, although logic is applied only in terms
of concrete thought. Memory and language skills improve, and cognitive growth allows
children to the beginnings of logic appear in the form of classifications of ideas, an
understanding of time and number, and a greater appreciation of serration and other
hierarchical relationships. Children make a transition from relying solely on concrete, tangible
reality to performing logical operations on abstract and symbolic material. Socio-emotional
developments include a more complex self-concept which, in turn, affects self-esteem.
Children develop in the direction of greater self-awarenessi.e., awareness of their own
emotional states, characteristics, and potential for actionand they become increasingly able
to discern and interpret the emotions of other people as well. Co-regulation results in the
gradual transfer of control from parents to child, and the role of peers takes on central
importance. Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body
proportions and motor skills become more refined.
(v)
Adolescence, adolescence begins with the onset of at 12 or 13 and
culminates at age 19 or 20 in adulthood. Physical growth is again rapid, and
other changes are swift and extreme. Reproductive maturity takes place, as well
as major health risks include behavioral issues such as eating disorders and drug
abuse. Females tend to mature at about age thirteen, and males at about fifteen.
Development during this period is governed by the pituitary gland through the
release of the hormones testosterone (males) and estrogen (females).
Cognitively, adolescence is the period when the individual becomes able to
systematically formulate hypotheses or propositions, test them, and make
rational evaluations. The formal thinking of adolescents tends to be selfconsciously deductive, rational, and systematic. Abstract thinking and scientific
reasoning develop, although some immature thinking endures. The focus of
education turns to the preparation for college or vocational training. Socioemotionally, the search for identity becomes crucial. Although relationships with
parents are usually good, the peer group may exert influence that can be both
positive and negative. The individual learns to control and direct his sex urges
and begins to establish his own sexual role and relationships. The individual
lessens his emotional dependence on his parents and develops a mature set of
values and responsible self-direction.
NEEDS OF ADOLESCENCE
An individuals needs and problems influence his development to a great extent. Adolescence
is a crucial period in the life of an individual with its characteristic needs and problems of
adjustment. Every adolescent has certain needs, the satisfaction of which is essential to his
continued physical and others aspects of development. A need is a tension within an organism
which must be satisfied for the well being of the organism. When a need is satisfied the
tension is released and the individual experiences satisfaction. There are certain basic needs
which are functioning in every individual. They are broadly classified into Physiological
needs and Psychological needs.
Primary or Physiological Needs: The fulfillments of physiological needs are inevitable
because they are concerned with the very existence of the individual. The need for oxygen,
need for water and food, need for rest and sleep, need for sex gratification etc. are the
important physiological needs.
Secondary or Socio-Psychological Needs: Needs that are associated with socio-cultural
environment of an individual are called secondary needs. They are acquired through social
learning and their satisfaction is necessary for the psychological well being of the individual.
The important socio-psychological needs are as follows:
1. Needs for security : The adolescent need emotional, social and economic security in
addition to physical security. The person who lacks the feeling of security may become
maladjusted. The need for social security is associated with mans desire for gregariousness.
2. Need for Love : Affection or love is one of the most basic psychological
needs of the adolescents.
Adolescents have a strong desire to love and to be loved. The individual who is
not loved will not deep
proper attitudes and concepts concerning his own worth. Proper love will
strengthen the individuals feeling
of security.
3. Need for approval : There is a carving for recognition in adolescents. His ego gets
satisfaction when he is recognized and approved. The adolescent desire that he should be a
centre of attraction for the opposite sex and his abilities, intelligence and capacities should be
recognized by others. The teachers should find out the field in which the pupil can shine very
well and which help him to earn admiration from others.
4. Need for freedom and independence : Adolescence is a time when the individual is
striving to wean himself away from the control of parents and elders. He want the right to
give expression to his feelings, emotions and ideas. He feels annoyed and unpleasant when
restriction is imposed on him.
5. Need for self-expression and achievement : Every adolescent has an inherent desire for
the expression of his potentialities. He may have a poet, musician, painter etc. hidden within
him and he want to get adequate opportunities for the expression of his potentialities. He
experiences satisfaction when he succeeded in them and failure makes him depressed and
disappointed. Hence the curriculum should be appropriate for every pupil so as to permit
achievement for him.
NEEDS TO BE FULFILLED DURING ADOLESCENCE IN ORDER TO BECOME
HEALTHY, WELL-ADJUSTED ADULTS
Psychologist, Dr. Bruce Naramore states in his excellent book, Parenting Teens, that teenagers
have six basic needs which need to be fulfilled during adolescence in order to become healthy,
well-adjusted adults.
1. Develop their distinct identity and a sense of their uniqueness.
Parents can have a tremendous influence on their identity or self-esteem. Identity means, the
way a teen feels about himselfpositive or negative. There are some important things parents
can do to increase a teens identity. First, help identify areas of interest. Whether it is in
athletics, music, school, art, or ministry, help teen to identify his area of competence. Second,
provide praise and encouragement.
2. Progressively separate themselves from their childhood dependency on their parents.
Adolescents can be helped during transition by getting them involved with a mentor. A
mentor can be a powerful force as outside instruction can make a special impression on their
lives.
3. Develop meaningful relationships with peers and others outside the family.
Teenagers enjoy spending exceedingly more time away from home than they did at younger
ages. Adolescents new found peer group is important in order to satisfy their need for
companionship and fun, along with emotional support, understanding and intimacy. Although
they still need these things from their families and other adults, its vital in their development
to receive these things from friends as well.
4. Develop their capacity to relate well to the opposite sex.
Having a written contract helps take the pressure off guessing when a teen is ready to date.
Its impossible to say that someone is ready to date at a specific age. Instead, dating readiness
should be the result of a teenager displaying certain internal character qualities like honor,
integrity, responsibility and resistance to peer pressure. The dating contract can provide the
family with accountability, fairness, clarity, security and togetherness.
5. Gain the confidence and skills to prepare for a career, economic independency, and
other adult responsibilities.
Not only is it important to encourage teenagers in the areas that they have interest, but it is
also necessary to teach them real skills. The straightforward teaching of skills to adolescents
often results in increased achievement and, thus, in enhanced self-esteem.
6. Fashion their faith and value commitments and basic attitude toward life.
In a survey to over 5,000 adults, the question was asked, How did your parents help you
develop your own spiritual convictions? Overwhelmingly, the number one response was:
Church attendance. The significance is that church is an important way to help your teenagers
to foster ownership of their spiritual convictions.
PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
INDIAN CONTEXT
Any period of development is likely to be accompanied by many potential difficulties.
Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood that implies many
development changes and associated problems. Some of the outstanding problems of Indian
adolescence are the following:
1. Perplexity with regard to somatic variation: Every adolescent has more or less difficult
task of adjusting to somatic variation which may occur in connection with puberty. The follow
of blood during menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys creates worries and give
birth to so many fears and anxieties. Since ours is a conservative society, youngsters are less
informed about the physical changes that are occurring during puberty. Lack of scientific
information about sex hygiene and philosophy make them to satisfied with crude and
perverted knowledge about sex related matters. It creates guilt feeling and so many
complexes in the minds of the children which makes them introverted and secretive.
Individual differences concerning colour and complexion, body shape, size and weight
inculcate the feeling of inferiority or superiority in them. They want to attract opposite sex .
2. Intensification of self consciousness: Adolescents have a feeling of adulthood as they are
competent to do anything. They want to exhibit themselves not less than others. An adolescent
is very much concerned about his/her physical appearance. Both boys and girls are caring
towards their dress up, hair style, complexion, food and way of movement. They want to
attract each other and have an impression among their own group. Any adverse feed back in
this concern results in maladjustment.
3. Problems related with intensification of sex-consciousness: The sudden awakening of
sex instinct during adolescence results in intensification of sex consciousness. Adolescents are
curious to know about sex related topics and are seeking answers to their innumerable doubts
in sexual matters. In our country most of the parents are illiterate and they do not have
scientific knowledge of sex problems. Moreover, our social values are different from that of
western countries, and hence parents hesitate to discuss sex problems with their children. So
the adolescents resort socially unacceptable ways to quench their curiosity and to satisfy their
sexual needs. There is also the misguiding of print and electronic media that finally results in
sexual maladjustment in adolescents.
4. Adjustment difficulties with parents: Adolescents have a strong for freedom and
independence. But often it is obstructed by parental oppositions. In Indian context, parental
opposition may extend to such areas as choices of friends, choice of education, recreational
interests, dress, life-style, our of going from and coming to the home, mode of behaviour etc.
The conflict between parental norms of behaviour and peer group relationships often lead to
friction in the relationship and adolescents find it difficult to adjust to the needs and demands
of parents. Failure to adjust with the parents may result in revolting against parents and
authority.
5. Childhood-Adulthood Conflict: In our society, the adolescent is considered as neither as
a child nor as an adult. He has to depend his parents and elders for his physical and emotional
needs. But at the same time he wants to hold independent views and opinions like an adult. He
can very well manage his own affairs and resist any unnecessary interference from the part of
elders. He begins to feel ashamed and embarrassed for the protection and care shown by the
parents. He is often treated in an ambiguous manner by parents and teachers. Sometimes they
expect him to behave as an adult and at other times, they treat him as a child. The poor
adolescent is caught between the role of the child and the adult, which push him into
confusion and tension.
6. Adjustment difficulties with school discipline: Most of the adolescents face a great
problem in adjusting with school discipline. Some times schools expects too much from
students who must submit to teachers who may be tyrannical sometimes. Schools should not
implant habits of unquestioning obedience that inhibits the growth of young people towards
true independence.
7. Adjustment difficulties with community: The adolescent is expected to find his place in a
society marked by increasing social isolation and rapid technological changes. This changing
world makes it difficult to anticipate and plan for adolescent life. They have difficulty in
adjusting their capacity to the demands of the community. At this critical phase most
adolescents react by withdrawing into a
non-demanding and non-working world of
pleasure and satisfaction.
8. Problem of Excessive Day-Dreaming: Day-dreaming is normal at this stage but when it
grows to excessive it may be injurious as far as development of personality is concerned. The
teacher should note that the adolescents are active and busy in their studies and other aspects
of school life. The children indulging in excessive daydreaming should be encouraged to be
constructive and creative.
9. Realism VS Idealism: An adolescent begins to understand the social fabric of his
surroundings. He/She starts judging that whatever moral values have been taught to him as a
child are not practically being followed by his elders. He/She is depressed by corruption,
inequality and other social evils like dowry. Proper guidance is need at this time. Otherwise
adolescents can be mislead by wrong people.
10. Problem of Peer Pressure: Adolescents are under pressure from their friend circle to do
many wrong things which may allure them. An adolescent needs to be taught How to say
No?. This is very essential for protecting them from drug abuse and other evils.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN SOLVING PROBLEMS AND PROPER
PHYSICAL, MENTAL, EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ADOLESCENT:
1. Proper Physical Development
The teacher should plan for this aspect in the following manner :
(a) By organizing various types of physical exercises, sports and games,
(b) By imparting a proper knowledge about physical and health education.
(c) By organizing various types of extracurricular activities.
2. Proper Mental Development
The mental development of the adolescent should be according to the following lines:
(a) It should be according to the ability and aptitude of the pupils.
(b) They should study both arts and science subjects.
(c) Excursions to various places may be organized.
(d) Modern methods of teaching should be used to teach various subjects.
(e) All the school teachers should try to impart him necessary guidance as and when required.
(f) They should be entrusted with responsibility so as to develop a feeling of responsibility in
them.
(g) The teacher should keep in view that there are individual differences among students.
Every child should be able to find out subjects of his choice.
3. Proper Emotional Development
The emotional development of the adolescent should be as follows:
(a) The teacher should try to sublimate the lower emotions of the child.
(b) A healthy emotional atmosphere should be maintained in the school.
(c) The teacher should try to avoid frustration among the adolescents.
(d) The teacher should pay due regard to the personality of every child.
(e) The adolescent should be imparted proper knowledge about sex. If this aspect is properly
attended to it would lead to a better emotional development.
4. Proper Social Development
The social development of the adolescent may be as follows:
(a) He should have knowledge about social relations and he should know the art of groupliving. Various group activities may be organized.
(b) A right and rational attitude towards democracy should be developed in the school
atmosphere. This would enable the child to develop his own philosophy of life.
(c) The Kothari Commission has emphasized the instruction of moral and spiritual values. We
should try to impart a right and rational knowledge of various religions to the adolescent.
Cognitive development deals with how human beings think, reason and make
concepts. In other words it deals with the development of mind. According to psychologist
Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four critical stages of cognitive
development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget
believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make
sense of the world around them.
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to age 2)
The, Preoperational Stage (from age 2 to about age 7)
The, Concrete Operational Stage (from age 7 to 11)
The Formal Operational Stage, (begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood)
Jean Piaget's Background
Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. He published his first scientific paper at
the tender age of 10 a 100-word description of an albino sparrow in a naturalist magazine.
Between the ages of 15 and 19 he published numerous papers on mollusks. After receiving his
Ph.D. degree at age 22 in natural history, Piaget formally began a career that would have a
profound impact on both psychology and education. Piaget developed an interest in the
intellectual development of children. Based on his observations, he concluded that children
were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called
Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's interest in child cognitive development was influenced by watching his 13month-old nephew, Gerard, at play. By chance, Piaget observed the toddler playing with a
ball. When the ball rolled under a table where the boy could still see it, Gerard simply
retrieved the ball and continued playing. When the ball rolled under a sofa out of his sight,
however, the child began looking for it where he had last seen it. This reaction struck Piaget as
irrational. Piaget came to believe that children lack what he referred to as the object concept the knowledge that objects are separate and distinct from both the individual and the
individual's perception of that object. Jean Piaget set out to study his daughter Jacqueline as
she developed through infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood. He quickly noted that during the
early months of his daughter's life, she seemed to believe that objects ceased to exist once they
were out of her sight. At nearly a year, she started to search actively for objects that were
hidden from her view although she made mistakes similar to the one Gerard made. By 21
months, Jacqueline had become skilled at finding hidden objects and understood that objects
had an existence separate from her perception of them.
Piaget's observations of his nephew and daughter reinforced his budding hypothesis
that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Instead, he proposed,
intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children
don't just think faster than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative
and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.
Before describing the cognitive system as developed by Jean Piaget, it is necessary to
consider some of the concepts which are very essential to understand his system.
Basic Concepts
Organization
Schemas - Patterns of behavior or thinking that children and adults use in dealing with
objects in the world or to understand the world. These become increasingly complex. It
describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of
animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child
might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child
encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations that all dogs are not small
and all have four legs.
Adaptation
Assimilation The schemas which are acquired in infancy are exercised and changed in
later life. So, the process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas
is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify
experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example
above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the
child's dog schema.
Accomodation It involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences to fit new situations. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought into the next.
A Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
The Sensorimotor Stage: The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to
approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make
sense of the world. Some key things to remember about the sensorimotor
stage:
During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her
sensory perceptions and motor activities.
Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking,
grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment.
Object Permanence
According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important
accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's
understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.
Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other
person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object
reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or
object continues to exist even when unseen. He then attempts to retrieve an object that
disappears from his range of action. He thus drops his objects of play and tries to find out
them.
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub stages that are characterized by
the development of a new skill.
Reflexes (0-1 month):
During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
This sub stage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may
suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions
are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
During this sub stage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a
child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
During this sub stage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also
combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the
environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The
understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain
objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a
sound when shaken.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth sub stage. For
example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a
caregiver.
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):
Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final
sensorimotor sub stage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the
world through mental operations rather than purely through actions
The, Preoperational Stage: The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory
of cognitive development. This stage begins around age two as children start to talks and last
until approximately age seven. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period.
They learn to use language and to represent objects by images and words. Piaget noted that
children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the option of choosing two pieces of clay to play with. One piece
of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though
the two pieces are exactly the same size. Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent objects. While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. During the preoperational
stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase
in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something
else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking
the viewpoint of others. Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red
blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour.
Egocentrism
Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of
children. One of the famous techniques to demonstrate egocentrism involved using a threedimensional display of a mountain scene. Often referred to as the "Three Mountain Task,"
children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children
are able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing
what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different
viewpoint.
Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain
scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take
on another person's perspective.
Conservation
Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of
conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two
identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup,
such as a tall and thin cup or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds
the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always
choose the cup that appears fuller. Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on
conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few
children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
The, Concrete Operational Stage: The concrete operational stage is the third in Piaget's
theory of cognitive development. It begins around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven. This period spans the time of middle childhood. Kids at this point
of development begin to think more logically in an organized and concrete way, but their
thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
At this point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. They begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that
not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions. They begin to
understand the concept of conservation; the the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass.. Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and
weight (age 9). Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series
along a single dimension such as size. Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
An example of inductive logic would be noticing that every time you are around a cat, you
have an itchy eyes, a runny nose, and a swollen throat. You might then reason from that
experience that you are allergic to cats. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty
using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a
specific event. For example, a child might learn that A=B, and B=C, but might still struggle to
understand that A=C.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to
reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be
able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is
an animal. Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when something
changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept known as conservation. Kids at
this stage understand that if you break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still the same
amount at when the candy was whole. The concrete operational stage is also marked by the
disappearance of egocentrism.
Kids in the concrete stage are able to think about things the way that others see them.
In Piaget's Three-Mountain Task, for example, children in the concrete operational stage can
describe how a mountain scene would look to an observer seated opposite them.
The Formal Operational Stage: The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve and lasts into adulthood. The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of
abstract ideas. At this point in development, thinking becomes much more sophisticated and
advanced. Kids can think about abstract and theoretical concepts and use logic to come up
with creative solutions to problems. Learn more about some of the essential characteristics
and events that take place during this stage of cognitive development. At this stage, the
adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
Science and mathematics often require this type of thinking about hypothetical situations and
concepts. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Begin to use deductive logic, or
reasoning from a general principle to specific information. Piaget tested formal operational
thought in a few different ways:
One task involved having children of different ages balance a scale by hooking
weights on the each end. To balance the scale, the children needed to understand that both the
heaviness of the weights and the distance from the center played a role. Younger children
around the ages of 3 and 5 were unable to complete the task because they did not understand
the concept of balance. Seven-year-olds knew that they could adjust the scale by placing
weights on each end, but failed to understand that where they put the weights was also
important. By age 10, the kids considered location as well as weight but had to arrive at the
correct answer using trial-and-error. It wasn't until around age 13 that children could use logic
to form a hypothesis about where to place the weights to balance the scale and then complete
the task.
In another experiment on formal operational thought, Piaget asked children to
imagine where they would want to place a third eye if they had one. Younger children said that
they would put the imagined third eye in the middle of their forehead. Older children,
however, were able to come up with a variety of creative ideas about where to place this
hypothetical eye and various ways the eye could be used. An eye in the middle of one's hand
would by useful for looking around corners. An eye at the back of one's head could be helpful
for seeing what is happening in the background. Such creative ideas represent the use of
abstract and hypothetical thinking, both important indicators of formal operational thought.
Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology and
education, but it has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a
series of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that development does not always follow
such a smooth and predictable path. In spite of the criticism, the theory has had a considerable
impact on our understanding of child development.
Support for Piaget's Theory
Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget
did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built
upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally
prepared. In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from
Piaget's work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social
interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their
thinking.
Criticisms of Piaget
1. Problems With Research Methods
Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to
this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated
professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is
difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.
2. Problems With Formal Operations
Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next
stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play
a role in the development of formal operations.
3. Underestimates Children's Abilities
Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget
suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a
rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other
people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another
person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed. It is important to note that
Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids
do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they
gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more
information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he
thinks about the world.
Final Thoughts
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view
that the creation of knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process. "I find myself
opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget explained. " I believe
that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can
be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of
transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."
2. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.
In Eriksons view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high,
but so is the potential for failure.
According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly
social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of
identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future.
Erikson extends on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic
of the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include the
entire lifespan.
Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18
years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still
plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout ones life. Erikson puts a
great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a
persons identity.
Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenic
principle.
The outcome of this 'maturation timetable' is a wide and integrated set of life skills and
abilities that function together within the autonomous individual. However, instead of
focusing on sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how children socialize and
how this affects their sense of self.
Psychosocial Stages
Eriksons (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. Like Freud,
Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson (1963), these
crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual
(i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego
can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however,
can be resolved successfully at a later time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or 0-18 months (like Freud's oral
stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these
feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and
consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense
of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure
even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant
can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there
are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of
fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them
or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result
in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and
Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of attachment the early experience of can affect
relationships with others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18
months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their
mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to
eat, etc.
The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes
and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to
explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of
failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience
to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same
time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child
but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and
accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be self control without a loss of
self-esteem (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly
dependent upon others, lack self -esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a childs life. According to Bee (1992)
it is a time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive".
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other
children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to
explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given
this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop
a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers,
lacking in self-initiative.
The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child.
The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents
will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge
grows. If the parents treat the childs questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other
aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for being a
nuisance.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self
control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of purpose.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
Children are at the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to do
sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the childs life as
they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the childs peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the childs self esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and
feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own
abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being
athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that
the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is
necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
During adolescence (age 12 to 18 yrs), the transition from childhood to adulthood is most
important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms
of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and
fit in.
This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as
an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find
out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and
the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is a reintegrated sense
of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of ones appropriate sex role. During this stage the
body image of the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until
they can adapt and grow into the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others,
even when there may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon
the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I
dont know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion
involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into
an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in
addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments
with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment
and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of love.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a
relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations.
By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our
productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful
life.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back
on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Critical Evaluation
Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must
people have in order to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one
stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors. Morality
can be developed either negatively or positively, depending on how an individual
accomplishes the tasks during each stage of moral development across his lifespan.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinzs dilemma and was
interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas.
He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion, and
classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages. One of the best known of Kohlbergs
(1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Heinzs wife
was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug
had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the
chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more
than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from
family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could
have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he
had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to
save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemists and stole the drug.
Consider another example: a father tells his daughter, Lauren, that she can have a
bike if she saves enough money from her weekly allowance to pay for half of it. Then, when
Lauren tells her father she's saved up all the money, her father reverses his decision and tells
Lauren to give him the money because he wants to use it to buy beer. On the one hand, Lauren
wants to obey her father; on the other, she doesn't want to support his destructive drinking
habits. Lauren is torn about giving her father the money.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg
hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 1016 years, 58 of whom were followed up at threeyearly intervals for 20 years. Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten
dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the
action right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons
tended to change as the children got older. He identified three distinct levels of moral
reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order
listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone
achieves all the stages.
Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we dont
have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct
consequences of their actions on themselves. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. Related to
Skinners Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the
person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, a
child's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school. The child would apply obedience
and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get
punished. or we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail. or The last time I
did that I got spanked, so I will not do it again.
or The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would say- If he would get
caught he should not steal the drug but if he would not get caught I guess it is okay. or
In this stage, Lauren would give her father the money because she doesn't want him to
punish her.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
At the second stage, people are motivated purely by self-interest. This stage expresses the
"what's in it for me" position. In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action
based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money
from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In
Kohlbergs theory, according to Heinz, a person or children in this stage would say- Heinz
can always pay the druggist back, and he is not really doing anything wrong. If he wants his
wife to live he should take it because nothing else can save her. Thus, the children tend to
say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer. Lauren at this
stage would likely keep the money, thinking that, even if she can't afford a bike, she can use it
to buy something else good for herself.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in a
conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and
expectations. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions
concerning right and wrong. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of
moral development. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even
when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be
seen as being a good person by others. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval
from others as it reflects society's views. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations.
In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations
before him. This is also known as the interpersonal relationships phase. For example, a
child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would say- Heins has no
choice but to take the drug. It is bad to steal but he is a good husband. If he didt save his wife,
then he didt really love her. In Stage three, Lauren might decide to give her father the
money because this will improve her relationship with him; but if her mother is upset by her
father's drinking, she might decide to give the money to her mother in order to be a 'good girl'
in her eyes. Her decision would be based on whichever social relationship seemed most
important.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. or (Law and order morality) In Stage four, it is
important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a
persons duty. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong. The society is the main
consideration of a person at this stage. According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in
this stage would say- It is Heinzs duty to save her, he should not let her die like that.
But, he cannot just break laws so he must pay the druggist back for stealing or go to
jail. In this stage, Lauren probably wouldn't give her father the money, because his
alcoholism is disruptive to the stability of their family and community. In another instance, a
policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because
he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order. Most active members of society
remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individuals own
perspective may take precedence over societys view; individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of
a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people". According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would
say-Obviously he is breaking the law if he takes the drag but it can be seen as responsible if
he does take the drug if you think of the big picture. So, in Heinzs dilemma the protection of
life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles. (Principled conscience) People at this stage have developed
their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend
these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to
pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. According to Heinz Dilemma, a
person/children in this stage would say- It is morally right to save a life and that makes it
okay to steal the drug even if he is breaking the law. Kohlberg doubted few people reached
this stage.
Critical Evaluation
Problems with Kohlberg's Methods
1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e. they lack ecological validity)
Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people. For example, it is all very well in the
Heinz dilemma asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife. However
Kohlbergs subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never been married, and never
been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story. How should they know whether
Heinz should steal the drug?
2. The sample is biased
Kohlbergs theory was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of
morality (its androcentric). Mens' morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice,
while womens' is based on principles of compassion and care.
3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e. they are not real)
The fact that Kohlbergs theory is heavily dependent on an individuals response to an
artificial dilemma brings question to the validity of the results obtained through this research.
People may respond very differently to real life situations that they find themselves in than
they do with an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.
4. Poor research design
His research was cross-sectional , meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to
see what level of moral development they were at. A better way to see if all children follow
the same order through the stages would have been to carry out longitudinal research on the
same children. However, longitudinal research on Kohlbergs theory has since been carried
out by Colby et al. (1983) who tested 58 male participants of Kohlbergs original study. She
tested them 6 times in the span of 27 years and found support for Kohlbergs original
conclusion, that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.
Problems with Kohlberg's Theory
1. Are there distinct stages of moral development?
Kohlberg claims that there are but the evidence does not always support this conclusion. For
example a person who justified a decision on the basis of principled reasoning in one situation
(post conventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning
(stage 3 or 4) with another story. In practice it seems that reasoning about right and wrong
depends more upon the situation than upon general rules. The evidence for distinct stages of
moral development looks very weak and some would argue that behind the theory is a
culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and
societies.
2. Does moral judgement match moral behavior?
Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one to one correspondence between thinking
and acting (what we say and what we do) but he does suggest that the two are linked.
However, Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take account of:
a) habits that people have developed over time.
b) whether people see situations as demanding their participation.
c) the costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way.
d) competing motive such as peer pressure, self interest and so on.
Overall Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of moral reasoning. It is
also to do with social factors.
3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?
Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of males has been often in advance of that of
females. Girls are often found to be at stage 3 in Kohlbergs system (good boy-nice girl
orientation) whereas boys are more often found to be at stage 4 (Law and Order orientation).
In other words Gilligan is claiming that there is a sex bias in Kohlbergs theory. He neglects
the feminine voice of compassion, love and non-violence, which is associated with the
socialization of girls.
Gilligan reached the conclusion that Kohlbergs theory did not account for the fact that women
approach moral problems from an ethics of care, rather than an ethics of justice
perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlbergs theory.
mother and father has existed from families through behaviors between parents, attitudes and
emotions of parents to children. Families give individuals motives, desire for marriage and
help them know how to behave when they are married. The marriage pattern of parents plays
an extremely important role in educating-socializing marriage roles of children. For example,
parents happy marriage will be a good foundation for children marriage afterwards.
At the age of agedness, the young can see what their lives will be like when they are getting
old by observing the life of the elderly in their families (grandparents, parents). Thus, people
know how to prepare for the agedness. Families help each person face up with the agedness.
At the age of the last life circle-welcome the death; families also help family members to
welcome the death in a more relieved way because they have a chance of witnessing the death
of others. The formalities of funeral that are more meaningful to life than the dead, help
people be aware of the death as an objective rule, and welcome their death before it comes.
Families help individual overcome sadness, loneliness because the dead are naturally talked
about in the relationship with the living to make the death normal. The love and worship of the
family to the dead cause individuals to admit their death more easily when they know that
despite of passing away, they still stay in the heart of their relatives. It can be seen that the
family carries out the function of educating through the whole life of each person, and it does
not separate from people at any age of each person life circle.
THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT.
Socialization is the process of creating a social self, learning ones culture and learning
the rules and expectations of the culture.
The school is an artificial institution set up for the purpose of socialization and cultural
transmission. Among the most important agencies of socialization is the school in which
socialization takes place.
Schooling has been defined by Biddle as the appearance of organized instructional
activity in which the position of the teaches is differentiated from other positions in the
system and given the explicit task of socializing neophytes.
In terms of socialization, in recent years, the school has become a primary agency of
socialization. The school is the first large-scale organization of which the child becomes a
member. The school is a minpature reflecting what goes on in the wider society. The
youngsters spend the major part of their active hours of the day in school, from morning to
evening in case of a day school and boarding schools they stay for duration of about nine
months in a year. Obviously, during this time student acquires a lot from the teachers and
fellow students. Due to this fact the school becomes an important agent of socialization. The
school is said to be next to the family in terms of importance as far as socialization is
concerned.
How the school performs the function of socialization.
1.
The school in a formal way according to curriculum provides the child with:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
4.
5.
6.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
2.
It socializes students to become members of society, to play meaningful roles in the
complex network
of independent positions.
3.
It helps in shaping values and attitudes to the needs of the contemporary society.
It widens the mental horizons of pupils and teaches them new ways of looking at themselves
and their society.
It offers young people opportunities for intellectual, emotional and social growth. Thus
education can be influential in promoting new values and stimulating adaptation of changing
conditions.
It enables the child to learn a number of other social roles and skills which are also important
for his/ her overall development as a member of society. For example, it teaches:
i)
laws, traditions and norms of the community, the rights that individuals will enjoy
and the responsibilities that they will undertake.
how one is to behave toward his/ her play- mates and adults.
how to share things and ideas.
how to compete responsibly
how to cooperate
how to relate to others well and obey rules.
how to to internalize the culture of ones society.
how to adopt tolerant and humanitarian attitudes.
Summary
Thus schools produce useful citizens who will obediently confirm to societys norms, and will
accept the role and status that society will confer upon them when they have finished their
schooling.
Since children come from different backgrounds, the work of the school therefore is to modify
those aspects which may not be acceptable to the community. At the same time, those aspects
of training which are meaningful are encouraged. Most of the informal learning occurs mainly
within the pees group setting. The pees groups affect the socialization process both in school
and in the neighborhood.
The school represents a formal and conscious effort by the society to socialize its young. It
does this through the content of the curriculum and co-curricular activities. They also socialize
the values that they communicate to the child. Teachers also act as models for students.
THE ROLE OF THE PEER GROUP AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT:
Besides the world of family and school fellows, the peer group (the people of their own age
and similar social status) and playmates highly influence the process of socialisation. In the
peer group, the young child learns to confirm to the accepted ways of a group and to
appreciate the fact that social life is based on rules. Young people today spend considerable
time with one another outside home and family. Young people living in cities or suburbs and
who have access to automobiles spend a great deal of time together away from their families.
Studies show that they create their own unique sub-culturesthe college campus culture, the
drug culture, motorcycle cults, athletic group culture etc. Peer groups serve a valuable
function by assisting the transition to adult responsibilities.
Teenagers imitate their friends in part because the peer group maintains a meaningful system
of rewards and punishments. The group may encourage a young person to follow pursuits that
society considers admirable.
On the other hand, the group may encourage someone to violate the cultures norms and
values by driving recklessly, shoplifting, stealing automobiles, engaging in acts of vandalism
and the like. Some studies of deviant behaviour show that the peer group influence to cultivate
behaviour patterns is more than the family.
Why do some youths select peer groups which generally support the socially approved adult
values while others choose peer groups which are at war with adult society? The choice seems
to be related to self-image. Perhaps, this dictum worksseeing- is behaving. How do we
see ourselves is how we behave.
The habitual delinquent sees himself as unloved, unworthy, unable, unaccepted and
unappreciated. He joins with other such deprived youths in a delinquent peer group which
reinforces and sanctions his resentful and aggressive behaviour. The law-abiding youth sees
himself as loved, worthy, able, accepted and appreciated. He joins with other such youths in a
conforming peer group which reinforces socially approved behaviour.
THE ROLE OF THE SOCIETY AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT
A society has a deep impact on the process of socialisation. It influences
the nature and quality of the social relationships. Developing and
maintaining positive social relationships (e.g. characterised by trust,
mutual satisfaction, respect, love and happiness) is fundamental to a good
quality of life. Children who engage in good social relationships are more
motivated, perform better academically, have greater self esteem and
receive support from others than those who do not.
Social development involves learning the values, knowledge and
skills that enable children to relate to others effectively and to contribute
in positive ways to family, school and the community. This kind of learning
is passed on to children directly by those who care for and teach them, as
well as indirectly through social relationships within the family or with
friends, and through childrens participation in the culture around
them. Through their relationships with others and their growing awareness
of social values and expectations, children build a sense of who they are
and of the social roles available to them. As children develop socially, they
both respond to the influences around them and play an active part in
shaping their relationships.
Parents, carers, family members, school staff and peers are the first
and most important influences on childrens social development. Through
their daily contact with parents, carers, family members, school staff,
as well as with their peers, children learn about the social world and about
the rules, practices and values that support it. By actively participating in
these relationships, children also affect the ways that adults and their
peers relate to them.
In addition, childrens development is influenced by wider networks of
social support including extended family, friends and any community,
cultural or religious groups a child may be part of. These networks
provide opportunities for children to develop their social awareness and
skills as they relate with different people and experience a range of roles
and expectations.
Childrens lives are also shaped by the social circumstances that impact on
their families and communities, such as access to social and
(2) Universal:
Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all
times. No society remains completely static. The society may be primitive
or modern, rural or urban, simple or complex, agrarian or industrial, it is
constantly undergoing change. The rate or the degree of change may vary
from society to society from time to time but every society keeps on
changing. A changeless society is an unreality.
(3) Continuous:
Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process.
Because the changes are neither stopped nor the societies are kept in
museum to save them from change. In the process of change every society
grows and decays, where it finds renewal and accommodates itself to
various changing conditions. The sources, direction, rate and forms of
change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.
(4) Inevitable:
Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it
is his tendency to bring change and to oppose or accept change. Human
wants are unlimited which always keep on changing. To satisfy these wants
social change has become a necessity not only to him but also to the
society.
(5) Temporal:
Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a
situation takes place through time. Time is the most important factor and
social change denotes time-sequence. So a social change is temporary or
permanent on the basis of time. Sometimes some social changes may
bring about immediate results while some others may take years to
produce results. Similarly, some social changes spread rapidly and also
disappear rapidly. Movements, style, fashion and cults are the examples of
this type.
(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform:
Though social change is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or
what we call the speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and
even in the same society from time to time. Sometimes the degree of
change is high and sometimes low depending upon the nature of society
like open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For
example, in the rural social structure the rate of change is slower because
the rate of change is not governed by any universal law, whereas it is
quick in the urban societies.
(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned:
Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes
without planning. Social change which occurs in the natural course is
called the unplanned change. The unplanned changes are spontaneous,
accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change resulting
from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic eruption, etc.
are the instances of unplanned changes.
It makes people think not of their own but also of the others. By regulating
the behavior of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to
hunger, shelter and sex, it has been able to maintain group life.
Concept of Cultural Lag:
To examine the role of cultural factors in social change, it is necessary to
discuss the concept of Cultural Lag. Cultural lag means the flatering of
one aspect of culture behind another. According to Ogburn there are two
aspects of culture. They are:
(i) Material Culture:
It includes those elements or things which are tangible, visible and
touchable like goods, tools, machines and furnitures etc.
(ii) Non-material Culture:
It includes those elements which are neither tangible nor touchable rather
these are experienced by men like customs, values, ideologies, religion
and behavior pattern etc.
It is found that technological innovations and discoveries stimulate
the material culture to a great extent. As a result, the changes are quick in
material culture. But non-material culture responds very slowly to such
changes in material culture. So the material culture goes ahead leaving
behind the non-material culture. This is called the cultural lag. For
example-The development in the field of industry requires a corresponding
change in the system of education. The failure of education to meet the
needs of modern industrial development leads to cultural lag.
Demographic Factors:
Demography is the scientific study of human population, primarily with
respect to their size, structure and their development. It plays an
important role in the process of social change. These are of two types qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative demographic factors refer to
physical potentialities, mental abilities etc. that are determined by genetic
order. But the demographic factor in its quantitative aspect has been
playing the most decisive role in causing social change. The quantitative
view of demography takes into account, the size, composition and density
of human population that are determined by natural reproduction,
migration and social mobility. There are three important factors that
determine the rise, fall or density of population. They are:
(a) High Fertility (High Birth rate)
(b) Low Morality (Low Death Rate)
(c) Migration.
(a) When there is high birth rate and the death rate is low, we find growth
in population. High birth rate is due to illiteracy, popularity of child
marriage, widow remarriage, polygamy, craze for a male child, poverty and
also because of lack of proper implementation of family planning
programmes.
(b) The fall in death rate has also affected the growth of population. It is
due to modern education and scientific knowledge to hygiene, better
sanitation and therapeutic and preventive medicines, the increase of
Effects of Technology:
No device, technological or otherwise, whether originating within a society
or borrowed from outside, obviously set up a network of effects. The status
of the individual is no more ascribed rather achieved. A man is judged in
what he has, not what he is.
The social relation is gradually becoming superficial, temporary as well as
selfish by nature. Changes in technology have resulted in some
fundamental changes in social structure. The impact of technological
changes may be discussed under the following broad headings.
(a) Industrialisation:
Industrialisation refers to the process by which industries have been set
up. It has given birth to the factory system and replaced domestic system.
The invention of machines has led to the creation of big factories which
employ thousands of people and where most of the work is performed
automatically. It has created new social class and has improved the
condition of women. It has affected the nature, character and the growth of
economy.
(b) Urbanization:
Industrialisation has led to urbanization. As a result of industrialisation
people have started moving towards the industrial areas, the areas neither
very far from the cities nor from the villages with the hope of getting
employment in those industries and factories. Hence only when a large
portion of inhabitants in an area comes to cities, urbanization is said to
occur. Towns like Kanpur, Jamshedpur and Ahmadabad in India owe their
birth to the factories established there.
(c) Modernization:
It is a process by which adoption of the modern ways of life and values
take place. It has brought about remarkable changes in social relationship
and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional areas. It has
changed the social structure, which adds impetus to the growth of science
and technology. As a result of which the rate of change increases rapidly.
Technology has altered mans economic life in many ways.
(d) Transportation and Communication:
Great technological advancement have contributed significantly to the
field of transportation and communication. The means of transport has
progressed at a surprising rate. The intermixing of people belonging to
various countries led to the removal of much misunderstanding, hatred
and jealously. It has encouraged the sense of universal brotherhood. The
introduction of machinery into industry, news paper, radio, television,
telephone, telegraph etc. have facilitated the spread of new principles and
have become propaganda machines for political parties.
(e) Agriculture:
Changes in technology have led to the development of new techniques in
agriculture. Agricultural production is increased due to the use of modern
equipments, improved seeds in quantity and quality. Hence it has greatly
and morbidity among children. In India, a girl child faces discrimination and
differential access to nutritious food and gender based violence is evident
from the falling sex ratio and the use of technologies to eliminate the girl
child. The manifestations of these violations are various, ranging from child
labor, child trafficking, to commercial sexual exploitation and many other
forms of violence and abuse. With an estimated 12.6 million children
engaged in hazardous occupations (2001 Census), for instance, India has
the largest number of child laborers under the age of 14 in the world.
Among children, there are some groups like street children and children of
sex workers who face additional forms of discrimination. A large number of
children are reportedly trafficked to the neighboring countries. Trafficking
of children also continues to be a serious problem in India. While
systematic data and information on child protection issues are still not
always available, evidence suggests that children in need of special
protection belong to communities suffering disadvantage and social
exclusion such as scheduled casts and tribes, and the poor (UNICEF, India).
Sexual Minorities
Another group that faces stigma and discrimination are the sexual
minorities. Those identified as gay, lesbian, transgender, bisexual, kothi
and hijra; experience various forms of discrimination within the society and
the health system. Due to the dominance of heteronomous sexual relations
as the only form of normal acceptable relations within the society,
individuals who are identified as having same-sex sexual preferences are
ridiculed and ostracized by their own family and are left with very limited
support structures and networks of community that provide them
conditions of care and support. Their needs and concerns are excluded
from the various health policies and programs.
Impact on Education:
Impact on Health:
Impact on Employment: