Childhood and Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up 0
Course 1
CHILDHOOD AND GROWING UP
Max. Marks:
ii.
100
Time: 3 Hours
(Theory: 80, Internal: 20)
Unit-I
1.
Child Development
Growth & Development:- Concept, Principle, Factors, & Stages.
Characteristics of stages of development with special

reference to Childhood and Adolescence.
Adolescents: Understanding their needs and Problems in Indian

context.
Unit-II
2.
Theories of Child Development
Theory of Cognitive Development by Piaget: Concept, Stages

and Implications with special reference to Indian Context.
Theory of Social & Emotional Development by Erickson:

Concept, Stages and Implications with special reference to Indian
Context.
Kohlberg theory of Moral Development: Concept, Stages and

Implications with special reference to Indian Context.
Unit-III
3.
Social Contexts of Development
Agencies of Socialization: Family, School, Society and their role

in Child Development.
Social and Cultural Change and their Impact on child

development.
Economic Change: Impact of urbanization and Economic

change on child development
Unit-IV
4.
Contemporary Issues
Marginalization & Stereotyping with special reference to

Gender, Social Class, Poverty.
Impact of marginalization & Stereotyping on child development

and related outcomes.
Role of media in constructing & deconstructing perceptions &

ways of dealing with above issues.
Practicum/ Sessionals
Any one of the following:
i.
Case-study of an adolescent: Problems and Needs.
Seminar/ Presentation on educational implications of One Learning
theory of child development.
Childhood And Growing Up
iii. Survey report on impact of socio-economic status of a family

on child.
iv.
Content Analysis of Media coverage on the following:
a.
Child labour.
b.
Gender bias.
c.
About Disability.
Growth and Development:
Introduction
Growth and development get lumped together so frequently, it can
be easy to assume that they go hand in hand and happen at the
same time. Child development is the study of process or
mechanisms that happen during the biological and psychological
process of growth of person within the age of birth till puberty. The
growth that is focus in the study is the development of child in four
areas is physical, mental or cognitive, emotion and social.
So what is the difference?
Growth
To put it simply, when something grows it shows an increase in
something you can count. A tree can grow. That means that it adds
to its height. We can count the inches it has grown. An organization
can grow, adding people or other groups to itself. These are counted
very easily. None of this takes into account how it grows. If we only
look at the height of a person, it may be easy to assume he is an
adult. An eleven years-old boy over six feet (two meters) tall can be
considered an adult. But at that age, he wasnt developed enough
in his thinking, emotional maturity, to be considered an adult. So,
growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a
child. It refers to specific body changes and increases in the childs
size (such as: changes in body (size, height, weight, head
circumference), shape, appearance, functioning of body systems,
perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health. These size
changes can easily be measured. Growth by itself, however, cant
measure development.
According to Herlock- Growth is change in size, in proportion,
disappearance of old features and acquisition of new ones.
According to Crow and Crow- Growth refers to structural and
psychological changes.
Development
Development encompasses many things but it is shown by the of
circumstances. This means that as something develops the quality
of the whole improves. As a tree develops, it will not only grow, but
also be able to reproduce, bear fruit, be healthy and continue

growing. If an organization develops, they might improve how it
interacts with its members, what kind of influence it holds in its
community, or it can streamline certain processes to meet the
overall needs of people that are involved. So, Development typically
refers to an increase in complexity (a change from simple to more
complex) Involves a progression along a continuing pathway on
which the child acquires more refined knowledge, behavior, and skills
such as head support, speaking, learning, expressing the feelings, relating
with other people, changes in intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, reasoning
and thinking. The sequence is basically the same for all children, however the
rate varies. Though growth and development may affect each other, they
are not dependent on each other. Growth may happen despite any
development. Development can happen but there may actually be little
growth. So What is growth?
It is indicative i.e. increase in body, size and weight.
It is quantitative progress.
It is physical change.
It is external in nature.
It stops at a certain stage.
It is physical progress.
What is development?
It is not indicative.
It is qualitative progress.
It is psychological change.
It is internal in nature.
It is continuous progress.
It is cognitive progress.
Is there a pattern to how human growth and development takes place?
This lesson will examine some universal principles of growth and
development in order to help you find the answer to this question.
According to Herlock- Development means a progressive series of
changes that occur in an orderly predictable pattern as a result of
maturation and experience.
Difference between Growth and Development
Growth
Development
1. Growth generally refers to increase in size and length. 1. Development implies overall change in shape, form or
structure resulting in improved working.
2. Growth is quantitative and can be measured.
2. Development is qualitative and can be observed
through behavior.
3. Growth is a part of developmental process.
3. Development is comprehensive and wider term refers
to overall change in the individual.
4. Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops
4. Development continues through life and is
when maturity has been attained.
progressive. It goes from womb to tomb.
5. Growth involves body changes.
5. Development involves changes of an orderly and

coherent type.
Principles of Growth and Development

Is there a pattern to how human growth and development takes place?
Suppose, you are getting ready to do your laundry. What do you do first?
Then what? What's the last thing that occurs? You probably answered
these questions the same way that most others would: First you sort your
laundry into loads of lights and darks, next are the steps to wash and dry,
and last you put the laundry away. Most people would answer these
questions in the same way because there is a sequential process that has
to take place to get your clothes clean and put away.
Biological development takes place in a similar, organized manner.
Biological development occurs in a sequential order. Typical biological
development also takes place as a predictable and orderly process. Most
children will develop at the same rate and at about the same time as other
children. These patterns of growth and development allow us to predict
how and when most children will develop certain characteristics. There are
certain universal principles of growth and development that describe how
the process of growth and development takes place.
They are:
1. Development proceed from head upward to leg downward
This is known as cephalocaudle principle that describes the direction of
growth and development. According to this principle, a child gains
control of head, followed by arms and later the legs. We can see that
infant is able to lift their head within first two months of births. Later
they are able to use their arms and by the age of 6 to 12 months they
are all ready to control their leg. At this time the child can crawl, stand
or walk.
2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward
This is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes
the direction of development. According to the theory the spinal cord
actually developed first before the outer part of the body. So the childs
arms actually developed first before its hand and fingers and so do the
legs first before the feet and toes. In the end the finger and the toes
that need to use fine motor is the last to develop.
3. Development is in an orderly manner
We can see that an infant need to know how to sit then only they can
start crawling and standing. He babbles before he talks, he is
dependent on others before he becomes self-dependent. Before they
start reading they need to know the alphabet then the phonetics of the
alphabet, Then only they know the words and its phonetics and finally
combining all this skill acquired the children can start to read. The skill
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and knowledge acquired can remain for a reasonable long period and
perhaps for the entire life.
Development is a continues and gradual process
Development does not stop at any time. It continues from the moment
of conception until the individual reaches maturity. It takes place at a
slow or a rapid rate but at a regular pace rather than by leaps and
bounds. For example, speech does not come over-night. It has
gradually developed from the cries and other sounds made by the baby
at birth. Each stage of development has its foundations built upon a
preceding stage and has a definite influence on the succeeding stage
of development. There may be a break in the continuity of growth due
to illness, starvation or malnutrition or other environmental factors or
some abnormal conditions in the childs life.
Development proceeds more rapidly during early years
The rate of growth is not uniform. The child grows more rapidly during
early years and slowly during the later years. Growth during early years
is so rapid that it is easily noticeable and growth becomes slow at the
later stages.
Development is a product of heredity and environment
Heredity and environment have considerable impact on the growth and
development of the child. The child is born with some genetically
endowments and develops by interacting with his environment. Neither
heredity nor environment is the sole factor responsible for the
development of a child. Nutrition, home climate and school
environment regulate social, emotional and intellectual development
while child inherits physical stature and different traits from his
parents.
Development depends on maturation and learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth
and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order in
the brain and nervous system and give children new abilities. These
changes in the brain and nervous system help children to improve in
thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Development proceeds
from simple to complex. In the beginning children can only learn with
the help of concrete item but as they grow and develop they are able
to learn only using symbol like pictures and finally they can learn
abstractly.
Development is predictable
In many cases it is possible to predict the type of probable
development a child will follow, because the rate of development
follows a Pattern. As it is possible to predict intelligence of a person
with the help of an intelligence test given in earlier years. 'X'-rays of
the bones of different parts of the body will tell approximately what will
be the ultimate size.
Development is individualized and unique process
Development is individualized process. Although the pattern of
development is similar for all children, they follow the pattern at their
own rate. These individual differences arise because each child is

controlled by a unique combination of hereditary endowment and
environmental factors. Every child follows a developmental timetable
that is characteristically unique for each child. All children therefore do
not reach the same point of development at the same age. Individual
differences are caused by the both hereditary and environmental
conditions. The childs physical development, for example, depends
partly on the hereditary potential and partly on the environmental
factors such as diet, general health, climate etc.
10. Development and learning occur as a result of the child
interacting with people and objects
in his or her Children integrate their previously acquire skill into more
complex, dynamic system of action. According to Piaget Theory during
the developmental state children have their own mental maps build up
from their past experience. When they meet up with something new
they will try to assimilate into what they had learned before. In this way
they will acquire more and become more matured. The growth and
development of child takes place gradually and continuously. Adding up
of past experience and assimilate or accommodate into new things as
we can see the continuation of the process itself. The way child can
acquire something new is through interacting with people and objects
in his or her environment.
11.Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more
complex and from general to specific
Children start off with simple matter rather than complex in the process
of cognitive development. In the beginning children learn simple things
such as 1, 2, 3 or a,b,c when they started off at preschool. As time
passes by their cognitive skill increased and started to gain more
understanding so they are taught how to add and minus and even
solve problems. Meanwhile the development of motor rather begins
with general to specific. Infant begins with grasping item. Their first
motor can be categorized as general, undirected and reflexive such as
swinging their arms or kicking in the air. Growth occurs from large
muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. As
they gain older they start to have aim and their movement is more
directed such as kicking ball.
12. Childrens needs differ across the early childhood years
It is said that the needs of a child vary over the first few years of their
life. This can actually be group into different stages based on their
needs.
13. During infancy the most important need of the child is nutrition
Sensory learning especially auditory and visual, control of physical
actions and attachment to a significant parent or caretaker seem to be
the central tasks. During toddler period nutrition is still consider
extremely important for a child in body building and cognitive building.
This is stage where childs coordination, language, ability to think and
social skills advance rapidly.
14.Different Aspects of Development are Interrelated

Different aspects of development are interrelated and interdependent.
Childs early social behavior is interrelated with his physical
development. If the child is physically handicapped then his social
behavior will be retarded. The motor development of walking has
positive effect on intellectual development of children.
15.Development is Cumulative
Changes do not emerge all of a sudden. It is cumulative process. The
childs first word, first step are the result of cumulative progress for the
child has continuously been preparing for these functions. Each change
is the culmination of his prior growth and experience.
16.Rate of growth differs in male and female child
There is a difference in the growth rate of boys and girls. Girls mature
earlier in comparison to boys. Girls are taller and heavier than boys
during pre-adolescence but by the end of adolescence boys surpass
them.
Importance of assessing growth and development
The assessment of growth and development is very helpful in finding out the state of health
and nutrition of a child. Continuous normal growth and development indicate a good state of
health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal growth or growth failure is a symptom of disease.
Hence, measurement of growth is an essential component of the physical examination.
There are several factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and
development of organism. There are as follows:
1.
Biological or Heredity Factors
2.
Environmental Factors
3.
Socio-cultural Factors
4.
Personal Factors
5.
Other Factors
1.
Biological or Heredity Factors:
Biological or Heredity Factors have an important effect on growth and development of an
individual. Heredity is a biological process through which the transmission of physical and
social characteristics takes place from parents to off-springs. Normally these traits are not
changed but spontaneously due to mutation some changes may take place. It greatly
influences the different aspects of growth and development i.e. height, weight and structure of
the body, colour of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instincts. At the time of conception
two cells (sperm from father and ovum from mother) start the new organism. These productive
cells of mother and father are called (Gametes). In sperm and ovum there are thread like
structure, which are called Chromosomes. Every Chromosomes is made up of long molecules
called D.N.A. Heredity traits are contained in these molecules. These genes decide the mental
and physical traits of off springs such as colour of skin, blood group, colour and structure of
hairs, structure of body, weight, height and colour of eyes. If these genes are healthy the
growth and development of an offspring will be proper. On the other hand if these genes are
not healthy the growth and development of an offspring will not be proper.
2.
Environmental Factors:
Environment plays an important role in human life. Psychologically a person's environment
consists of the sum total of the stimulations (physical & Psychological) which he receives
from his conception. There are different types of environment such as physical environment,
social environment & psychological environment. Physical environment consists of all outer
physical surroundings both in-animate and animate which have to be manipulated in order to
provide food, clothing and shelter. Geographical conditions i.e. weather and climates are
physical environment which has considerable impact on individual child. Social environment
is constituted by the society-individuals and institutions, social laws, customs by which human
behavior is regulated. Psychological environment is rooted in individual's reaction with an
object. One's love, affection and fellow feeling attitude will strengthen human bond with one
another.
So Growth and Development are regulated by the environment of an individual where he
lives. Human growth and development is affected by a large number of factors. Further, it can
be divided into two parts
(i)
Internal Environmental Factors
(ii)
External Environmental Factors
(i)
Internal Environmental Factors:
Internal factors are conditions within the body. These conditions are formed as a result of
actions of our human body system. These system maintains the system of our body but some
time due to illness, to keep the internal environment in static condition becomes impossible. If
these conditions are not proper, the growth and development of the child will not be proper.
(ii)
External Environmental Factors:
There are various external environmental factors which influence growth and
development.
(a) Climate: Climate influence the growth and development of a child. Usually, it is
observed that a mild cold climate has a positive effect on growth and development.
Along this, altitude also plays in the height of the individual, that is why animals as
well as human beings are short statured on his altitudes. In the same way, proper
development is not possible in extremely high and low temperature.
(b) Density of population: Has a deep impact on individuals growth and development.
Growth and development do not take place if density of population is more. On the
other hand, proper development will take place if the density of population is less. In
the same way when we sow many seeds in the small area, they will not grow
properly.
(c) Local Environment: Local Environment also plays an important role in growth and
development of an individual. If the local environment is neat and clean, the growth
and development will take place properly. If the local environment is full of dust,
particles and smoke, there cannot be healthy growth and development of children.
(d) Standard of Living: Standard of living do have an effect on growth and
development of children. If there is proper standard of living of a family, the children
of that family will develop properly. Their heights will be sufficient. Their physical
and mental growth will take place properly. In absence of proper standard of living,
they will not grow properly. There will not harmonious development of children.
3.
Socio-cultural Factors: Who do not know about the growth and development of the
Greeks? In fact, the growth and development had reached at apex point only due to their social
and cultural activities. In the same way there are some countries in this world, whose sociocultural background is clearly visible on the growth and development of the people. Due to
this fact, Brazil and Argentina are famous in football.
4.
Personal Factors: There are various factors which are responsible for growth and
development of the individual. These factors are given below:
(i)
Physical Exercise: For proper growth and development of an individual proper
exercise is essential. As a matter of fact, various types of exercises enhance the growth of all
the organs of body. If we do not exercise daily our growth and development will not be proper.
So physical exercise influences the growth and development of an individual.
(ii)
Balanced Diet: Growth and Development of the child mainly depend on his food
habits & nutrition. Balanced diet also plays an important role in the growth and development
of an individual. If balanced diet is not taken various organs of our body will not be developed
properly. Due to the lack of various constituents of food, growth can not be proper. It is
usually seen that the poor people, who are not in a position to get balanced diet have weak
structure of body. They do not attain proper weight and height, whereas the people who get the
balanced diet regularly, attain proper height and weight. Along this they do not fall prey of
disease. The malnutrition has adverse effect on the structural and functional development of
the child. So balanced diet in enough quantity always enhance growth and development of
individual.
(iii) Glands: Glands directly affect the growth and development of an individual. Every
individuals physical, mental and emotional development depends on the function of glands.
Again, an over-active thymus gland will retard normal development and keep the child
physically and mentally at a disadvantage. The pituitary gland is such a gland that is mainly
responsible for physical growth. If it secretes it fluid in more quantity in very young age, an
individual can become a giant. On the other hand if it secretes less fluid, an individual may
remain a dwarf. Other glands such as parathyroid and thyroid glands also affect growth and
development in an important manner.
(iv) Hormones:
Hormones are physiological substances having the power to raise or lower the activity level of
the body or certain organs of the body. For example, the gland pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice, not into the blood, but into the intestine. Here it acts upon food and plays an important
part in digestion of food. This pancreas also discharges into the blood, a substance called
insulin. This being carried by the blood to the muscles enables them to use sugar as a fuel to
add strength to muscles. It the pancreas fails to produce the secretions, the organism lapses to
the unfavorable conditions of growth and development. Similarly, the adrenal glands are very
close to kidneys. These make a secretion of adrenaline, a very powerful hormone, which is
responsible for strong and rapid heart-beat, release of stored sugar from liver and which
controls blood pressure. Gonads are glands, which secrete hormones that have important
effects on growth and sex behavior. A balance of male hormones controls development in the
direction of masculinity and that of female hormones steers it toward feminist. At puberty,
these sex hormones promote the development of genital organs. Lacking the gonads,
individuals of either sex develops into rather a neutral specimen without strong sex
characteristics. Pituitary is called the "master gland". It is attached to the under side of the
brain and its secretions controls the brain function and also the blood pressure. It stimulates
other glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active in childhood, the muscles and
bones grow very rapidly and the individual may become a giant of seven to nine feet tall.
(iv) Rest, Relaxation and Sleep: Rest, relaxation and sleep also affect growth and
development of an individual. It is a fact that the people who sleep long hours, tend to gain
weight. On the other hand, the people who work for a long period and take less rest and sleep,
tend to gain less weight. It means the people who work for long hours make maximum
expenditure of their energy, hence they tend to remain in the same weight or lose their weight.
(v)
Intelligence: Intelligence also affect the growth and development of children. Low
grade intelligence is associated with retardation, slow learning and poor performance. On the
other hand, high grade intelligence is associated with acceleration, quick learning and
excellent performance. There is always rapid development among the children, who have high
intelligence. According to Terman, Very intelligent children learn to walk in 13 months,
normal in 14 months, fool in 22 months, and stupid learn to walk in 30 months.
(vi) Disease and Injury: Typhoid and head injury hinder the growth and development of a
child. Due to some disease the individual starts to loose body weight.
(vii) Will Power: Will power also influences the growth and development of an individual.
5.
Other Factors:
(i)
Sex
Sex acts as an important factor of growth and development. There is difference in growth and
development of boys and girls. The boys in general taller, courageous than the girls but Girls
show rapid physical growth in adolescence and excel boys. In general the body constitution
and structural growth of girls are different from boys. The functions of boys and girls are also
different in nature.
(ii)
Races
The racial factor has a great influence on height, weight, colour, features and body
constitution. A child of white race will be white & tall even hair and eye colour, facial
structure are governed by the same race.
(iii) Learning and Reinforcement
Development consists of maturation and learning. Without any learning the human organism
is a structure of various limbs, all other internal organs with muscles and bones. Learning
includes much more than school learning. Learning goes to help the human child in his
physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social and attitudinal developments. All knowledge
and skill, all habits, good and bad, all acquaintances with people and things, all attitudes built
up in your dealing with people and things have been learned. Reinforcement is a factor in
learning. Exercise or activity is necessary for learning. It may be a motor activity, as in
playing on a musical instrument.
(iv) Growth & Maturation
Many people use the words growth and maturation interchangeably. In psychology, though,
growth and maturation are a little different. Growth is the physical process of development,
particularly the process of becoming physically larger. It is quantifiable, meaning that it can be
measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics. For example, the year that she was 11,
Keisha got taller by two inches. This is an example of growth because it involves her getting
physically taller and is quantifiable (two inches). On the other hand, maturation is the
physical, intellectual, or emotional process of development. Maturation is often not
quantifiable, and it too is mostly influenced by genetics. For example, as Keisha became older,
her brain developed in a way that meant she was able to handle more complex tasks than she
could before.
(v)
Cultural
The physical growth of human beings is definitely affected by cultural factors. Culture differs
from ethnic group to ethnic group. Children from different socioeconomic levels differ in
average body size at all ages that have been investigated. The upper groups being always more
advanced along the course to maturity. The cause of this socio - economic differential are
probably multiple. Nutrition is almost certainly one, and with it all the habits of regular meals,
sleep, exercise and general organization that distinguish, from the point of view, a good home
from a bad one. Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions than to
the strictly economic status of the families and home conditions reflect the intelligence and
personality of the parents. Size of family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. Ina
large family with limited income the children do not get proper nutrition. As a result the
growth is affected. The number of children in the family exerts an effect on the childrens rate
of growth. Children in large families have been shown to be usually smaller and lighter than
children in small families. Possibly this is because in large families children tend to get less
individual care and attention.
Characteristics of stages of development with special reference to Childhood and

Adolescencet
Human development is comprised of three developmental processes biological, cognitive,
and socio-emotional that is the interacting and overlapping processes that influence periods
of development.
Biological processes are those processes that include changes in an individuals
physical development. Genetic inheritance, changes in body size and proportions,
brain development, appearance, the function of body systems, perceptual and motor
capacities, and the hormonal changes of puberty are but some of the biological
processes in development.
Cognitive processes encompass cognitive development and include changes in
intellectual abilities such as attention, memory, knowledge, problem solving,
imagination, creativity and language.
Socio-emotional processes are those that involve changes in psychosocial
development, including emotional communication, self-understanding, relationships
with others, and moral reasoning and behavior, for example.
An example of the interrelatedness of the three developmental processes is a babys smile in
response to its mothers touch. The biological process is involved in the physical nature of
the touch and the babys response to it. The cognitive process allows for the babys
understanding that the smile is an intentional act, while the socioemotional process is
involved in both the positive emotional feeling that is reflected in the act of smiling and in the
positive connection with another human being.
A period of development is a period of time that is distinguished by particular features. It is
the interplay of the biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes. It can be divided into
the following sequence:
(i) prenatal period (ii) infancy (i.e. infancy and toddlerhood) (iii)
early childhood (iv) middle childhood (i.e. middle and late childhood), and (v) adolescence
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2008; Santrock, 2008).
(i)
Prenatal period is the time from conception to birth, involving enormous growth from
a single cell to a complete organism in only nine months. Physical developments during the
prenatal period include conception, interaction between genetic inheritance and environmental
influences, and the growth of body structures and organs. The abilities to learn and remember
and to respond to sensory stimuli are some of the cognitive developments occurring during
this time, while the socio-emotional aspects are the fetus response to and developing
preference for its mothers voice.
(ii)
Infancy and toddlerhood, from birth to three years of age, major physical
developments are the continued growth of the brain and its increasing complexity, in addition
to the bodys rapid physical growth and motor skills development. They master many skills,
including sitting, walking, toilet training, using a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye
coordination to catch and throw a ball. Within a few months they are able to identify their
mother by sight, and they show a striking sensitivity to the tones, rhythmic flow, and
individual sounds that make up human speech. Even young infants are capable of complex
perceptual judgments involving distance, shape, direction, and depth, and they are soon able to
organize their experience by creating categories for objects and events (e.g., people, furniture,
food, animals) in the same way older people do. Cognitively, learning and remembering
abilities continue to develop, and children develop the ability to use symbols and to problemsolve by the end of the second year. Infants make rapid advances in both recognition and
recall, and this in turn increases their ability to understand and anticipate events in their
environment. A fundamental advance at this time is the recognition of object permanence
i.e., the awareness that external objects exist independently of the infants perception of them.
About 18 months of age, the child starts trying to solve physical problems by mentally
imagining certain events and outcomes rather than through simple trial-and-error
experimentation. The infants physical interactions with his environment progress from simple
uncoordinated reflex movements to more coordinated actions that are intentionally repeated
because they are interesting or because they can be used to obtain an external goal.
Socio-emotional developments include attachments to caregivers, self-awareness, a shift

from dependency to autonomy, and increased interest in other children. Three-month-old
infants already display behavioral reactions suggestive of such emotional states as surprise,
distress, relaxation, and excitement. New emotional states, including anger, sadness, and fear,
all appear by the first year. Infants emotional life is centered on the attachments they form
toward the mother or other primary caregiver, and through these mutual interactions infants
learn to love, trust, and depend on other human beings. Babies begin to smile at other people
beginning about two months, and by six months they have developed an attachment to their
mother or other caregiver. These attachments form the basis for healthy emotional and social
development throughout
(iii) Early childhood, ages three to six years, includes physical developments of steady
growth and an assumption of more adult-like body proportions, while appetite tends to
diminish and sleep problems commonly occur. Handedness appears, and fine and gross motor
skills and strength improve. By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control of
pencils, crayons, and scissors. Gross motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip
and balance on one foot. Cognitively, children are somewhat egocentric but begin to
understand the perspective of others. However, continued cognitive immaturity is seen in
some illogical notions about the world. Memory and language improve, intelligence becomes
more obvious, and attendance in preschool and kindergarten is commonly experienced.
During the period from two to seven years, the child begins to manipulate the environment by
means of symbolic thought and language; he becomes capable of solving new types of logical
problems and begins to use mental operations that are flexible and fully reversible in thought.
Using language allows the child to communicate with others and solve problems. By age
eight, children are able to demonstrate some basic understanding of less concrete concepts,
including time and money. However, the eight-year old still reasons in concrete ways and has
difficulty understanding abstract ideas.
Socio-emotional experiences include the development of more complex self-concept,
emotional understanding, independence, initiative, and self-control. The formation of peer
relationships, and the development of a sense of right and wrong take place. Gender identity
develops, and play becomes more imaginative and more social, while altruism, aggression,
and fearfulness are commonly seen. The ability to appreciate the feelings and perceptions of
others and understand their point of view contribute to the childs moral development, which
typically begins in early childhood Although the family is still the center of social life, other
children begin to assume a more important role in a childs life.
(iv) Middle childhood, ages six to eleven, physical developments include slowed growth
and the improvement of strength and athletic skills, while body proportions and motor skills
become more refined. It is noted that, although respiratory illness is common during this stage,
children are generally healthier at this time than during any other developmental stage. The
cognitive development of middle childhood is slow and steady. Children in this stage are
building upon skills gained in early childhood and preparing for the next phase of their
cognitive development. Children are learning skills such as classification and forming
hypotheses. Children in this stage still require concrete, hands-on learning activities. It is a
time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can become a
motivating factor as children work toward building competence and self-esteem. Social skills
learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability to participate in
meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the challenges of
adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these relationships
may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships.Cognitive developments
consist of diminished egocentrism and increased logic, although logic is applied only in terms
of concrete thought. Memory and language skills improve, and cognitive growth allows
children to the beginnings of logic appear in the form of classifications of ideas, an
understanding of time and number, and a greater appreciation of serration and other
hierarchical relationships. Children make a transition from relying solely on concrete, tangible
reality to performing logical operations on abstract and symbolic material. Socio-emotional
developments include a more complex self-concept which, in turn, affects self-esteem.
Children develop in the direction of greater self-awarenessi.e., awareness of their own
emotional states, characteristics, and potential for actionand they become increasingly able
to discern and interpret the emotions of other people as well. Co-regulation results in the
gradual transfer of control from parents to child, and the role of peers takes on central
importance. Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body
proportions and motor skills become more refined.
(v)
Adolescence, adolescence begins with the onset of at 12 or 13 and
culminates at age 19 or 20 in adulthood. Physical growth is again rapid, and
other changes are swift and extreme. Reproductive maturity takes place, as well
as major health risks include behavioral issues such as eating disorders and drug
abuse. Females tend to mature at about age thirteen, and males at about fifteen.
Development during this period is governed by the pituitary gland through the
release of the hormones testosterone (males) and estrogen (females).
Cognitively, adolescence is the period when the individual becomes able to
systematically formulate hypotheses or propositions, test them, and make
rational evaluations. The formal thinking of adolescents tends to be selfconsciously deductive, rational, and systematic. Abstract thinking and scientific
reasoning develop, although some immature thinking endures. The focus of
education turns to the preparation for college or vocational training. Socioemotionally, the search for identity becomes crucial. Although relationships with
parents are usually good, the peer group may exert influence that can be both
positive and negative. The individual learns to control and direct his sex urges
and begins to establish his own sexual role and relationships. The individual
lessens his emotional dependence on his parents and develops a mature set of
values and responsible self-direction.
NEEDS OF ADOLESCENCE
An individuals needs and problems influence his development to a great extent. Adolescence
is a crucial period in the life of an individual with its characteristic needs and problems of
adjustment. Every adolescent has certain needs, the satisfaction of which is essential to his
continued physical and others aspects of development. A need is a tension within an organism
which must be satisfied for the well being of the organism. When a need is satisfied the
tension is released and the individual experiences satisfaction. There are certain basic needs
which are functioning in every individual. They are broadly classified into Physiological
needs and Psychological needs.
Primary or Physiological Needs: The fulfillments of physiological needs are inevitable
because they are concerned with the very existence of the individual. The need for oxygen,
need for water and food, need for rest and sleep, need for sex gratification etc. are the
important physiological needs.
Secondary or Socio-Psychological Needs: Needs that are associated with socio-cultural
environment of an individual are called secondary needs. They are acquired through social
learning and their satisfaction is necessary for the psychological well being of the individual.
The important socio-psychological needs are as follows:
1. Needs for security : The adolescent need emotional, social and economic security in
addition to physical security. The person who lacks the feeling of security may become
maladjusted. The need for social security is associated with mans desire for gregariousness.
2. Need for Love : Affection or love is one of the most basic psychological
needs of the adolescents.
Adolescents have a strong desire to love and to be loved. The individual who is
not loved will not deep
proper attitudes and concepts concerning his own worth. Proper love will
strengthen the individuals feeling
of security.
3. Need for approval : There is a carving for recognition in adolescents. His ego gets
satisfaction when he is recognized and approved. The adolescent desire that he should be a
centre of attraction for the opposite sex and his abilities, intelligence and capacities should be
recognized by others. The teachers should find out the field in which the pupil can shine very
well and which help him to earn admiration from others.
4. Need for freedom and independence : Adolescence is a time when the individual is
striving to wean himself away from the control of parents and elders. He want the right to
give expression to his feelings, emotions and ideas. He feels annoyed and unpleasant when
restriction is imposed on him.
5. Need for self-expression and achievement : Every adolescent has an inherent desire for
the expression of his potentialities. He may have a poet, musician, painter etc. hidden within
him and he want to get adequate opportunities for the expression of his potentialities. He
experiences satisfaction when he succeeded in them and failure makes him depressed and
disappointed. Hence the curriculum should be appropriate for every pupil so as to permit
achievement for him.
NEEDS TO BE FULFILLED DURING ADOLESCENCE IN ORDER TO BECOME
HEALTHY, WELL-ADJUSTED ADULTS
Psychologist, Dr. Bruce Naramore states in his excellent book, Parenting Teens, that teenagers
have six basic needs which need to be fulfilled during adolescence in order to become healthy,
well-adjusted adults.
1. Develop their distinct identity and a sense of their uniqueness.
Parents can have a tremendous influence on their identity or self-esteem. Identity means, the
way a teen feels about himselfpositive or negative. There are some important things parents
can do to increase a teens identity. First, help identify areas of interest. Whether it is in
athletics, music, school, art, or ministry, help teen to identify his area of competence. Second,
provide praise and encouragement.
2. Progressively separate themselves from their childhood dependency on their parents.
Adolescents can be helped during transition by getting them involved with a mentor. A
mentor can be a powerful force as outside instruction can make a special impression on their
lives.
3. Develop meaningful relationships with peers and others outside the family.
Teenagers enjoy spending exceedingly more time away from home than they did at younger
ages. Adolescents new found peer group is important in order to satisfy their need for
companionship and fun, along with emotional support, understanding and intimacy. Although
they still need these things from their families and other adults, its vital in their development
to receive these things from friends as well.
4. Develop their capacity to relate well to the opposite sex.
Having a written contract helps take the pressure off guessing when a teen is ready to date.
Its impossible to say that someone is ready to date at a specific age. Instead, dating readiness
should be the result of a teenager displaying certain internal character qualities like honor,
integrity, responsibility and resistance to peer pressure. The dating contract can provide the
family with accountability, fairness, clarity, security and togetherness.
5. Gain the confidence and skills to prepare for a career, economic independency, and
other adult responsibilities.
Not only is it important to encourage teenagers in the areas that they have interest, but it is
also necessary to teach them real skills. The straightforward teaching of skills to adolescents
often results in increased achievement and, thus, in enhanced self-esteem.
6. Fashion their faith and value commitments and basic attitude toward life.
In a survey to over 5,000 adults, the question was asked, How did your parents help you
develop your own spiritual convictions? Overwhelmingly, the number one response was:
Church attendance. The significance is that church is an important way to help your teenagers
to foster ownership of their spiritual convictions.
PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
INDIAN CONTEXT
Any period of development is likely to be accompanied by many potential difficulties.
Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood that implies many
development changes and associated problems. Some of the outstanding problems of Indian
adolescence are the following:
1. Perplexity with regard to somatic variation: Every adolescent has more or less difficult
task of adjusting to somatic variation which may occur in connection with puberty. The follow
of blood during menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys creates worries and give
birth to so many fears and anxieties. Since ours is a conservative society, youngsters are less
informed about the physical changes that are occurring during puberty. Lack of scientific
information about sex hygiene and philosophy make them to satisfied with crude and
perverted knowledge about sex related matters. It creates guilt feeling and so many
complexes in the minds of the children which makes them introverted and secretive.
Individual differences concerning colour and complexion, body shape, size and weight
inculcate the feeling of inferiority or superiority in them. They want to attract opposite sex .
2. Intensification of self consciousness: Adolescents have a feeling of adulthood as they are
competent to do anything. They want to exhibit themselves not less than others. An adolescent
is very much concerned about his/her physical appearance. Both boys and girls are caring
towards their dress up, hair style, complexion, food and way of movement. They want to
attract each other and have an impression among their own group. Any adverse feed back in
this concern results in maladjustment.
3. Problems related with intensification of sex-consciousness: The sudden awakening of
sex instinct during adolescence results in intensification of sex consciousness. Adolescents are
curious to know about sex related topics and are seeking answers to their innumerable doubts
in sexual matters. In our country most of the parents are illiterate and they do not have
scientific knowledge of sex problems. Moreover, our social values are different from that of
western countries, and hence parents hesitate to discuss sex problems with their children. So
the adolescents resort socially unacceptable ways to quench their curiosity and to satisfy their
sexual needs. There is also the misguiding of print and electronic media that finally results in
sexual maladjustment in adolescents.
4. Adjustment difficulties with parents: Adolescents have a strong for freedom and
independence. But often it is obstructed by parental oppositions. In Indian context, parental
opposition may extend to such areas as choices of friends, choice of education, recreational
interests, dress, life-style, our of going from and coming to the home, mode of behaviour etc.
The conflict between parental norms of behaviour and peer group relationships often lead to
friction in the relationship and adolescents find it difficult to adjust to the needs and demands
of parents. Failure to adjust with the parents may result in revolting against parents and
authority.
5. Childhood-Adulthood Conflict: In our society, the adolescent is considered as neither as
a child nor as an adult. He has to depend his parents and elders for his physical and emotional
needs. But at the same time he wants to hold independent views and opinions like an adult. He
can very well manage his own affairs and resist any unnecessary interference from the part of
elders. He begins to feel ashamed and embarrassed for the protection and care shown by the
parents. He is often treated in an ambiguous manner by parents and teachers. Sometimes they
expect him to behave as an adult and at other times, they treat him as a child. The poor
adolescent is caught between the role of the child and the adult, which push him into
confusion and tension.
6. Adjustment difficulties with school discipline: Most of the adolescents face a great
problem in adjusting with school discipline. Some times schools expects too much from
students who must submit to teachers who may be tyrannical sometimes. Schools should not
implant habits of unquestioning obedience that inhibits the growth of young people towards
true independence.
7. Adjustment difficulties with community: The adolescent is expected to find his place in a
society marked by increasing social isolation and rapid technological changes. This changing
world makes it difficult to anticipate and plan for adolescent life. They have difficulty in
adjusting their capacity to the demands of the community. At this critical phase most
adolescents react by withdrawing into a
non-demanding and non-working world of
pleasure and satisfaction.
8. Problem of Excessive Day-Dreaming: Day-dreaming is normal at this stage but when it
grows to excessive it may be injurious as far as development of personality is concerned. The
teacher should note that the adolescents are active and busy in their studies and other aspects
of school life. The children indulging in excessive daydreaming should be encouraged to be
constructive and creative.
9. Realism VS Idealism: An adolescent begins to understand the social fabric of his
surroundings. He/She starts judging that whatever moral values have been taught to him as a
child are not practically being followed by his elders. He/She is depressed by corruption,
inequality and other social evils like dowry. Proper guidance is need at this time. Otherwise
adolescents can be mislead by wrong people.
10. Problem of Peer Pressure: Adolescents are under pressure from their friend circle to do
many wrong things which may allure them. An adolescent needs to be taught How to say
No?. This is very essential for protecting them from drug abuse and other evils.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN SOLVING PROBLEMS AND PROPER
PHYSICAL, MENTAL, EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ADOLESCENT:
1. Proper Physical Development
The teacher should plan for this aspect in the following manner :
(a) By organizing various types of physical exercises, sports and games,
(b) By imparting a proper knowledge about physical and health education.
(c) By organizing various types of extracurricular activities.
2. Proper Mental Development
The mental development of the adolescent should be according to the following lines:
(a) It should be according to the ability and aptitude of the pupils.
(b) They should study both arts and science subjects.
(c) Excursions to various places may be organized.
(d) Modern methods of teaching should be used to teach various subjects.
(e) All the school teachers should try to impart him necessary guidance as and when required.
(f) They should be entrusted with responsibility so as to develop a feeling of responsibility in
them.
(g) The teacher should keep in view that there are individual differences among students.
Every child should be able to find out subjects of his choice.
3. Proper Emotional Development
The emotional development of the adolescent should be as follows:
(a) The teacher should try to sublimate the lower emotions of the child.
(b) A healthy emotional atmosphere should be maintained in the school.
(c) The teacher should try to avoid frustration among the adolescents.
(d) The teacher should pay due regard to the personality of every child.
(e) The adolescent should be imparted proper knowledge about sex. If this aspect is properly
attended to it would lead to a better emotional development.
4. Proper Social Development
The social development of the adolescent may be as follows:
(a) He should have knowledge about social relations and he should know the art of groupliving. Various group activities may be organized.
(b) A right and rational attitude towards democracy should be developed in the school
atmosphere. This would enable the child to develop his own philosophy of life.
(c) The Kothari Commission has emphasized the instruction of moral and spiritual values. We
should try to impart a right and rational knowledge of various religions to the adolescent.
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY PIAGET
Cognitive development deals with how human beings think, reason and make
concepts. In other words it deals with the development of mind. According to psychologist
Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four critical stages of cognitive
development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget
believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make
sense of the world around them.
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to age 2)
The, Preoperational Stage (from age 2 to about age 7)
The, Concrete Operational Stage (from age 7 to 11)
The Formal Operational Stage, (begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood)
Jean Piaget's Background
Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. He published his first scientific paper at
the tender age of 10 a 100-word description of an albino sparrow in a naturalist magazine.
Between the ages of 15 and 19 he published numerous papers on mollusks. After receiving his
Ph.D. degree at age 22 in natural history, Piaget formally began a career that would have a
profound impact on both psychology and education. Piaget developed an interest in the
intellectual development of children. Based on his observations, he concluded that children
were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called
Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's interest in child cognitive development was influenced by watching his 13month-old nephew, Gerard, at play. By chance, Piaget observed the toddler playing with a
ball. When the ball rolled under a table where the boy could still see it, Gerard simply
retrieved the ball and continued playing. When the ball rolled under a sofa out of his sight,
however, the child began looking for it where he had last seen it. This reaction struck Piaget as
irrational. Piaget came to believe that children lack what he referred to as the object concept the knowledge that objects are separate and distinct from both the individual and the
individual's perception of that object. Jean Piaget set out to study his daughter Jacqueline as
she developed through infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood. He quickly noted that during the
early months of his daughter's life, she seemed to believe that objects ceased to exist once they
were out of her sight. At nearly a year, she started to search actively for objects that were
hidden from her view although she made mistakes similar to the one Gerard made. By 21
months, Jacqueline had become skilled at finding hidden objects and understood that objects
had an existence separate from her perception of them.
Piaget's observations of his nephew and daughter reinforced his budding hypothesis
that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Instead, he proposed,
intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children
don't just think faster than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative
and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.
Before describing the cognitive system as developed by Jean Piaget, it is necessary to
consider some of the concepts which are very essential to understand his system.
Basic Concepts
Organization
Schemas - Patterns of behavior or thinking that children and adults use in dealing with
objects in the world or to understand the world. These become increasingly complex. It
describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change
previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of
animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child
might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child
encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations that all dogs are not small
and all have four legs.
Adaptation
Assimilation The schemas which are acquired in infancy are exercised and changed in
later life. So, the process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas
is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify
experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example
above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the
child's dog schema.
Accomodation It involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences to fit new situations. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can
move from one stage of thought into the next.
A Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
The Sensorimotor Stage: The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to
approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make
sense of the world. Some key things to remember about the sensorimotor
stage:
During the sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her
sensory perceptions and motor activities.
Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with (such as looking, sucking,
grasping, and listening) to learn more about the environment.
Object Permanence
According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important
accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's
understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.
Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other
person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object
reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or
object continues to exist even when unseen. He then attempts to retrieve an object that
disappears from his range of action. He thus drops his objects of play and tries to find out
them.
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub stages that are characterized by
the development of a new skill.
Reflexes (0-1 month):
During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
This sub stage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may
suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions
are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
During this sub stage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a
child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
During this sub stage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also
combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the
environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The
understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain
objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a
sound when shaken.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth sub stage. For
example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a
caregiver.
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):
Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final
sensorimotor sub stage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the
world through mental operations rather than purely through actions
The, Preoperational Stage: The preoperational stage is the second stage in Piaget's theory
of cognitive development. This stage begins around age two as children start to talks and last
until approximately age seven. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period.
They learn to use language and to represent objects by images and words. Piaget noted that
children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the option of choosing two pieces of clay to play with. One piece
of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though
the two pieces are exactly the same size. Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent objects. While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. During the preoperational
stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase
in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something
else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking
the viewpoint of others. Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red
blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour.
Egocentrism
Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of
children. One of the famous techniques to demonstrate egocentrism involved using a threedimensional display of a mountain scene. Often referred to as the "Three Mountain Task,"
children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children
are able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing
what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different
viewpoint.
Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain
scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take
on another person's perspective.
Conservation
Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of
conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two
identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup,
such as a tall and thin cup or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds
the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always
choose the cup that appears fuller. Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on
conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few
children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
The, Concrete Operational Stage: The concrete operational stage is the third in Piaget's
theory of cognitive development. It begins around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven. This period spans the time of middle childhood. Kids at this point
of development begin to think more logically in an organized and concrete way, but their
thinking can also be very rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
At this point, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. They begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that
not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions. They begin to
understand the concept of conservation; the the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass.. Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and
weight (age 9). Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series
along a single dimension such as size. Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
An example of inductive logic would be noticing that every time you are around a cat, you
have an itchy eyes, a runny nose, and a swollen throat. You might then reason from that
experience that you are allergic to cats. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty
using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a
specific event. For example, a child might learn that A=B, and B=C, but might still struggle to
understand that A=C.
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to
reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be
able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is
an animal. Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when something
changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept known as conservation. Kids at
this stage understand that if you break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still the same
amount at when the candy was whole. The concrete operational stage is also marked by the
disappearance of egocentrism.
Kids in the concrete stage are able to think about things the way that others see them.
In Piaget's Three-Mountain Task, for example, children in the concrete operational stage can
describe how a mountain scene would look to an observer seated opposite them.
The Formal Operational Stage: The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve and lasts into adulthood. The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of
abstract ideas. At this point in development, thinking becomes much more sophisticated and
advanced. Kids can think about abstract and theoretical concepts and use logic to come up
with creative solutions to problems. Learn more about some of the essential characteristics
and events that take place during this stage of cognitive development. At this stage, the
adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
Science and mathematics often require this type of thinking about hypothetical situations and
concepts. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Begin to use deductive logic, or
reasoning from a general principle to specific information. Piaget tested formal operational
thought in a few different ways:
One task involved having children of different ages balance a scale by hooking
weights on the each end. To balance the scale, the children needed to understand that both the
heaviness of the weights and the distance from the center played a role. Younger children
around the ages of 3 and 5 were unable to complete the task because they did not understand
the concept of balance. Seven-year-olds knew that they could adjust the scale by placing
weights on each end, but failed to understand that where they put the weights was also
important. By age 10, the kids considered location as well as weight but had to arrive at the
correct answer using trial-and-error. It wasn't until around age 13 that children could use logic
to form a hypothesis about where to place the weights to balance the scale and then complete
the task.
In another experiment on formal operational thought, Piaget asked children to
imagine where they would want to place a third eye if they had one. Younger children said that
they would put the imagined third eye in the middle of their forehead. Older children,
however, were able to come up with a variety of creative ideas about where to place this
hypothetical eye and various ways the eye could be used. An eye in the middle of one's hand
would by useful for looking around corners. An eye at the back of one's head could be helpful
for seeing what is happening in the background. Such creative ideas represent the use of
abstract and hypothetical thinking, both important indicators of formal operational thought.
Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology and
education, but it has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a
series of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that development does not always follow
such a smooth and predictable path. In spite of the criticism, the theory has had a considerable
impact on our understanding of child development.
Support for Piaget's Theory
Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget
did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built
upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally
prepared. In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from
Piaget's work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social
interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their
thinking.
Criticisms of Piaget
1. Problems With Research Methods
Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to
this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated
professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is
difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.
2. Problems With Formal Operations
Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next
stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play
a role in the development of formal operations.
3. Underestimates Children's Abilities
Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget
suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a
rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other
people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another
person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed. It is important to note that
Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids
do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they
gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more
information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he
thinks about the world.
Final Thoughts
One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is that it takes the view
that the creation of knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process. "I find myself
opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget explained. " I believe
that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can
be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of
transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."
THEORY OF SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT BY

ERICKSON
Erik Erikson
Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of
personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality
develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freuds theory of psychosexual stages, Eriksons theory
describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erik Erikson (1950, 1963)
does not talk about, he discusses psychosocial stages. His ideas were greatly influenced by
Freud, going along with Freuds (1923) theory regarding the structure and topography of
personality.
However, whereas Freud was an id psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist. He
emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego
itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between the id and super ego.
One of the main elements of Eriksons psychosocial stage theory is the develoment of ego
identity.
1. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.
According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity,
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
stage in Eriksons theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage
is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. Successfully moving from one social/emotional stage to another is
dependent on satisfactorily resolving the challenges connected with previous stage(s). Each
stage brings on new and different issues resulting in what Erikson regards as a psychosocial
crisis. When one level of crisis is adequately resolved a person is prepared to meet the
challenges of the next level.
2. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.
In Eriksons view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high,
but so is the potential for failure.
According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly
social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of
identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future.
Erikson extends on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic
of the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include the
entire lifespan.
Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18
years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still
plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout ones life. Erikson puts a
great deal of emphasis on the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a
persons identity.
Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenic
principle.
The outcome of this 'maturation timetable' is a wide and integrated set of life skills and
abilities that function together within the autonomous individual. However, instead of
focusing on sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how children socialize and
how this affects their sense of self.
Psychosocial Stages
Eriksons (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. Like Freud,
Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson (1963), these
crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual
(i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego
can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however,
can be resolved successfully at a later time.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or 0-18 months (like Freud's oral
stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these
feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and
consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense
of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure
even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant
can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there
are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of
fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them
or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result
in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and
Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of attachment the early experience of can affect
relationships with others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18
months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their
mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to
eat, etc.
The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes
and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to
explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of
failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience
to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same
time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child
but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and
accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be self control without a loss of
self-esteem (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly
dependent upon others, lack self -esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a childs life. According to Bee (1992)
it is a time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive".
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other
children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to
explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given
this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop
a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers,
lacking in self-initiative.
The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child.
The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents
will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge
grows. If the parents treat the childs questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other
aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for being a
nuisance.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self
control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of purpose.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
Children are at the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to do
sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the childs life as
they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the childs peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the childs self esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and
feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own
abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being
athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that
the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is
necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
During adolescence (age 12 to 18 yrs), the transition from childhood to adulthood is most
important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms
of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and
fit in.
This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as
an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find
out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and
the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is a reintegrated sense
of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of ones appropriate sex role. During this stage the
body image of the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until
they can adapt and grow into the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others,
even when there may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon
the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I
dont know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion
involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into
an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in
addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments
with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment
and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of love.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a
relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations.
By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our
productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful
life.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back
on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Critical Evaluation
Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must
people have in order to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one
stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.
KOHLBERG THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from
Jean Piagets theory of moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piagets
(1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He
began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student in 1958. He used Piagets
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. He interviewed
children of different ages to see what level of moral development they were at. In each case
he presented a choice to be considered. He was not really asking whether or not the person in
the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why these
children think that the character is morally right or not. This theory made us understand that
morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors. Morality
can be developed either negatively or positively, depending on how an individual
accomplishes the tasks during each stage of moral development across his lifespan.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinzs dilemma and was
interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas.
He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion, and
classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages. One of the best known of Kohlbergs
(1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Heinzs wife
was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug
had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the
chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more
than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from
family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could
have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he
had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to
save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemists and stole the drug.
Consider another example: a father tells his daughter, Lauren, that she can have a
bike if she saves enough money from her weekly allowance to pay for half of it. Then, when
Lauren tells her father she's saved up all the money, her father reverses his decision and tells
Lauren to give him the money because he wants to use it to buy beer. On the one hand, Lauren
wants to obey her father; on the other, she doesn't want to support his destructive drinking
habits. Lauren is torn about giving her father the money.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg
hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 1016 years, 58 of whom were followed up at threeyearly intervals for 20 years. Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten
dilemmas. What Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the
action right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons
tended to change as the children got older. He identified three distinct levels of moral
reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order
listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone
achieves all the stages.
Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we dont
have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct
consequences of their actions on themselves. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. Related to
Skinners Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the
person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, a
child's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school. The child would apply obedience
and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get
punished. or we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail. or The last time I
did that I got spanked, so I will not do it again.
or The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.
According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would say- If he would get
caught he should not steal the drug but if he would not get caught I guess it is okay. or
In this stage, Lauren would give her father the money because she doesn't want him to
punish her.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
At the second stage, people are motivated purely by self-interest. This stage expresses the
"what's in it for me" position. In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action
based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money
from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In
Kohlbergs theory, according to Heinz, a person or children in this stage would say- Heinz
can always pay the druggist back, and he is not really doing anything wrong. If he wants his
wife to live he should take it because nothing else can save her. Thus, the children tend to
say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer. Lauren at this
stage would likely keep the money, thinking that, even if she can't afford a bike, she can use it
to buy something else good for herself.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in a
conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and
expectations. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions
concerning right and wrong. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of
moral development. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even
when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be
seen as being a good person by others. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval
from others as it reflects society's views. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations.
In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations
before him. This is also known as the interpersonal relationships phase. For example, a
child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would say- Heins has no
choice but to take the drug. It is bad to steal but he is a good husband. If he didt save his wife,
then he didt really love her. In Stage three, Lauren might decide to give her father the
money because this will improve her relationship with him; but if her mother is upset by her
father's drinking, she might decide to give the money to her mother in order to be a 'good girl'
in her eyes. Her decision would be based on whichever social relationship seemed most
important.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. or (Law and order morality) In Stage four, it is
important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a
persons duty. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong. The society is the main
consideration of a person at this stage. According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in
this stage would say- It is Heinzs duty to save her, he should not let her die like that.
But, he cannot just break laws so he must pay the druggist back for stealing or go to
jail. In this stage, Lauren probably wouldn't give her father the money, because his
alcoholism is disruptive to the stability of their family and community. In another instance, a
policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because
he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order. Most active members of society
remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individuals own
perspective may take precedence over societys view; individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of
a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people". According to Heinz Dilemma, a person/children in this stage would
say-Obviously he is breaking the law if he takes the drag but it can be seen as responsible if
he does take the drug if you think of the big picture. So, in Heinzs dilemma the protection of
life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6. Universal Principles. (Principled conscience) People at this stage have developed
their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend
these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to
pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. According to Heinz Dilemma, a
person/children in this stage would say- It is morally right to save a life and that makes it
okay to steal the drug even if he is breaking the law. Kohlberg doubted few people reached
this stage.
Critical Evaluation
Problems with Kohlberg's Methods
1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e. they lack ecological validity)
Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people. For example, it is all very well in the
Heinz dilemma asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife. However
Kohlbergs subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never been married, and never
been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story. How should they know whether
Heinz should steal the drug?
2. The sample is biased
Kohlbergs theory was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of
morality (its androcentric). Mens' morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice,
while womens' is based on principles of compassion and care.
3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e. they are not real)
The fact that Kohlbergs theory is heavily dependent on an individuals response to an
artificial dilemma brings question to the validity of the results obtained through this research.
People may respond very differently to real life situations that they find themselves in than
they do with an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.
4. Poor research design
His research was cross-sectional , meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to
see what level of moral development they were at. A better way to see if all children follow
the same order through the stages would have been to carry out longitudinal research on the
same children. However, longitudinal research on Kohlbergs theory has since been carried
out by Colby et al. (1983) who tested 58 male participants of Kohlbergs original study. She
tested them 6 times in the span of 27 years and found support for Kohlbergs original
conclusion, that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.
Problems with Kohlberg's Theory
1. Are there distinct stages of moral development?
Kohlberg claims that there are but the evidence does not always support this conclusion. For
example a person who justified a decision on the basis of principled reasoning in one situation
(post conventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning
(stage 3 or 4) with another story. In practice it seems that reasoning about right and wrong
depends more upon the situation than upon general rules. The evidence for distinct stages of
moral development looks very weak and some would argue that behind the theory is a
culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and
societies.
2. Does moral judgement match moral behavior?
Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one to one correspondence between thinking
and acting (what we say and what we do) but he does suggest that the two are linked.
However, Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take account of:
a) habits that people have developed over time.
b) whether people see situations as demanding their participation.
c) the costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way.
d) competing motive such as peer pressure, self interest and so on.
Overall Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of moral reasoning. It is
also to do with social factors.
3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?
Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of males has been often in advance of that of
females. Girls are often found to be at stage 3 in Kohlbergs system (good boy-nice girl
orientation) whereas boys are more often found to be at stage 4 (Law and Order orientation).
In other words Gilligan is claiming that there is a sex bias in Kohlbergs theory. He neglects
the feminine voice of compassion, love and non-violence, which is associated with the
socialization of girls.
Gilligan reached the conclusion that Kohlbergs theory did not account for the fact that women
approach moral problems from an ethics of care, rather than an ethics of justice
perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlbergs theory.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION: FAMILY, SCHOOL, SOCIETY AND THEIR

ROLE IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Socialization is a lifelong process during which we learn about social expectations and how to
interact with other people. The socialization that we receive in childhood has a lasting effect
on our ability to interact with others in society. Society is the agency for socialisation and that
each person who one comes into contact with others and interacts is an agent of socialisation.
It is only socialization that we learn how to walk, talk, and behavioral norms that help us fit in
to our society. It is found in all interactions but the most influential interaction occurs in
particular groups which are called to as agencies of socialisation. For a newly-born child
family is-his immediate group that he joins, but this is soon extended to many other groups.
There are four most influential agents of socialization in childhood: family, school, peers, and
media.
THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT:
At infancy, families are the first socialized environments of a child. Shortly after the birth,
newly-born babies are inclined to the surroundings and begin the acquisition. The care of
family members, feed, bathe, get dressed, hold, etc. and the way they take care of such as
regular hours for sleep and meal, accustom children to eating foods beside mother milk has
helped children get into the habits. At this period, families are almost the only and very
important socialized environments to children.
At the kindergarten time, besides continuing making habits, children begin to play adult
roles through playing games: sellers and buyers, teachers and students, doctors and patients,
drill in cooking with tiny kitchen ware, or rivers with toy cars or trains, etc. Thus, children
learn by imitating through games. While playing, children develop original personalities:
sensing, singing, drawing, and qualities such as politeness, cleanness, silence, discipline,
honesty, love for parents and friends, tolerance, and courage, etc. At this period, children are
very pure, naive, easily told and taught. Therefore, families play an important role in
organizing and guiding the childrens activities, for example, who to play with, how to greet,
offer food, which book to read, which school to attend, when to watch TV and which
programs to be allowed to watch, etc. Families help children be aware of the rights and
wrongs, praising children on doing right such as greeting parents when they come home from
work, giving feet and hands clean wash, taking medicine when sick, lend friends toys, etc. or
stopping when children do something wrong, make children feel guilty or ashamed of
breaking household regulations. Families also help children build sense of responsibility by
specific activities: helping mothers with household chores, babysitting, etc.
At teen period, families help and provide children with social experience in contact and
behaving to people around. Families will motivate, sympathize, comfort them when they are
defeated, discouraged and help them with knowledge, essential understanding to be selfcontrolled at the pre-puberty when the body sees great changes.
At the age of adulthood, individuals develop their selfness, build social experience, prepare
to join working groups, social organizations or new communities. At this age, people character
is basically formed. At this time, families play a role in orienting individuals with basic issues
such as which jobs to do for a living (job orientation), which lifestyle to follow (value
orientation), whom to love (marriage orientation), the awareness of roles as wife, husband,
mother and father has existed from families through behaviors between parents, attitudes and
emotions of parents to children. Families give individuals motives, desire for marriage and
help them know how to behave when they are married. The marriage pattern of parents plays
an extremely important role in educating-socializing marriage roles of children. For example,
parents happy marriage will be a good foundation for children marriage afterwards.
At the age of agedness, the young can see what their lives will be like when they are getting
old by observing the life of the elderly in their families (grandparents, parents). Thus, people
know how to prepare for the agedness. Families help each person face up with the agedness.
At the age of the last life circle-welcome the death; families also help family members to
welcome the death in a more relieved way because they have a chance of witnessing the death
of others. The formalities of funeral that are more meaningful to life than the dead, help
people be aware of the death as an objective rule, and welcome their death before it comes.
Families help individual overcome sadness, loneliness because the dead are naturally talked
about in the relationship with the living to make the death normal. The love and worship of the
family to the dead cause individuals to admit their death more easily when they know that
despite of passing away, they still stay in the heart of their relatives. It can be seen that the
family carries out the function of educating through the whole life of each person, and it does
not separate from people at any age of each person life circle.
THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT.
Socialization is the process of creating a social self, learning ones culture and learning
the rules and expectations of the culture.
The school is an artificial institution set up for the purpose of socialization and cultural
transmission. Among the most important agencies of socialization is the school in which
socialization takes place.
Schooling has been defined by Biddle as the appearance of organized instructional
activity in which the position of the teaches is differentiated from other positions in the
system and given the explicit task of socializing neophytes.
In terms of socialization, in recent years, the school has become a primary agency of
socialization. The school is the first large-scale organization of which the child becomes a
member. The school is a minpature reflecting what goes on in the wider society. The
youngsters spend the major part of their active hours of the day in school, from morning to
evening in case of a day school and boarding schools they stay for duration of about nine
months in a year. Obviously, during this time student acquires a lot from the teachers and
fellow students. Due to this fact the school becomes an important agent of socialization. The
school is said to be next to the family in terms of importance as far as socialization is
concerned.
How the school performs the function of socialization.
1.
The school in a formal way according to curriculum provides the child with:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Knowledge of basic intellectual skills such as reading, writing, verbal expression,

quantitative and other cognitive abilities.
Teaching of languages to allows people communicate with each other according to
positions in society.
Cultural achievements of ones society.
Opportunities to acquire social and vocational abilities which are necessary in order
to make one a social, useful and economically productive member of the society.
Gender roles as perceived as suitable roles by the society.
4.
5.
6.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
2.
It socializes students to become members of society, to play meaningful roles in the
complex network
of independent positions.
3.
It helps in shaping values and attitudes to the needs of the contemporary society.
It widens the mental horizons of pupils and teaches them new ways of looking at themselves
and their society.
It offers young people opportunities for intellectual, emotional and social growth. Thus
education can be influential in promoting new values and stimulating adaptation of changing
conditions.
It enables the child to learn a number of other social roles and skills which are also important
for his/ her overall development as a member of society. For example, it teaches:
i)
laws, traditions and norms of the community, the rights that individuals will enjoy
and the responsibilities that they will undertake.
how one is to behave toward his/ her playmates and adults.
how to share things and ideas.
how to compete responsibly
how to cooperate
how to relate to others well and obey rules.
how to to internalize the culture of ones society.
how to adopt tolerant and humanitarian attitudes.
Summary
Thus schools produce useful citizens who will obediently confirm to societys norms, and will
accept the role and status that society will confer upon them when they have finished their
schooling.
Since children come from different backgrounds, the work of the school therefore is to modify
those aspects which may not be acceptable to the community. At the same time, those aspects
of training which are meaningful are encouraged. Most of the informal learning occurs mainly
within the pees group setting. The pees groups affect the socialization process both in school
and in the neighborhood.
The school represents a formal and conscious effort by the society to socialize its young. It
does this through the content of the curriculum and co-curricular activities. They also socialize
the values that they communicate to the child. Teachers also act as models for students.
THE ROLE OF THE PEER GROUP AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT:
Besides the world of family and school fellows, the peer group (the people of their own age
and similar social status) and playmates highly influence the process of socialisation. In the
peer group, the young child learns to confirm to the accepted ways of a group and to
appreciate the fact that social life is based on rules. Young people today spend considerable
time with one another outside home and family. Young people living in cities or suburbs and
who have access to automobiles spend a great deal of time together away from their families.
Studies show that they create their own unique sub-culturesthe college campus culture, the
drug culture, motorcycle cults, athletic group culture etc. Peer groups serve a valuable
function by assisting the transition to adult responsibilities.
Teenagers imitate their friends in part because the peer group maintains a meaningful system
of rewards and punishments. The group may encourage a young person to follow pursuits that
society considers admirable.
On the other hand, the group may encourage someone to violate the cultures norms and
values by driving recklessly, shoplifting, stealing automobiles, engaging in acts of vandalism
and the like. Some studies of deviant behaviour show that the peer group influence to cultivate
behaviour patterns is more than the family.
Why do some youths select peer groups which generally support the socially approved adult
values while others choose peer groups which are at war with adult society? The choice seems
to be related to self-image. Perhaps, this dictum worksseeing- is behaving. How do we
see ourselves is how we behave.
The habitual delinquent sees himself as unloved, unworthy, unable, unaccepted and
unappreciated. He joins with other such deprived youths in a delinquent peer group which
reinforces and sanctions his resentful and aggressive behaviour. The law-abiding youth sees
himself as loved, worthy, able, accepted and appreciated. He joins with other such youths in a
conforming peer group which reinforces socially approved behaviour.
THE ROLE OF THE SOCIETY AS A SOCIALIZING AGENT
A society has a deep impact on the process of socialisation. It influences
the nature and quality of the social relationships. Developing and
maintaining positive social relationships (e.g. characterised by trust,
mutual satisfaction, respect, love and happiness) is fundamental to a good
quality of life. Children who engage in good social relationships are more
motivated, perform better academically, have greater self esteem and
receive support from others than those who do not.
Social development involves learning the values, knowledge and
skills that enable children to relate to others effectively and to contribute
in positive ways to family, school and the community. This kind of learning
is passed on to children directly by those who care for and teach them, as
well as indirectly through social relationships within the family or with
friends, and through childrens participation in the culture around
them. Through their relationships with others and their growing awareness
of social values and expectations, children build a sense of who they are
and of the social roles available to them. As children develop socially, they
both respond to the influences around them and play an active part in
shaping their relationships.
Parents, carers, family members, school staff and peers are the first
and most important influences on childrens social development. Through
their daily contact with parents, carers, family members, school staff,
as well as with their peers, children learn about the social world and about
the rules, practices and values that support it. By actively participating in
these relationships, children also affect the ways that adults and their
peers relate to them.
In addition, childrens development is influenced by wider networks of
social support including extended family, friends and any community,
cultural or religious groups a child may be part of. These networks
provide opportunities for children to develop their social awareness and
skills as they relate with different people and experience a range of roles
and expectations.
Childrens lives are also shaped by the social circumstances that impact on
their families and communities, such as access to social and
health services, parents employment and income, or their ability to

balance work and family time. In particular, childrens sense of social
connection is often influenced by community attitudes and by cultural
values, including those they encounter in the media.
The ideas, beliefs and knowledge that children have about who they are,
what they can do and where they fit in society help to shape their
understanding of themselves. Children base their self-concepts on
feedback they receive from others as well as their own judgments.
Teaching children how to put themselves in someone elses shoes helps
them to relate better to others and manage conflict more effectively. It
promotes caring, respect and fairness. Teachers and parents may also
actively encourage children to apply social skills learnt in one social setting
(e.g. the classroom) to other settings (e.g. home or the playground).
Childrens learning about social relationships occurs in the family. Parents
and carers can support positive social development when they encourage
children to be respectful in all their relationships.
Provide care and support by tuning into childrens needs. Show you are
willing to listen and take childrens feelings into consideration.
Help children to develop social skills by providing coaching and
teaching them to think through and solve the day-to-day social
difficulties they encounter. Supervise and support childrens social
activities without taking over.
Asking questions in a supportive way helps children to think through
situations and encourages them to take others feelings and
perspectives into account.
Discuss moral issues with children and encourage them to state their
opinions and reasons.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE AND THEIR IMPACT ON

CHILD DEVELOPMENT MEANING:
Change is a process. It denotes any alternation or modification that
takes place in a situation or in any object through time. It is the universal
law of nature. It refers to the difference that exists between the past and
the present situation. Change is an on-going process. Society is subject
to constant changes. No society remains completely static. The term social
change refers to changes taking place in human society. Basically the
changes in human inter-actions and inter relations, indicate social change.
Society is the net-work of social relationship. Hence, social change
obviously implies a change in the system of social relationship. So any
difference or any modification or transformation in the established pattern
of human interaction and standards of conduct amounts to change.
Abolition of child marriage, inter-caste marriage, high status to Indian
women is some of the important instances of social change.
Definitions:
The meaning of the term Social Change can be better understood if we

will discuss few definitions formulated by the eminent sociologists. Some of
the important definitions are stated below.
Kingsley Davis, By Social change is meant only such alterations as occur
in social organizations, that is, structure and functions of society.
H.T. Mazumdar, Social change may be defined as a new fashion or
mode, either modifying or replacing the old, in the life of people or in the
operation of society.
Morris Ginsberg, By social change I understand a change in social
structure, i.e. the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts
or the type of its organisation.
Gillin and Gillin, Social changes are variations from the accepted modes
of life; whether due to alternation in geographical conditions, in cultural
equipments, composition of the population or ideologies whether brought
about by diffusion or inventions within the group.
Alvin Toffler, Change is the process through which future invades our
life.
M.E. Jones, Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or
modifications of, any aspect of social process, social patterns, social
interaction or social organisations.
From the above definitions it may be concluded that social change is:
(i) A process.
(ii) It is a change in social organisation, that is the structure and functions
of society.
(iii) Social change means human change, which takes place in the life
patterns of the people.
(iv) It refers to all historical variations in human societies. It means
changes in all fundamental relations of man to man. Which includes
changes in political institutions, class structure, economic systems, mores
and modes of living.
From the analysis of the above definitions we come to know that the
phenomenon of social change is not simple but complex. It is very vast and
a complicated process. It is a process in which we always face problems in
its conditions, forms, limitations, direction, sources, causes as well as
consequences. But it would be worthwhile to analyse the nature of social
change for clear understanding. The following natures of social change are
discussed below.
Characteristics:
(1) Change is Social:
Social change means a change in the system of social relationship. Social
relationship is understood in terms of social process, social interactions
and social organizations. So in any variation of social process, social
interactions and social organizations social change-takes place. In an
another instance it is found that society is like an organization, which
never dies. New civilizations and societies come up by replacing old
societies and thereby retaining some of its elements in its change. Thus
social change is different from individual change.
(2) Universal:
Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all
times. No society remains completely static. The society may be primitive
or modern, rural or urban, simple or complex, agrarian or industrial, it is
constantly undergoing change. The rate or the degree of change may vary
from society to society from time to time but every society keeps on
changing. A changeless society is an unreality.
(3) Continuous:
Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process.
Because the changes are neither stopped nor the societies are kept in
museum to save them from change. In the process of change every society
grows and decays, where it finds renewal and accommodates itself to
various changing conditions. The sources, direction, rate and forms of
change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.
(4) Inevitable:
Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it
is his tendency to bring change and to oppose or accept change. Human
wants are unlimited which always keep on changing. To satisfy these wants
social change has become a necessity not only to him but also to the
society.
(5) Temporal:
Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a
situation takes place through time. Time is the most important factor and
social change denotes time-sequence. So a social change is temporary or
permanent on the basis of time. Sometimes some social changes may
bring about immediate results while some others may take years to
produce results. Similarly, some social changes spread rapidly and also
disappear rapidly. Movements, style, fashion and cults are the examples of
this type.
(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform:
Though social change is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or
what we call the speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and
even in the same society from time to time. Sometimes the degree of
change is high and sometimes low depending upon the nature of society
like open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For
example, in the rural social structure the rate of change is slower because
the rate of change is not governed by any universal law, whereas it is
quick in the urban societies.
(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned:
Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes
without planning. Social change which occurs in the natural course is
called the unplanned change. The unplanned changes are spontaneous,
accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change resulting
from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic eruption, etc.
are the instances of unplanned changes.
Here in this unplanned change there is no control on the degree and

direction of social change. It is the inborn tendency of human beings that
they desire change. So sometimes plans, programmes and projects are
made effective by them to bring change in the society. This is called
planned change. As it is consciously and deliberately made, there is every
possibility to have control on the speed and direction of change. For
example, the five years plan made by the government.
(8) Social change is multi-causal:
A single factor may cause a particular change but it is always associated
with a number of factors. The physical, biological, demographical, cultural,
technological and many other factors interact to generate change. This is
due to mutual interdependence of social phenomenon.
(9) Social change creates chain-reactions:
Social change produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the
parts of the society are inter-related and interdependent. For example, the
economic independence of women has brought changes not only in their
status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship and
marriages etc.
(10) Prediction is uncertain:
We can see some elements for prediction in social change. But the
prediction we make is uncertain. It is because of three reasons. They are:
(a) There is no inherent law of social change.
(b) The forces of social change may not remain on the scene for all times
to come.
(c) The process of social change does not remain uniform.
Apart from the above characteristic features it may be said that social
change can be qualitative or quantitative. It is a value free term as it does
imply any sense of good or bad, desirable or undesirable. It is a concept
distinct from evolution, process and development which are regarded as
key concepts in the literature of social change.
Factors of Social Change:
Social change takes place in all societies and in all periods of time. But
here question arises why does social change takes place? From the
discussion of the nature of social change we know that there are some
potential factors responsible for bringing social change. Hence, it is multicausal. Here it is necessary to take up each factor by itself and to find out
the way in which it affects social change. Some of these factors are shown
in the following diagram.
Cultural Factors:
The word Culture denotes acquired behavior which are shared by and
transmitted among the members of the society. Thus acquired behaviour is
called culture. Singing, dancing, eating, playing belong to the category of
culture. It includes all that man has acquired in the mental and intellectual
sphere of his social life. It is the expression of our nature, modes of living
and thinking and everyday intercourse. For the clear understanding of the
term Culture here, it is necessary to discuss some of the important

definitions of culture.
Definitions:
According to White, Culture is a symbolic, continuous, cumulative and
progressive process.
Maclver and Page defines, Culture is the realm of styles, of values, of
emotional attachments, of intellectual adventures.
Tylor, refers to, that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society.
From the above definitions of culture, the features of culture may be
summarized below. They are:
(1) Culture is social, but not individual.
(2) Culture is idealistic.
(3) Culture is communicative.
(4) Culture is an acquired quality.
(5) Culture meets the recurring demand of mankind.
(6) Culture has the characteristics of adaptation.
(7) Culture has the quality of becoming integrated.
Culture plays a very significant role in social change. No culture
even remains constant. It always keeps on changing. Change in culture
takes place by three important factors. They are discovery, invention and
diffusion. A discovery may be a material item or a non material item. But
any discovery brings about social change only when it is widely used. An
invention generates pressure for change in different parts of social life.
Diffusion is the process by which cultural traits spread from one culture to
another or from one part of culture to another.
Several sociologists have highlighted the determining role of culture
effecting social change. Some of the important effects are given below.
They are:
(i) Culture gives speed and direction to social change:
If the culture is too much conservative, then its rate of change becomes
too low and vice versa. People whether accept change or not depends
upon their attitudes and values which are the products of the culture.
(ii) Culture influences the direction and character of technological
change:
Our belief and social institutions not only correspond to the changes in
technology but these determine the use to which the technological
inventions will be put. It is the culture that decides the purpose to which a
technical invention must be put.
(iii) Culture shapes economy and is effective towards economic
growth:
Culture not only gives direction to technology but it shapes the economy
which is too much effective towards economic growth.
(iv) It keeps the social relationship intact:
It makes people think not of their own but also of the others. By regulating
the behavior of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to
hunger, shelter and sex, it has been able to maintain group life.
Concept of Cultural Lag:
To examine the role of cultural factors in social change, it is necessary to
discuss the concept of Cultural Lag. Cultural lag means the flatering of
one aspect of culture behind another. According to Ogburn there are two
aspects of culture. They are:
(i) Material Culture:
It includes those elements or things which are tangible, visible and
touchable like goods, tools, machines and furnitures etc.
(ii) Non-material Culture:
It includes those elements which are neither tangible nor touchable rather
these are experienced by men like customs, values, ideologies, religion
and behavior pattern etc.
It is found that technological innovations and discoveries stimulate
the material culture to a great extent. As a result, the changes are quick in
material culture. But non-material culture responds very slowly to such
changes in material culture. So the material culture goes ahead leaving
behind the non-material culture. This is called the cultural lag. For
example-The development in the field of industry requires a corresponding
change in the system of education. The failure of education to meet the
needs of modern industrial development leads to cultural lag.
Demographic Factors:
Demography is the scientific study of human population, primarily with
respect to their size, structure and their development. It plays an
important role in the process of social change. These are of two types qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative demographic factors refer to
physical potentialities, mental abilities etc. that are determined by genetic
order. But the demographic factor in its quantitative aspect has been
playing the most decisive role in causing social change. The quantitative
view of demography takes into account, the size, composition and density
of human population that are determined by natural reproduction,
migration and social mobility. There are three important factors that
determine the rise, fall or density of population. They are:
(a) High Fertility (High Birth rate)
(b) Low Morality (Low Death Rate)
(c) Migration.
(a) When there is high birth rate and the death rate is low, we find growth
in population. High birth rate is due to illiteracy, popularity of child
marriage, widow remarriage, polygamy, craze for a male child, poverty and
also because of lack of proper implementation of family planning
programmes.
(b) The fall in death rate has also affected the growth of population. It is
due to modern education and scientific knowledge to hygiene, better
sanitation and therapeutic and preventive medicines, the increase of
productivity which raises the standard of living, control of natural

calamities, control of nutrition of mother, maternity facilities etc.
(c) Excess growth of population accelerates the process of migration.
Migration refers to the process of movement of population from one place
to another for considerable period of time. It plays a significant role in
population growth.
Biological Factors:
Biological factors play an important role in the causation of social
change. It include both human beings and non-human beings such as
animals, birds, herbs, insects, plants etc. Rapid decline of useful animals,
birds and plants will also create a number of problems in human society
and influences social change. Similarly rapid increase or decrease of
population also brings a number of changes in society. Different biological
process like human procreation, fertility and mortality also influence the
rate of change in a society.
Rapid population growth influences our environment causes
poverty, food shortage and multiple health problems and thereby brings
changes in society. Migration accelerate the process of urbanization that
creates multiple problems like slum, quality of health and life style.
Similarly the nature and quality of human beings in a society influences
the rate of social change. Elites in a society are determined by inherited
biological instincts. Besides composition of population also influences
social change. Both age and sex composition are very closely related to
social change. If the number of child and unproductive or ageing
population increases, a country faces a number of economic problems. If
the number of ageing population decreases, the youths may be deprived
of wisdom and experience which resulted in slow change.
Technological Factors:
The technological factors also play important role in causing social change.
Then what is technology? When the scientific knowledge is applied to the
problems of life, it becomes technology. Technology is fast growing.
Technology changes society by changing our environments to which we In
turn adopt. This change is usually in the material environment and the
adjustment that we make with these changes often modifies customs and
social institution initiates a corresponding social change.
Sources of Technological Change:
There are mainly two important sources of technological change. They are:
(i) Inventions.
(ii) Discovery.
(i) Invention denotes creation of new ways of using existing knowledge or
new ways of combining existing artifacts. A single invention in technology
can produce a large scale change in society. One important example of
invention is the invention of automobile.
(ii) Discovery means the new way of looking at the environment.
Technological innovation originates also from another source called
discovery. Example-Discovery of modern medicines is the result of
discoveries in biology and partly the result of invention.
Effects of Technology:
No device, technological or otherwise, whether originating within a society
or borrowed from outside, obviously set up a network of effects. The status
of the individual is no more ascribed rather achieved. A man is judged in
what he has, not what he is.
The social relation is gradually becoming superficial, temporary as well as
selfish by nature. Changes in technology have resulted in some
fundamental changes in social structure. The impact of technological
changes may be discussed under the following broad headings.
(a) Industrialisation:
Industrialisation refers to the process by which industries have been set
up. It has given birth to the factory system and replaced domestic system.
The invention of machines has led to the creation of big factories which
employ thousands of people and where most of the work is performed
automatically. It has created new social class and has improved the
condition of women. It has affected the nature, character and the growth of
economy.
(b) Urbanization:
Industrialisation has led to urbanization. As a result of industrialisation
people have started moving towards the industrial areas, the areas neither
very far from the cities nor from the villages with the hope of getting
employment in those industries and factories. Hence only when a large
portion of inhabitants in an area comes to cities, urbanization is said to
occur. Towns like Kanpur, Jamshedpur and Ahmadabad in India owe their
birth to the factories established there.
(c) Modernization:
It is a process by which adoption of the modern ways of life and values
take place. It has brought about remarkable changes in social relationship
and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional areas. It has
changed the social structure, which adds impetus to the growth of science
and technology. As a result of which the rate of change increases rapidly.
Technology has altered mans economic life in many ways.
(d) Transportation and Communication:
Great technological advancement have contributed significantly to the
field of transportation and communication. The means of transport has
progressed at a surprising rate. The intermixing of people belonging to
various countries led to the removal of much misunderstanding, hatred
and jealously. It has encouraged the sense of universal brotherhood. The
introduction of machinery into industry, news paper, radio, television,
telephone, telegraph etc. have facilitated the spread of new principles and
have become propaganda machines for political parties.
(e) Agriculture:
Changes in technology have led to the development of new techniques in
agriculture. Agricultural production is increased due to the use of modern
equipments, improved seeds in quantity and quality. Hence it has greatly
affected the rural community. As India is predominantly an agricultural

country, its future depends upon the progress of agriculture.
(f) War:
The highly dangerous effect of technology is evident through war. The
most spectacular invention of our age, the atomic energy, has vastly
influenced our life. As an agent of war, it brought about the most appalling
annihilation of people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As an agent of peace it
may bring an unprecedented era of plenty and prosperity.
From the above analysis we come to know that with the development of
technology changes in different areas are constantly increasing and these
are becoming more stable.
Economic Change: Impact of urbanization and Economic change on
child development
Urbanization occurs when people move from rural to urban areas, so
that the proportion of people living in cities increases while the proportion
of people living in rural areas diminishes. In the last century, the world's
population has urbanized quickly. In 1900, just 13% of people lived in
cities; by 1950, the proportion rose to 29%. According to projections, the
proportion could reach 60% by 2030, or nearly 5 billion people.
Urbanization generally occurs with modernization and industrialization, and
is often motivated by economic factors. Urbanisation has become a
common feature of Indian society. Growth of Industries has contributed to
the growth of cities. As a result of industrialisation people have started
moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment. This has
resulted in the growth of towns and cities. Urbanisation can also be defined
as a process of concentration of population in a particular territory.
According to Mitchell urbanisation is a process of becoming urban,
moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to
cities.
Urbanization negatively affect the economy of small- and middlesized farms and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor market. Rural
flight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural
services (such as business enterprises and schools), which leads to greater
loss of population as people leave to seek those features. As more and
more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth results.
The rapid growth of cities in the late nineteenth century can be attributed
largely to rural-urban migration. Urbanization occurs naturally from
individual and corporate efforts to reduce time and expense in commuting,
while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing, entertainment,
and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace
competition. Due to their high populations, urban areas can also have
more diverse social communities than rural areas, allowing others to find
people like them.
The effect of economic development on urbanization is always positive in

the sense that it always results in greater urbanization. The economic
development of a region always leads to greater urbanization. A high
standard of living always leads to greater demand for goods and services.
The need for greater production results in mechanization, division of
labour, specialization of jobs and large scaled production. In short,
economic development induces further urbanization through industrial
development. It can even"be stated that the extent of industrialization acts
as a common indicator in understanding the level of economic
development and urban growth achieved by the economy. In this way,
urbanization becomes a part and parcel of economic development. The
growth of small and medium sized urban centres always leads to
expansion of existing facilities. This is reflected in the improvement in
transport, communication, housing, education, employment facilities, trade
and commerce, civic amenities, etc. These improvements induce the 'pull
factors' in attracting immigrants towards these regions. The population
shows an upward trend. Correspondingly the demand for goods and
services increases. The need for a greater supply of commodities and
services to meet the increasing demand encourages investment activity in
the economy. The multiplier effect becomes significant. This result in more
opportunities for greater investment and the pull factors become dominant
and the region continues to attract more and more immigrants. In such a
situation, urbanization acts as a stimulant in furthering economic growth.
Causes and Positive Effects of Urbanization:
Various reasons have led to the growth of cities. They are as follows:
i.
Industrialization:
Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the
employment opportunities. Rural people have migrated to cities on
account of better employment opportunities.
ii.
Commercialisation:
Trade and commerce also play a significant role in urbanization. In modern
times, the development of modern marketing institutions and method of
exchange has greatly contributed to the growth of cities.
iii. Transportation and Communication:
Industries depend upon transportation, so that the raw material and
manufacturing goods can be transferred in large volumes. Communication
facilities such as telephone , telegraph , computer, vireless, telegraph and
postal services ect. are available in urban areas. These are the facilities
due to which people move from rural areas to urban areas.
iv.
Division of land:
In the rural areas when someone dies, the inheritance would usually be the
land. Yet, the land is divided into many parts due to the fact that in the
countryside it is common to have lots of children and they all have rights
to take one part of the inherited land. Therefore, what they get are useless
small lands rather than a gigantic land which is capable of making a great
deal of agricultural production itself. The inability to do the only thing,

farming, again brings about migration to big cities with the hopes of
making money.
v.
Better Employment opportunities:
By all accounts, cities are perceived to offer a wide variety of job
opportunities on the grounds that there are very different branches of
businesses in cities. In rural sector people have to depend mainly on
agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture is basically dependent on
monsoon. In off season, drought situations or natural calamities,
unemployment level is hugely high in the rural areas in contrast to
countless business sectors in chief cities, more and more rural people have
to migrate to cities.
vii. Better Educational Facilities:
In cities, there are better education facilities in comparison to rural areas.
Mostly best standard schools and colleges are available in urban areas.
Professional college and universities such as medical college, Engineering
colleges, B.Ed. college etc. are situated in urban areas. So the young men
and women are attracted to the cities for better and higher education.
viii. Better Recreational Facilities:
There are easy and good recreational facilities in the cities such as park,
play grounds, stadiums, cinemas and clubs. These facilities are not
available in rural areas and people tend to move from rural to urban areas.
ix.
Better Medical services:
There are better services in cities. Medical services are supported with the
latest technological improvements, there are unbelievably modern
hospitals. None of these can be found in the rural areas.
x.
Change in Mode of Living:
Change in mode of living such as dress, food , attitude, habit and pattern
of residence are encouraging people to migrate from rural to urban areas.
xi.
Urban Planning:
Urban life is based on pre planned conditions and programmes while in
rural areas there is no adequate planning. so, people easily migrate to
planned cities and avail all the facilities of urban life.
xii. Desire for Social Change:
Most of the people migrate from rural to urban areas to change their social
life. The relation between caste and profession is not necessary in the
cities and the poor people can get better employment facilities in cities.
xiii Modernization:
Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology, better
infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, desirable lifestyle,
recreational and social freedoms, Information revolution etc. There are
better services in cities. People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in
cities and migrate to cities.
Urbanization can yield positive effects if it takes place up to a
desirable limit. Extensive urbanisation or indiscriminate growth of cities
may result in adverse effects. They may be as follows:
(Adverse effects of Urbanization)

i. Problem of over population:
Concentration of population is a major problem of cities. It has resulted in
accommodation problem, growth of slums etc.
ii. Disintegration of Joint family:
Joint family cant be maintained in cities on account of high cost of living:
People prefer to live in the nuclear type of families.
iii. Cost of living:
High cost of living is a major problem of cities. In Metro cities like Delhi,
Mumbai, Bangalore etc. it is very difficult for lower income groups to
maintain a decent standard of living.
iv. Increase in Crime rates:
Urban centres are known for high rate of crimes. Unemployment and
poverty force people to engage in anti-social activities Theft, Dacoity,
Murder, Cheating, Pick pocketing, rape, Settling on illegal areas of land etc.
are common in urban centres.
v. Impersonal relations:
Urban centres are characterised by highly secondary relations. The
concept of neighbourhood, community life are almost absent in cities.
Urban life is highly monotonous. This may have an adverse psychological
effect on individuals. People are often self centred and they have no
concern for the fellow human beings.
vi. Problem of Pollution:
In industrialized cities pollution is a major problems. It may be caused by
industries or by excessive movement of vehicles.
viii. Stress:
Urban life is characterised by stress which may even strain family
relations. In cities employment of women is almost inevitable to meet the
increasing cost of living. Changing role of women in the family creates
stress in the family which may result in divorce or strained relations.
ix. Land insecurity:
Slums are usually located on land, not owned by the slum dwellers. They
can be evicted at any time by the landowners.
x. Poor living conditions:
Crowding and lack of sanitation. This often contributes to outbreak of
diseases. Utilities such as water, electricity and sewage disposal are also
lacking in these areas.
xi. Unemployment:
Since the number of people aspiring for jobs is more than jobs available,
unemployment is a natural outcome of situation.
(Environmental Impact)
xii. Temperature Increase:
Due to factors such as paving over formerly vegetated land, increasing
number of residences and high-rise apartments and industries,
temperature increase due to increased absoption of Suns energy and
production of more and more heat due to very intense human activity.
xiii. Air pollution:

Factories and automobiles are most visible symbols of urbanization. Due to
emissions of harmful gases and smoke from factories and vehicles, air
pollution results. High amount of suspended particulate matter in air,
particularly in cities, which contributes to allergies and respiratory
problems becoming a huge health hazard.
xiv. Changes in Natural Water Cycle:
When urbanization takes place, water cycle changes as cities have more
precipitation than surrounding areas. Due to dumping of sewage from
factories in water bodies, water pollution occur which often resulting in
outbreaks of epidemics.
xv. Destruction of Natural Habitats:
In making of an urban area, a lot of forested areas are destroyed which
otherwise would have been
natural habitats to many birds and animals.
xvi. Extention of the urbanization to the sea:
We have extended the urbanization to the sea. This tendency is damaging
the ocean ecosystem also.
Thus urbanisation has its own merits and de-merits. Urbanization
cant be avoided. But the negative effect of urbanization can be minimised.
All such factors have a deep impact on child development.
Marginalization & Stereotyping with special

reference to Gender, Social Class, Poverty.
MEANING OF MARGINALIZED GROUPS AND MARGINALIZATION
In general, the term marginalization describes the overt actions or
tendencies of human societies, where people who they perceive to
undesirable or without useful function, are excluded, i.e., marginalized.
This limits their opportunities and means for survival. Marginalization is a
process by which certain groups are systematically disadvantaged because
they are discriminated against on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion,
sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status,
migrant status or where they live. Discrimination occurs in public
institutions, such as the legal system or education and health services, as
well as social institutions like the household.
So, people who are marginalized have relatively little control over their
lives, and the resources available to them. This results in making them
handicapped in delving contribution to society. A vicious circle is set up
whereby their lack of positive and supportive relationships means that
they are prevented from participating in local life, which in turn leads to
further isolation. This has a tremendous impact on development of human
beings, as well as on society at large. The objective of development is to

create an enabling environment for people to enjoy a productive, healthy,
and creative life. Development is always broadly conceived in terms of
mass participation. Marginalization deprives a large majority of people
across the globe from participating in the development. It is a complex
problem, and there are many factors that cause marginalization. This
chapter deals with the problems associated with the groups suffering from
marginalization and the ways to reduce them.
Peter Leonard defines marginality as, being outside the mainstream of
productive activity or social reproductive activity.
The Encyclopedia of Public Health defines marginalized groups as, To
be marginalized is to be placed in the margins, and thus excluded from the
privilege and power found at the center.
Latin observes that, Marginality is so thoroughly demeaning, for
economic well-being, for human dignity, as well as for physical security.
Marginal groups can always be identified by members of dominant society,
and will face irrevocable discrimination.
To further clarify the meaning and concept let us discuss certain
characteristics of marginalized groups:
Usually a minority group has the following characteristics:
1) It suffers from discrimination and subordination.
2) They have physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which
are disapproved of, by a
dominant group.
3) They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.
4) They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.
5) They have a tendency to marry within the group.
Thus, marginalization is a complex as well as shifting phenomenon linked
to social status.
How do people become marginalized?
People are excluded by institutions and behaviour that reflect, enforce and
reproduce prevailing social attitudes and values, particularly those of
powerful groups in society. Sometimes this is open and deliberate, such as
when state institutions deliberately discriminate in their laws, policies or
programmes. In certain countries, for example, women have been
disadvantaged through the law. They could not inherit land or property, get
a job or sign a contract without the permission of their husbands. In Muslim
countries, the evidence in court of a Muslim woman is worth half that of a
man. In many countries, certain state benefits are denied to non-citizens,
leaving them vulnerable to destitution. In other cases there are rigid social
systems that decide peoples position in society on the basis of heredity,
as in the South Asian caste system. More often, institutions perpetuate
exclusion unofficially. In many schools, for example, teachers expect Dalit
children to do menial tasks such as cleaning the classrooms.
Marginalization is frequently more subtle and unintentional, for example
when disabled people are excluded from services, markets and political
participation through a lack of awareness of their needs or by social

attitudes, or when minority groups are excluded by language barriers.
People who live in remote and isolated areas may be prevented from fully
participating in national economic and social life. People who move from
one part of a country to another, or across borders, can suffer exclusion
because they are in the wrong place. For example, in China and former
Soviet countries, men and women who migrate for work have long been
unable to register locally as citizens and are often excluded from welfare
and access to public services.

Gender:
Under different economic conditions, and under the influence of
specific historical, cultural, legal and religious factors, marginalization is
one of the manifestations of gender inequality. In other words, women may
be excluded from certain jobs and occupations, incorporated into certain
others, and marginalized in others. In general they are always marginalized
relative to men, in every country and culture.
Over half of the worlds population is female, yet they unjustly
receive an unfair balance in life from conception. No matter how long and
hard the fight has been, girls are still treated less favorably in all aspects
over boys. Education, healthcare, employment, and lower class value, are
some of the obstacles facing girls in the world today.
Gender inequality is an issue that no country or culture has been
able to escape. There is no dispute that woman face more challenges when
juggling home, family and work then men, and far more women leave their
careers for the family, than do men. There is an obvious gender imbalance
in political leadership and in most career fields; girls are even marginalized
when it comes to powerful and successful female role models. Children
look first to their own parents for examples and inspiration, therefore when
a child see their mother living a life of inequality, the cycle often continues
as girls feel there is no alternative for themselves. While domestic violence
is the most prevalent form of abuse against women and girls, and it is only
one of many challenges and abuse that girls disproportionately face over
that of boys.
Woman and girls are abused by their husbands and fathers, young girls are
exploited by sex tourism and trafficking, girls in many countries are forced
into arranged marriages at early ages. Twice as many women are illiterate
as men, due to the large gap in education, and girls are still less likely to
get jobs and excel in the work place than boys.
In countries of conflict and war, woman and girls are used as pawns,
they are kidnapped, enslaved, raped, mutilated, and forced from their
homes. Female foericide is the selective abortion, based on gender, and
made a large emergence in the 20th century. In many cultures, such as
India, girls are deselected as a result of the dowry system. Other countries
such as China favored boys due to the desire for the first born to be male
and due to other ancient beliefs and values that a son will care for the
family. "Honor Killings', are an archaic form of a death sentence, usually

without trial or any form of defense for the victim, that are conducted
almost exclusively on woman.
Women have been taught that, for us, the earth is flat, and that if we
venture out, we will fall off the edge. -Unknown
Many instances of discrimination and inequality facing woman and girls, is
due to cultural and religious stereo types that continue to remain
unchallenged or blatantly ignored. Though girls do suffer unjustly more
than boys, all children suffer when their mothers face inequality.
it time we woke-up and saw that by marginalizing girls, we are only
crippling our society.

Social Class:
Schedule Castes(Dalits) The caste system is a strict hierarchical social system based on underlying
notions of purity and pollution. Brahmins are on the top of the hierarchy
and Shudras or Dalits constitute the bottom of the hierarchy. The
marginalization of Dalits influences all spheres of their life, violating basic
human rights such as civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. A
major proportion of the lower castes and Dalits are still dependent on
others for their livelihood. Dalits does not refer to a caste, but suggests a
group who are in a state of oppression, social disability and who are
helpless and poor. Literacy rates among Dalits are very low. They have
meager purchasing power and have poor housing conditions as well as
have low access to resources and entitlements. Structural discrimination
against these groups takes place in the form of physical, psychological,
emotional and cultural abuse which receives legitimacy from the social
structure and the social system. Physical segregation of their settlements
is common in the villages forcing them to live in the most unhygienic and
inhabitable conditions. All these factors affect their health status, access to
healthcare and quality of life. There are high rates of malnutrition reported
among the marginalized groups resulting in mortality, morbidity and
anemia. Access to and utilization of healthcare among the marginalized
groups is influenced by their socio-economic status within the society.
Caste based marginalization is one of the most serious human rights issues
in the world today, adversely affecting more than 260 million people
mostly reside in India. Caste-based discrimination entails social and
economic exclusion, segregation in housing, denial and restrictions of
access to public and private services and employment, and enforcement of
certain types of jobs on Dalits, resulting in a system of modern day slavery
or bonded labour. However, in recent years due to affirmative action and
legal protection, the intensity of caste based marginalization is reducing.
Scheduled TribesThe Scheduled Tribes like the Scheduled Castes face structural
discrimination within the Indian society. Unlike the Scheduled Castes, the
Scheduled Tribes are a product of marginalization based on ethnicity. In
India, the Scheduled Tribes population is around 84.3 million and is

considered to be socially and economically disadvantaged. Their
percentages in the population and numbers however vary from State to
State. They are mainly landless with little control over resources such as
land, forest and water. They constitute a large proportion of agricultural
laborers, casual laborers, plantation laborers, industrial laborers etc. This
has resulted in poverty among them, low levels of education, poor health
and reduced access to healthcare services. They belong to the poorest
strata of the society and have severe health problems.
People with disabilities People with disabilities have had to battle against centuries of biased
assumptions, harmful stereotypes, and irrational fears. The stigmatization
of disability resulted in the social and economic marginalization of
generations with disabilities, and, like many other oppressed minorities,
this has left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for
centuries. The proportion of disabled population in India is about 21.9
million. The percentage of disabled population to the total population is
about 2.13 per cent. There are interstate and interregional differences in
the disabled population. The disabled face various types of barriers while
seeking access to health and health services. Among those who are
disabled women, children and aged are more vulnerable and need
attention.
Elderly or Aged People
Ageing is an inevitable and inexorable process in life. In India, the
population of the elderly is growing rapidly and is emerging as a serious
area of concern for the government and the policy planners. According to
data on the age of Indias population, in Census 2001, there are a little
over 76.6 million people above 60 years, constituting 7.2 per cent of the
population. The number of people over 60 years in 1991 was 6.8 per cent
of the countrys population. The vulnerability among the elderly is not only
due to an increased incidence of illness and disability, but also due to their
economic dependency upon their spouses, children and other younger
family members. According to the 2001 census, 33.1 per cent of the
elderly in India live without their spouses. The widowers among older men
form 14.9 per cent as against 50.1 per cent widows among elderly women.
Among the elderly (80 years and above), 71.1 per cent of women were
widows while widowers formed only 28.9 per cent of men. Lack of
economic dependence has an impact on their access to food, clothing and
healthcare. Among the basic needs of the elderly, medicine features as the
highest unmet need. Healthcare of the elderly is a major concern for the
society as ageing is often accompanied by multiple illnesses and physical
ailments.
Children
Children Mortality and morbidity among children are caused and
compounded by poverty, their sex and caste position in society. All these
have consequences on their nutrition intake, access to healthcare,
environment and education. Poverty has a direct impact on the mortality
and morbidity among children. In India, a girl child faces discrimination and
differential access to nutritious food and gender based violence is evident
from the falling sex ratio and the use of technologies to eliminate the girl
child. The manifestations of these violations are various, ranging from child
labor, child trafficking, to commercial sexual exploitation and many other
forms of violence and abuse. With an estimated 12.6 million children
engaged in hazardous occupations (2001 Census), for instance, India has
the largest number of child laborers under the age of 14 in the world.
Among children, there are some groups like street children and children of
sex workers who face additional forms of discrimination. A large number of
children are reportedly trafficked to the neighboring countries. Trafficking
of children also continues to be a serious problem in India. While
systematic data and information on child protection issues are still not
always available, evidence suggests that children in need of special
protection belong to communities suffering disadvantage and social
exclusion such as scheduled casts and tribes, and the poor (UNICEF, India).
Sexual Minorities
Another group that faces stigma and discrimination are the sexual
minorities. Those identified as gay, lesbian, transgender, bisexual, kothi
and hijra; experience various forms of discrimination within the society and
the health system. Due to the dominance of heteronomous sexual relations
as the only form of normal acceptable relations within the society,
individuals who are identified as having same-sex sexual preferences are
ridiculed and ostracized by their own family and are left with very limited
support structures and networks of community that provide them
conditions of care and support. Their needs and concerns are excluded
from the various health policies and programs.

Poverty:
Marginality is an involuntary position and condition of an individual or
group at the margins of social, political, economic, ecological and
biophysical systems, pre-venting them from access to resources, assets,
services, restraining freedom of choice, preventing the development of
capabilities, and eventually causing extreme poverty.
People who are marginalized have relatively little control over their
lives, and the resources available to them. A vicious circle is set up
whereby their lack of positive and supportive relationships means that
they are prevented from participating in local life, which in turn leads to
further isolation. This has a tremendous impact on development of human
beings, as well as on society at large. Marginalization deprives a large
majority of people across the globe from participating in the development.
Thus, marginalization causes poverty and gets in the way of poverty
reduction.
People are living in poverty if their income and resources (material,
cultural and social) are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a
standard of living. As a result of inadequate income and resources people
may be excluded and marginalised from participating in activities which

are considered the norm for other people in society.
Usually poverty links with material lacks, but the increasing
understanding is that poverty is not just a name of material lacks, but also
associated with restricted access to resources that can make an individual
or household well off. UN has defined poverty through the capability
approach and the human rights approach. These
inter-related
themes provide an enriched understanding of poverty and we can define
poverty as:
A human condition characterized by the sustained or chronic deprivation
of the resources, capabilities, choices, security and power necessary for
the enjoyment of an adequate standard of living and other civil, cultural,
economic, social and political rights
Thus poverty cannot be restricted to income and expenditure but it is
the name of deprivation of the resources that makes an individual better
off in his social, economic, cultural and political life.
Oxfam (2009) also explains social exclusion as the dimension of poverty.
Exclusion causes poverty, this relation may be causal and may make
people vulnerable and then poor, this marginality emerges due to certain
groups representation from ethnic minority, deprived class, deprived
gender and due to lack of participation in social life, restricted access
toward living facilities etc that causes vulnerability amongst these groups
and in turn poverty in the long run.
This marginality has two way relationships with poverty, it enforces
people to be poor or poverty enforces people to be marginalized. Individual
being excluded from the dimension of development and progress move
towards extreme poverty. The people that are affected by poverty and
exclusion are considered to be the marginalized poor (ZEF, 2011).
A vulnerable household can be in and out of poverty over time depending

on the future income prospects, expenditure stream, and accessibility to
social services. A marginalized household considers being poor or more
sensitive to shocks if that household has:
i.
Low level of human capital, knowledge and access to skill
improvement
ii.
Suffers from physical or psychological disabilities and poor access to
health facilities
iii.
Poor infrastructure and have less capacity to improve it
iv.
Few productive and financial assets and has limited access to credit
market
v.
Poor social networking and excluded from normal lives of society.
vi.
Poor access to job market opportunity.
Thus, marginalized household is considered to be poor if it has a

limited access to the living needs, has limited or restricted access to social,
economic and political life of its society due to residential, societal, spatial,
environmental deprivations etc. and has poor capacity to ensure good
standard of living for its members.
It hurts marginalised materially making them poor in terms of
income, health or education by causing them to be denied access to
resources, markets and public services. It can also hurt them emotionally,
by shutting them out of the life of their community. Marginalized people
are often denied the opportunities available to others to increase their
income and escape from poverty by their own efforts. So, even though the
economy may grow and general income levels may rise, excluded people
are likely to be left behind, and make up an increasing proportion of those
who remain in poverty. Poverty reduction policies often fail to reach them
unless they are specifically designed to do so.
Poverty is a long term debate and developing countries are targeting
to be free of poverty by 2015, the millennium development goals directly
and indirectly target poverty eradication and aims for a good standard of
living for the livelihood of the society. To eradicate extreme poverty and to
make people out of extreme hunger requires a good educational
infrastructure; reduced child mortality, improved maternal health and
gender equality and enhanced women empowerment (United Nation,
2007). These goals not only help to reduce poverty among general
population but also address the issue of social exclusion in the deprived
class.
CONCLUSION
The pertinent question therefore is where do the marginalized groups
stand today? Though there has been some improvement in certain spheres
and despite some positive changes, the standard of living for the
marginalized communities has not improved. Therefore, what Minimum
needs to be done?
Improved Access to Agricultural Land-The reasons for the high
incidences of poverty and deprivation among the marginalized social
groups are to be found in their continuing lack of access to income-earning
capital assets (agricultural land and non-land assets), heavy dependence
on wage employment, high unemployment, low education and other
factors. Therefore, there is a need to focus on policies to improve the
ownership of income-earning capital assets (agriculture land, and non-land
assets), employment, human resource & health situation, and prevention
of discrimination to ensure fair participation of the marginalized
community in the private and the public sectors.
Active Role of the State in Planning-It is necessary to recognize that
for the vast majority of the discriminated groups, State intervention is
crucial and necessary. Thus, planned State intervention to ensure fair
access and participation in social and economic development in the
country is necessary. The viability and productivity of self-employed

households need to be improved by providing adequate capital,
information, technology and access to markets. It is a pity that though the
STs do own some land, they lack the relevant technological inputs to
improve the productivity of their agriculture.
Improved Employment in Public and Private Sectors- There is a need
to review and strengthen employment guarantee schemes both in rural
and urban areas, particularly in drought-prone and poverty-ridden areas.
Rural infrastructure and other productive capital assets can be generated
through large-scale employment programmes. This will serve the duel
purpose of reducing poverty and ensuring economic growth through
improvement in the stock of capital assets and infrastructure.
Education and Human Resource Development- Firstly, lower
literacy/level of education and the continual discrimination of SC/STs in
educational institutions pose a major problem. The government should
take a second look at the Education Policy and develop major programmes
for strengthening the public education system in villages and cities on a
much larger scale than today. There is a necessity to reallocate
government resources for education and vocational training. For millions of
poor students located in rural areas, the loan schemes do not work. We
should develop an affordable, uniform and better quality public educational
system up to the university level. Public education system is our strength
and needs to be further strengthened. Promotion of such private education
systems that creates inequality and hierarchy should be discouraged.
Food Security Programs-The public distribution system should also be
revived and strengthened. In distributing Fair Price Shops in villages,
priority should be given to the SC/ST female and male groups, as a number
of studies have pointed out that they are discriminated upon in the Public
Distribution System and in Mid-day Meal schemes. Public Health SystemThe public health system in rural areas has also been by and large
neglected. Therefore, the primary health system for rural areas and public
health system in urban areas must be revived and more funds should be
allocated for the same.
Untouchability and Discrimination-The practice of untouchability
and the large number of atrocities inflicted on Dalits continue even

today mainly because of hidden prejudices and neglect on the part
of officials responsible for the implementation of Special
Legislations; i.e. the Protection of Civil Rights Act (PCRA) and the
Prevention of Atrocities Act (POA). The Government should make a
meaningful intervention in this regard so as to mitigate the
sufferings of Dalits due to practice of untouchability and atrocities
inflicted upon them and should also treat this matter on a priority
basis to ensure that the officials and the civil society at large are
sensitized on this issue.
Impact of marginalization & Stereotyping on

child development and related outcomes.
Marginalisation has multiple, negative impacts on childrens
development. Young people from socially excluded groups Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Muslims, women or those living
with a disability - face multiple barriers that prevent them from
accessing the growth in their life. Marginalisation leads to various
kinds of deprivations as economic, educational, cultural and social.
It causes impoverishment of human life and develops a poorer
sense of well-being. It is one of the main cause of inequality,
poverty, unemployment and involuntary migration among the
marginalized. It puts various restrictions on the excluded about their
free and full participation in the economic, cultural and political
activities and leads to social stigmatization. It also develops a fear
complex among the excluded. On the whole, it puts an intense
negative impact on the growth of marginalized children as is given
below:
Impact on Education:
Whilst the national illiteracy level is 27%, illiteracy amongst

socially excluded groups is even higher 34% of Scheduled
Castes, 35% of women and girls, 41% of Scheduled Tribes and
Muslims, and 52% of people with disabilities cannot read or write.
The reason for the lack of access to education for these groups is
multi-faceted:
In poor households, often at least one child is expected to
remain at home to look after younger siblings and complete
household chores so that both parents can go out to work. It is
usually girls who are taken out of school to perform this role, as
a formal education is not seen as important for them as
homemakers.
Children from Scheduled Castes often face discrimination at
school due to ingrained cultural perceptions that they unable to
learn. They are often not given books or materials, are forced to
clean toilets and have to sit separately from other children. This
discrimination deters parents from sending their children
to school.
Tribal groups often live in remote locations, without access to
government schools. In addition Scheduled Tribes have their own
culture, language and traditions. Formal education, especially in
another language, is therefore an alien concept, where tribal
children face being labelled as backward.
In Muslim communities, formal education is often not seen as a

route to getting a job. Therefore academic qualifications are not
highly valued. Learning a trade from an early age (for boys and
girls) is frequently promoted instead.
Cultural stereotypes have often deemed disabled people to be
intellectually challenged, and therefore education is seen to be
unimportant. In addition, teachers are not trained to teach
children with special needs and most schools don't have
disability-friendly access and infrastructure.
In short, if parents do not think that formal education is important,

enrolment at school is less likely to be encouraged. And for poorer
families, acute problems related to hunger, income and shelter
mean that education takes a backseat. Even if children are enrolled
in school, many will be first generation learners the first in their
family to ever have had a formal education. With limited
educational levels, parents cannot support their children with
homework and children often find themselves falling behind.
As a result of all these factors, enrolment and drop out rates
amongst marginalized are high.
Impact on Health:
Most health and nutritional indicators show that socially excluded

groups have a lower quality of health in comparison to national
averages. For example, whilst 42.5% of Indian children are
underweight for their age, this figure is 43.1% for girls, 47.9% for
children from Scheduled Castes and 54.5% for children from
Scheduled Tribes.
The reason for this disparity in health and nutritional standards is
multi-faceted:
For women, India ranks second from bottom for womens health
and survival in the 2014 Global Gender Gap Survey, coming 141
out of 142 countries. Only 52% of women access ante-natal care
and for every 100,000 live births, 767 mothers die. Other health
and nutritional indicators such as body mass index and under-5
mortality rate show that men and boys are better off than
women and girls. This is, in part, due to the cultural preference
(and therefore better treatment) for boys.
In Scheduled Caste (SC) communities, mortality is substantially
above the national average 88 out of 1000 children from SC
groups die before their 5th birthday, whereas the national
average is 74 out of 1000. This is due, in part, to the fact that
health workers are usually from higher castes and often deny
SCs (dalits) treatment or refuse to touch them due to their
historical status as untouchable. If treatment is provided,

quality of care is often poor and unacceptable attitudes are
frequently encountered.
Mortality for Scheduled Tribe (ST) groups is also substantially
above the national average: 96 out of 1000 children from ST
groups die before their 5th birthday (the national average is 74).
This is due, in part, to the fact that tribal communities often live
in remote areas making access to healthcare institutions
difficult. Language barriers also make it difficult to interact with
health workers and a lack of understanding and education make
tribal groups wary of accessing modern medicine.
The 2006 Sachar Committee report noted that the level of
service provision, including water, sanitation, and public health
facilities, were in short supply in Muslim areas. Indeed, only
36.3% of Muslim children are fully immunised (in comparison to
the national average of 43.5%) and only 33% of women have
institutional deliveries (the national average is 38.7%).
Many of the major causes of disability in India are preventable,
caused by a lack of sufficient and accessible health care
services. For example, many people have a physical disability
caused by
polio a now treatable virus. As well as a lack of
access to health institutions, there is also a lack of health
resourcing spent around disability, especially on mental health.
One common factor for all the socially excluded groups is the
discrimination that they face as a result of their social identities.
Whether it is caste, ethnicity, religion, gender or disability, the
negative connotations that pervade in Indian society affect their
access to health and nutrition services and, ultimately, this leads
to poorer health and nutrition for these groups.
Impact on Livelihood Challenges:
The challenge for socially excluded groups is two-pronged:

1. Their landholdings are marginal and under-productive
2. They have limited access to inputs, credit and market services
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Muslims, Women, disabled and
other marginalized people have very limited opportunities to
improve their livelihoods. There is a strong focus on involving and
empowering women or girl in particular because income earned by
this group is more likely to benefit the overall family,
especially children.
Impact on Employment:
Young people from socially excluded groups - Scheduled Castes,

Scheduled Tribes, Muslims, women or those living with a disability face multiple institutional and social barriers that prevent them from
accessing the growing employment opportunities. Discrimination
against these groups is high. For example, young people who come
from tribal communities are viewed as backward, disabled people
find themselves facing prejudice about their ability to carry out
certain jobs, caste-based discrimination is ingrained in society,
many people view Muslims as untrustworthy and, as in many
countries, employers often favour male candidates over female.
This discrimination results in multiple employment barriers, and so
unemployment rates for people from these communities is high.
Impact on Social And Emotional Behaviour:

Children living in poverty, in particular children in the middle
to older age groups, are often unable to participate in social,
leisure and celebratory activities, and are often unable to keep
up with the latest fashion trends in clothing and grooming;
which can adversely affect their friendships, self-esteem and
may result in them feeling ashamed, excluded and even
stigmatised. Their ability to take full advantage of learning
and other opportunities in school is hampered by their lack of
income, as parents find it difficult to meet the extra costs in
schools. Children show an understanding of the impacts of
poverty on their family and display sensitivity towards their
parents such as not asking for money and undertaking paid
work themselves to ease the family finances. Childrens
experiences of poverty are complex as children growing up in
poverty will not necessarily have poor outcomes in adulthood;
protective factors that can mediate the negative impacts of
childhood poverty.
Impact on Child Labour:
Lack of social security is the main causes of child labour. Lack of
quality universal education has also contributed to children
dropping out of school and entering the labour force. Laws that are
meant to protect children from hazardous labour are ineffective and
not implemented correctly. A growing phenomenon is using children
as domestic workers in urban areas. The conditions in which
children work is completely unregulated and they are often made to
work without food, and very low wages, resembling situations of
slavery. There are cases of physical, sexual and emotional abuse of

child domestic workers. Child labour is highest among schedules
tribes, Muslims, schedule castes and OBC children. Girl children are
often used in domestic labour within their own homes. Bonded child
labour is a hidden phenomenon as a majority of them are found in
the informal sector. It is a form of slavery. Children who are bonded
with their family or inherit a debt from their parents are often found
in agricultural sector or assisting their families in brick kilns, and
stone quarries. Also they mostly come from low caste groups such
as dalits or marginalised tribal groups.
They are abandoned. They do not get a chance to step in a
school. They are left to fend for themselves on the streets. They
suffer from many forms of violence. They do not have access to
even primary healthcare. They are subjected to cruel and inhumane
treatments every day. They are children innocent, young and
beautiful who are deprived of their rights. The UNCRC outlines
the fundamental human rights that should be afforded to

children in four broad classifications that suitably cover all
civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights of every
child:
Role of media in constructing & deconstructing

perceptions & ways of dealing with above
issues.
Modern age is the age of information. Information plays an
important role in each and every sphere of life. The mass
media shapes our perceptions and views of social reality by
presenting only some aspects of reality and by continuation
repetition of images and messages. We can say that the role
and content of mass media has changed dramatically, playing
decisive role in reinforcing gender stereotypes and patriarchal
culture by constructing new images and meanings by setting
agendas for public opinion through selective themes and
views.
What is Media
The media is instrumental in defining what we think, how
we look and our social place and issues in the society. The
term mass media denotes various forms of entertainment;
television, films, music, newspaper, magazines, internet,
advertising, etc disseminating information and it is used by

media organization to target and impact youth. It operates on
a large scale, reaching and involving virtually everyone in the
society to a greater or lesser degree. It has been influencing
the social, cultural, economic, spiritual, political and religious
aspects of society as well as personal level thinking, feeling
and acting. It feed the people with the latest information and
creates the need for change in contemporary society. It has
both positive and negative role in the society. It is all
pervasive; its functioning is very subtle. It plays a vital role in
dissemination of information. It is called the fourth pillar of
democratic policy. Radio, television, films and the printed word
reach all of us in this age of information and each strives to
perfect its modes of communications to become more
effective as a medium. By gradually shaping public opinion on
personal beliefs, and even peoples self-perceptions, media
influences the process of socialization and shapes ideology
and thinking. Media technology reduces the distance between
human beings. The world is smaller due to increased
communication and access to information. It makes human
being closer to each other in terms of space and thinking. We
are exposed to a broad range of ideas and thoughts from
across the world. Media could create new cultures which
change the old and original ones from the community.
Role Of Media And Gender :
The most significant and longest social movement

continuing is movement for emancipation of women. As is
rightly said:
There is no chance of the welfare of the world unless the
condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to
fly on one wing. - Swami Vivekananda
Woman is ideally viewed as Shakti (Power), the origin of
power itself but in reality found as helpless woman without
any identity except that of a wife, or the mother who has very
little voice in decision making and has very little by way of her
own basic choice. Although discrimination against and
exploitation of women are global phenomena, their
consequences are more tragic in the some parts of the globe
particularly in under developed countries where, ignorance,

deprivation of the basic necessities of life, and the evergrowing pressure of transition from tradition to modernity-all
combine to aggravate the inequalities that women suffer to a
point at which their existence is reduced to a continuous
battle for survival. Improving the status of women is regarded
as the key to narrowing the gender gap and achieving a better
quality of life. To discuss women empowerment it is necessary
to deal with the present situation of women in India.
The literacy rate among women continues to be lower
than those for men. Far fewer girls than boys go to school.
Even if they are enrolled, many of the girl students drop out of
the school.
A vast majority of Indian women work throughout their
lives but the fact is that it is not officially recognized. Statistics
on work force shows low figure of women workers. There is a
serious underestimation of womens contribution as workers
even though when given a chance they have convincingly
proved their ability. The surveys report discrimination not only
in salary but also in promotions, work distribution and working
hours.
Women generally earn a far lower wage than men doing
the same work. In no state in India women and men earn
equal wage in agriculture. This is equally applicable to other
areas of works such as mining, trade, transport services etc. In
the various work sectors average wages earned by male is
more than the wages earned by female. The media can
certainly bring some of these biases in to light.
The soaring crime rates and violence against women in
the country reflects women as weaker sex who are being
dominated and exploited. They face violence inside and
outside the family throughout their lives. Before
empowerment of women can be achieved it is necessary to
enable women to give voice to their experience, their
sufferings, and for society to understand them as human
being and respond to them with sensitivity.
Women are under represented in governance and
decision making positions. Millions of Indian women simply
lack the freedom to go out of the house in search of health
services they need. The antenatal and postnatal care is

beyond the reach of many Indian women. In some States
death rate is quite high and alarming. The majority of women
go through life in state of nutritional stress. They are anemic
and malnourished. Girls and women face discrimination within
the family; eating last and least.
Female infant mortality rates are higher than male infant
mortality rates. The main cause of the gap in the male female
ratio is prevailing practice of female fetus killing specially high
in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The mass media needs to focus on this health issue of
women. The various scheme incorporated by the govt.
requires wider coverage so that women especially from
economically weaker section can be benefitted from them.
Media should adequately cover and facilitate the process of
empowerment of women.
Communication is extremely important for womens
development and mass media play significant role. However,
women can be expected to play this role when they become
conscious of their strength and are not deliberately
marginalised by male domination. In this context, media has
an important role to playto create awakening in women to
achieve their potential as the prime movers of change in
society. In todays world, print and electronic media play a
vital role in effectively conveying message that needs to be
conveyed.
Role Of Media And Social Class:

(i) SC/ST (Dalits)
Mass Media has the potential to play an important role in the
process of empowerment political, economic, social, cultural,
and so on in the over-all development of the society. It can
serve as an important instrument in achieving social justice by
educating, raising awareness and questioning caste
discrimination. There are enough examples to prove that
media has an important role to play.
For example- The villagers of the Angada Block in Jharkhand's
Ranchi district had for long been asking for the basic facility of
a school an appeal that had been expressed, until then,
through letters and invitations to the local administration and

the government. None of their acts got sufficiently reported in
the media to catch the attention of the powers that be. What
finally drew the attention of the local MLA, was a play
performed by the villagers on the dire need for schools in the
village. This programme was aired on FM Ranchi, as part of a
community radio initiative in Angada Block, on the day of its
inauguration on 31 October 2004. It forced the legislator to
come all the way and promise the villagers that they will soon
have schools in their village. The Community Radio has
become a tool through which the villagers can now have their
voices heard by the policy makers. Radio is a medium that is
cheap and has an excellent reach. This, of course, is an
example of the power of alternative media and what it can do
in generating awareness of cititzen's rights at the local level, if
strategically used.
The mass media, can play an important role in addressing
issues concerning casteism. Truthful and sensitive
investigation of social issues and challenges, is a key
responsibility of the media. Journalism is called the fourth
pillar of democracy and media should always raise a
vociferous debate on the caste cauldron in society. Ideally a
media system suitable for democracy ought to provide its
readers with some coherent sense of the broader social forces
that affect conditions of their everyday lives. The media can
report violence and attacks on dalits and system of caste
which is the basis for such incidents and can expose the State
policies on protecting dalits.
In the recent days, there is an increased awakening
among dalit and other oppressed sections in the society. They
are out demanding their rights and rightful share in the
society. This is a genuine, democratic aspiration that needs to
be encouraged. There are many movements which are, in fact,
doing the same, like demanding the allocation of
constitutionally stipulated funds for the welfare of SC and STs.
For the past few years, we see that there is an effort from
some newspapers to allot separate space and run special
series specifically on the issues pertaining to caste and dalits.
They run special columns and also gave space for dalit literary
movements. It is in this period that the society witnessed an

assertion from dalits and other backward sections, which is a
positive development. They came out demanding their rights.
Moreover, with the spread of education, there evolved a
middle class among these sections a section which cannot
be ignored by the media.
Social media is developing today as a powerful tool for
the dissemination of news and information. The increase in
the mobile phones, with their technological convergence is an
advantage that we need to consider for this purpose. Most of
the mobiles are today, functional radios too. These radios
operate with nominal costs and user-friendly technology is
being used by many groups worldwide. The social groups use
it to discuss about their self-help, health, and other issues.
Now, the radio channel is not just a news channel, but also is
used to encourage dalit people to perform their best to get out
of their deprived situation.
In our country, there is no ban on social movements to
have community radio and other services too. Many dalit
movements and activists are already putting the internet to
good use. They opened blogs, websites to post their
comments and react on policies. The Face book and other
networking sites too are in use. Today, democratised media is
going to become true voices of people, community and the
nation. Even the government is encouraging such initiatives.
(ii) Children:
Media has great impact on children. Rising awareness
about the rights of children, the promotion and development
of childrens right is a challenge to media. It is the duty of the
media not only to report fairly, honestly and accurately but
they must also provide space for the diverse, colourful and
creative opinions of children. They create awareness about
their rights and acknowledge the children that such rights are
not favours, but they are human rights which should be
available to each child regardless of any type of differences. It
is the media to inform ways to achieve and claim those rights.
Media is to enlighten to the public about the allotment of
funds assigned for development of children. Right to life,
education, nutritious food, good health, shelter, protection and
all round development of the children are features to be

highlighted by the media.
But today we see a different picture altogether. The
media is not playing the role of the fourth estate. It is rather
playing the role of commercial agent or advertiser. They are
becoming more pervasive, more intrusive, and more
disturbing in content. They are popular in advertising
commercial products of companies who can pay them. They
are sponsored by companies in all shows. They are least
bothered about the under privileged or sufferings of the huge
number of children who are helpless.
Media is the best informer to a child. Through their stories
or games lessons can be thought to children. They should
pass good message in interesting ways. Media should give
moral thoughts, good lessons, love for ones motherland,
respect and love towards man and environment. The best
interests of children must be the primary concern of mass
media.
Rising awareness about the rights of children and the
promoting of childrens right is a challenge to media.
Media must not only report fairly, honestly and accurately
but they must also provide space for the diverse, colourful and
creative opinions of children. Journalists are champions of
human rights. It acts as the eyes, ears and voice of the public,
drawing attention to abuses of power, human rights and rights
relating to children. Through their work they can encourage
governments and civil society organisations to effect changes
that will improve the quality of children slives. By providing
children and young people with opportunities to speak for
themselves -about their hopes and fears, their achievements,
and the impact of adult behaviour on their lives media
professionals can remind the public that children deserve to
be respected as individual human beings. State parties should
recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic
exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be
hazardous or to interfere with the childs education, or to be
harmful to the childs health or physical, mental, spiritual,
moral or social development.
Media men should handle news items or stories relating

to children very carefully. It is seen that news, media reports,
photographs, documentaries and dramas publish news on
children exploitation. But at the same time knowingly or
unknowingly, media can themselves become the exploiter of
children, for instance by creating sexually provocative images
of children in news or advertising pornography. Moreover the
way media portray children has a profound impact on
societys attitude to children and childhood, which also affect
the way adults behave.
(iii) Aged People:
Media can serve as
an important
instrument in achieving
social justice
by educating, raising awareness and questioning old age
abuse. Recent media reports shows a steady rise in cases of
elderly being abused, harassed and abandoned in India.
Traditionally older people has been revered in India, signified
by the touching of their feet by the younger generation. Prime
ministers and presidents have almost always been senior
citizens. But, with the passage of time traditions are going to
be lapsed. Joint family systems - where three or more
generations lived under one roof - were a strong support
network for the elderly. In this age of modernization, more
children are now leaving their parental homes to set up their
own. Sociologists say the pressures of modern life and the
more individualistic aspirations of the young are main reasons
why the elderly are being abandoned or, in some cases,
abused.
Alarmed by what's happening to some of the elderly, the
Indian government recently introduced a new law. The
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Bill
provides for up to three months' imprisonment for those who
do not take care of their parents.
Court orders will also be used to force children to pay
maintenance for their elderly parents.
So, media can aware people against violence and attacks on
aged people and can expose the State protection policies for
their well being.
Help Age India organisation's own research suggests

nearly 40% of senior citizens living with their families are
facing emotional or physical abuse. But only one in six cases
comes to light, the study showed. It is not easy for parents to
prosecute their children. First they have to make up their mind
if they want criminal action. But then they will have to forget
their family ties. But if they want to maintain and retain those
family ties, then the situation will be different. There's always
a conflict between the law and emotions in these
circumstances. In this context, media has an important role to
playto create awakening in age abused to achieve their
potential and rights as the prime movers of change in society.
Poverty and search for work are two main reasons rural
elders are being left behind. So many of them have to rely on
charities for food and medical help. Consequently, the number
of old age homes is growing dramatically. The government has
ordered the construction of more than 600 across the country.
It is an indication that has already been recognised the reality
that more elderly people will need assistance in the future.
The government also hopes the new law will act as a
deterrent.
The mass media needs to focus on such issues of age
abused. The various scheme incorporated by the govt.
requires wider coverage so that old age people especially from
economically weaker section can be benefitted from them.
Media should adequately cover and facilitate this process.
(iv) Disable People:
People with disabilities are seldom seen as individuals
beyond the framework of their disabilities. They have endured
misrepresentation, defamation, and lack of representation in
society and consequently in media news and entertainment.
Disability rights movement has made enormous strides in the
past years using law and policy development and civil rights
advocacy, yet this movement has not altered the hearts and
minds of people who do not have personal experience with
disability, to be cordial towards disables to a large extent.
Social media can be an effective way for anyone to
socialize, but can be especially powerful for people with
disabilities. Media can support reporting on disability and
promote the inclusion of disables in all spheres of life. It can

raise awareness among people of the challenges, issues and
factors that contribute to the exclusion and stigmatization of
disables and can bring discussion on this topic into the public
arena to challenge the stereotypes about disability deeply
ingrained in our culture and society.
More in-depth and thoughtful attention to disability is
needed. Attitudes, beliefs, and misconceptions of society
constitute a major barrier for people with disabilities. The
media is a potent force in countering stigma and
misinformation and can be a powerful ally in changing
perceptions, eliminating discrimination, and raising public
awareness. It is very important that both journalists and
communications professionals connect disability issues with
human dignity and rights.
Role Of Media And Poverty:
Media has yet to fulfill its social obligations in helping
eradicate poverty and build a world where resources are
shared more fairly and equally to maintain common growth. It
is true that the media industry alone cannot fulfill the grave
mission of eradicating poverty, as there are complicated and
profound reasons behind the wealth gap. Nevertheless, the
media could and should sound stronger warnings on how
inbalanced growth threatens the sustainable development of
not just a single society, but the world at large.
First of all, the media should make poverty eradication
one of its long-term missions and, by establishing a feasible
mechanism of self-obligation, constantly draw public attention
to poverty and ensure that news coverage of poverty
consistently appears in newspapers and magazines, on radio
and TV. And while calling for poverty eradication on behalf of
the poor, we should also make their own voices heard across
the globe.
To this end, the media can not only prompt more aid from
governments, businesses, charity organizations and
individuals, but also promote the formation of a political
consensus on social improvements and economic reforms, so
as to help create a better social and policy environment for
poverty eradication. Of course, the media should provide
concrete and productive "information aid" for those in need,

such as expertise in poverty relief and disease prevention. It is
advisable that "better-off" media institutions extend a helping
hand to their counterparts in the underdeveloped countries
and help them with personnel training, communication
technology and equipment.
We can try to set up an international aid system, such as
a poverty relief foundation, to raise money and materials for
impoverished regions under the principle of openness,
transparency and standard operation. Also, media institutions
can work together to build a cooperation platform, in a bid to
help the international community more effectively tackle
poverty.
In this regard, international organizations and NGOs are
important partners that media organizations can collaborate
with. For instance, The United Nations Childrens
FundUNICEF offered a much needed helping hand in the
Universal Childrens Day media coverage. There is much more
we can do, and the most important of all is to install a longterm mechanism for sustained and fruitful cooperation,
through which we combine our limited strength to push for
global poverty eradication.

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Childhood And Growing Up 0

Growth & Development:- Concept, Principle, Factors, & Stages.

Characteristics of stages of development with special

Adolescents: Understanding their needs and Problems in Indian

Theory of Cognitive Development by Piaget: Concept, Stages

Theory of Social & Emotional Development by Erickson:

Kohlberg theory of Moral Development: Concept, Stages and

Agencies of Socialization: Family, School, Society and their role

Social and Cultural Change and their Impact on child

Economic Change: Impact of urbanization and Economic

Marginalization & Stereotyping with special reference to

Impact of marginalization & Stereotyping on child development

Role of media in constructing & deconstructing perceptions &

Childhood And Growing Up

iii. Survey report on impact of socio-economic status of a family

Childhood And Growing Up

also be able to reproduce, bear fruit, be healthy and continue

Childhood And Growing Up

5. Growth involves body changes.

5. Development involves changes of an orderly and

Principles of Growth and Development

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

own rate. These individual differences arise because each child is

Childhood And Growing Up

14.Different Aspects of Development are Interrelated

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Characteristics of stages of development with special reference to Childhood and

Childhood And Growing Up

Socio-emotional developments include attachments to caregivers, self-awareness, a shift

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY PIAGET

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

THEORY OF SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT BY

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

KOHLBERG THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Childhood And Growing Up

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Childhood And Growing Up

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION: FAMILY, SCHOOL, SOCIETY AND THEIR

Childhood And Growing Up

Knowledge of basic intellectual skills such as reading, writing, verbal expression,

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

Childhood And Growing Up

health services, parents employment and income, or their ability to