Shepherd-SurveyingProblemsSolutions Text PDF

Problems
X-
Solutions
Shepherd
Surveying
Problems and
Solutions
52-
F.
ARNOLD
ii^,îiA
A. Shepherd
Thfs new book gives a presentation

concentrating on mathematical problems,
an aspect of the subject which usually
causes most
difficulty.
Summaries of basic theory are followed

by worked examples and selected exercises.
The book covers three main
branches of surveying: measurement,
surveying techniques and industrial applications. It is a book concerned mainly
with engineering surveying as applied,
for example, in the construction and
mining industries.
Contents
Linear
Measurement
Surveying Trigonometry
Co-ordinates
Instrumental Optics
Levelling
Traverse Surveys
Tacheometry
Dip and Fault Problems
Areas
Volumes
Circular Curves
Vertical
and Transition Curves
Values
in both imperial and metric (S.

units are given in the problems
Edward Arnold (Publishers)

41
Edward Arnold
80s. net
Maddox
Street,
Ltd.,
London, W.I.
Printed in Great Britain
SURVEYING
PROBLEMS &
SOLUTIONS
Shop l>ord
Surveying Problems
and Solutions
F. A.
Shepherd
c.Eng ., A.R.i.c.s.,M.i.Min.E.
Senior Lecturer in Surveying
Nottingham Regional College of Technology
London. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
HARRIS
Co<...jE
PISTON
F.A. Shepherd 1968
First published 1968
Boards edition SBN:
Paper edition
Q7 131
SBN:
3198
5t
7131 3199 3
GREEK ALPHABET
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phi
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omega
Printed in Great Britain by Bookprint Ltd., Crawley, Sussex
PREFACE
This book is an attempt to deal with the basic mathematical aspects
of 'Engineering Surveying', i.e. surveying applied to construction and
mining engineering projects, and to give guidance on practical methods

of solving the typical problems posed in practice and, in theory, by the
various examining bodies.
The general approach adopted is to give a theoretical analysis of

each topic, followed by worked examples and, finally, selected exercises for private study. Little claim is made to new ideas, as the
ground covered is elementary and generally well accepted. It is hoped
that the mathematics of surveying, which so often causes trouble
to
beginners, is presented in as clear and readily understood a manner as
possible. The main part of the work of the engineering surveyor, civil
and mining engineer, and all workers in the construction industry is

confined to plane surveying, and this book is similarly restricted.
It is hoped that the order of the chapters provides a
natural
sequence, viz.:
(a)
Fundamental measurement
Linear measurement in the horizontal plane,
(ii) Angular measurement and its relationship to
linear values,
(i)
i.e.
(iii)
(b)
trigonometry,
Co-ordinates as a graphical and mathematical tool.
Fundamental surveying techniques

(i)
(ii)
Instrumentation.
Linear measurement in the vertical plane,
i.e.
(iii)
Traversing as a control system,
(iv)
Tacheometry as a detail and control system.
levelling,
(c) Industrial
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
applications
Three-dimensional aspects involving inclined planes,
Mensuration,
Curve surveying.
Basic trigonometry is included, to provide a fundamental mathematical tool for the surveyor. It is generally found that there is a
deficiency in the student's ability to apply numerical values to trigonometrical problems, particularly in the solution of triangles, and it is
hoped that the chapter in question shows that more is required than the
sine and cosine formulae. Many aspects of surveying, e.g. errors in
surveying, curve ranging, etc. require the use of small angles, and the
application of radians is suggested. Few numerical problems are posed
relating to instrumentation, but
it
is felt that a
knowledge of basic
physical properties affords a more complete understanding of the construction and use of instruments.
ject, the effects of errors are
To
facilitate a real grasp of the sub-
analysed
in all sections.
This may
appear too advanced for students who are not familiar with the elementary calculus, but it is hoped that the conclusions derived will be
beneficial to
all.
With the introduction of the Metric System in the British Isles and
elsewhere, its effect on all aspects of surveying is pin-pointed and

conversion factors are given. Some examples are duplicated in the
proposed units based on the International System (S.I.) and in order to
give a 'feel' for the new system, during the difficult transition period,
equivalent S.I. values are given in brackets for a few selected examples.
The book is suitable for all students in Universities and Technical
Colleges, as well as for supplementary postal tuition, in such courses
as Higher National Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Surveying,
Construction, Architecture, Planning, Estate Management, Civil and
Mining Engineering, as well as for professional qualification for the

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the Institution of Civil
Engineers, the Incorporated Association of Architects and Surveyors,
the Institute of Quantity Surveyors, and the Institute of Building.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of
I am greatly indebted to the Mining Qualifications Board (Ministry

Power) and the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office, who have given
permission
for the reproduction of
examination questions. My thanks
are also due to the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the

Institution of Civil Engineers, to the Senates of the Universities of
London and Nottingham,
to the
East Midlands Educational Union and

whom have
the Nottingham Regional College of Technology, all of
allowed their examination questions to be used.

My special thanks are due to many of my colleagues at Nottingham,
but especially to Messrs. J. H. Ball, A.R.I.C.S., A.I.A.S.,
A.M.I.Min.E., A. Eaton, B.Sc., C.Eng., A.M.I.C.E., A.M.B.I.M.,
G. M. Lewis, B.Sc, Ph.D., M. B. Pate, M.Sc, A. A. Payne, B.Sc,
C. Rayner, B.Sc, A.R.I.C.S., R. Robb, A.R.I.C.S., A.M.I.Min.E.,
D.B. Shaw, B.Sc, and
whom have
J. P. Withers,
B.Sc, C.Eng., A.M.I.C.E.,
all of
offered advice and help in checking the text
The ultimate responsibility

I
am
for the accuracy is, of course, my own.

very conscious that, even with the most careful checking, it is not
to be expected that every mistake
ask readers
Nottingham
1968
if
has been eliminated, and
they will kindly bring any errors to
my
can only
notice.
F. A.
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VI
CONVERSION FACTORS
Changing
(Ref
to the Metric
(B)
System, H.M.S.O., 1967)
Length
1km
km
mile
furlong
chain
20-116 8
0-914 4
1ft
0-304 8
lin.
2-54
1-828 8
0-201 168
2-58999 km 2
1yd
fathom
llink
1-609 34
0-201 168
0-621371 mile
km
m
m
m
lm
cm
1-093 61 yd
cm
km 2
= 247-105 acres
0-393701
in.
Area
1 sq.
1
mile
acre
= 4046-86
rood
1yd 2
1ft
1011-71
m2
m
0-836 127
0-092903 m
6-4516 cm 2
lin
1 sq.
chain
404-686
lm 2
m2
1-19599 yd 2
cm 2 =
0-15500
in
m2
Volume
1yd 3
3
0-764555
m3
lm 3
lm 3
1-30795 yd 3
3
1 ft
lin 3
lgal
0-004546 09
4-54609
litre
1 litre
1-609 34
km/h
km/h =
0-621371 m. p. r
0-3048 m/s
m/s
3-28084
0-3048 m/s 2
m/s 2 =
0-028 316 8
16-387
cm3
cm 3
35-314 7
ft
0-061023 7
0-2200 gal
in
m3
Velocity
1
mile/h
lft/s
ft/s
Acceleration
1 ft/s 2
3-280 84 ft/s 2
Mass
1
ton
cwt
lib
=
=
1016-05 kg
50-8023 kg
0-453 59237 kg
1kg
2-20462
lb
Vll
Mass per
unit length
1 lb/ft
Mass per
1-488 16
kg/m
unit area
lib/ft 2
4-88243 kg/m 2
Density
1
ton/yd 3
3
1 lb/ft
lb/gal
1328-94 kg/m 3
16-018 5 kg/m
99-776 3 kg/m
kg/m 3 = 0-062428
lb/ft
0-09978 kg/1
Force
Hbf
Ikgf
IN
N
9-80665 N
4-448 22
= 0-224 809
lbf
= 2-20462 lbf
kgf
N/m 2 =
Force (weight) /unit length

1 lbf/ft
14-593 9
N'm
47-880 3
N/m 2
Pressure
1 lbf/ft
1 lbf/in
1
2
2
kgf /cm
= 6894-76
2
lkgf/m 2
=
=
N/m
98-066 5
0-000 145 038 lbf/in 2
kN/m 2
9-80665
N/m 2
Standard gravity
32-1740 ft/s 2 =
9-80665 m/s 2
N.B.
lib
0-453 592 kg
1 lbf
0-453 592 x 9-80665 = 4-448 22
1 newton (N) unit of force = that force which applied to a

of 1 kg gives an acceleration of 1 m/s 2
.
mass
Vlll
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
1
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
1.1
The basic principles
1.2
General theory of measurement
1.3
Significant figures in measurement and computation
1.4
Chain surveying
of surveying
1.41
Corrections to ground measurements
1.42
The maximum length
13
1.43
Setting out a right angle by chain
1.44
To
of offsets from chain lines
find the point on the chain line
15
which produces
a perpendicular from a point outside the line
1.45 Obstacles in chain surveying
Corrections to be applied to measured lengths
23
Standardisation
23
1.52
Correction for slope
23
1.53
Correction for temperature
26
1.54
Correction for tension
27
1.51
1.55 Correction for sag
Reduction to mean sea level

1.57 Reduction of ground length to grid length
1.56
1.6
The
1.61
effect of errors in linear
measurement
Standardisation
1.62 Malalignment and deformation of the tape
32
38
39
45
45
45
1.63
46
1.64
46
Reading or marking the tape

Errors due to wrongly recorded temperature
1.65 Errors due to variation from the recorded value of
1.66
tension
47
Errors from sag
48
1.67 Inaccurate reduction to the horizontal
51
1.68 Errors in reduction from height above or below

mean sea level
52
1.69
Errors due to the difference between ground and
Exercises 1(b)
52
52
SURVEYING TRIGONOMETRY
57
Angular measurement
57
grid distances
17
22
Exercises 1(a)
1.5
16
2.1
2.11
The degree system
57
2.12 Trigonometrical ratios
58
Complementary angles
60
60
63
64
65
2.13
2.14 Supplementary angles
2.15 Basis of tables of trigonometrical functions

2.16 Trigonometric ratios of common angles
2.17 Points of the compass
2.
18 Easy problems based on the solution of the rightangled triangle
Exercises 2(a)
2.2
Circular measure
2.21
72
The radian
72
2.22 Small angles and approximations

2.3 Trigonometrical ratios of the
73
sums and differences
of
two angles
77
2.4 Transformation of products and

2.5 The solution of triangles
2.51
67
71
sums
79
80
Sine rule
80
2.52 Cosine rule
81
2.53
Area of a triangle
2.54
Half-angle formulae
82
82
2.55 Napier's tangent rule
83
2.56 Problems involving the solution of triangles
83
2.6
Heights and distances
2.61
2.62
To
To
is
2.63
91
find the height of an object having a vertical face

find the height of an object when its base
inaccessible
To find the height

when its base and
92
of an object
above the ground
top are visible but not
accessible
2.64
To
95
find the length of an inclined object
on the top
of a building
2.65
To
find the height of
98
an object from three angles
of elevation only
100
2.66 The broken base line problem

2; 67
To
find the relationship
between angles
horizontal and inclined planes
Exercises 2(b)
CO-ORDINATES
3.1
Polar co-ordinates
3.11
91
Plotting to scale
3.12 Conversion of the scales

3.13 Scales in common use
102
in the
106
108
112
112
113
113
114
3.14
3.15
3.2
Plotting accuracy
Incorrect scale problems
114
114
Bearings
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
115
True north
Magnetic north
115
115
116
116
117
121
124
126
Grid north
Arbitrary north
Types
of bearing
Conversion of horizontal angles into bearings

Deflection angles
Exercises 3(a)
3.3
Rectangular co-ordinates
127
AE,
3.31
Partial co-ordinates,
3.32
Total co-ordinates
Exercises 3(b) (Plotting)
3.4
128
128
131
Computation processes
3.41
3.42
3.43
3.44
3.5
AN
To
3.51
133
Computation by logarithms
Computation by machine
Tabulation process
To obtain the bearing and distance between two
134
134
135
points given their co-ordinates
136
find the co-ordinates of the intersection of
two lines
stations
3.52
146
Given their bearings from two known co-ordinate
Given the length and bearing of a line
146
AB
and
all
B and C
Exercises 3(c) (Boundaries)
the angles A,
149
157
3.6
Transposition of grid
3.7
The National Grid Reference system
158
160
163
169
Exercises 3(d) (Co-ordinates)

Appendix (Comparison of Scales)
4 INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
4.1
Reflection at plane surfaces
4.11
4.12
Laws
of reflection
170
170
Deviation by successive reflections on two inclined

mirrors
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
170
The
optical square
Deviation by rotating the mirror
Principles of the sextant
Use of the true horizon
Artificial horizon
Images in plane mirrors

Virtual and real images
170
171
171
172
174
175
176
177
XI
Refraction at plane surfaces
4.2
Laws
4.21
177
of refraction
177
177
4.22 Total internal reflection

4.23 Relationships between refractive indices
4.24 Refraction through triangular prisms
178
179
180
184
4.25 Instruments using refraction through prisms

Exercises 4(a)
4.3
Spherical mirrors
184
Concave or converging mirrors

4.32 Convex or diverging mirrors
4.33 The relationship between object and image
4.31
184
186
in
curved mirrors
4.34 Sign convention
186
lg7
4.35 Derivation of formulae
Igg
190
4.36 Magnification in spherical mirrors

4.4
Refraction through thin lenses
4.41
191
Definitions
191
4.42 Formation of images
The relationship between object and image
4.43
192
in
a thin lens
193
Derivation of formulae
193
4.45 Magnification in thin lenses
195
4.44
4.5
Telescopes
196
Kepler's astronomical telescope

4.52 Galileo's telescope
4.51
4.53
Eyepieces
The internal focussing telescope

4.55 The tacheometric telescope (external focussing)
4.56 The anallatic lens
4.57 The tacheometric telescope (internal focussing)
4.54
4.6
Instrumental errors in the theodolite
Eccentricity of the horizontal circle

4.62 The line of collimation not perpendicular to the
trunnion axis
4.61
4.63
The trunnion axis

vertical axis
The
I97
198
201
203
207
210
210
213
not perpendicular to the
4.64 Vertical axis not truly vertical

4-65 Vertical circle index error
4.7
196
196
auxiliary telescope
215
217
219
228
4.71
Side telescope
228
4.72
Top telescope
233
Xll
4.8
Angular error due to defective centring of
234
237
the theodolite
4.9
The vernier
4.91
Direct reading vernier
4.92 Retrograde vernier

4.93
Special forms used in vernier theodolites
4-94 Geometrical construction of the vernier

scale
Exercises 4(b)
LEVELLING
Definitions
5.2
Principles
5.3
Booking, of readings
Method
1,
rise and fall
5.32 Method
2,
height of collimation
Exercises 5 (a) (Booking)

5.4
Field testing of the level
5.41
Reciprocal levelling method
5.42 Two-peg method
Exercises 5 (b) (Adjustment)

5.5
Sensitivity of the bubble tube
5.51
Field test
5.52
O-E
correction
Bubble scale correction

Exercises 5(c) (Sensitivity)
5.54 Gradient screws (tilting mechanism)
5.53
5.6
The
244
245
246
246
247
254
257
257
259
264
267
267
268
268
270
271
effect of the earth's curvature and atmospheric
272
The
272
earth's curvature
5-62 Atmospheric refraction

5.63
5.64
The combined
effect of curvature and refraction
275
Intervisibility
275
Reciprocal levelling
5.71
The use
of two instruments
Exercises 5(f) (Reciprocal levelling)

Levelling for construction
5.81
273
273
Exercises 5(d) (Curvature and refraction)
Exercises 5 (e) (Intervisibility)

5.65 Trigonometrical levelling
5.8
238
240
refraction
5.61
5.7
238
244
5. 1
5.31
237
238
Grading of constructions
277
278
279
281
282
283
283
Xlll
5.82 The use of sight rails and boning

(or travelling) rods
5.83
The setting of slope stakes

Exercises 5(g) (Construction levelling)
Exercises 5 (h) (General)
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
6. 1
Types
6.11
of traverse
Open
6.2 Methods of traversing
Compass traversing
6.22 Continuous azimuth method

6.23 Direction method
6.
6.3
24
Separate angular measurement

Exercises 6(a)
Office tests for locating mistakes in traversing
6.31
6.32
6.33
A
A
mistake in the linear value of one line

mistake in the angular value at one station
When the traverse is closed on to fixed points

and a mistake in the bearing is known to exist
6.4 Omitted measurements in closed traverses
6.41
6.42
6-43
6.44
6.45
6.46
6.5
Where the bearing of one line is missing

Where the length of one line is missing
Where the length and bearing of a line
are missing
Where the bearings of two lines are missing
Where two lengths are missing
Where the length of one line and the bearing
289
298
298
299
300
301
302
304
304
306
306
307
307
308
308
309
309
309
314
of another line are missing
315
Exercises 6(b) (Omitted values)
316
The adjustment
6.51
288
298
298
6.12 Closed
6.21
284
286
of closed traverses
317
Where the start and finish of a traverse are

fixed
6-52 Traverses which return to their starting point

6.53 Adjusting the lengths without altering the
bearings
6.54 Adjustment to the length and bearing
6.55 Comparison of methods of adjustment
Exercises 6 (c) (Traverse adjustment)

Exercises 6(d) (General)
317
323
323
330
336
348
352
XIV
7
TACHEOMETRY
359
7.1
Stadia systems
7.2
Determination of the tacheometric constants

m and K
By physical measurement
7.22 By field measurement
7.21
7.3
359
fixed stadia
of the instrument
Inclined sights
362
7.31
Staff normal to the line of sight
7.32
Staff vertical
7-4
The
362
363
effect of errors in stadia tacheometry
7.41
Staff tilted from the normal
7.42
Error in the angle of elevation
367
367
368
Staff tilted from the vertical
7.44 Accuracy of the vertical angle

to the overall
to conform
371
accuracy
7.45 The effect of the stadia intercept assumption

Exercises 7(a)
7.5
Subtense systems
372
380
383
7.51
Tangential method
383
7.52
Horizontal subtense bar system
388
7.6
Methods used
392
in the field
measurement
7.62 Auxiliary base measurement
7.63 Central auxiliary base
7.64 Auxiliary base perpendicularly bisected by
7.61
Serial
the traverse line
7.65
7-66
367
with the
staff normal
7.43
360
360
361
Two
392
393
395
397
398
auxiliary bases
The auxiliary base used
in
between two
traverse lines
400
Exercises 7(b)
403
AND FAULT PROBLEMS
411
8.1
Definitions
8.2
Dip problems
411
413
DIP
8.21
Given the rate and direction of
full dip, to find
the apparent dip in any other direction
8.22
Given the direction of
full dip
413
and the rate and
direction of an apparent dip, to find the rate of

full dip
8.23

the bearing of an apparent dip
413
full dip, to find
415
XV
8.24 Given two apparent dips, to find the rate and
direction of full dip
8.25
8.26
8.3
416
Given the rate of full dip and the rate and

direction of an apparent dip, to find the direction
of full dip
421
Given the levels and relative positions of three

points in a plane (bed or seam), to find the
direction and rate of full dip
422
Problems
in
which the inclinations are expressed
as angles and a graphical solution
427
required
is
8.31 Given the inclination and direction of full dip, to find

the rate of apparent dip in a given direction
8.32
8.33
Given the inclination and direction of
to find the direction of a given apparent dip
428
Given the inclination and direction of two apparent

dips, to find the inclination and direction of full dip
Exercises 8(a)
429
429
8.4
The
8.5
Fault problems
8.51
8.52
rate of approach
method
for convergent lines
To
To
437
between the true and
443
when the throw

of the fault opposes the dip of the seam
8.54 Given the angle 8 between the full dip of the seam
find the true bearing of a fault
and the true bearing of the
fault, to find the
To
when the
downthrow of the fault is in the same general
direction as the dip of the seam
8.56 Given the angle 8 between the full dip of the
seam and the true bearing of the fault, to find the
446
bearing of the line of contact

8.6
444
bearing
of the line of contact
8.55
432
437
Definitions
apparent bearings of a fault

8.53
427
full dip,
To find the bearing and inclination of the line of

intersection (AB) of two inclined planes
Exercises 8 (b) (Faults)
Exercises 8 (c) (General)
449
449
450
452
454
AREAS
457
9.1 Areas of regular figures
457
Areas bounded by straight lines

9. 12 Areas involving circular curves
9. 13 Areas involving non-circular curves
9.11
457
459
460
XVI
9.14 Surface areas

9.2
461
471
Areas of irregular figures
9.21
Equalisation of the boundary to give straight

lines
9.22 The mean ordinate rule
471
472
9.23 The mid-ordinate rule
473
9.24 The trapezoidal rule
473
474
477
9.25 Simpson's rule

9.26 The planimeter
9.3
Plan areas
481
9.31 Units of area
481
9.32 Conversion of planimetric area in square inches

into acres
482
482
488
9.33 Calculation of area from co-ordinates

9.34 Machine calculations with checks
9.4
Subdivisions of areas
490
9.41
The subdivision
of
an area into specified parts

from a point on the boundary
9.42
The subdivision
of an area by a line of
490
known
bearing
9.43
The sub-division of an area by a

a known point inside the figure
491
line through
492
Exercises 9
10
497
VOLUMES
10. 1
Volumes
501
of regular solids
501
10.2 Mineral quantities
509
Exercises 10 (a) (Regular solids)

10.3 Earthwork calculations
511
513
10.31 Calculation of volumes from cross-sectional

areas
513
Exercises 10 (b) (Cross- sectional areas)

10.32 Alternative formulae for the calculation of
volumes from the derived cross-sectional areas
523
10.33 Curvature correction
10.34 Derivation of the eccentricity e of the centroid
525
535
537
10.4 Calculation of volumes from contour maps

10.5 Calculation of volumes from spot-heights
543
543
10.6 Mass-haul diagrams
544
10.61 Definitions
544
10.62 Construction of the mass-haul diagram

10.63 Characteristics of the mass-haul diagram
545
546
XV11
10.64
11
Free-haul and overhaul

Exercises 10 (c) (Earthwork volumes)
CIRCULAR CURVES
11.1
546
552
559
559
559
560
560
Definition
11.2 Through chainage
Length of curve L
Geometry of the curve
11.5 Special problems
11.3
11.4
561
11.51
To pass a curve tangential
11.52
To pass a curve through
11.53
To pass
a curve through a given point P

Exercises 11(b) (Curves passing through
567
a given point)
571
to three given
straights
three points
Exercises 11(a)
561
563
566
11.54 Given a curve joining two tangents, to find

the change required in the radius for an
assumed change
in the tangent length
11.6 Location of tangents and curve
11.7 Setting out of curves
11.71
By
linear equipment only
11.72 By linear and angular equipment

11.73
11.8
By angular equipment only

Exercises 11(c)
Compound curves
11.9 Reverse curves
Exercises 11(e) (Reverse curves)
VERTICAL AND TRANSITION CURVES

12.
575
576
576
580
580
588
591
Exercises 11(d) (Compound curves;
12
572
Vertical curves
12.2 Properties of the simple parabola

12.3 Properties of the vertical curve
12.4 Sight distances
summits
12.41
Sight distances for
12.42
Sight distances for valley curves
599
600
605
607
607
608
609
611
611
613
12.43 Sight distance related to the length of the
beam
of a vehicle's
12.5 Setting-out data
Exercises 12(a)
headlamp
615
616
624
XV111
Transition curves
12.6
12.61
Superelevation
12.62
Cant
12.63 Minimum curvature for standard velocity

12.64 Length of transition
12.65 Radial acceleration
12.7
12.8
The ideal transition curve

The clothoid
12.81
To
find Cartesian co-ordinates
The tangential angle

12.83 Amount of shift
12.82
12.9
The Bernouilli lemniscate
12.91
Setting out using the lemniscate
12. 10 The cubic parabola

12.11 The insertion of transition curves
12.12 Setting-out processes

12. 13 Transition
curves applied to compound curves

Exercises 12(b)
627
627
628
628
629
629
630
632
632
633
633
634
635
636
637
640
644
649
Abbreviations used for Examination Papers
E.M.E.U.
East Midlands Educational Union
I.C.E.
Institution Of Civil Engineers
L.U.
London University B.Sc. (Civil Engineering)

London University B.Sc. (Estate Management)
L.U./E
M.Q.B./S
M.Q.B./M
M.Q.B./UM
R.I.C.S./G
Mining Qualifications Board (Mining Surveyors)

Mining Qualifications Board (Colliery Managers)
Mining Qualifications Board (Colliery Undermanagers)
Nottingham University
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (General)
R.I.C.S./M
R.I.C.S./ML
R.I.C.S./Q
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (Mining)

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (Mining/Land)
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (Quantity)
N.R.C.T.
N.U.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
The Basic Principles
1.1
of Surveying
Fundamental rule 'Always work from the whole to the part*. This
implies 'precise control surveying' as the first consideration, followed
by 'subsidiary detail surveying'.
point
in a
plane may be fixed relative to a given line
AB
in
one of the following ways:

1.
Triangulation Angular measurement from a fixed base line.

AB is known. The angles a and /3 are measured.
The
length
a.
Xe
.V
li
B
2.
Fig. 1.1(a)
Trilateration Linear
measurement only. The lengths AC and BC

The position of C is always fixed provid-
are measured or plotted.
ed
AC
BC
> AB.
Uses: (a) Replacing triangulation with the use of microwave measuring equipment.
(b)
Chain surveying.
A
Bt
Fig. 1.1(b)
1
SURVEYING PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

3.
Polar co-ordinates Linear and angular measurement.

Uses: (a) Traversing.
(b) Setting out.
(c) Plotting
by protractor.
,- c (s,6)
BhT
Fig. 1.1(c)
4.
Rectangular co-ordinates Linear measurement only
at right-angles.
Uses: (a) Offsets.

(b) Setting out.
(c) Plotting.
90"
OC
Bit
Fig. 1.1(d)
1.2
General Theory of Measurement
The following points should be

(1)
There
(2)
As
noted:
no such thing as an exact measurement. All measurements contain some error, the magnitude of the error being dependent
on the instruments used and the ability of the observer.
is
the true value is never known, the true error is never deter-
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
mined.
(3) The degree of accuracy, or its precision, can only be quoted
as a relative accuracy, i.e. the estimated error is quoted as a fraction
of the
measured quantity. Thus 100
error of 1 inch represents a relative
lcm
in
100
measured with an estimated

accuracy of 1/1200. An error of
ft
m = 1/10000.
(4) Where readings are taken on a graduated scale to the nearest

subdivision, the maximum error in estimation will be l/2 division.
(5) Repeated measurement increases the accuracy by y/n, where
n is the number of repetitions. N.B. This cannot be applied indefinitely-
(6) Agreement between repeated measurements does not imply

accuracy but only consistency.
1.3
Significant Figures in Measurement and Computation
If a measurement is recorded as 205 ft to the nearest foot, its most

probable value is 205 0*5 ft, whilst if measured to the nearest 0*1 ft
its most probable value is 205-0 0-05 ft. Thus the smallest recorded
digit is subject to a
maximum
error of half its value.
In computation, figures are
rounded off to the required degree of

precision, generally by increasing the last significant figure by 1 if the
following figure is 5 or more. (An alternative is the rounding off with 5
to the nearest
Thus
even number.)
205-613 becomes 205-61 to 2 places,
whilst
205-615 becomes 205-62 to 2 places,
or
205-625 "may also be 205*62, giving a less biased value.
It is generally better to work to 1 place of decimals more than is

required in the final answer, and to carry out the rounding-off process
at the end.
In multiplication the
number of significant figures depends on the
accuracy of the individual components, e.g.,
if
P + 8P
then
x.y,
= (x + 8x)(y + 8y)
= xy + x8y + y8x + 8x8y
Neglecting the last term and substracting

equation,
~ P
8p =
gives
from both sides of the
x8y + ySx
S = ^X + y8x = 8y + 8x
xy
sp - p
(f
xy
t)
(11)
Thus the
relative accuracy of the product is the
sum
of all the
relative accuracies involved in the product.
Example
0*005
A rectangle measures 3-82 in. and 7-64 in. with errors of

Express the area to the correct number of significant
1.1
in.
figures.
= 3-82 x 7-64 = 29*184 8 in2
relative accuracies
3-82
~
~
0-005
..
_i_
750
1
7-64
SP =
=
.-.
1500
290-
+ -L-)
\750
1500/
500
0-06
the area should be given as 29-2in 2
As a general rule the number of significant figures in the product

should be at least the same as, or preferably have one more significant
figure than, the least significant factor.
The area would thus be quoted as 29-18 in 2

In division the same rule applies.
Q =
x + 8x
= * + f - rf^ +
2
y + 8y
y
y
y
Q + 8Q =
Subtracting
from both sides and dividing by
SQ = Q (?I Powers
gives
*)
(1.2)
= xn
R + 8R =
(x + 8x)
= x n + n8x +
...
8R = n8x
i.e.
...
nx
..
relative accuracy of
single value.
8R = n8x
Roots
This
(1 3)
.
is the opposite relationship
R = ^x
From the above
.'.
Rn =
+ n8R = x + 8x
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
nSR = Sx
8R _ 8x_
R n ~ nx
8R = -8x
Example 1.2
If
= (5-01 0-005)
5-01 2
R = V 25
If
v'25-10 =
8R
R
= 0-01
2 x 0-005
should be given as 25*10
Example 1.3
.*.
= 25-1001
8R =
.'.
(1.4)
10 * 01
5-009 9
= 0-005
should be given as 5-01
Example 1.4 A rectangular building has sides approximately 480

metres and 300 metres. If the area is to be determined to the nearest
2
10 m what will be the maximum error permitted in each line, assuming
equal precision ratios for each length? To what degree of accuracy
should the lines be measured?
A =
480 x 300 -
144 000
8A =
10
8A = _1
8x = 8y
but
x
8x_
x
i.e.
Sy
8y _ 28x
y ~
x
x
1
2 x 14400
m2
8x
14400
m2
28 800
the precision ratio of each line is
*
28 800
480
of
and in 300
of -i9p-
This represents a maximum
in
Zq 800
= 0*016 7
= 0-0104
2o 800
the number of significant figures in the area is 5, i.e. to the
m 2 , then each line also must be measured to at least 5 significant figures, i.e. 480-00 m and 300-00m.
If
nearest 10

Chain Surveying
1.4
The chain
There are two types
(a) Gunter's
1
Its
chain
chain* = 100 links = 66 ft

= 0-66
1 link
ft
= 7-92 in.
advantage lies in its relationship to the acre

10 sq chains = 100 000 sq links = 1 acre.
(b)
Engineer's chain
100 links =
100
ft
(Metric chain
100 links =
20
= 0-2 m)
1 link
Basic figures
There are many combinations of chain lines
linear dimensions forming trilateration, Fig. 1 .2.
all
dependent on the
Tie line
C A
Tie lines
Fig.
1.41
1 .2
Basic figures
in chain surveying
Corrections to the ground measurements
Standardisation
Where the length of the chain or tape does not agree with
*
See conversion factors, pp. v
vii.
its
nom-
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
inal value, a correction
must be made
to the recorded value of a
meas-
ured quantity.
The following
rules apply
(1) If the tape is too long, the
measurement
will be too short
the
correction will be positive.

(2) If the tape is too short, the
measurement will be too long the
correction will be negative.

If
the length of tape of nominal length
is
the error per unit length =

If
the
measured length
is
81,
dm and the true length

d t = dm dm
fil
is
dt then
,
^(lf)
d-5)
Alternatively,
dm
+ 81
(1.6)
nominal length of tape
d > = * 1
j
Example 1.5
actual length of tape
(1 5 >
t)
chain of nominal length 100 links, when compared with

If this chain is used to measure a line
and the recorded measurement is 653 links, what is the true
a standard, measures 101 links.
AB
length
AB?
Error per link =
.'.
true length
-i = 0*01
100
= 653(1 + 0-01)
= 653 + 6-53 = 659-53 links
Alternatively,
true length
= 653 x
= 659-53 links
Effect of standardisation on areas

Based on the principle of similar figures,
true a,ea (.,) .
apparent area (,) x
(, 5%.)'
A T = A M (l
or
y)
(1.8)
Effect of standardisation on volumes
Based on the
principle of similar volumes,

,
true
volume VT = apparent volume x
true length of tape
( apparent length of tap
ue.
Vr = V(l ^)
Where the
N.B.
of the area, the
(110)
error in standardisation is small
compared to the size
error in area is approximately 2 x
error in length.
Example 1.6 A chain is found to be 0*8 link too long and on using
an area of 100 acres is computed.
it
.
The
-TqTT)\
= inn
1UU A00-8
true area
= 100 x 1-008 2 = 101-61 acres

alternatively,
= 0*8%
linear error
= 2 x 0*8 = 1*6%
area error
= 100 + 1*6 acres = 101*6 acres
acreage
This
derived from the binomial expansion of (1 + x) z
is
=
i.e .if
/.
(1
is
x)
+ 2x + x 2
small x z may be neglected

2
+ 2x
Correction for slope (Fig. 1.3)
This may be based on (1) the angle of inclination,

between the ends of the line.
in level
Fig. 1.3 (page 9)
Length
AC
measured
Horizontal length
AB
(/)
required (h)
Difference in level between
Angle of inclination
A and C
(a)
Correction to measured length (c)
(d)
(2) the difference
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
h
Fig. 1.3
(1)
Given the angle of inclination
AB
i.e.
N.B.
The
AC
cos a
h =
cos
c =
- h
/(1-cosa) =
(1.11)
cos
latter equation is a better
Example 1.7
AC =
AB =
If
byEq.(l.ll)
126-3 m,
by Eq. (1.12)
c =
AB
Example 1.8
versine a
(1-12)
computation process.
a = 234\
126-3 cos 234'
= 126-3 x 0-999
or
126-3
(1
126-174
- 0-999)
126-3 x 0-001
126-3 - 0-126 =
= 0-126
126-174
In chaining, account should be taken of any significant
effect of the slope of the ground on the accuracy of the horizontal
minimum angle
length. Calculate the
of inclination that gives rise to
relative accuracies of 1/1000 and 1/3000.
From Eq.
(1.12),
c =
If
- h =
_J_
1000
1(1
1
- cos a)
- cos a
10
cos a =
a =
Also,
if
- 0-001 = 0-999
234'
1 in
22)
- cos a
cos a =
- 0-00033
==
-j
(i.e.
3000
= 0-99967
a =
If the difference in level
(I
(/
39)
- d 2 y = j(/-d)x (/+ d)}*
(1.13)
- cf + d 2
- 2lc + c 2 + d 2
-d 2
c 2 - 2lc =
.-.
1 in
= h2 + d 2
or
(i.e.
known
d, is
h =
129'
2
c(c-2l) = -d
-d 2
c =
c-2l
z
as c is small compared
Rigorously, using the binomial expansion,

c -
- d2 y
(I
-'-<-)'
The use
Tl
d'
~ gji
(1.15)
of the first term only gives the following relative accura-
cies (the units may be
Gradient
ft
or metres).
Error per 100
lin4
0-051
ft
1 in
0-003
1 ft
1 in
10
20
0-001 3
0-000 1
1 in
Thus the approximation
is
Chain surveying under
ft
Relative accuracy
m)
(or m)
(or m)
(or m)
(or
ft
ft
acceptable
all
or
1/2000
1/30 000
1/80000
1/1 000 000
for:
general conditions.
Traversing, gradients up to 1 in 10.

Precise measurement (e.g. base lines), gradients up to 1 in 20.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
For setting out purposes
Here the horizontal length
11
given and the slope length
(h) is
(/) is
required.
= h sec a
a -
= h(sec a -
1)
c = h sec
Writing sec
as a series 1 + ^- +
Example 1.9
by Eq. (1.16)
If
where a
is in radians,
see
-s-
^(0-017 45a)
in radians)
4
x 10~ x
1-53
2
x
1*53 x 10"
ft
h = 100 ft (orm),
100(1-003
(1.17)
2i
a=
a2
(a in degrees) (1.18)
a2
per 100
ft (or
5,"
820-1)
= 0-382 Oft (orm) per 100 ft (orm)

4
2
1-53 x 100 x 10"
x 5
or by Eq. (1.18) c =
= 1-53 x 25 x 10~ 2
= 0-382 5 ft
(or
m) per 100 ft
(or
m)
Correction per 100ft (orm)
If
0-015
ft
(orm)
0-551
ft
(orm)
0-061
ft
(orm)
0-751
ft
(orm)
0-137 ft (orm)
0-983
ft
(orm)
0-244
ft
(orm)
1-247 ft (orm)
0-382
ft
(orm)
10
1-543
the difference in level, d, is given,

2
I
(h
p. 72.
c =
ho.
^+
(1.16)
+ cf
= h 2 + d2
= h2 + d2
+ 2hc + c 2 = h 2 + d 2
c(2h + c)
= d2
c- -*2h + c
ft
(orm)
m)
(1.19)
12
(1.20)
2h
or rigorously
8h
2h
N.B.
If
known as
the gradient of the ground is
tal the angle of inclination
e.g.
1 in
a~
(1.21)
Sn
(1 rad
57
10 gives
1 vertical to
n horizon-
57" 3)
5-7 c
10
To find the horizontal length h given

measured length I
the gradient 1 in n
and the
n\fn + 1
V 2 +
lny/n z + 1
-.
As an
n2 +
(1.22)
+l
alternative to the above,
Fig. 1.4
but
if
- c
'"IT
the gradient is given as 1 in n, then
c*
n
I
2nH
(1.23)
2n 2 J
This
is
only applicable where n > 20.
Example 1.10
a length of 300
If
ft
(orm)
is
measured on a slope of
in 3, the horizontal length is given as:
by Eq. (1.22)
h =
300x3^10
= 9Q x 3 1623
.
10
- 284-61
ft
(orm)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
To find
the inclined length
13
given the horizontal length h and the
gradient (1 in n)
2
V" +
h
,
n
__
hy/n z +
(1-24)
Example 1.11
by Eq. (1.24)
If
h = 300
/
ft
3Q0
(orra) and the gradient is 1 in 6,
= 50 x 6-083
= 304 -15
The maximum length
1.42
A
B,
ft
(or
of offsets from chain lines
P is measured from a chain line ABC

measured instead of BP, due to an error a
point
is
m)
in
such a way that
in estimating the
perpendicular, Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5
On plotting, P, is fixed from B,

Thus the displacement on the plan due
PP,
_
=
(N.B.
to the error in direction
= B,P a(radians)
/a,
206265
radian = 206265 seconds of arc)
14
If
i.e.
the
PP
maximum length
represents the minimum plotable point,
0*01 in which represents
xft,
^
12
where x
is
the representative
fraction 1/x, then
la
0-000 83 x =
206 265
171-82 x
I
a
Assuming the maximum
error
4,
i.e.
171-82*
14400
If
a=
14400
o-012 x
(1.25)
the scale is 1/2500, then x = 2500, and

/
= 2500 x 0-012 = 30ft (^10 m)
If the point P lies on a fence approximately parallel to

Fig. 1.6, then the plotted point will be in error by an amount
1(1- cos a).
(Fig. 1.5).
Boundary
line
fl
Fig.
If
a=
4,
1 .6
0-01
=
12
Example 1.12
ABC,
P^P2
(1
- cos a)
(1>26)
by Eq. 1.26
0-01 x
12 x
(1-0-9976)
0-35 x
Thus,
if
x=
(1.27)
2500,
/
= 875 ft (267 m)
error due to this source is almost negligible and the offset is only
limited by practical considerations, e.g. the length of the tape.
that is
It is thus apparent that in fixing the position of a point
The
critical, e.g. the corner of a building, the length of a perpendicular offset is limited to 0*012 x ft, and beyond this length tie lines are required,
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
15
the direction of the measurement being ignored, Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7
1.43
Setting out a right angle by chain
From a point on
BA = BC
(ii) From A and C measure
triangles ADB and DCB are
(a)
(i)
(Proof:
as
the chain line (Fig. 1.8)
ABC
Measure
off
\
\
ABD
DBC
= 90c
B
Fig. 1.9
Using the principle of Pythagoras,

zz =
By choosing
x z + y2
(Fig. 1.9)
suitable values the right angle
The basic relationship
x:y:z
If
CD
7k
/ \
n =
AD
is a straight line)
Fig. 1.8
(b)
off
congruent, thus
::
set out.
is
2n +
2n +
I,
may be
2n(rc
+ l)
2n(n + l)+l.
l=3
2n(n + 1) = 4
2n(n + 1) +
Check:
(2n +
\2n(n + 1) + l}
if +
\2n(n
1)|
5.
= (2n 2 + 2n + l)
= 4n 2 + 4n +
+ 4n 4 + 8n 3 + 4n 2
= 4n z + 8n 3 + 8n 2 + 4n +
(1.28)
16
= (2n 2 + 2n + If.
2
Check:
- 32 + 42
25 - 9 + 16.
or
Similarly, if n = 3/4,
6
In +
10
=
4
2n(rc
1)
2n(n + 1) + 1
6/3
+1 \
,
4U
40
16
16
42
16
16
58
16
16
Thus the ratios become 40 42

58 and this is probably the best
combination for 100 unit measuring
equipment; e.g. on the line ABC,
Fig. 1.10, set out BC = 40 units.
:
Then holding the ends of the chain

at B and C the position of D is
fixed by pulling taut at the 42/58
on the chain.
Alternative values for n give the following:
1.44
n = 2
5, 12,
13
n = 3
7, 24,
25
n = 4
9, 40, 41.
To
(Probably the best ratio for 30
find the point on the chain line
ular from a point outside the line
(1)
When
the point is accessible
From the
(Fig. 1.11).
the chain of length >
chain line
position
ab.
at
is
point
DB
D swing
to cut the
a and b. The required
then the mid-point of
tapes)
which produces a perpendic-
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
(2)
When
the point is not accessible
(Fig. 1.12).
Da
and
From D
set out lines
Db
and, from these lines,

perpendicular ad and be. The inter-
section of these lines at

the line
DX
gives the
which when produced
gives B, the required point.
To set out a line through a given

point parallel to the given chain
line (Fig. 1.13).
Given the chain

and the given point C.
From the given point C bisect the
line
AB
line CB at X. Measure AX and

produce the line to D such that AX
= XD.
CD
1.45
Obstacles in chain surveying
will then
be parallel to AB.
17
18
(1)
Obstacles to ranging
(a) Visibility from intermediates (Fig. 1.14). Required to line
and
on the line AB.

Place ranging pole at d, and line in c, on line Ad From B observe c, and move d 2 on to line Be, Repetition will produce c2 c 3 and
d 2 d 3 etc until C and D lie on the line AB.
.
(b) Non-visibility from intermediates (Fig. 1.15).
Required to measure a long line AB

in which A and B are not intervisible and intermediates on these
lines are not possible.
Set out a 'random line' AC

approximately on the line AB.
From B
B
Fig. 1.15
AC as above. Measure
and BC. Calculate AB.
BC
AC
(2)
o*=
A
find the perpendicular
to line
Obstacles
No
(a)
to chaining
obstacle to ranging
Obstacle can be chained around. There are many possible

variations depending on whether a right angle is set out or not.
(i)
A6
Fig. 1.16
By
(m)
setting out right angles
Set out equal perpendiculars
II
Set out Bb. Measure
Bb and
Bb and Cc; then be - BC.

bC. Compute BC.
HI Set out line Bb. At b set out the right angle to give C on the
chain line. Measure Bb and bC. Compute BC.
IV and V Set out parallel lines be as described above to give
similar figures, triangles BCX and bcX.
Then
BC =
be x
bX
BX
(1.29)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
19
Fig. 1.17
VI
Set out line be so that
BC* =
CO
bB = Be. Compute BC
thus,
Be + jCcf bB _
(1.30)
be
but
.
bB = Be,
RC
^
2
BbjbC - Cc 2)
2fib
UbC z +
_.
DK
-BbxBb
Cc 2) - Bb 2
(1.31)
Proof.
In Fig. 1.18 using the cosine rule
,2
_ xv
+ d
(assuming 6 > 90), see
+ 2xd cos0
and
= y 2 + d 2 - 2yd cosO
2d cos 6 = p
_ y2
JT
+d 2_
2
2
2
2
2
2
P y - * y - d y = xy + d x - q x
2
d (x + y) =
2
<?
2
x + p y - xy(x +
y)
p.
81
20
z
q x + p y
- xy
x + y
+ p y
- xy
x + y
Q x
--/
If
x =
(1.32)
y,
Obstacle cannot be chained

A river or stream represents
this type of obstacle. Again there
are many variations depending on
(ii)
around.
.
whether a right angle
is set out or
not.
By
setting out right angles (Fig. 1.19).
A random line DA^ is set out

C and B are obtained.
and from perpendiculars
points
By
similar triangles
DC,C and C B B 2
DC
CB
DC
CC
Bfi,
CC
y
CB
x CC,
BB. - CC,
Fig. 1.20
at
C and B
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
21
Without setting out a right angle (Fig. 1.20).

A point F is chosen. From points B and C on line AE, BF and
CF are measured and produced to G and H. BF = FG and CF = FH.
The intersection of DF and GH produce to intersect at J. Then
HJ = CD.
(iii) Obstacles which obstruct ranging and chaining.
The obstruction,
e.g. a building, prevents the line from being ranged and
thus produced
beyond the obstacle.
By
setting out right angles (Fig. 1 .21)

On line ABC right angles are set out at
and
C,
B, C,
and
to produce
B
'
where SB, = CC,

is
now produced
D and
line ABC
to give D,
and
where right angles are

= CC, D and E are
D^D=EÊ=BB
set out to give
E, where
thus on the
produced and 0,0, = DC.
Fi B-l.21
Fig. 1.22
Without setting out right angles (Fig. 1.22)

On line ABC, CB is measured and G set out to form an equilateral
triangle,
An
i.e.
CB= CG =
BG is produced to J.
HKJ sets out the line JE
BG.
equilateral triangle
such that
JE =
BJ.
A
duced
further equilateral triangle
ELD
will restore the line
The missing
length
BE
= BJ = EJ
ABC
pro-
22
Exercises
The
1.
1 (a)
following measurements were
Reduce the slope distances

(a) 200-1 yd
at 1 in
2^
(b) 485*5 links
at 1 in
5-75
at 1 in
10-25
1/24 th of a mile
(c)
made on
inclined ground.
to the horizontal giving the answer in feet.
(a) 557-4 ft
(Ans.
(b) 315-7 ft
(c) 218-9 ft)
Calculate the acreage of an area of 4 in 2 on each of the plans

drawn to scale, 2 chains to 1 in., 1/63 360, 1/2500 and 6 in. to 1 mile
2.
respectively.
1-6, 2560, 3-986, 71-1 acres)
(Ans.
3.
field
was
area thus found
measured with a chain 0-3 of a link too long.
was 30
The
acres. What is the true area?

(I.C.E. Ans. 30-18 acres)
4.
State in acres and decimals thereof the area of an enclosure meain. square on each of three plans drawn to scale of 1/1584,
suring 4
1/2500, 1/10560 respectively.

6-4, 15-9, 284-4 acres)
(Ans.
A survey line was measured on sloping ground and recorded as

5.
386-6 ft (117-84 m). The difference of elevation between the ends was
19-3
ft
(5-88 m).
The tape used was
later
found to be 100-6 ft (30-66 m) when com-
pared with a standard of 100 ft (30-48 m).

Calculate the corrected horizontal length of the line.
388-4 ft (118-38 m))
(Ans.
6.
plot of land in the form of a rectangle in
twice the width has an area of 180000 ft
which the length
is
2
.
Calculate the length of the sides as drawn on plans of the following scales.
(a) 2 chains to 1 inch,
(Ans.
7.
(a) 4-55
(b)
1/25000.
(c) 6 inch to 1 mile.
x 2-27 in. (b) 0-29 x 0-14
(c) 0-68
in.
x 0-34
in.)
Express the following gradients in degrees to the horizontal:

1 in 0-5, being vertical to horizontal in each case.
(b) Express the following scales as fractions: 6 in. to 1 mile, 1 in.
(a)
1 in 3,
1 in 200,
to 1 mile, 1 in. to 1 chain, 1/8 in. to 1

(c)
ft.
Express the following scales as inches to
1 mile:
1/2500,
1/500, 1/1080.
(M.Q.B./UM Ans.
(a) 1826', 017',

(b)
6326'
1/10560, 1/63360, 1/792, 1/96
(c) 25-34, 126-72, 58-67)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
23
8.
Find, without using tables, the horizontal length in feet of a line
recorded as 247*4 links when measured
On ground sloping 1 in 4,
(b) on ground sloping at 1826' (tanl826'
(a)
(Ans.
Show
9.
(a)
= 0-333).
158-40 (b) 154-89
that for small angles of slope the difference
ft)
between the
horizontal and sloping lengths is h z /2l (where h is the difference of

vertical height of the two ends of a line of sloping length /).
If errors in chaining are not to exceed 1 part in
1000, what is the
greatest slope that can be ignored?
(L.U./E Ans.
1.5
1 in 22*4)
Corrections to be Applied to Measured Lengths
For every linear measurement the following corrections must be

considered, the need for their application depending on the accuracy
required.
1. In all
cases
(a) Standardisation.
2.
(c) Sag.
3.
(b) Slope.
For relative accuracies of 1/5000 plus

(a) Temperature.
(b) Tension,
(where applicable)
For special cases, 1/50000 plus

(a) Reduction to mean sea level.
(b)
Reduction to
grid.
Consideration has already been given, p. 6/9, to both standardisation and reduction to the horizontal as they apply to chain
surveying
but more care must be exercised in precise measurement reduction.
1.51
Standardisation
The measuring band in the form of a tape or wire must be compared

with a standard under specified conditions of temperature (t
s ) and tension (Ts ) If there is any variation from the nominal length then
a standardisation correction is needed as already shown. A combination of
temperature and standardisation can be seen under correction for tem.
perature.
1.52
Correction for slope
Where the inclination of the measured length is obtained by measurement of the vertical angle the following modification should be
noted.
Let the height of the instrument be

the height of the target
ft,
h2
24
the measured vertical angle

the slope of the measured line
the length of the measured line
a
/
Fig. 1.23
a = d + 8$.
A B Z B^ by the
In Fig. 1.23,
In triangle
sine rule
(see
(h,
-h z )
(fc,
- h 2 ) cos 6
sin 86
p. 80),
sin (90 + 0)
I
(1.34)
206 265 (h
86"
N.B.
-h z ) cos 6
(1.35)
The sign
of the correction conforms precisely to the equation.
(1) If
= h
z
Z
< h z and 6
is
h,> h z and 6
a
if
< h z and 6
is
/i
(2) If h\
(3) If
(4) If
+ve,
a = 6
86 =
-ve
(Fig. 1.24a)
is
86
is
-ve,
86
is
is
+ve,
86
is
-ve,
86
is
/i,
-ve
+ve
+ve
(Fig. 1.24d)
(Fig. 1.24b)
(Fig. 1.24c)
Example 1.13
If
^
/
= 4-5ft(l-37m),
= 5-5ft (1.68m),
h
z
= 350
then 86 =
ft
(106-68 m)
206 265 (4-5 - 5-5) cos430'
350
- -588"
= -009'48"
a = +4 o 30'00" - 009'48"
= +4 20 '12"
6 = +430'
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
25
/> 4-/>,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 1.24
Correction to measured length (by Eq. 1.12),

c = -1(1
-cos0)
= -350(1
-cos 4 20'
12")
= -350(1-0-99714)
= -350 x 0-00286 =
If
the effect
Horizontal length =
was
- 1-001
ft
(0-3051 m)
348-999 ft (106-3749 m)
ignored;
Horizontal length = 350 cos 4 30'
= 348-922
Error =
0-077
ft
(106-3514 m)
ft
(0-0235 m)
26
Correction for temperature
1.53
The measuring band

If
standardised at a given temperature
is
in the field the temperature of the
band
recorded as
is
m)
(*
(t8 ).
then the
band will expand or contract and a correction to the measured length

is
given as
c =
where
la(tm
(1.36)
ta )
= the measured length
a=
the coefficient of linear expansion of the band metal.
The coefficient
of linear expansion (a) of a solid is defined as
'the increase in length per unit length of the solid
when
its
temper-
ature changes by one degree'.
For steel the average value of
is
given as
6-2 x 10" 6 per
Since a change of 1
F =
a change of 5/9 C, using the value above
gives
a =
6
6-2 x 10" per 5/9
10" 6
= 11-2 x
The range
of linear coefficients
per
is thus
per
per
To find the new standard temperature
1C
10-6 to 12-2 (x 10
5-4 to
to 4
Invar
given as
1F
5-9 to 6-8
Steel
t'
8
7-2
-6
(xl0~
7
)
which will produce the
nominal length of the band.

Standard length at
To
ta
reduce the length by

81
where
81
5/:
(/
= number of degrees of temperature

change required
81
=
(I
';
As
5/).a.r
81 is small compared with
/,
8t)a
*
for practical
ts
(137>
orkz
81
f
la
purposes
(1.38)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
27
Example 1.14 A traverse line is 500 ft (152*4 m) long. If the tape

used in the field is 100 ft (30-48 ra) when standardised at 63 F (17-2 C),
what correction must be applied if the temperature at the time of measurement is 73 F (22-8 C)?
6
6-2 x 10~ per deg F
= 11-2 x 10~ 6 per deg C)
(Assume a =
From Eq.
(1.36)
6
= 500 x 6-2 x 10~ x (73 - 63)
= +0-031 Oft
or
= 152-4 x 11-2 x 10" 6 x (22-8 - 17-2)
c(m)
= +0-009 6 m
Example 1.15
If a field tape when standardised at 63 F measures

100-005 2 ft, at what temperature will it be exactly the nominal value?
10" 6 per
(Assume a = 6-5 x
SI = +0-0052
'.
from Eq. (1.37)
t'
ft
0-0052
6
100 x 6-5 x 10"
=63
=
deg F)
63F-8F
= 55
In its metric form the above problem becomes: If a field tape when
standardised at 17-2 C measures 100-005 2 m, at what temperature will
it be exactly the nominal value?
10" 6 per
(Assume a = 11-2 x
81
.'.
from Eq.(1.37)
t's
deg C)
= +0-005 2 m
= 17#2 _
0-0052
100 x 11-2 x 10" 6
17-2
C -
12-6
C (=54-7F)
4-6
Correction for tension
1.54
The measuring band
is standardised at a given tension
(Ts ).
If in
the field the applied tension is (T ) then the tape will, due to its
m
elasticity, expand or contract in accordance with Hooke's Law.
own
correction factor is thus given as

c =
L(Tm - Ts )
A E
_
(1.39)
28
where
L =
the measured length (the value of c is in the

as L),
A =
cross-sectional area of the tape,
E
The
= Young's modulus of elasticity
units used for T,
or
or
4, (cm
T2 (N)
A,(m
(lbf/in
(metric)
E 2 (N/m
stress/strain.
i.e.
E, (kgf/cm
unit
must be compatible, e.g.
(in )
2
T,(kgf)
and
T(lbf)
same
(new
S.I.
units)
Conversion factors
lib = 0-453592 kg
1 in
.'.
lib/in 2
Based on the proposed use
The force
1 lbf
m2
703-070 kg/m 2
of the International
units) the unit of force is the
accelerate a mass of 1 kg
4
= 6-451 6 x 10~
Newton
System
of Units (S.I.
(N), i.e. the force required to
metre per second per second
= mass x gravitational acceleration

= 0-453592 x 9-80665 m/s 2 (assuming standard value)
= 4-448 22N
lkgf = 9-806 65 N
2
whilst for stress 1 lbf/in =
For steel,
E ~
~
ot
For invar,
N.B.
E ~
(1) If
kg = 2-204 62
(1
N/m
6894-76
lb)
28 to 30 x 10 6 lbf/in 2
(British units)
5
20 to 22 x 10 kgf/cm 2
(Metric units)
10
19-3 to 20-7 x 10
20 to 22 x 10
N/m 2
lbf/in
14 to 15-5 x 10
13-8 to 15*2 x 10
(S.I. units)
kgf/cm 2
Tm = Ts no correction
,0
N/m 2
is
necessary.
considered good practice to over tension to

minimise deformation of the tape, the amount of tension
being strictly recorded and the correction applied.
(2) It is generally
(3)
The cross-sectional area
of the tape
may be physically
or it may be com-
measured using a mechanical micrometer,
puted from the total weight W of the tape of length

a value p for the density of the material.
and
A - j-
(1.40)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
29
Example 1.16
A tape is 100 ft at a standard tension of 251bf and measures in cross-section 0-125 in. x 0-05 in. If the applied tension
is
20 lbf and E = 30 x 10 5 lbf/in2 calculate the correction to be applied.
,
Rv F1C.Q
By
t-q. l.iy
10 X (20 - 25)
.
. =
c
(0-125 x 0-05) x (30 x 10 6

)
= -0*009
7
27
ft
"
Converting the above units to the metric equivalents gives

30-48 m x (9-072 - 11-340) kgf
(40-32 x 10~ 7 )m2 x (21-09 x 10 9 ) kgf/m2
c =
= -0-008 13
Based on the
(i.e.
-0-002 7 ft)
International System of Units,
2-268 kgf = 2-268 x 9-806 65

or
5 lbf =
N
4-448 22 N
= 22-241
= 22-241 N.
For stress,
10
(21-09 x 10 ) kgf/m 2
= 21-09 x 10 9 x 9-80665 = 20-684 x 10 ,o N/m 2
or
(30 x 10
6
)
Thus, in
lbf/in2
30 x 10
x 6894-76 = 20-684 x 10'
N/m2
S.I. units,
30-48 x 22-241
c =
(40-32 x 10
= - 0-008 13
-7
)
x (20-684 x 10 ,o )N/m2
Measurement in the vertical plane

Where a metal tape is freely suspended
it will elongate due to the

applied tension produced by its own weight.
The tension is not uniform and the stress varies along its length.
Given an unstretched tape AB and a stretched tape AB,
Fig. 1.25,'
,
let P and Q be two close points on the
tape which become ^Q, under
tension.
If
Let
AP =
PQ
x,
AP
= dx, then
= x +
P,
s,
where s
is the
amount of elongation of
Q, = dx + ds and the strain in
%Q,=
AP
as ds
is the
increase in length and dx is the original length.

If T is the tension at P,
in a tape of cross-section A, and
Young's modulus, then
,
T =
Given that the load per unit length
at P,
in tension
is
EA*1
(!)
dx
= w.dx being the difference
is
between
then in
P,
P, Q, the load
and Q,
30
if
the tension at
is
T + dT
T-(T +
i.e.
wdx
dT = -wdx
dT) =
(2)
x+s
dx+ds
Fig. 1.2 5 Elongation in a suspended tape

In practice the value w is a function of x and by integrating the
two equations the tension and extension are derived.
Assuming the weight per

pended weight W, then from
unit length of the tape is
with a sus-
(2)
dT = -wdx
T = -wx + c
T =
and (1)
EA
ds
=
dx
-t
EAs =
When T =
x=
W,
and
EA^.
dx
-wx
+ c
iwx 2 + ex + d
and when x =
W = = 0.
wl + c
(3)
0, s
i.e.
(4)
c =
W +
wl
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
31
Therefore putting constants into equations (3) and

(4) gives
T = -wx + W + wl
T = W + w(l-x).
EAs =
and
- 1 wx
(i.4i)
+ Wx + wlx
= Wx + w(2lx- x2 )
ml Wx +
=
If
x =
/,
if
w & lx -* 2 )]
d-42)
then
S=
and
A[^ +
w/2
(1-45)
0,
(1.44)
2E4
Example 1.17 Calculate the elongation at (1) 1000 ft and

(2) 3000 ft
of a 3000 ft mine-shaft measuring tape hanging
vertically due to its
own weight.
The modulus of elasticity is 30 x 10 6 lbf/in 2 the weight of the
;
tape is 0*05 lbf/ft and the cross-sectional area of the tape is 0*015
in 2
From Eq.(1.42)
s =
As
W =
s=
when
ljz[
w*+ i"(2lx-x z )]
0,
[2lx - x * ]
= 1000 ft
= 3000 ft
0-05
S =
2 x 30 x 10* x 0-015
when
x =
C2
X 300 X 100 " 100(f]
^xl0
- 05
2 x 30 x 10 x 0-015
/
= 3000 ft.
From Eq. (1.44)
s =
^L
2EA
0-05x3000 2
2 x 30 x 10 6 x 0-015
,ft
= 0-500
32
Example 1.18 If the same tape is standardised as 3000 ft at 451bf

tension what is the true length of the shaft recorded at 2998*632 ft?
s- -S? -i:
2EA
EA
IEq.(1.44)'
i.e.
where
W=
T =
total weight of tape
\W
= 3000 x 0-05 = 150
Ibf
Applying the tension correction, Eq.(1.39),

C
L(Jm - T s )
=
EA
3000(75-45)
30 x 10 x 0-015
.'.
2
30 x 10 x 30
=
6
30 x 10 x 0-015
200ft
true length
= 2998-632 + 0-2
= 2998-832
ft
Correction for sag
1.55
The measuring band may be standardised

flat or (b) in
If
in
two ways,
(a)
the band is used in a manner contrary to the standard conditions
some correction
(1) //
is
necessary.
standardised on the flat and used in catenary the general
equation for correction
is applied, viz.
c = -
w2
3
/
r-^2
d-45)
24 T
W2
(1.46)
24 T
where
w
W
= weight of tape or wire per unit length

= wl = total weight of tape in use,
T = applied
N.B.
on the
catenary.
the units
tension.
and T must be compatible
(lbf,
kgf or N)
Measuring
Catenary curve
head
Fig. 1.26 Measurement in catenary
(2) //
standardised in catenary
(a)
The
length of the chord
may be given
relative to the length
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
33
of the tape or
(b) the length of the tape in catenary
(i)
If
may be
given.
the tape is used on the flat a positive

sag correction must be
applied
If the tape is used in catenary
at a tension T
m which is different
from the standard tension T
the
correction will be the difference
s
between the two relative corrections, i.e.
(ii)
C
If
Tm >
Ts
Wz l
IT
r 1
(1-47)
--24[n;-Tl\
the correction will be positive.
If standardised in catenary
using a length l a and then applied in
the field at a different length l
m , the correction to be applied is
(iii)
given as
L. //,
c = ?i
w2
h \24I
HW'
24T
Alternatively, the equivalent tape length

on the flat may be computed for each length and the subsequent
catenary correction applied
for the new supported condition,
i.e. if /, is the standard length
in
catenary, the equivalent length on the
ground = /. + c where c = the
s
catenary correction.
If
flat
W
l
is
the applied field length, then its

equivalent length on the
+ cs )
Applying the catenary correction to this

length gives
lm + C =
Thus
(l s
+ C j _ Cm
+^
the required correction
'm^s
i
/'> 2 \
I
l
Cm
\24T
j-^yi
3
l
241'
( Z*
w2
as Eq.
(1 .48)
above
34
an acceptable approximation based on the

assumption that the measuring heads are at the same level. If the heads
are at considerably different levels, Fig. 1.27, the correction should be
The sag correction
is
c =
c,
(l^sin*)
cos 2
(1.49)
the sign depending on whether the tension is applied at the upper or
lower end of the tape.
Measuring
head
Fig. 1.27
For general purposes c =
c,
cos 2
w 2 Pcos 2 g
24 T
(1.50)
The weight of the tape determined in the field

The catenary sag of the tape can be used to determine the weight
of
of the tape, Fig. 1.28
Fig. 1.28 Weight of the tape determined in the field

If
is the
measured sag
at the mid-point, then the
weight per unit
length is given as
STy
2
(151)
or the
amount
where
of
sag
= weight/unit length,
T = applied tension,
y =
wl
ST
(1.52)
y = vertical sag at the mid-point,

/ = length of tape between supports.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
35
Example 1.19 Calculate the horizontal length between two supports,

approximately level, if the recorded length is 100.237 ft, the
tape
weighs 15 ozf and the applied tension is 20 lbf
From Eq.(1.46)
W* 1
c = -
24T 2
The value
of
is
assumed to be 100
5\
for
ease of computation.
jjx 100
Then
24 x 20 2
= -0-0092
True length
ft
= 100-2370 - 0-0092
= 100-227 8 ft
Example 1.20
100 ft tape standardised in catenary at 25 lbf is used

20 lbf. Calculate the sag correction if
in the field with a tension of
= 0-021
lbf/ft.
From Eq. (1.47) c = -[1^1
100
T2
T2
x 0-021 2 / 1
5
24
(20
= -0-01656
i.e.
_1_
"25 1
-0-016 6 ft.
Example 1.21
A tape 100 ft long is suspended in catenary with a tension of 30 lbf. At the mid-point the sag is measured
as 0-55 ft. Calculate the weight per ft of the tape.
From Eq. (1.51),
8Ty
Based on
1-
S.I. units
8 x 30 x 0-55
10000
= 0-0132 IWft.
these problems become
19(a)
Calculate the horizontal length between two supports

approximately level if the recorded length is 30-552 2
m; the tape weighs
0-425 kgf and the applied tension is 9-072 kgf.
Converting the weight and tension into units of

force,
V2
30-5522
VJA Z, \VftZ.D
JV
(0-425 x
X. 9-806
3'OUD 03
65)
24
(9-072 x 9-806 65) 2
36
Thus there
is
no significance in changing the weight
and tension T
into units of force, though the unit of tension must be the newton.
30-552 2
0-425 \ 2
24
9-072/
= -0-002 8 m
1.20(a)
in the field
w=
30*48
(-0-009 2 ft).
tape standardised in catenary at 111-21
is
used
Calculate the sag correction
with a tension of 88-96 N.
0-0312kgf/m.
Conversion of the mass/ unit length
if
into a total force gives
30-48 x 0-0312 x 9-80665 = 9-326 N.
Eq.
becomes
(1 .47)
c =
24
'-- -)
2
z
T
-30-48 x 9-326
\88-96
24
-0-00504 m
=
1.21(a)
tape 30-48
of 133-446 N.
111-21
(-0-016 6 ft).
long is suspended in catenary with a tension
At the mid-point the sag
is
measured as 0-168 m. Cal-
culate the weight per metre of the tape.
Eq. (1.51) becomes

(/ ,
w n(kgf/m)
8 x
0-816 Ty
T x y
=
2
9-80665
0-816 x 133-446 x 0-168
30-48
= 0-019 6 kgf/m
(0-013 2 lbf/ft)
A tape nominally 100 ft is standardised in catenary at

lOlbf and is found to be 99-933 ft. If the weight per foot is 0-01 lbf,
calculate the true length of a span recorded as 49*964 ft.
Example 1.22
= 99-933
Standardised length
Sag correction
for
100 ft
Q-01
c1
i
ft
True length on the
T^T
7Ta
24 x 10
flat
x 100-
0-042 ft
= rtftyIoft
.
= 99-975
ft
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
True length of sub-length on
=
37
flat
49-964
x 99-9747 = 49-952
1Q0
Sag correction for 50
ft
(c
oc
= l/8c,
= -0-005
True length between supports
49- 947 ft
Alternatively, by Eq.(1.48)
2
50 x 0-01
100 x 24 x 10
(5
" 10 ')
= -0-018 ft
."
true length
between supports = 49-964 - 0-018
= 49-946 ft.
Example 1.23 A copper transmission line, %in. diameter, is stretched

between two points, 1000ft apart, at the same level, with a tension
of
ftton,when the temperature
90 F.
necessary to define its

limiting positions when the temperature varies. Making
use of the corrections for sag, temperature and elasticity normally applied
to base
line measurements by tape in catenary, find the
tension at a temperature of 10 F and the sag in the two cases.
Young's modulus for copper 10 x 10 6 lbf/in 2 , its density 555 lb/ft 3
and its coefficient of linear expansion 9-3 x 10~ 6 per
F.
is
It is
(L.U.)
The length
of line
needed = 1000 + 81
where
81 =
added length due to sag

H 2/3
'
24 r 2
7Tr
p lbf/ft
3-142 x 0-25 2 x 555
0-757 lbf/ft
144
s; =
ol
0-757
x 1000
24 x 1120 2
Total length of wire
amount of sag
= 19-037
ft
iiw/K
= 1019-037 ft
v =
y
2
Z
&T
_ 0-759 x 1019
8 x 1120
87-73
ft
38
when temperature
falls to 10
Contraction of wire =
F,
Lat
= 1000 x 9-3 x 10
new length
as
SI
oc
of wire
-6
x (90-10) = 0-758 ft
= 1019-037-0-758 = 1018-279 ft
T2
8l
T2 = T 2
/19-037 = 1120 x 1-0205 = 1142 lbf

r2 = 1120
V18-279
Amount
of
at 10 F
sag
(y
ool)
T
y,
x li
= 87-73 x ii?| = 86-03 ft
Reduction to mean sea level (Fig. 1.29)
1.56
If
the length at
mean sea level
and h = height of line above

or below mean sea level, then
is
L
L
L =
Rh
Rh
Fig. 1.29 Reduction to
If
L = lm T
c,
mean sea
level
then
c ~
lR
/mT /fT
(1.53)
= T
Rh
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
As h
is
small compared with R,
39
= ~^
(1.54)
R
If
R ^ 3960
miles,
100ft
3960 x 5280
4-8/j
xl0~ 6 per 100
ft
(1.55)
Reduction of ground length to grid length
1.57
The
local scale factor depends on the properties of the projection.

Here we will consider only the Modified Transverse Mercator projection as adopted by the Ordnance Survey in the British Isles.
Local scale factor (F)
(=)
F = Fo\l +
where
(1.56)
FQ =
the local scale factor at the central meridian,
E =
p =
the Easting in metres from the true origin,
v =
the radius of curvature at right angles to the meridian.
the radius of curvature to the meridian,
Assuming
p~v
= R, then
(1.57)
~w)
For practical purposes,
F ~ F
N.B.
E=
(l
2
+ 1-23 E x 10" 8 )
(158)
0-9996013(1 + 1-23E 2 x 10~ 8 )
(1.59)
Eastings - 400 km.
Central meridian
L.S.F.
LS E -=^)
-
Local scale
error
0-9996
Sub-parallel
0-9996
180km
Sub-parallel
180km
Distance from
CM.
Fig. 1.30
1-0
0.9996
in
km
40
The
local scale error as
shown on
the graph approximates to
2R'<
Example 1.24
Calculate (a) the local scale factors for each corner of
the grid square
TA
(i.e. grid
co-ordinates of S.W. corner 54), (b) the
local scale factor at the centre of the square, (c) the percentage error
in
each case
if
the
mean
of the square corners is
&
0>
o>
fc
s
O)
o>
used instead.
8
o
o
TA
(54)
<km)
jp
Fig. 1.31
See Chapter
(a)
(i)
page 160.
3,
At the S.W. corner, co-ordinates are 500 km E,
i.e.
100km
of central meridian.
Therefore, from Eq.(1.58),
L.S.F. =
0-9996013(1 + 100
8
x 1-23 x 10" )
= 0-999601 + 0-000123 = 0-999724

(ii)
At S.E. corner, co-ordinates are 600 km E,
i.e.
200 km E of
CM.
.-.
L.S.F.
= 0-9996013(1 + 200
8
x 1-23 x 10~ )
= 0-999601 + 2 2 x 0-000123
= 0-999601 + 0-000 492 = 1*000 093
(b)
At centre of square, 150 km from central meridian,

L.S.F. =
(c)
(i)
0-999 601 + 1'5 2 x 0-000123 = 0-999878
error at S.W. corner
0-999724 - y2 (-999724 + 1-000 093)

x 100
0-999 724
= 0-018%
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
(ii)
41
error at S.E. corner
1-000 093 - 0-999908
100 =
1-000093
(iii)
0-019%
error at centre
0-999878 - 0-999908
x 100 = 0-003%
0-999878
Example 1.25
E 415 km
Calculate the local scale factors applicable to a place

and to coal seams there at depths of 500 ft, 1000 ft, 1500 ft
and 2000 ft respectively.
Local radius of the earth = 6362-758 km

L.S.F.
= 0-9996013(1 + E 2 x 1-23 x 10" 8 )
Correction of length to mean sea level
at
500ft
R -
L =
6362-758
6362-758 - (500 x 0-3048 x 10~ 3 )

6362-758
/,
6362-758 - 0-152
.
6362-758
L 6362^606
at
at
1000
1500
ft
T
ft
L =
2000 ft
L =
6362-758
m 6362-758 -
0-304
6362 758
'
m 6362-758 -
at
nnnnn
1'MOMH
'
0-457
6362-758
6362-758
6362-758 - 0-610
6362-758
000096
'""6362048 " 1
,
At mean sea level, Easting 415 km,
''
(Eq. 1.59)
42
2
8
L.S.F. = 0-9996013 [1 + (415 - 400) x 1-23 x 10" ]
= 0-9996040
at
500 ft below,
L.S.F.
at
x 1-000024 = 0-999628
= 0-999604
1000 ft below,
L.S.F. = 0-9996040 x 1-000048 = 0-999652
at
1500 ft below,
L.S.F. = 0-9996040 x 1-000072 = 0-999676
at
2000 ft below,
x 1-000096 = 0-999700.
L.S.F. = 0-999604
Example 1.26 An invar reference tape was compared with standard on

the flat at the National Physical Laboratory at 68 F and 201bf tension
and found to be 100-024 Oft in length.
The first bay of a colliery triangulation base line was measured in

catenary using the reference tape and then with the invar field tape at
F and with 20 lbf tension. The means of these

measurements were 99*876 3 ft and 99*912 1 ft respectively.
The second bay of the base line was measured in catenary using
the field tape at 56 F and 20 lbf tension and the resulting mean measurement was 100*213 5 ft.
a temperature of 60
Given:
(a) the coefficient of
expansion
for invar
(b) the weight of the tape per foot run

(c) the inclination of the
(d) the
mean height
Assuming the radius
second bay
second bay
of the
of the earth to
7
= 3-3 x 10"
= 0-00824
lbf,
= 3 15' 00",
= 820 ft A.O.D.
be 20 890 000 ft, calculate the
horizontal length of the second bay reduced to Ordnance Datum.
(M.Q.B./S)
To
find the standardised length of the field tape
Reference tape on the
flat at
68 F = 100-024 Oft.
Temperature correction
7
= 100 x 3-3 x 10" x (60 - 68)
= -0-000 264
.*.
Reference tape
at
i.e.
-0-0003
60 F
= 100-024
- 0-0003
= 100-023 7 ft.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
Thus the standardisation correction
-w
Sag correction
is
43
+ 0*023 7 ft per 100 ft.
2 3
/
24T
2
-(8-24 x 10~ 3 ) x 100 3
24 x 202
- 8-24
9600
The length
of 100
ft
is
= -0*0071
ft
acceptable in all cases due to the close approxi-
mation.
The
true length of the first bay thus
becomes
99-8763 - 0-0071 + 0-0237 = 99-892 9 ft.
The
field tape applied under the
same conditions when corrected
for
sag gives
99-9121 - 0-0071 = 99-905 Oft.
The difference represents the standardisation correction
99-9050 - 99-8929 = +0-022
The corrections may now be applied
lft.
to the second bay
Standardisation
c = + 0-0221 x
100-21
99-91
0-0221
(the proportion is not necessary because of the
close proximity)
Temperature,
c =
L.a.(tm -
7
100 x 3-3 x 10"
ta)
x (56 - 60)
0-0001
Sag,
As before as
Slope,
L (1 -
length
a 100 ft
0-0071
cos 6)
c = - 100-21(1- cos 3 15')
= - 100-21 x 0-00161
Sea
level,
c =
0-1613
- Ih/R
- 100 x 820/20890000
0-003 9
0-022
0-1724
0-022
0-1503
44
Horizontal length reduced to sea level
= 100-2135 - 0-1503
= 100-063 2
The
Example 1.27
ft.
details given below refer to the
measurement of
the first '100ft' bay of a base line. Determine the correct length of the
bay reduced to mean sea level.

With the tape hanging in catenary at a tension of 20 lbf and at a
mean temperature of 55 F, the recorded length was 100-082 4 ft. The
difference in height between the ends
was 1-52 ft and the
site
was
1600ft above m.s.l.
The tape had previously been standardised
in catenary at a tension
60 F, and the distance between zeros

was 100-042 ft. R = 20890000 ft. Weight of tape/ft = 0-013 lbf. SecE = 30 x 10 6 lbf/ in 2 Temperature
tional area of tape = 0-005 6 in 2
coefficient of expansion of tape = 0-00000625 per 1F.
of 15 lbf and at a temperature of
(I.C.E.)
Correction
Corrections
Standardisation
Tape
100-042
is
c = 0-042
.-.
ft
at 15 lbf tension
ft
per 100
and 60 F.
0-0420
ft
Temperature
L a
c =
m-
(t
ts )
6
100 x 6-25 x 10" x (55-60) = -0-0031
0-003
Tension
_
L(Tm
-T9
A.E
100 x (20 - 15)
6
0-0056 x 30 x 10
= +0-003
0-003
Slope
c =
21
1-52
0-0116
200
Sag
c = difference between the corrections for
field
and standard tensions
0-0116
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
W2
C = -
TJ
24
wl = 0-013 x 100 = 1-3 lbf

1-32 2 x 100
45
24
15
- 20 2
15
x 20 2
= +0-013 7
0-013 7
Height
c =
hl_
R
1600 x 100
20890000
= -0-007 7
0-0077
+ 0-0587
-0-0224
0-022 4
+ 0-0363
Measured length
+ 100-0824
Total correction
Corrected length
1.6
If
The Effect
0-0363
100-118 7 ft
of Errors in Linear
Measurement
the corrections previously discussed

(pp. 23-40) are not applied
Any errors within the for-
correctly, then obviously errors will occur.

mulae produce the following effects.
1.61
Standardisation
Where a tape is found to deviate from standard,

the error SI can be
corrected in the normal way or by altering
the standard temperature as
previously suggested.
1.62
Malalignment and deformation of the tape (Figs.

1.32 and 1.33)
(a) Malalignment. If the end of the
tape is out of line by an amount d
in a length /, the error will be
21
e.g.,
if
d=
in.
and /= 100ft,
(1.60)
46
1 in
i.e.
^L
200
JL
= 0-000 3 ft,
330000.
e
Fig. 1.32 Malalignment of the tape
(b)
Deformation in the horizontal plane.
If
the tape is not pulled
straight and the centre of the tape is out of line by d, then
2d
d
d
= TTv"" -77 = T"
'
ez
&*=.
4X1)
e.g., if
d= 3
in.
e2
1/_|
, _ N
< L61)
,.
Jtl
"Sp
1
&L =**o
Fig. 1.33 Deformation of the tape
and 1= 100ft,
= 4 x
e,
= 0-00123,
(c) Deformation in the vertical plane.
i.e. 1 in
This
is the
80000.
same as
(b) but
more
Any obvious change in gradient can be allowed for

by grading the tape or by measuring in smaller bays between these
difficult to detect.
points.
In (a) and (b) alignment
N.B.
by eye
is
acceptable for all purposes
except very precise work.
Reading or marking the tape
1.63
Tapes graduated to 0-01 ft can be read by estimation to give a probable error of 0-001 ft.
Thus if both ends o f the tape are read simultaneously the probable
2
be V(2 x 0001 ), i.e. 0-001 x y/2, i.e. 0-001 4 ft.
Professor Briggs suggests that the error in setting or marking of
the end of the tape is 3 times that of estimating the reading, i.e.
0*003 ft per observation.
error in length will
Errors due to wrongly recorded temperature
1.64
From the correction formula c =
and
I.
a.
m-
(t
t^),
dc = ladtn
(1.62)
j. = aStn
(1.63)
has been suggested from practical observation that errors in recording the actual temperature of the tape for ground and catenary meaIt
surement are
5F
and
3F
respectively.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
If
the error is not to exceed 1/10000, then from Eq. 1.63
8c
a 8t,
10000
1UUUU
8t
i.e.
47
10000 a
a=
If
6
6-5 x 10" per deg F, then
8tm
Thus 5 produces an
10
15.4
6'5 X 10*
~
^
error of
3 produces an error of
1.65
1/30000,
1/50000.
Errors due to variation from the recorded value of tension
These may arise from two sources:

(a) Lack of standardisation of tensioning apparatus.
(b) Variation in the applied tension during application
(this is sig-
nificant in ground taping).
From the correction formula
8c
i.e.
LT
~ T*) _
AE
~~AE
AE
(1.64)
"
(1.65)
8Tm
IE
<
166 >
the error is not to exceed say 1 in 10 000, then
AE
oiTm
i-e-
If
H Tm
L8T,
gc =
differentiation gives
If
c =
(1.39)
A = 0-003 in 2
E=
-
i.e.,
30 x 10 lbf/in 2
8 Tm =
an error of 1/10000
an error of 1/30 000
<s
10000
-
then
0-003 x 30 x 10 6
is
is
AE
1O(M)0
'~
= 91bf
produced by a variation of 91bf,

produced by a variation of 3 Ibf
The tape cross-section is x/2 in. wide to give A = 0*003 in2 If the
width of the tape be reduced to Kin. then, if the other dimensions
.
48
2
remain constant, the cross-sectional area is reduced to %A = 0*000 8 in
error
of 1/10 000
In this case a variation of 3 lbf will produce an
and the accuracy will be reduced as the cross-sectional area diminishes.

Errors from sag
1.66
Where the tape has been standardised on the flat and is then used
measuring heads at different levels, the approximation formula is given as
in catenary with the
-/ 3
w 2 cos 2
c =
where 6
is the
6
(1.50)
24I 2
angle of inclination of the chord between measuring

becomes negligible when 6 is small.
2
heads. The value of cos
The sources
(a)
of error are derived from:
an error in the weight of the tape per unit length, w,
(b) an error in the angular value, B,

(c)
an error in the tension applied, T.
By successive
differentiation,
dcw
- 2/ 3 wcos 2 flg W
24 T
(1 67)
2cdW
(1.68)
w
8c,
28w
i.e.
(1.69)
This may be due to an error in the measurement of the weight of the

tape or due to foreign matter on the tape, e.g. dirt.
8c e =
See
-l 3 w 2
2
sin20S0
(1.70)
= 2c tan 6 86
(1.71)
= 2tan0S0
(1.72)
c
2/
Sc T =
w2
24T
2c8T
T
8c T _
"
c
cos
-28T
T
0ST
(1.73)
(1.74)
(1.75)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
The compounded effect of a variation
2l*w 2 cos 2 (9
in
Example 1.28
T = 10 1 lbf,
C =
Then~
i.e.
w =
10%
If
100 3 x 0-012
2c 8w
error in
= 2 x
18T
* 04161
2c tan fl 86"
cos 2 2
-
x O'l = 0-008 32 ft
- 524 x 10
"2^6167 x
ft.
obviously negligible.
Sc t =
10%
= 0>04161ft
~24
^lf~
= 0-000 000 21
i.e.
$ = 2 10"
ft,
0-08322
=
206 265
is
L76 )
weight produces an error of 1/12000.
806 =
This
<
~AE
0-01 0-001 lbf per
x cos 2 2
24xl0
~w~
w=
= 100 ft,
tension gives
8T
24T 2
49
~y-
= 0-083 22
xO-U
0-008 322
ft
error in tension produces an error of

1/12000.
Example 1.29
A base line is measured and subsequent calculations
show that its total length is 4638-00 ft. It is later
discovered that the
tension was recorded incorrectly, the
proper figure being
10 lbf less
than that stated in the field book, extracts
from which are given below.
Assuming that the base line was measured in
46 bays of nominal
length 100 ft and one bay of nominal
length 38 ft, calculate the error
incurred in
ft.
Extract from field notes

Standardisation temperature
= 50 F
Standardisation tension
= 20 lbf
= 45 op
_ 40 lbf
= 30 x 10 6 lbf/in 2
Measured temperature
Measured tension
Young's modulus of tape
Cross-sectional area of tape
Weight of lin 3 of steel
= 0-125
= 0-28
in.
x 0-05
in.-
lbf.
(N.U.)
Weight of steel tape per
ft
= 0-125 x 0-05 x 12 x 0-28 = 0-021
lbf.
50
From Eq.
(1.39)
Then the
error
c =
L(Jm
'
s)
due to wrongly applied tension = c - c'
where
L(Tm -
M.
Tm =
T'm
r.)
_ L(T^ - Ts )
AE
AE
AE
(T
K
m)
m - T')
true applied tension,
= assumed applied tension.
Error
4638 ( 30 - 40 >
0-125 x 0-05 x 30 x 10
From Eq.
.'.
(1.46) correction for sag c
.
6
. -0-24736ft.
z
-W -ji
Error due to wrongly applied tension
= c -
c,
w!i/i
24 \T
W = 100 x
Error for 100
ft
_ i_\
Tfj
0-021 = 2-1 lbf
bay
2-1
x 100 /Jl_ _ _1_\

40 2 /
24
Uo2
441 / l600 - 900 \

= ~
24 \l600 x 900/
_ 441
24
700
\1
440 000/
= -0-00893
Error for 46 bays =
-0-410 78 ft
Error for 38 ft bay
W = 38
n0t
x 0-021 = 0-798 lbf
\
0-798 2 x 38 /
700
_
~ _
440
\l
24
000/
= - 0-000 49 ft
.-.
Total error for sag
= -0-411 27 ft
Total error for tension
= - 0-247 36 ft
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
Total error = - 0-658 63
Apparent reduced length
i.e.
0*658 6
is
51
ft
too large.
ft
Inaccurate reduction to the horizontal
1.67
The inclined length may be reduced by obtaining

measuring heads or
(a) the difference in level of the
(b) the angle of inclination of the tape,
(a)
The approximation formula

(Eq. 1.15)
Adopting the
C
first
given as
is
...)
=2l
term only, from the differentiation
d8d
8c _
(1.77)
2c 8d
(1.78)
28d
d
8c
c
If
8d/d= 1%, when
= 100 and
d=
(1.79)
5 0-05
ft,
*
=
8c
As
0-01
2 x 5
x 0-01
o
T7^
2 x 100
0-002 5
By
i .e
1/200 000
trigonometrical observations (Eq. 1.12),
Then
i.e.
/
40000.
the difference in level can be obtained without difficulty to
c =
If
i.e. 1 in
ft,
8c = 0-000 5 ft,
(b)
= 100, B = 30
8c =
1(1
- cos0)
8c = /sin0S0
8c
(1.80)
_
"
/sinflgfl"
206265
C1,81)
oc
sin0 86
(1.82)
20",
10 *
5
2
; *
-
0-0048ft
i.e.
2Uo 265
The accuracy obviously improves as 6 is reduced.

As the angle of inclination increases the accuracy
ment of 6 must improve.
1/20000.
in the
measure-
52
Errors in reduction from height above or below
1.68
From
mean sea
level
the formula
Ih
8c =
by differentiating
(1.83)
R.
The %
or
cSh
T-
(1.84)
error in the correction is equal to the
error in the height
above
below M.S.L.
1.69
Errors due to the difference between ground and grid distances
Local scale factor
is
given by Eq.(1.59)
2
8
0-9996013(1 + 1-23 E x 10~ )
where E is the distance in km from the central meridian (i.e. the Eastings - 400 km).
As this amounts to a maximum of 0*04% it is only effective in precise surveys
Exercises 1(b)
10.
300ft tape has been standardised at 80 F and
its true
length
measured at 75 F and reat this temperature is

corded as 3486*940 ft. Find its true length assuming the coefficient of
-6
per deg F.
linear expansion is 6*2 x 10
300*023
ft.
line is
(Ans.
A base
3487- 10
ft)
10560 ft long when measured in catenary using a tape 300ft long which is standard without tension at 60 F.
The tape in cross-section is 1/8 x 1/20 in.
11.
line is found to be
If one half of the line is measured at 70 F and the other half at

80 F with an applied tension of 501bf, and the bays are approximately
equal, find the total correction to be applied to the measured length.
Coefficient of linear expansion =
Weight of
3
of steel
1 in
Young's modulus
12.
100
ft
6*5 x 10
= 0-28
-6
per deg F.
lbf
6
= 29 x 10 lbf/in 2
(Ans.
.
-3 -042 ft)
when
The cross-
steel tape without tension is of standard length
placed on the ground horizontally
at a
temperature of 60 F.
sectional area is 0*0103 in 2 and its weight 3*49 lbf, with a coefficient
6
of linear expansion of 6*5 x 10~ per deg F.
The tape
is
used in the field in catenary with a middle support such
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
that all the supports are at the
same
53
level.
Calculate the actual length between the measuring heads if the

temperature is 75 F and the tension is 20 lbf. (Assume Young's mod6
ulus 30 x 10 lbf/in 2 ).
99-985 lft)
(Ans.
A nominal distance of 100 ft was set out with a 100 ft steel tape
13.
from a mark on the top of one peg to a mark on the top of another, the
tape being in catenary under a pull of 20 lbf and at a mean temperature
of 70 F. The top of one peg was 0*56 ft below the top of the other.
The tape had been standardised in catenary under a pull of 25 lbf at a
temperature of 62 F.
Calculate the exact horizontal distance between the marks on the

two pegs and reduce it to mean sea level. The top of the higher peg
was 800ft above mean sea level.
6
(Radius of earth = 20:9 x 10 ft density of tape 0*28 lbf/in 3 ;
section of tape = 0*125 x 0*05 in.; Young's modulus 30 x 10 6 lbf/in 2 ;
;
coefficient of expansion 6' 25 x 10" 6 per 1 F)
Ans.
(I.C.E.
14.
steel tape is found to be 299-956
sion of 12
lbf.
The tape has
99-980 4
ft)
long at 58 F under a ten-
ft
the following specifications:
Width
0-4 in.
Thickness
0-018
in.
5
Young's modulus of elasticity
30 x 10 lbf/in 2
Coefficient of thermal expansion 6-25 x 10" 6 per deg F.
Determine the tension to be applied to the tape to give a length of
precisely 300 ft at a temperature of 68 F.
(N.U.
Ans.
30 lbf)
15.
(a) Calculate to three decimal places the sag correction for a
300 ft tape used in catenary in three equal spans if the tape weighs
1 lb/100 ft and it is used under a tension of 20 lbf.
(b) It is desired to find the
when suspended
weight of a tape by measuring
in catenary with both
long and the sag amounts to 9-375
20
lbf,
what
in.
its sag
ends level. If the tape is 100 ft
at mid-span under a tension of
is its weight in ozf per 100 ft?
(N.U.
Ans.
0-031
ft,
20 ozf)
Describe the methods used for the measurement of the depth of

vertical mine shafts and discuss the possible application of electronic
distance measuring equipment.
Calculate the elongation of a shaft measuring tape due to its own
weight at (1) 1000 ft and (2) 3000 ft, given that the modulus of elastici16.
30 x 10 lbf/in 2 } weight of the tape 0-051bf/ft run, and the crosssectional area of the tape 0-015 in 2
ty is
(N.U.
Ans.
0-055 6
ft,
0-500
ft)
54
(a) Describe the measuring and straining tripods used in geodelic

17.
base measurement.
(b) The difference between the readings on a steel tape at the
terminals of a bay between which it is freely suspended was 94*007 ft,
the tension applied being 201bf, the temperature 39*5 F, and the height
difference between the terminals 5*87 ft. The bay was 630 ft above mean
sea level.
If the tape, standardised on the flat, measured correctly at 68 F
under lOlbf tension, and its weight was 0*0175 lbf per ft, its coefficient
8
of expansion 0*62 x 10~ per deg F and its coefficient of extension
5
0*67 x 10" per lb, calculate the length of the bay reduced to mean sea
6
level. (Radius of earth = 20-9 x 10 ft).
Ans.
93-784 ft)
(L.U.
The steel band of nominal length 100ft used in the catenary measurement of a colliery base line, has the following specification:
(i) Length 100*025 ft at 10 lbf tension and 68 F.
18.
(ii)
(iii)
2
Sectional area 0*004 in
Weight 22 ozf
(iv) Coefficient of linear
(v)
6
expansion 6*25 x 10~ per deg F.
Modulus of elasticity 30 x 10* lbf/in 2
was measured
10 bays and the undernoted obserthe

first five which were of average
respect
of
recorded
in
were
vations
height 625 ft above Ordnance Datum.
The base
line
in
Observed
Length
Bay
Bay Level
Bay
Temperature
Difference
Tension
Applied
100*005
52 F
0*64
20 lbf
99*983
54F
54 F
58 F
60F
1*23
20 lbf
0*01
20 lbf
0*79
20 lbf
2*14
20 lbf
100*067
100*018
99*992
Correct the bays for standard, temperature, tension, sag, slope,

and height above Ordnance Datum and compute the corrected length of
this part of the base line. Take the mean radius of the earth to be
20890000 ft.
(M.Q.B./S Ans. 500'044ft)
19.
The
steel band used in the catenary measurement of the base line
has the undernoted specification:

a tension of 25 lbf at 60 F.
of a colliery triangulation survey

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
length 50*000 3 m
weight 2*5 lbf
at
8
coefficient of linear expansion 6*25 x 10~ per deg F.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
The undernoted data apply
base
to the
55
measurement of one bay of the
line:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
length 50-002 7
mean temperature 53 F
tension applied 25 lbf
(iv) difference in level
(v)
between ends of bay 0*834
mean height of bay above mean sea level 255*4 m.
Correct the measured length of the bay for standard, temperature,

sag, slope, and height above
of the earth is 6-37 x 10
mean sea
level.
Assume
the
mean radius
m.
(M.Q.B./S
Ans.
49-971
m)
A base line was measured with an invar tape 100 ft long which
20.
had been standardised on the flat under a tensile load of 15 lbf and at
a temperature of 60 F. Prior to the measurement of the base line the
tape was tested under these conditions and found to record 0*015 ft too
much on the standard length of 100 ft. The base line was then divided
into bays and the results obtained from the measurement of the bays
with the tape suspended are shown below:
Length
Difference in level
Air temperature
(ft)
between supports (ft)
(F)
Bay
1
99*768
2*15
99*912
1*62
49*6
100*018
3*90
49*8
100*260
4*28
50*2
65*715
0*90
50*3
49*6
= 22 x 10 lbf/in 2
Coefficient of linear expansion of invar = 5*2 x 10~ 7 per deg F.
Field pull = 25 lbf.
Modulus of elasticity (E)
for invar
Cross-sectional area of tape = 0*004 in 2
Weight per
ft
run of tape = 0*010 2 lbf.
Average reduced level of base line site = 754*5 ft.

6
Radius of earth = 20*8 x 10 ft.
Correct the above readings and determine to the nearest 0*001
the length of the base line at
mean sea
(I.C.E.
21.
ft
level.
The following readings were taken
in
Ans.
465*397
ft)
measuring a base line with
a steel tape suspended in catenary in five spans:
56
Mean reading
pan
of tape (ft)
Tension
Difference in level
between Index Marks
(ft)
Mean
(Ibf)
temperature (F)
100.155
3-1
25
73
100*140
0*9
50
76
100060
1-2
25
78
100 108
3-1
25
80
100-182
2-0
25
80
The tape reading was 100*005
ft
when calibrated
in
catenary under
a tension of 25 lbf at a temperature of 65 F between two points at the
same level precisely 100 ft
apart.
Other tape constants are:
width of tape = 0*250
in;
thickness of tape = 0*010
weight of steel = 0*283 lbf/in 3
for steel
coefficient of expansion of steel = 6*2 x 10"
Compute the length
base
of the
22.
A
in
per
deg F.
line.
(I.C.E.
band
in;
= 30 x 10 lbf/in 2
Ans.
500*568
ft)
short base line is measured in four bays with a 100ft invar

catenary under a pull of 20 lbf with the following field readings:
Bay
tF
65*2
64*0
65*5
63*8
hit
I
ft
5*08
99*6480
2*31
1*31
99*541 7
99*751 7
2*13
99*9377
where t is the field temperature, h is the difference in level between

the ends of each bay and / is the mean reading of the invar band
When standardised in catenary under a pull of 20 lbf at 68*5F the
standard length of the invar band was 99*999 ft and the mean altitude
of the base is 221 ft above sea level. If the coefficient of expansion of
invar is 0*000 0003 per deg F and the radius of the earth is 20*9 x 10* ft
what
is
the length of the base line reduced to sea level?

(I.C.E. Ans.
398*6829 ft)
Bibliography
CLARK, D., Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vols. I and II (Constable)

HOLLAND, J.L., WARDELL, K. and WEBSTER, A.G., Surveying, Vols. I
and
SMIRNOFF,
M.V.,
Measurement
II.
Coal Mining Series (Virtue)

and Other Surveys
for Engineering
(Prentice-Hall)
BANNISTER, A. and RAYMOND, S., Surveying (Pitman)

THOMAS, W.N., Surveying, 5th ed. (Edward Arnold)
BRIGGS, N., The Effects of Errors in Surveying (Griffin)
MINISTRY OF TECHNOLOGY, Changing to the Metric System (H.M.S.O.)
ORDNANCE SURVEY publication, Constants, Formulae and Methods
used in Transverse Mercator (H.M.S.O.)
2 SURVEYING TRIGONOMETRY
'Who conquers the triangle half conquers his subject'
M.H. Haddock
Of
all
the branches of mathematics, trigonometry is the most im-
portant to the surveyor, forming the essential basis of all calculations
and computation processes. It is therefore essential that a thorough

working knowledge is acquired and this chapter is an attempt to summarize the basic requirements.
2.1
Angular Measurement
There are two ways of dividing the

(a) the
circle:
degree system,
(b) the continental 'grade'
system.
The latter divides the circle into 4 quadrants of 100 grades each
and thereafter subdivides on a decimal system. It has little to commend it apart from its decimalisation which could be applied equally
to the degree system. It has found little favour and will not be considered here.
2.11
The degree system
180
Clockwise rotation used by
Anticlockwise rotation used by

mathematicians
surveyors
Fig. 2.1
Comparison of notations
57
58
The
circle is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees, each degree
into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds.
The following sym-
bols are used:
degrees ()
( ')
minutes
seconds
(")
so that 47 degrees 26 minutes 6 seconds is written as
47 26' 06"
N.B.
The use of 06" is preferred in surveying so as to remove any
doubts in recorded or computed values.
In mathematics the angle is assumed to rotate anti-clockwise
whilst in surveying the direction of rotation is assumed clockwise.
This variance in no way alters the subsequent calculations but is
merely a different notation.
2.12
Trigonometrical ratios (Fig. 2.2)
Assume
radius = 1
Cotangent
a) C
Versine
Fig. 2.2
angle
Sine
(abbreviated sin)
Cosine
(abbreviated cos) angle
4p
AB
GO
= 9J* = 93.
OB
GA
= sin_0 =
DC
OC
DC
4|
OA
Tangent (abbreviated
tan)
angle
M.
OB
_ cos 6_
Cotangent 6 (cot 0) =
tan 6
sin 6
cos
OB
AB
FE
FO
FE
(cosec 0) =
Cosecant
Secant
(sec 0)
Versine
(covers 0) =
If
- sin0
N.B. In mathematical shorthand sin

...
A
OB
- cos
-1
sine is
-t-~
Ad
cos
(vers 0)
Coversine
sin0
=
-
59
OE
OF
OE
OD
OC
OD
OC - OB
= OF - OG.
x means the angle
(x)
whose
OA =
radius =
sin 2
then, by Pythagoras,
+ cos 2
1.
sin 2
cos
(2.1)
- cos 2
- sin
(2.2)
(2.3)
Dividing Eq. 2.1 by cos 0,

2
sin
cos
cos
tan
i.e.
cos
cos 2
+
tan 2
= sec 2
= sec 2
1.
(2.4)
Dividing Eq. 2.1 by sin 2 0,

sin
sin
cos
i.e.
sin
1
sin 2
+ cot 2
= cosec 2
sin0 = V(l- c os
0).
cos0 = V(l-sin 2 0).

tan0 =
sin0
sin0
cos0
V(l-sin 2 0)
or =
cos
2
VCi + tan ^)
cosec
(2.6)
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
sec0
sin0
V(l - cos 2 0)COS0
-5Li
(2.5)
(2.10)
\/(l
+ cot 2 0)
(2.11)
which shows that, by manipulating the equations, any function can be

expressed in terms of any other function.
60
Complementary angles
2.13
The complement
of an acute angle is the difference between the
angle and 90,

i.e.
if
its
The
The
The
The
The
angle
30
complement
90 - 30
60
sine of an angle
cosine of its complement
cosine of an angle
sine of its complement
tangent of an angle
cotangent of its complement
secant of an angle
cosecant of
cosecant of an angle
secant of
its
its
complement
complement
Supplementary angles
2.14
The supplement of an angle is the difference between the angle

and 180,
if
i.e.
its
The sine
angle
A = 30
= 180 - 30=
supplement
150.
sine of its supplement
cosine of an angle
cosine of
tangent of an angle
tangent of its supplement (but a nega-
of an angle
its
supplement (but a negative value)
tive value)
These relationships are best
illustrated by graphs.
Sine Graph (Fig. 2.3)
180
Fig.
2.
The sine graph
Let the line OA of length 1 rotate anticlockwise. Then the height

above the horizontal axis represents the sine of the angle of rotation.
90
it
reaches a maximum
At 180
it
returns to the axis.
At 270
it
reaches a minimum
At
It
can be seen from the graph that
-1
61
sin 30
Thus
30),
i.e.
sin 150
-sin (180 + 30),
i.e.
-sin 210
-sin (360 -30),
i.e.
-sin 330
sin (180
the sine of all angles
- 180 are +ve (positive)
the sine of all angles 180
- 360
Cosine Graph (Fig.

placed by 90.
2.4).
This
Fig.
cos 30
Thus
2.
is the
-ve
are
same as
(negative).
the sine graph but dis-
The cosine graph
-cos (180 -30)
-cos 150
-cos (180 + 30)
-cos 210
+cos(360-30) = + cos 330

- 90
the cosine of all angles
and 270 -360 are + ve
90 -270 ate-ve
Tangent Graph (Fig. 2.5) This
too
-oo
Fig. 2.5
is
discontinuous as shown.
+oo
-oo
The tangent graph
-hoo
62

tan 30
Thus
tan (180 +30),
i.e.
tan 210
-tan (180 -30),
i.e.
-tan 150
-tan (360 -30),
i.e.
-tan 330
the tangents of all angles
0-90
and 180- 270 ate + ve
90- 180 and 270- 360
are
-ve
Comparing these values based on the clockwise notation the sign of

the function can be seen from Fig. 2.6.
i*
.+
1st
quodrtmt 0*-90*
2nd quadrant 90-180
f%ir\*
3rd quadrant 160-270
Fig. 2.6
4*A**
4th quadrant 270-360
63
Let the rotating arm be +ve 6

1st quadrant
sin 0,
i.e.
COS0,
,
+
.e.
.e.
i.e.
jr.
i.e.
tan0,
2nd quadrant
2
= (180-0)
sin0 2
cos
tan
i*e.
sin
s=
jz
i.e.
-*
COS0 3
;~
i.e.
tan
i.e.
i.e.
cos04
i.e.
tan
3rd quadrant
3
= (0-180)
4th quadrant
4
= (360-0)
sin
i.e.
Basis of tables of trigonometrical functions
2.15
Trigonometrical tables may be prepared, based on the following

series
~
sin0
/}3
H
"
0-!
3!
where
and 3!
5!
is
R
R
i!-
/J5
/j7
5!
7!
(2.12)
expressed as radians, see p. 72.
is factorial 3, i.e. 3
is factorial 5,
cos0 =
x 2 x
5x4x3x2x1.
i.e.
jf?
2!
+ 1 _ 1 +
4!
_..
(2.13)
6!
This information is readily available in many varied forms and
64
to the
number of places of decimals required
lem
hand.
in
The following number
for the particular prob-
of places of decimals are
recommended:
for
degrees only, 4 places of decimals,
for
degrees and minutes, 5 places of decimals,
for degrees, minutes
and seconds, 6 places of decimals.
Trigonometric ratios of common angles
2.16
The following basic angles may be calculated.

B
'
30
30
\\2
2/
>/3
figure, with
Let
then
by Pythagoras
Thus
AB
AD
BD
sin 30
6oy
Fig. 2.7
From the
/\ 60
\
C
Trigonometrical ratios of 30 and 60
BD
perpendicular to AC,
BC = AC = 2 units,
= DC = 1 unit,
z
2
= y/(2 -l ) = y/3.
=
=1=0-5
cos 60
2
sin 60
tan 30
V3
1-732
cos 30
1-732
_L = V?
V3
tan 60
0-8660
0-577 3
cot 60
1-7320
cot 30
Similarly values for 45
may be obtained.
Using a right-angled isosceles triangle where
by Pythagoras
AB
yj{\
l )
V2
AC
BC
1,
Fig. 2.8
1
65
Trigonometrical ratios of 45
1-414 2
)il
0-7071
cos 45
cot 45
It
can now be seen from the above that

sin 120
/hereas
sin (180
-120) =
sin 60
= 0-8660
cos 120 = -cos (180 - 120) = -cos 60 = -0-5
tanl20 = -tan (180 - 120) = -tan60 = -1*7320

vlso
sin 210
= -sin (210 -180) = -sin 30 =
-0-5
cos240 = - cos (240 - 180) = -cos60 = -0-5

tan 225
= +tan (225 - 180) =
tan 45 =
1-0
sin330 = - sin (360 - 330) = -sin30 = -0-5

cos 315 = +cos(360-315) = + cos 45 =
0-7071
tan 300 = - tan (360 - 300) = -tan 60 = -1-7320
17
Points of the compass (Fig. 2.9)
These
are not used in Surveying but are replaced by Quadrant (or
uadrantal) Bearings where the prefix is always

or W, Fig. 2.10.
g.
NNE
ENE
ESE
67 30' E.
30' E.
67
S
SSE
SW
S 22 30' E.
S 45 00' W.
NW
N 45
N
N
22 30' E.
00' W.
or S with the suffix
66
Fig. 2.9
Points of the compass
NNE
= N22
30' E
NWN45W
ENE
= N67 30'E
ESE
=S67 30'E
SW = S45 W
SSE
=S22 30'E
2.18
Easy problems based on the solution of the right-angled
67
triangle
N.B. An angle of elevation is an angle measured in the vertical plane

is above eye level, i.e. a positive vertical angle,
where the object

Fig. 2.11.
An angle
of depression is an angle measured in the vertical plane
where the object
is
below eye level,
Fig.
2.
11
i.e.
a negative vertical angle.
Vertical angles
In any triangle there are six parts, 3 sides
and 3 angles
The usual notation is to let the side opposite the angle A be a

etc, as shown in Fig. 2.12.
The following facts are thus
known about the given right-angled
triangle ABC.
C = 90
Angle A + Angle
Angle
c
sin
= a
A =
+ b
fi
= 90
(by Pythagoras)
SL
cos A
k
c
tan
A =
b
Fig. 2.12
68
tan
a
-
A =
c
sin
i.e.
~-
c
b
-r
cos A.
To find the remaining parts of the triangle it is necessary to know

3 parts (in the case of the right-angled triangle, one angle = 90 and
therefore only 2 other facts are required).
Example
In a right-angled triangle
2.1.
10 metres long, whilst angle
is 70.
ABC,
the hypotenuse
AB
of the triangle.
As
a
c
then
AB
the hypotenuse is
the right angle is at
b
c
b
sin 70
(c)
(Fig. 2.13).
c sin 70
10 sin 70
10 x 0-939 69
9-397 metres
cos 70
c cos 70
10 x 0-34202
3-420 metres
Fig.
2.
13
AngleS = 90 - 70 = 20
Aa
Check
angle
i.e.
Example 2.2
tanS = l'*l = 0-363 97

9-396
20 00'
B =
necessary to climb a vertical wall 45 ft (13-7 m)

ft (15-2 m) long, Fig. 2.14. Find
from the foot of the wall the ladder must be placed,
It is
high with a ladder 50

(a)
How
far
(b) the inclination of the ladder
||
sin^
0-9
50
thus
thus
Ans.
angle
A = 64
angle
cos A
50 cos 64 09' 30" =
ft
(b)
64 09' 30"
09' 30"
25 50' 30"
(a) 21-79
is
Calculate the remaining parts
21-79
ft
(6-63 m)
from the horizontal.
69
45'
Fig. 2.14
A ship sails 30 miles (48-28 km) on a bearing N 30 E.

Example 2.3.
then changes course and sails a further 50 miles (80'4 km) N 45 W.
Find (a) the bearing back to its starting point,
(b) the distance back to its starting point.
It
N.B. See chapter 3 on bearings

To solve this problem two triangles,
to form a resultant third ACF (Fig. 2.15).
In triangle
ADB, AB
is
N30E
30 miles (48-28 km). The distance

travelled N = AD.
but
4
AB
cos 30
then
AD
30 cos 30
= 25-98 miles (41 -812 km)
The distance
but
.-.
AB
DB
sin 30
30 sin 30
15-00 miles (24 -140 km)
Similarly in triangle
tance travelled
but
BE
E = DB
travelled
BC
BCE
the dis-
N = BE
cos 45
= 50 cos 45
= 35-35 miles (56-890 km)
The distance
The distance
travelled
travelled
W (CE) =
N = 35-35
miles as the bearing = 45

(sin 45 = cos 45).
In resultant triangle
ACF,
ADB
and BCE, are joined
70
CF = CE - DB =
AF = AD + BE =
tantf
CF
AF
18 21 20"
2.4.
20-35 miles (32-750)
61-33 miles (98-702)
.-.
0-33181
bearing A C
AF
61-33
cos 18 21' 20
'-,
cos 6
Example
25-98 + 35-35
= JP-Î =
61-33
'
AC
35-35 - 15-00
An angle
Tl
18 21' 20" W.
= 64-62 miles (104-0 km)
45 was observed to the top
of elevation of
of a tower. 42 metres nearer to the tower a further angle of elevation

of
60 was observed.
Find (a) the height of the tower,
(b) the distance the observer
Fig.
2.
is
from the foot of the tower.
16
InF]ig.2.16,
AC
H
i.e.
also
i.e.
cot
AC = H
BC
H
BC
AC
BC
cot A
cotS
H cot B.
AB = ft (cot ,4
- cotB)
AB
H
cot
A -
cot
71
42
cot 45 -cot 60
42
1-0-577 4
BC = H
AC
Check
99 38ln
"
0-4226
cot
99-38 cot 60
99-38 x 0-577 4
DC
BC
99-38
AC
99-38 - 42
57-38
AB
57-38
Exercises 2(a)
1.
A flagstaff 90 ft high is held up by ropes, each being attached to
the top of the flagstaff and to a peg in the ground and inclined at 30
to the vertical; find the lengths of the ropes and the distances of the
pegs from the foot of the flagstaff.
(Ans. 103-92
ft,
51-96
ft)
From the top of a mast of a ship 75 ft high the angle of depression

of an object is 20. Find the distance of the object from the ship.
2.
(Ans.
206 -06ft)
tower has an elevation 60 from a point due north of it and 45

If the two points are 200 metres apart, find the
height of the tower and its distance from each point of observation.
(Ans. 126-8 m, 73-2 m, 126-8 m)
3.
from a point due south.
boat is 1500 ft from the foot of a vertical cliff. To the top of the
and the top of a building standing on the edge of the cliff, angles
of elevation were observed as 30 and 33 respectively. Find the
4.
cliff
height of the building to the nearest foot.
(Ans.
5.
What
vertical stick 3
108
ft)
long casts a shadow from the sun of 1-75 m.
is the elevation of the
sun ?
(Ans.
59 45')
X and Y start walking in directions N17W and N73E; find their

distance apart after three hours and the direction of the line joining
them. X walks at 3 km an hour and Y at 4 km an hour.
6.
(Ans.
7.
A, B, and
are three places.
is
30 km
15
N67HE
km S7008'E)
of A, and
72
is
40 km S221/2 E of B. Find the distance
Circular Measure
2.2
The circumference
and bearing of C from A.

(Ans. 50 km, S5922'E)
of a circle
= 2rrr where
77
= 3*1416 approx.
The radian
2.21
The angle subtended at the centre of a

known as a radian.
circle by an arc equal in
length to the radius is
Thus
77
radians
360
radian
/.
277
5717 45" approx.
206 265 seconds.
This last constant factor is of vital importance to small angle calculations and for conversion of degrees to radians.
Example
Convert 64 11' 33" to radians.
2.5.
64 11' 33" =
.-.
231093 seconds.
231093
no. of radians
1-120 37 rad.
206 265
Tables of radian measure are available for 0-90 and, as the

radian measure is directly proportional to the angle, any combination
of values produces the same answer for any angular amount.
By
tables,
64
=
11'
64
11'
1-11701
= 0-003 20
33"
0-000 16
33"
1-120 37
It now follows that the length of an arc of a circle of radius r and

subtending d radians at the centre of the circle can be written as
arc
This
is generally superior to the
*
When 6
N.B.
To
is written
it
r.6 rad
(2.14)
use of the formula
2m *
(21S)
implies 6 radians.
find the area of a circle.
regular polygon
ABC
...
is
drawn inside a
circle, Fig. 2.17.
Draw
OX
BC +
tOX (perimeter
When the number
...)
of polygon)
of sides of the
increased to infinity
is
OX becomes
(oo),
of polygon
OX(AB
polygon
AB
perpendicular to
Then area
73
the radius,
the perimeter becomes the cir-
cumference, and
the polygon becomes the circle
.*.
area of circle =
The area of
V2.r .2ttt
Fig.
2. 17
TFT 2
the sector
ari=>a
OAB.
area of sector
area of circle
2tt
of sftrtnr
rrr
" _
\r*Q
(2.16)
2tt
2.22
Small angles and approximations
For any angle < 90
(i.e.
<
77/2 radians) tantf
>
> sim
Fig.
Let angle
AOC
2.
18
= 6
OA = OC
and
AB be a tangent to the arc AC

AD perpendicular (1) to OB.
let
Draw
=
at
to cut
OC
produced at B.
74
Then
OAB
area of triangle
0A AB
h.rtand =
Now
area of sector
OAC
area of triangle
OAC
triangle
OAB
r 2 tan0
2
OC.AD
Ir.r sin0
|r 2
|r 2 sin0
> sector (X4C > triangle OAC.
Ar 2 tan0 > |r 2
> |r 2 sin0
tan0 > 9 > sin0

This
is obviously true for all
Take
to
< it/2.
values of
be very small.
Divide each term by sin0,

*
then
>
cos0
It
known
is
that as
Thus
cos0
.*.
cos0
then
-*
>
sin0
-*
1.
when
is small
must also be nearly
..
1.
sin0
The
result
shows
that sin0
may be replaced by
0.
Similarly, dividing each term by tan0,

1
i.e.
>
>
tan0
> s * n fl
tan0
"
> cos0
tan0
Tan0 may
It
also be replaced by 6.
can thus be shown that
tan0
The following values
for very small

=2..
angles
sin0.
are taken from H.M. Nautical
Almanac Office.
(These
Five-figure Tables of Natural Trigonometrical Functions.

tables are very suitable for most machine calculations.)
75
Angle
Tangent
Radian
Sine
0-01745
0-02618
0-03491
0-04363
0-05236
0-06109
0-06981
0-01745
100'00"
0-01746
1 30' 00"
0-026 19
2 00' 00"
2 30' 00"
3 00' 00"
3 30' 00"
4 00' 00"
4 30' 00"
5 00 '00"
0-03492
0-04366
0-05241
0-061 16
0-06993
0-07870
0-08749
0-026 18
0-03490
0-04362
0-05234
0-06105
0-06976
0-078 54
0-078 46
0-08727
0-08716
From these
it can be seen that $ may be substituted for sin 6 or

tan0 to 5 figures up to 2, whilst 6 may be substituted for sin0 up
to 5 and for tantf up to 4 to 4 figures, thus allowing approximations to be made when angles are less than 4
Example 2.6. If the distance from the earth to the moon be 250000
miles (402000 km) and the angle subtended 0 30', find the diameter of
the moon.
250 OOO miles
Fig.
The diameter
Example
2.7.
2.
19
arc
2L
250000 x 30'rad
250000 v 30 x 60
206265
ABC
=2
2180 miles (3510 km)
Find as exactly as possible from Chambers Mathemati-
cal Tables the logarithmic sines of the following angles:
A = 00 02' 42"
and
C = 00 11' 30"
Use these values to find the lengths of the sides AB and AC in a

angle ABC when BC = 12-736 ft. Thereafter check your answer by
tri-
another method, avoiding as far as possible using the tables at the

same places as in the first method.
The lengths
are to be stated to three places of decimals.
(M.Q.B/S)
76
As the sines and tangents of small angles change so rapidly,

special methods are necessary.
Method 1
Chambers Mathematical Tables give the following method of finding
the logarithmic sine of a small arc:
To
the logarithm of the arc reduced to seconds, add 4-685 574 9 and
sum subtract 1/3 of its logarithmic secant, the index of
from the
the latter logarithm being previously diminished by 10.
0002'42" = 162"
logl62
2-2095150
constant
4-6855749
6-8950899
-|(logsec02'42" -
10) =
| x 0-000 000 2
= 0-0000001
6-8950898
00 11" 30" = 690"
log 690
2-8388491
constant
4-685 5749
7-5244240
-!(log sec
11'
30" - 10) =
I x 0-0000024
= 0-0000008
7-524423 2
Method 2
As
the sines and tangents of small angles approximate to the
value,
radian value of
logO-000785397 4
radian value of
00 11' 30"
Summary
(1)
690
206 265
0-000785 3974
6-8950895
=
=
logO-003 3452112
To
* 6^
206 265
A 00 02' 42" =
= 0-003 345 2112
7-524423 5
(2)
Vegas tables
(to l")
00 02' 42"
6-895089 8
6-895089 5
6-8950898
00 11' 30"
7-524 423 2
7-524 4235
7-524 4231
AB
find the length of sides
AB
BC
sin
sin
and
AC when BC
= 12-736
12-736 sin (02' 42"

sin 02' 42"
11' 30") (see 2.51
77
12-736
Logs
1-1050331
S/14' 12"
2-929 2793
4-6855749
8-719887 3
-|(sec-10)
0-0000035
8-7198838
AB
66-803
AC
BC
S/02' 42"
6-8950898
AB
1-8247940
12-736
1-1050331
ft
sin
12-736 sin 11' 30"

sin 02' 42"
sin^4
S/ll' 30"
7-524423 2
8-629 4563
AC
2.3
54-246
S/02' 42"
6-895 0898
AC
1-7343665
ft
Trigonometrical Ratios of the Sums and Differences

of two angles (Fig. 2.20)
To
prove:
sin (A
+ B) = sin A cos B +
+ cos A sin B
(2.17)
B -
cos (A + B) = cos A cos
- sin A sinS
(2.18)
Let the line OX trace out the

angle A and then the angle B.
Take a point P on the final line
0X 2 Draw PS and PQ perpendicular to OX and OX, respectively.
Through Q draw QK parallel to OX to meet
.
Fig. 2.20
PS
at R.
Draw
pendicular to OX.
ffPQ
sin(A + B)
fl
OP
=
=
=
KQO
RS + PR
OP
RS OQ
OQ 'OP
RS
PR
OP OP
PR PQ
PQ' OP
sin^4 cos
6 + cos A sinB
QT
per-
78
cosC4 +
fi)
OT-ST
OP
OP OP
OT 0_ ST P
OQ' OP PQ' OP
angle
is
cos 4 cosB - sin 4 sinB
=
If
OT_ST
OS =
OP
now considered -ve,
4 cos (-B) + cos 4 sin (-B)

= sin 4 cosB - cos 4 sinB
sin(4-B) =
sin
(2.19)
Similarly,
cos(4-B) =
cos 4 cps(-B) - sin 4 sin(-B)
= cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tanG4'+B)
s * n (A + ff) _
cos (4 + B)
(-by cos4 cosB) =
sin A
B be
cosB + cos A sinB
B - sin4
cos A cos
sin
4 + tanB
- tan A tan B
tan
1
Similarly, letting
(2.20)
B
(2 2 1)
.
-ve,
tanC4-B) =
tan 4 +
l-tan4
- tanB
tan A
1
tan(-B)
tan(-B)
+ tan4tanB
(2.22)
A cosB + cos 4 sinB
If
sin(4 + B)
sin
and
sin (A - B)
sin A
then
sin (A + B) + sin(4 - B)
cosB
(2.23)
and
sin(4 + B) - sin (A - B)
= 2 cos A sinB
(2.24)
cosB - cos A sinB

2 sin A
Similarly,
as
cos (4 + B)
cos 4 cosB - sin 4 sinB
and
cos(4 - B)
cos 4 cos B + sin 4 sin B
If
cos(4 + B) + cos(4 - B)
cos(4 + B) - cos(4 - B)
(2.25)
-2
sin 4
sinB
(2.26)
B, then
cosA
+ 4)
sin
2A
2 sin4
cos(4 + 4)
cos 24
cos 2 4 - sin 2 4
sin (4
or
cosB
2 cos 4
- 2 sin 2 4
=2 cos
4 -
(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)
79
2 tan
=
1
(2.30)
- tan 2 A
Transformation of Products and Sums
2.4
From
tan 2 A
tan04 + 4)
cosB
sin(4 + B) + sin(A - B)
2 sin A
sin 04 + B) - sinC4 - B)
2 sinB cos
A + B = C
A - B = D
if
and
A =
then
C-D
sin
B = ^_D
and
""
C + sinD =
"
2 sin
C + D cos C ~ D
2 sin
6 ~
Similarly,
sinC
sinD
"
cos
C + D
From
2 cos ,4
cos04 + B) - cos(A - B)
-2 sinA
cos
C +
cos D
2 cos
cosC - cosD = -2
and
sin
(2.32)
cos(A - B)
cos(v4 + B) +
(2.31)
c + D
cos
C + D
sin
cosB
sinfi
C - D
C ~ P
2__
(2.33)
(2.34)
These relationships may thus be tabulated

sin (A B)
sin A cos
cos 04 B)
cos
tan 04
sin04 + B) + sin 04 - B)
2 sin A
2 cos
cos(A - B)
2 cos
cos(i4 + B) +
cos(/4 + B) - cos(/4
2 sin ,4 cos
cos 2A
cos 2
24
tan
sin
tanB
T tan 4 tan B
sin04 + B) - sin (4 - B)
A -
sin
cos B + sin A sin B
tan>l
B)
sin 2,4
/4
B cos A
cosB
A sinB
4 cos B
-B) = -2sini4sinB
/}
sin 2 A
- 2sin 2 4
2 cos 2 ,4 -
2tan ^
- tanM
A + sinB
2 sin
4 +
BÂ
cos
80
A -
sin
B =
sin
2 sin'
~ B cos^4 + B
2
cos
4 + cos =
2 cos
^ + B cos ^ ~ g
2
B = -2
cos ,4 - cos
^ + B
sin
sin
^ ~ B
The
2.5
Solution of Triangles
The following important formulae are now proved:

Sine rule
sin
sinS
__
sinC
2R
(2.35)
Cosine rule
cz
a 2 + b z - 2ab
cosC
sinC = 2l^\s(s -a){s - b){s -
(2.36)
c)\
(2.37)
ab
Area of triangle = lab sinC

=
(2.38)
^s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
(2.39)
Half-angle formulae
f (s-b)(s-c)
sini =
A(s-a)
W be
2
tan
(2.41)
As-b)(s-c)
A =
(2 .40)
be
s (s
(2.42)
a)
Napier's tangent rule
B -C
tan*^
an
-l
Antan^
( 2>43)
b + c
2.51
Sine rule (Figs. 2.21 and 2.22)
Let triangle /4SC be drawn with circumscribing circle.

Let 4J3, be a diameter through /I (angle ABC = angle
AC
In Fig. 2.21,
In Fig. 2.22,
j- = sinB
AB
sin(180-B)
sinB
JL = sinB
2R
4^0.
Fig. 2.21
Fig. 2.22
sinB
2R
Similarly
sin A
2.52
81
sinB
sinC
2R
(2.35)
Cosine rule (Fig. 2.23)
Obtuse
Fig.
AB 2
AD.22
AD 2
b 2 sin 2
AD 2
b 2 sin 2
.'.
2
BD
2.
23
Acute'
The cosine
rule
(Pythagoras)
+ (BC - CD) 2
C + {BC -
b cos
with
Cf
acute
+ (BC + CD) 2
sin 2 (180 -
AB 2
C + (BC 2
+ {BC + b cos (180 - C)\ 2

b cos
b sin z C +
(BC-bcosC) 2
b 2 sin 2 C + a z - 2ab
a 2 + b 2 - lab cos
with
obtuse
C) 2
in either
case
cosC + b
C.
2
+ b (sin 2 C + cos 2 C) - lab cosC
cos z
(2.36)
82
Area of a triangle
2.53
cos C
From
2
a 2 + b - lab cosC
z
z
~2
a
+ bu - c~
lab
sin 2 C
- cos 2 C
2
Z
2 2
_( a +b -c \
lab
(l
+ a
-c%
(a + b)
- c
- (a -
2ab
-c 2 )
lab
b)
2afe
(a + b + c)(- c
+ a + bXc - a +
(2ab)
4s (s -
/
2
a + b
lab
+b
a) (s
- b)(s -
b)(c
+ a -
fc)
c)
a2bz
where 2s = a + b +
c.
sinC =
i_ /s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
(2.37)
ab*j
In Fig. 2.23,
Area of triangle
\AD EC
lab
sin
(2.38)
= ^Lab -4 V s ( s =
2.54
a)(s
- b)(s -
c)
^s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
(2.39)
Half-angle formulae
From Eq.(2.28),
tint* A
-%1-co.A)
^(l-LtL-L)
q
(fc
_ C)
4bC
(a - b + c)(a + b - c)
Abe
=
(s-b)(s-c)
be
sini =
2
Ks-bKs-e)
fee
V
(2 40)
83
Similarly,
2
coszA =
= l(l + b +c
2\
2bc
I(l + cos4)
(b + c)
-a 2 \
*
- a2
4bc
(b + c + a)(b + c
a)
Abe
s(s be
/sjs-a)
cosil
(241)
be
sin
tan_d
a)
=
cos
(s-bXs-c)
(2>4 2)
s(s - a)
The last formula is preferred as (s - b) + (s - c) + (s - a) =

provides an arithmetical check.
2.55
s,
which
Napier' s tangent rule
From the sine
rule,
sinB
sinC
c
b - c
then
sinS - sinC
sinS + sinC
b + c
2cos S + C
sin
2
r sin
B + C c
2
tan
B-C
B-C
(By Eqs. 2.31/2.32)
B+ C
tan
*.
tan
B ~ c = b-c
2
2.56
tQV
b + c
B+ C
2
Problems involving the solution of triangles

All problems
come within the following
four cases:
(2.43)
84
(1)
Given two sides and one angle (not included)
to find the other
angles.
Solution
Sine rule solution ambiguous as illustrated in Fig.
2.24.
Given AB and AC with

AC may cut line BC at
angle B,
C, or
C2
Fig. 2.24
The ambiguous case
of the
sine rule
(2)
Given
all the
Solution:
(3)
angles and one side to find all the other sides.

Sine rule
Given two sides and the included angle

Solution:
Either
cos rule to find remaining side
Napier's tangent rule (this is generally pre-
or
ferred using logs)

(4)
Given the three sides

cos rule
either
Solution:
half-angle formula (this is generally preferred
or
using logs.)
Example 2.8
(Problem
1)
Let
c
a
m
= 190-5 m
=
466-0
A = 22
Using sine
sin
15'
rule,
sin
sinC = csinA
a
= 466-0 sin 22
15'
190-5
466-0 x 0-378 65
190-5
= 0-926 25
Fig. 2.25
C2 =
Angle
or
180
190-5 sin [180 -(67 51' 30"
+22
C,
To
67 51' 30"
112 08' 30"
85
now Problem
find side b (this is
2)
a
sin
B
fo
sin
a sinB
sin
i.e.
,4
15' 00")]
sin 22 15' 00"
190-5 sin8953'30"
sin 22 15' 00"
190 ' 5 x 1-0
503-10
0-37865
5,
190-5 sin[(180 -(112 08' 30"+ 22 15' 00")]

sin 22 15 '00"
190-5 sin 45 36'
0"
359
sin 22 15' 00
Log
51m
calculation
log sin
C = logc + log
C = 67 51' 30"
466-0
sin 22
sin
A -
log a
2-668 39
15'
9-578 24
2-24663
190-5
2-279 90
sinC
9-96673
N.B. The notation 9-578 24 is preferred to 1-578 24 - this is the form

used in Chambers, Vegas, and Shortredes Tables.
Every characteristic is increased by 10 so that subtraction is simplified
the ringed figures are not usually entered.
Also
"I.B.
e.
logfc
log a + log sin
B +
log cosec,4
Addition using log cosec4 is preferable to subtracting log sin A.

logfc,
logl90-5 + log sin 89 53' 30" + log cosec22 15'00"

190-5
sin8953'30'
cosec2215'00"
fr,
503-10
b,
2-27990
0-0
10-42176
2-70166
86
= logl90-5 + log sin 45 36' 30 " + log cosec22 15'00"

190-5
2-27990
log& 2
sin4536'30"
9-85405
00"
10-421 76
b2
2-55571
cosec 22
bz
359-51
15'
N.B. A gap is left between the third and fourth figures of the logarithms
to help in the addition process, or it is still better to use squared paper.
Example 2.9 (Problem
3)
Let
= 636
818
m
m
B = 97 30'
To find b, A and
By cosine rule
b
C.
cosB
a* + c 2 - 2ac
636
+ 818
- 2 x 636 x 818 x cos
= 404496 + 669124 + 135815-94
1209435-94
1099-74
sin A
oinA
SmA
sin
636 sin 97 30'

1099-74
0-57337
asinB
b
A = 34 59'
B =
The
first part of the
figures get large

suitable.
it
calculation is essentially simple but as the
becomes more
The following approach
As c>
a,
C>
10"
47 30' 50"
and logs are not

recommended.
difficult to apply
is therefore
A. Then, by Eq.(2.43),
tan%4
2
^JltanCJ.
c + a
818 - 636
818 + 636
2
.
182 tan 41 15'
1454
= 0-10977
(180
-97 30')
2
\{C-A)
l
-(C + A)
6 15' 50"
41 15' 00"
c = 47 30' 50"
A = 34 59' 10"
By adding
By
87
subtracting
Now, by sine
rule,
a sin
6 cosec A
= 636 sin 97
=
1099-74
30'
cosec 34 59' 10"
N.B. This solution is fully logarithmic and thus generally preferred.

Also it does not require the extraction of a square root and is therefore superior for machine calculation.
Example 2.10 (Problem
c = 932
b = 719
a = 381
Let
To
4)
find the angles.
From
then
a2
cos A
b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos
+ c - a
2bc
719
+ 932
- 381
2 x 719 x 932
516 961 + 868 624 - 145 161

340 216
0-925 54
A = 22
cosfi
15'
00"
2
2
+ c - b
2ac
t
145161 + 868 624 - 516961

2 x 381 x 932
496824
= 0-69957
710 184
B = 45 36'
cosC =
30
2
+ b - c
lab
145161 + 516961 - 868624

2 x 381 x 719
-206 502
= -0-37691
547 878
88
180 - 67 51' 30"
C =
112 08' 30"
Check
22 15' 00" + 45 36' 30" + 112 08' 30"
180 00' 00"
Alternative
By
tan
half-angle formula,
S.
- b)(s - c)
s(s - a)
381
s - a
635
719
s - b
297
932
s - c
84
2s
=2032
= 1016
= 1016
tanA - / 297 * 84
then
This
Ks
1016 x 635
is best solved by logs
log
tani = I[(log297 + log84) 2
7'
(log 1016 + log635)]
30"
11
22 15' 00"
297
2-47276
84
1-924 28
4-39704
1016
3-00689
635
2-80277
5-80966
2) 18-58738
tany1/2 9-29369
tan^ =
2
-^ =
635
><
84
635
2-80277
84
1-924 28
V1016 x 297
22 48' 15"
4-727 05
1016
3-00689
297
2-47276
5-47965
B = 45 36' 30"
2)
tan
19-24740
B/2 9-623 70
The sides
Example 2.11
AB
AC
= 36ft Olin.,
lo
ABC
of a triangle
= 30 ft if in.
and
89
measure as follows:
BC
= 6ft0lin.
4
(a) Calculate to the nearest
20 seconds, the angle BAC.

(b) Assuming that the probable error in measuring any of the sides
is 1/32 in. give an estimate of the probable error in the angle A.
(M.Q.B/S)
Fig.
AB
AC
BC
0*
2.
26
36-036 ft
30ftlf-in.
4
30-146
ft
6ft0in.
6-021
ft
36
ft
in.
0-0655
- C
5-9555
s - a
30-0805
36-1015
16
2 |72-203
36-1015
Using Eq. (2.42)

tan-d
2
/Cs-bHs-c)
s(s-a)
5-955
5x0-065 5
J,36*1015x30-0805
4-
105'10"
A =
tan# =
/,
/(s-o)(s-"c)
10 20
s(s -
6)
30-0805x0-065 5
y36-1015x5-9555
^
5 28' 05"
g =
tan =
2
10 56 '10"
Rs-a)(s-b)
s(s-c)
30-0805x5-9555
36-1015x0-0655
90
83 26' 45"
. =
2
C = 166 53'
A + B + C = 180
Check
(b)
30"
The probable error of 1/32 in. = 0*003 ft.

The effect on the angle A of varying the three sides
culated by varying each
is best cal-
of the sides in turn whilst the remaining
sides are held constant.
To
two
carry out this process, the equation must
be successively differentiated and a better equation
for this
purpose
cosine rule.
is the
cos A
Thus
+ c - a
2bc
Differentiating with respect to a,
2a 8a
2bc
-sin A8A a =
=
8A
a 8a
be sin A
Differentiating with respect to b,
-sin A8A h
(2bcx2b)-(b 2 +C 2-a*)(2c)
4b*c'-
2b 2c
- c2
a2 + b
2
2b c
cos
but
+ b - c
2ab
cos
:osC
C 8b = - 8A cos C
8A b6 _
= -a
a
*
be sin A
Similarly, from the
(as 8a = 8b)
symmetry of the function:
8A C = _ cos g g c =
be sin
SAa cos B
(as 8a = 8c)
Substituting values into the equations gives:
8A b =
6-021 x 0-003 x 206265

30-146 x 36-036 x sin 2 10' 20"
=
S4 cos 166 53' 30"
88-13 sec
8A =
&4cos 10 56' 10"
88-85 sec
8A
90-49 sec
Total probable error
V&4 +
5-4
91
2
+ 8A C
= V90-49 2 + 88-13 2 + 88-85

= 154 seconds.
Heights and Distances
2.6
2.61
To
find the height of an object having a vertical face
The ground may be
(a) level or (b)
sloping up or down from the
observer,
(a)
Level ground (Fig. 2.27)
V.D.
Fig. 2.27
The observer
from the object.
away
The
of height h is a horizontal distance (H.D.)
The
vertical angle (V.A.) = 6 is measured.
vertical difference
V.D.
(2.44)
H.D. tanfl
Height of the object above the ground = V.D. + h
V.D.
V.D.
\B
Horizontal line
._o<
Depression"
H.D
Fig. 2-28
(b) Sloping
ground (Fig. 2.28)

is measured as
The ground slope
V.D.
H.D. (tan0 tana)
Height of object above the ground = V.D. +
(2.45)
ft
N.B. This assumes that the horizontal distance can be measured.
92
To
2.62
find the height of an object
when
its
base
is
inaccessible
base line must be measured and angles are measured from
its
extremities.
(a)
Base
line
AB
level and in line with object. (Fig. 2.29)
a and
Vertical angles
are measured.
/8
Fig.
Thus
A,C,
EC, cot a
B,C,
EC, cot/8
A,B,
A,C, - B,C,
EC,
a -
j8
Height of object above ground at
Base
line
AB
EC, +
ft,
above ground at A
=
(b)
EC, (cot a -cot 0)

(2.46)
cot
at
AB
cot
Height of ground
2 29
EC, +
h,
h2
level but not in line with object (Fig. 2.30)
Angles measured
at
horizontal angle
at
horizontal angle
<fi
vertical angle
/8
vertical angle
In triangle
ABC
AC
AB
sin< cosec(0
+ 0)
(sine rule)
93
Fig. 2.30
BC
and
Then
Also
C,
C,
AB sin 6
4Ctana
,46 sin
BC
4B
cosec(0 +
tana
(2.47)
sin0 cosec(0 + 0) tan
(2.48)
cosec(0 +
C, +
A,
Height of ground (D) above ground at
(c)
<)
tan/8
Height of object (E) above ground at
<)
C,E +
/i,
Sase Zme 4B on sloping ground and
Fig. 2.31
/i
in line with object (Fig. 2.31)
94
Angles measured
A: vertical angle
at
(to object)
vertical angle 8 (slope of ground)
Angle measured
Then
at
AÊB
In triangle
vertical angle
a - 8
B,
180 - ( - 8)
p - a
A,E = A,B,
AB
sin {180
sin(/8
-(0-S)} cosec(/8 - a)
cosecQ8 - a)
8)
Height of object () above ground at
EC
EC, + h
AÊ
AB
sin
a +
sin(fi
/i,
- 8) cosec(/8 -
= EC, +
AB
(2.49)
(d) itase line
(to object)
X ,
4,
j8
a)
sina +
/i,
(2.50)
hy
h2
on sloping ground and not in line with object (Fig.2.32)
Fig. 2.32
Angles measured
at
horizontal angle 6
vertical angles
a (to
object)
8 (slope of ground)
at
B: horizontal angle
vertical angle
A B 2 = AB cos
y
<f>
/S
Then
4,0,
= A
B2
sin<cosec(0 +
95
<f>)
EC, = 4,C, tana
AB cos 8 sin0
cosec(fl +
E,C 2 = B2 C, =
EC 2
EC +
EC 2 + fi,B 2 +
= 4g cos 5 sing
=
y4,B 2 sin0
B,C2
cosec(0 +
cosec(fl +
2.63
To
<f>)
j4
tan/6
AB
sing +
ft,
hi
hz
EC 2 +
h,
- h2 +
AB
sinS
find the height of an object above the ground
when
its
and top are visible but not accessible

(a)
Base
line
AB, horizontal and
Vertical angles measured at

at
in line with object (Fig. 2.23)

:
B:
a, and
/S,
Fig. 2.33
,~ co\
= EC\ +
=
<)
tan/3
h,
or
(2.51)
hi
Similarly, height of object (E) above ground at
EC
tana
Height of object (E) above ground at
EC
<ft)
and
a2
Bz
base
96
From Eq.(2.46)
C,E =
AB
cot a, - cot/3,
AB
C,D =
Also
ED
Then
C,E - C,D
cot
a 2 - cotB z
H = AB\
[cota, - cot^3,
(b)
Base
line
AB
(2.53)
cota 2 - cotB z
horizontal but not in line with object (Fig. 2.34)
Angles measured
at
at
horizontal angle 6
vertical angles
a, and
horizontal angle <f>
a2
and
Bz
vertical angles
jS,
Fig.
AC
ED
.'.
2.
MHEWM^WAW/SigWig
34
AB sin0 cosec(# +
AC (tan a, - tan a 2 )
AB sin cosec(0 + ^>)(tana,
AB
= 4,C, =
=
<f>)
<f>
- tana 2 )
(2.54)
Similarly,
sin 6 cosec (0 +
<)
(tan
B ,
tan /8 2 )
(2 55)
.
97
line AB on sloping ground and in line with object (Fig. 2.35)

Vertical angles measured at A
a,, a 2 and 8
Base
(c)
at
B:
/8,
and
/8 2
Fig. 2.35
From Eq.(2.50)
and
Then
EC,
/IB sin(/3, - 8) cosec(/9, - a,) sin a,
DC,
4B
ED
H
sin(/3 2 - 5)
EC, - DC,
A8[sin(/6, - 5) cosec(/3, - a,) sin a, -
- sin(/8 2 (d)
Base
line
cosecQ3 2 - a 2 ) sin a 2
AB
8) cosec(j8 2
on sloping ground and not
- a 2 ) sin a 2 ]
(2.56)
in line with object
(Fig. 2.36)
Angles measured
at A:
horizontal angle 6
vertical angles
a, and a 2
8 (slope of ground)
at B:
horizontal angle
cf>
vertical angles
/3,
and
98
Fig.
2.
36
From Eq.(2.51),
ECi
DC
ED
AB cosS
AB cos 8
EC, - DC,
AB
AB
Then
ED
Also
To
2.64
sin< cosec(0 +
<f>)
tana,
sin< cosec(<9 +
<f>)
tana 2
cos 5 sin0 cosec(0 + <)(tana, - tana 2 )
(2.57)
cos 5 sin 6 cosec(<9 + <)(tan)6, - tan B z )
(2.58)
find the length of an inclined object (e.g. an inclined
flagstaff) on the top of a building (Fig. 2.37)
Base
line
AB
measured and
is
if
on sloping ground reduced to
horizontal.
Angles measured
at A:
horizontal angles 0, and dz to top and

bottom of pole
a, and
vertical angles
at B:
a2
to top
and
horizontal angles
<,
bottom of pole
and <f> 2 to top and
bottom of pole
vertical angles
)6,
and
Bz
to top
and
bottom of pole.
In plan the length
ED
In elevation the length
is projected
ED
as E^D^ (=
is projected as
E ZD).
EE 2
i.e.
height
Then
AE,
Also
AD,
AB
AB
sin</>,
cosec(0, +
<,)
sin
cosec(0 2 +
</>
2)
the difference in
99
Fig. 2.37
The length E,D = L
is
now best calculated using co-ordinates
(see Chapter 3)
Assuming bearing
AB
= 180 00'
Ae = AE,
4d = 4D,
Then
ed
and similarly, E,D 2

In the triangle
sin(90 -6,)
AE, cos0,
sin(90 -
4D, cos0 2
D 2 D, =
E,e _
E,D,D2
The bearing
D 2 e = 4,
Length E,D,
find difference in height
To
E,D2
(sec bearing)
A = AE, tana,
A = AD, tan a 2
AE, tana, - AD, tan
find length of pole

In triangle
EDE2
i.e.
ED 2
ED
D2 D,
E E2
Height of base above
EE 2
_ tan -i
AB)
E,D 2
Height of top above
Length
sin0, - AD, sin0

2
of the direction of
inclination (relative to
To
2)
- 4e
= AD, cos62 - 4E, cos0,
/Id
EE\ + E2 D Z
-VEEl + E,D
100
2.65
To
find the height of an object from three angles of elevation
(Fig. 2.38)
only
Fig. 2.38
Solving triangles
ADB
h
cos* =
and
cot
ADC
by the cosine
a + xz
rule,
-h 2 cot z p
2hx cot a
2
fc
cot 2 a + (x + y)
- h cot 2
(2.59)
2h(x + y) cot a
2
(x+y)[fc (cot
i.e.
a -
cot
2
j8)
2
+ x ]
2
2
x[h\cot a - cot 0) + (x + y)
2
]
2
2
2
2
2
h [(x + y)(cot a - cot j9) - x(cot a - cot 0)]
x(x + y)
- x 2 (x + y)
i.e.
(x + y)[x(x + y) - x ]
2
2
2
2
(x + y)(cot a - cot /S) - x(cot a - cot 0)
2
(x + y)(cot a
[x(cot 2
(x + y)(xy)
- cot 2 j8) - x(cot 2 a - cot 2 0)
xy(x + y)
]
- cot 2 /8) + y(cot 2 a - cot 2 j8)J
(2.60)
x = y,
y/2x
2
[cot 6 - 2 cot 2 /3 + cot a]*
2
(2.61)
101
Example 2.12 A,B and C are stations on a straight level line of

bearing 126 03' 34". The distance AB is 523-54 ft and BC is 420-97
ft. With an instrument of constant height 4'- 3"
vertical angles were
successively measured to an inaccessible up-station
At
7 14' 00"
10 15' 20"
13 12' 30"
Calculate (a) the height of station
(b) the bearing of the line

(c) the horizontal length
above the line
as follows:
ABC
AD
AD.
(R.I.C.S.)
Fig. 2.39
(a) In Fig. 2.39,
AD
BD
CD
Solving triangles
AD B
%
and
h cot a
h cot/8
h cot0
AD
_
=
*(cot 2
xy(x + y)
- cot 2 /9) + y(cot 2 a - cot 2 /S)
C, using Eq. (2.60),
1 2
(523-54 x 420-97)(523-54 + 420-97)

523-54(cot 2 13 12' 30 - cot 2 10 15' 20") + 420-97(cot 2 7 14' 00" cot 2 10
= 175-16
ft
'15'20"J
102
.*
Difference in height of
175-16 + 4-25
D above
179-41
ground at
ft
Using Eq. (2. 59),

2
,a
COS 
(b)
(c)
0-85909
30 47' 10"
Thus bearing of
Length of line
2.66
AD
AD
The broken base

Where a base line
the following system
126 03' 34' - 30 47' 10"
095
16' 24"
h cot
175-16 cot 7 14'
1380-07
line
problem
AD
ft
cannot be measured due to some obstacle
may be adopted,
Fig. 2.40.
Broken base
Fig. 2.40
line
Lengths x and z are measured.

Angles
To
a,
Method
and 6 are measured at station E.
j8
calculate
BC = y
In triangle
AEB
EB =
x sin EAB
sin
In triangle
AEC
EC =
+ y) sin EAC
sin (a + /S)
(x
S?
Then
Also
in triangle
* sin ( a +
ft)
(x + y) sin
EC
EDB EB
Cv
EDC
EC
ft)
sinEDC
(2.62)
EDB
z) sin
sin(0 +
in triangle
103
sin#
ER
EC
Then
+ z> sin(^
zsin(0+ft)
fr
(2.63)
Equating Eqs (2.62) and (2.63)

(y
(x
i.e.
x sin (a +
ft)
ft)
(x + y) sin
z)
*z sin (a +
z) sinfl
z sin (0 +
+ yXy +
ft) sin(fl
a sin#
- sin ( a + ft)
ft)
sin
yz + y( x + z)
Then
xz 1
sin
This
is a quadratic
ft)
(2.64)
equation in y. Thus
_x+ z +
2
+
2
sin ((9 +
a sin#
//*_+_z\
\
/J
^[l
Z
/(* - )
_ sin(q +
+ r7
ft) sin(fl
sin a sin0
Si "( a
ft) 1
^ Sin (0 7ft)
sin
(265)
a sin#
Method 2
Area of triangle 4 BE
Axfc
IÊ.EB
sin
(1)
BCE
iyfc
IfiE.
EC
sin
ft
(2)
CUE
zh =
ADE
|(jc
AE ED
Dividing (1) by (2)
y
Dividing
JV(4),
6 (3) by
Z
~
x +y + z
sin (9
(3)
+ y + z)h
.
AE
EC
ICE. ED
sin(a +
ft
0)
(4)
sin a
(5)
sin ft
CE
Sin *
AB
f
AEsin(a
+ 8 +
_
6)
(6)
104
Multiplying (5) by (6),
sin/3 sin(a +
z)
Then
-(*)
j8
+ d)
- xz sin/3sin(a + /3 +
sin a sin#
y* + y(x + z)
i.e.
a sin0
sin
xz
y(x + y +
/fcV
sj\
fl)
sin P sin < a + Z3 + ^>

+ xz
sina
sinfl
(2
66)
v
'
Method 3 (Macaw's Method)

In order to provide a logarithmic solution an auxiliary angle is
used.
From the quadratic equation previously formed,

y
i.e.
Now
{y
+ y(x +
jfc,
+ z)P tan'M
let
z)-
xz
sin/3sin(a +
sina sin#
J(, +
zY +
y + |(x + z)}
we
fl)
(2 67)
" Sin fins^, +/ + g)

(?)
(2-68)
(2 69)
get
I(x +
i(jc
z) (l
2
z)
tan 2 M)
sec 2 iW
secM
y + I(x + z)
|(x + z)
I(x + z)(secM -
4z si fl gin (a + p +
(x + z) sin a sin
Substituting this in Eq. (2.68),

{
/3
1)
(x + z)
sec/Wkl - cosM)
(x + z)
secM
sin 2 iiW
(2.70)
Example 2.13 The measurement of a base line AD is interrupted by

an obstacle. To overcome this difficulty two points B and C were
established on the line AD and observations made to them from a
station
as follows:
AEB
BEC
CED
Length
AB
= 527-43
ft
and
20 18' 20"
= 45
=
CD
19' 40"
33 24' 20"
= 685-29
ft.
Calculate the length of the line AD.

(R.I. C.S.)
a = 20
Here
p
=
18' 20" \
4519'40"
a+p
a+p+
33 24' 20"
527-43
=
d
65 38' 00"
= 9902'20"
=
+ d
105
78 44' 00"
\{x + z)
1(1212-72)
606-36
|(jc^z)
(157-86)
78-93
By method
y
685-29
As .93'
-606-36 +
527-43 x 685-29 sin 65 38' sin 78 44'
sin2018'20"sin3324'20"
-606-36 + V6230 + 1690057

-606-36 + 1302-415
696-055
ft
AD
Then
1212-72 + 696-055
1908 -775
ft
By method 2
y = -606-36 + yfa)6-36 + 527 43 x 685 29 sin 4519'40" sin9902'20"

^
sin 20 18' 20" sin 33 24' 20"
'
'
= -606-36 + V367672 + 1328 614

= -606-36 + 1302-415
=
696-055
ft
By method 3
By logs
0-6020600
2-7221648
2-8358744
sinp
9-851955 4
sin (a
+ 0)
9-994 573
cosec a
10-459 637 2
cosec
10-2591940
6-725 458 9
(x + z)
6-1675210
tanzM
0-557 9379
taniW
0-278 968 9 _
= 62 15' 11"
-M =
3107'36"
106
secM
0-332017 5
sin~M
9-713433 2
sin
^M
2
9-713 433 2
(*+
z)
3-083760 5
2-842644 4
y = 696-055
To
2.67
between angles
in the horizontal
and
(Fig. 2.41)
inclined planes
Fig. 2.41
Let (1) lines /4B, and B,C be inclined to the horizontal plane by a
and /S respectively.
(2) Horizontal
(3)
(4)
AB
BC
In triangle
=
=
h cot
h cot/8
AB 2
h
cot
Similarly in triangle
AB,
<f>
coseca
B,C = fccosec/3
ABC,
4C 2
AC
= 6
Angle in inclined plane AB^C =

B,B = h
Then
ABC
angle
h cosec
BC 2
a+
- 2 AB.BC cos (9
cot 2 fi - 2 A 2 cot
cot
/8
cos
AB,C,
2
a +
2
/z
cosec 2 /3 -
2fc
coseca cosec/S cos<
107
Then
z
h cot
a+
/i
cot
2
ft
-2fc cotacotft cos0 =
/i
cosec 2 a + h cosec 2 B
- 2h z coseca cosecft cos<

cos*0 = (cosec
a -
cot a) + (cosec
cosec 2 a - cot 2 a =
as
Then
ft
- cot 2 ft) + 2 cot a cot ft cosfl
coseca cosecft
cosec 2 ft - cot
2(1
cos<
2
ft
+ cot a cot ft cosfl)
coseca cosecft
= sin a sin/8 + cos a cos ft cos#
2
or
cos
cos 6
(2.71)
- sin a sin ft
cos a cos ft
,n y<y\
From a station 4 observations were made to stations

with a sextant and an abney level.
Example 2.14
and
With sextant
angle
With abney level
BAC =
84 30'
angle of depression (AB) 8 20'

angle of elevation
(AC) 10 40'
Calculate the horizontal angle BA^ C which would have been

if a theodolite had been used
measured
(R.I.C.S./M)
From equation
(2.72),
cos0 =
cos
- sin a sin ft
cos a cos ft
cos 84 30' - sin (-8 20') sin 10 40'

cos (-8 20') cos 10 40'
cos 84 30' + sin820'sinl040'

cos 8 20' cos 10 40'
0-09585 + 0-14493 x 0-18509

0-989 44 x 0-98272
0-12268
0-97234
Example
2.
ABC.
AB
BC
If
15
0-12617
82 45' 10"
pipe-line is to be laid along a bend in a mine roadway
2 in a direction 036 27', whilst

rises due South at 1 in 3-5, calculate the angle of bend in the pipe.
falls at a gradient of 1 in
(R.I.C.S.)
108
3.5
Fig. 2.42
Plan
From equation (2.71),
cos0 =
sin
sinjS + cos
cos/3 cos#
where
a =
cot" 2
1
= cot" 3-5
26 33'
=
=
15 57'
6 = 036 27' - 00
.-.
cos0 =
cf>
sin 26 33' sin 15
= 35 26' 40"
36 27'
57'+ cos 26
i.e.
33' cos 15 57' cos 36 27'
35 27'
Exercises 2(b)
Show that for small angles of slope the difference between horiz
zontal and sloping lengths is h /2l (where h is the difference of vertical height of the two ends of a line of sloping length I)
If errors in chaining are not to exceed 1 part in 1000, what is the
8.
greatest slope that can be ignored ?
[L.U/E Ans. 2
34']
The height of an electricity pylon relative to two stations A and

B (at the same level) is to be calculated from the data given below.
9.
Find the height from the two stations

the theodolite axis is 5' 0".
if
at both stations the height of
Pylon
Data:
AB
109
= 200
ft
Horizontal angle at
Vertical angle
"
'
x
fl
10.
X,
XY
= 56
Y and Z
ft
and
B =
40 20'
at
at
43 12'
32 13'
=
=
mean height 139-8 ft)
Ans.
(R.I.C.S.
A = 75 10'
at
are three points on a straight survey line such that
YZ =
80
ft.
From X, a normal offset was measured to a point A and X/4 was

found to be 42ft. From Y and Z respectively, a pair of oblique offsets
were measured to a point B, and these distances were as follows:
YB =
96 ft,
ZB
= 88
ft
Calculate the distance 4fi, and check your answer by plotting to

some suitable scale, and state the scale used.
(E.M.E.U. Ans. 112-7 ft)

11.
From the top
point
of a tower 120
ft high, the angle of depression of a

and of another point B is 11. The bearings of A and
from the tower are 205 and 137 respectively. If A and
B lie in a
is
15,
horizontal plane through the base of the tower, calculate the distance
AB.
(R.I.C.S.
A, 6, C,
12
Ans. 612
ft)
are four successive milestones on a straight horizon-
tal road.
From a point
due W of A, the direction of B is 84, and of D
The milestone C cannot be seen from 0, owing to trees. If
is 77.
the direction in which the road runs from

and the distance of
from the road.
to
is 0, calculate 0,
(R.I.C.S. Ans.
= 6006' 50", OA = 3-8738 miles)
At a point A, a man observes the elevation of the top of
a tower
B to be 42 15'. He walks 200 yards up a uniform slope of elevation
12 directly towards the tower, and then finds that
the
13.
elevation of
has increased by 23 09'. Calculate the height of
B above
the level
of A.
(R.I.C.S. Ans. 823-82 ft)
At two points, 500 yards apart on a horizontal plane,
observations
of the bearing and elevation of an aeroplane are
taken simultaneously.
At one point the bearing is 041 and the elevation is 24,
and
14.
at an-
other point the bearing is 032 and the elevation is 16.

the height of the aeroplane above the plane.
(R.I.C.S.
Calculate
Ans.
1139ft)
110
Three survey stations X, Y and Z lie in one straight line on

plane. A series of angles of elevation is taken to the top of
a colliery chimney, which lies to one side of the line XYZ. The angles
measured at X, Y and Z were:
15.
the
same
at
X, 14 02';
Y, 26
at
The lengths XY and YZ are 400
34';
ft
at Z,
and 240
ft
18 26'
respectively.
Calculate the height of the chimney above station X.

(E.M.E.U. Ans.
112-0
ft)
The altitude of a mountain, observed at the end A of a base line

of 2992-5 m, was 19 42' and the horizontal angles at A and B
were 127 54' and 33 09' respectively.
16.
AB
Find the height of the mountain.

(Ans.
1804 m)
between two inaccessible

points A and B by observations from two stations C and D, 1000 m
apart. The angular measurements give ACB = 47, BCD = 58,
BDA = 49; ADC = 59.
17.
It
is required to determine the distance
Calculate the distance
AB
(Ans.
18.
An aeroplane
same
at the
the aeroplane is
Show
is
level,
observed simultaneously from two points A and

a distance (c) due north of B. From A
A being
SÊ
and from
B N
<f>
E.
that the height of the aeroplane is
c tan
sin
sin(0 +
and find
2907 -4 m)
its
<f>
<f>)
elevation from B.
/L.U.
Ans.
B =
tan-'
sin<fttana \
sintf
base line ABCD is sited such that a portion of BC

cannot be measured directly. If AB is 575-64 ft and CD is 728-56 ft
to one side of ABCD are
and the angles measured from station
19.
straight
DOC
COB
BOA
Calculate the length BC.
= 56 40' 30"
= 40 32' 00"
= 35 56' 30"
(E.M.E.U.
Ans.
259-32
ft)
It is proposed to lay a line of pipes of large diameter along a

roadway of which the gradient changes from a rise of 30 to a fall of
10 coincident with a bend in the roadway from a bearing of N 22 W
to N 25 E.
20.
Calculate the angle of bend in the pipe.

(Ans.
11M
on N
ny ,J?n( ou
)
21.
At a point
111
at the bottom of a hill, the elevation of the top of
a tower on the hill is 51
18'.
At a point
on the side of the
same vertical plane as A and the tower, the elevation

AB makes an angle 20 with the horizontal and the distance
in the
feet.
hill,
and
is 7140'.
AB = 52
Determine the height of the top of the tower above A.
(L.U. Ans. 91-5 ft)
Two points, A, B on a straight horizontal road are at a distance

400 feet apart. A vertical flag-pole, 100 feet high, is at equal distances
from A and B. The angle subtended by AB at the foot C of the pole
(which is in the same horizontal plane as the road) is 80.
Find (i) the distance from the road to the foot of the pole,
22.
(ii)
the angle subtended by
(L.U.
AB
at the top of the pole.
Ans.
(i)
258-5
ft,
(ii)
75 28')
Bibliography
USILL, G.w. and HEARN, G., Practical Surveying (Technical Press).

HADDOCK, M.H., The Basis of Mine Surveying (Chapman and Hall).
LONEY, s.c, Plane Trigonometry (Cambridge University Press).
blakey, J., Intermediate Pure Mathematics (Macmillan).
3 CO-ORDINATES
A
point in a plane
may be defined by two systems:
(1) Polar co-ordinates.

(2)
Rectangular or Cartesian co-ordinates.

3.1
Polar Co-ordinates
This system involves angular and linear values,
i.e.
bearing and
length, the former being plotted by protractor as an angle from the
meridian.
Fig.
3. 1
(s,8)
Polar co-ordinates
A normal 6 inch protractor allows plotting to the nearest 1/4; a

cardboard protractor with parallel rule to 1/8; whilst the special Booking protractor enables 01' to be plotted.
The displacement
of the point being plotted depends on the physi-
cal length of the line on the plan, which in turn depends on the horizontal projection of the ground length and the scale of the plotting.
A
Fig. 3.2
If
is the
Displacement due
to angular error
angular error, then the displacement
112
CO-ORDINATES
BB
a
and as
= s tana
is small
BB,
s = 300
If
ft
and
a=
300 x 60 x 12
inches
206 265
1 inch
DD
sa
01' 00",
fiS'
i.e. 1
113
minute of arc subtends 1 inch in 100 yards,
second of arc subtends
Similarly, on the metric system,
dd =
BB,
i.
then
6000 yards,
1 inch in
i.e.
3 x/a miles.
s = 100 metres and
if
100x60
a = 01
'
00",
metres
206 265
= 0-0291 m,
Thus,
29 mm
i.e.
minute of arc subtends approximately 30
second of arc subtends approximately
1cm
or
A
i.e.
point plotted on a plan
0'Olin. in 1 yard (0*25

0*1 in. in 1 yard (25
mm
mm
may be assumed
in 1 metre)
in 1 metre)
>
mm
mm
to
in
100m,
in
200 m
in 2 km.
be 0*01 in., (0*25mm),
minute of arc,
10 minutes of arc.
As this represents a possible plotting error on every line,

seen how the error may accumulate, particularly as each point
ent on the preceding point.
it
is
can be
depend-
Plotting to scale
3.11
The length
some
of the plotted line is
definite fraction of the ground
length, the 'scale' chosen depending on the purpose of the plan and the
size of the area.
Scales may be expressed in various ways:

(1)
(2)
(3)
3.12
As inches (in plan) per mile, e.g. 6 in. to 1 mile.

As feet, or chains, per inch, e.g. 10ft to 1 inch.
As a representative fraction 1 in n, i.e. 1/n, e.g. 1/2500.
Conversion of the scales
40 inches to
mile
insult
1 inch
I
lin.
ranracanfc
represents
= 132 ft
= 44 yd
= 2 chn

.-
.-
-rp:
40
feet
114
inch to 132 ft
inch represents 132 x 12 inches
lin.
Thus the representative
= 1584 in.
fraction is 1/1584.
Scales in common use
3.13
Ordinance Survey Maps and Plans:
Large scale:
Medium
1/500, 1/1250, 1/2500.
scale: 6 in. to 1 mile (1/10 560), 2y2 in. to 1 mile (1/25000).
Small scale:
1/625000, 1/1250000.
2,l, 1/2 , 1/4 in. to 1 mile;
Engineering and Construction Surveys:

1/500, 1/2500, 10-50 ft to 1 inch,
(See Appendix, p. 169)
3.14
1/4,
V8, Vl6in. to
1ft.
Plotting accuracy
Considering 0*01 in. (0*25 mm) as the size of a plotted point, the
following table shows the representative value at the typical scales.
suggested measurement
O.S. Scales
precision limit
3 in. (76 mm)
1/500
0-01 x 500
1/1250
0-01 x 1250
= 12-5 in.
1ft (0 -3 m)
1/2500
0-01 x 2500
= 25-0 in.
2 ft (0-6 m)
1/10 560
0*01 x 10 560 =
105-6
in.
ft
(1-5 m)
1/25000
0*01 x 25000 = 250-0
in.
10
ft
(3-0 m)
5 in.
Engineering Scales
0-01 x 600
= l-2in.
= 6-0 in.
0-01 x 792
= 7-92 in.
6 in. or l/2 link
0-01 x 1584
= 15-84 in.
1 ft or 1 link.
ft
0-01 x 120
lin. to 50ft
1 in. to
lin. to
lin. to
10
lchn
2chn
lin.
in.
Incorrect scale problems
3.15
If a scale of 1/2500 is used on a plan plotted

what conversion factor is required to
to
scale 1/1584
(a) the scaled lengths,

(b) the area
(a)
1 in.
On
computed from the scaled length?
the plan 1
in.
= 1584 in. whereas the scaled value shows
= 2500 in.
All scaled values must be converted by a factor 1584/2500
= 0-6336.
CO-ORDINATES
(b) All the
115
computed areas must be multiplied by (0*6336jf
0-4014
Bearings
3.2
Four meridians may be used, Fig. 3.3:

1.
True or geographical north.
2.
Magnetic north.
3.
Grid north.
4.
Arbitrary north.
GN.
M.N
T. N.
M.N.
T.N.
6.N.
Convergence
of
the meridian
Magnetic declination
Fig.
3.
3 Meridians
True north
3.21
The meridian can only be obtained precisely by astronomical

The difference between true bearings at A and B is the
observation.
convergence of the meridians to a point, i.e. the north pole. For small
surveys the discrepancy is small and can be neglected but where
necessary a correction may be computed and applied.
3.22
Magnetic north
There is no fixed point and thus the meridian is unstable and subjected to a number of variations (Fig. 3.4), viz.:
the annual change in the magnetic declinabetween magnetic and true north. At present the magnetic
meridian in Britain is to the west of true north but moving towards it at
the approximate rate of lOmin per annum. (Values of declination and
(a)
Secular variation
tion or angle
116
the annual change are shown on certain O.S. sheets.)

(b) Diurnal variation
the
mean value
minima
daily sinusoidal oscillation effect, with
and 6-7 p.m., and maxima and

and 1p.m.
at approximately 10a.m.
at approximately 8a.m.
(c) Irregular variation
periodic magnetic
fluctuations thought to
be related to sun spots.
Secular variation
13001
25* 20
15
10
10
15*
East
West
Diurnal variation
0.00
24.00 Hours
G.M.T.
East
Fig. 3.4 Approximate secular
and diurnal variations
in
magnetic
declination in the London area

(Abinger Observatory)
Grid north (see section 3.7).
3.23
O.S. sheets are based on a modified Transverse Mercator projection which, within narrow limits, allows:
(a)
Constant bearings related to a parallel
(b)
grid.
scale factor for conversion of ground distance to grid dis-
tance solely dependent on the easterly co-ordinates of the measurement

site. (See page 39).
3.24
Arbitrary north
for absolute reference and often the
leg of the traverse is assumed to be 000 '.
This may not be necessary

first
CO-ORDINATES
Example 3.1
If
True north is 037'E of Grid North.

Magnetic declination in June 1955 was 1027' W.
the annual variation
grid bearing of line
line
AB
in
117
AB
was
10'
08232'
per annum towards North and the

what will be the magnetic bearing of
January 1966?
G.N.
MM'66
MK'55
Fig. 3.5
Grid bearing
Correction
08232'
True bearing
08155'
Mag
-037
declination
June 1955
1027'
Mag. bearing
June 1955
09222'
Variation for
January 1966
3.25
-lO^xlO'
-145'
Mag. bearing January 1966
09037'
Types of bearing
There are two types in general use:
(a) Whole circle bearings (W.C.B.), which are

measured clockwise
from north or 0-360.
118
(b)
Quadrant bearings (Q.B.), which are angles measured to the
east or west of the
N/S meridian.
For comparison of bearings, see Fig.
3.6.
Case
(i)
Case
(ii)
W
Case
(Hi)
Case
(iv)
270'-
W 270Fig. 3.6
Comparison
of
bearings
119
CO-ORDINATES
Case
(i)
Whole circle bearing in the

W.C.B. of
Q.B. of
Case
(ii)
AB
AB
= a
AC
AC
= a2
first
quadrant
90
N a?E
90- 180
W.C.B. of
Q.B. of
= S
0E
= S(180-a 2)E
Case
180- 270
(Hi)
W.C.B. of
Q.B. of
AD
AD
= a3
=
S0W
= S(03-180)W
270- 360
Case(iv)
W.C.B. of
Q.B. of
AE
AE
= a4
= N
= N (360
-a^W
Example 3.2
072 =
148 =
S32E
S 16 W
N30W
196 =
330 =
N.B.
fix is
72
E
180-148 = 32
196-180 = 16
360-330 = 30
i.e.
i.e.
i.e.
Quadrant bearings are never from the E/W

always N or S.
line,
so that the pre-
It is preferable to use whole circle bearings for most purposes, the

only advantage of quadrant bearings being that they agree with the
values required for trigonometrical functions 0-90 as given in many
mathematical tables (see Chapter 2), e.g.:
(Fig. 3.7a)
sin 30 = 0-5
cos 30 = 0-8660
tan 30 = 0-5774
(Fig. 3.7b)
sin 150 =
sin (180 -150)
= sin 30
cos 150 = -cos (180 -150)
= -cos 30
tan
150=
Sinl5
cos 150
= -tan 30
+sin3
-cos 30
120
*E
Cos 30
Bearing N E
(a)
+ +
Bearing S E
-Cos 30
*E
(b)
210
-Cos 30*
Bearing S
Bearing N W
+ ~
+ Cos 30
330"
Fig. 3.7
(Fig. 3.7c)
- sin (210 - 180)

= -sin 30
sin 210 =
cps210 = -cos (210- 180)

= -cos 30
CO-ORDINATES
tan 210 =
- sin 30
sin 210
cos 210
= +tan30
(Fig. 3.7d)
121
-cos 30
c
sin 330 = - sin (360 - 330)
= - sin 30
cos 330 = cos (360 -330)
= + cos 30
- sin 30
+ cos 30
sin 330
cos 330
= -tan 30
tan 330 =
Conversion of horizontal angles into bearings. (Fig. 3.8)
3.26
Fig. 3.8 Conversion of horizontal angles into bearings
Forward Bearing
AB
Back Bearing
BA = a
BC = a
Forward Bearing
If
the
sum exceeds 360 then 360
Bearing BC(j8) =
180 +
180
180 +
is subtracted, i.e.
- 360 = a + Q 180
This basic process may always be used but the following rules
simplify the process.
(1)
To
the forward bearing add the clockwise angle.
sum is less than 180 add 180.

sum is more than 180 subtract 180.
some cases the sum may be more than 540, then subtract
(2) If the
If the
(In
540)
N.B.
If
the angles measured are anticlockwise they must be sub-
tracted.
122
Example 3.3
Fig. 3.9
bearing
+ angle
AB
ABC
= 030
30
= 210
240
bearing
+ angle
180
BC
BCD
= 060
= 56
N60E
116
bearing
+ angle
180
CD
CDE
= 296
= 332
N64W
628
bearing
540
DE
= 088
N88E
CO-ORDINATES
Check
AB
bearing
123
= 030
= 210
angles
56
332
628
-xl80,
i.e.
-3x180 -
bearing
DE
540
= 088
The final bearing is checked by adding the bearing of the first line
sum of the clockwise angles, and then subtracting some multiple
to the
of 180.
Example 3.4
to
The clockwise angles
of a closed polygon are observed
be as follows:
A
B
C
22346'
24117'
25702'
D
E
F
25021'
242 19'
22515'
If the true bearings of BC and CD are 123 14' and 200 16'
respectively, and the magnetic bearing of EF is 3332l', calculate
the magnetic declination.
(N.R.C.T.)
From the size of the angles it may be initially assumed that these
are external to the polygon and should sum to (2n + 4)90", i.e.
l(2x6) + 4}90 = 16x90 = 1440

22346'
241 17'
25702'
250 21'
242 19'
22515'
Check 144000'
To
obtain the bearings,
Line
BC
bearing
123 14'
BCD
25702'
+ angle
380 16'
180
124
bearing
+ angle
CD
CDE
200 16' (this checks with given

25021' value)
45037'
bearing
+ angle
DE
DEF
180
27037'
242 19'
51256'
180
bearing
EF
33256'
+ angle
EFA
225 15'
558 11'
540
bearing
FA
01811'
+ angle
FAB
22346'
24157'
180
bearing
+ angle
AB
ABC
06157'
24117'
303 14'
180
bearing
BC
123 14'
Magnetic bearing
EF
EF
33321'
True
bearing
3.27
33256'
025'
Magnetic declination
Check
Deflection angles (Fig. 3.10)
In isolated cases, deflection angles are measured and here the

normal notation will be taken as:
Right angle deflection positive.

Left angle deflection negative.
Taking the Example
3.3,
AB
Deflection right
030
+ 30
Deflection
left
-124
Deflection right
+ 152
Bearing
CO-ORDINATES
125
152(R)
Fig.
3.
10 Deflection angles
Bearing
AB
030
+ 30
Bearing
BC
060
+ 360
420
-124
Bearing
CD
296
+ 152
448
-360
Bearing
DE
088
Check
AB
030
+ 30
+ 152
+ 212
-124
DE
088
126
Exercises 3(a)
1.
Convert the following whole circle bearings into quadrant bearings:

21430'
31145'
(Ans.
02715'
21830'
S3430' W;
S 2230' E;
N
N
28745'
07845'
15730';
24414'
27804.'
7215' W;
3830'
S
W;
S 8630' E;
7845' E;
Convert the following quadrant bearings into whole circle bearings:
S 3415' E;
8245' W;
2530' E;
S 1815' W;
(Ans.
3.
09330'
2715' E;
4815' W;
S6414' W; N8156'
2.
S 4245' W;
S 6414' E;
02530'
14545'
22245'
27715'
11546'
21430')
7930' W;
S 3430' W.
28030'
The following clockwise angles were measured
19815'
in a
closed
tra-
verse. What is the angular closing error?
16327'36";
32418'22";
6239' 27"
18109'15";
30558'16";
18802'03";
330 19' 18"
29253'02";
13112'50"
4.
(Ans. 09")
Measurement of the
interior anticlockwise angles of a closed tra-
ABC
verse
D E have been made with a vernier theodolite reading to
20 seconds of arc. Adjust the measurements and compute the bearings
of the sides if the bearing of the line AB is N 43 10' 20" E.
Angle
5.
EAB
ABC
BCD
CDE
DEA
13520'40"
(R.I.C.S. Ans.
6021'20"
14236'20"
8951'40"
AB N 4310' 20" E
BC S 1710'52"E
CD S 2012'56" W
DE N 6938' 36" W
EA N0129'08" W)
11150'40"
From the theodolite readings given below, determine the angles

ABCDE. Having obtained the angles, correct them to
of a traverse
the nearest 10 seconds of arc and then determine the bearing of

the bearing of AB is 45 20' 40".
Back
BC
Readings
Forward Station
Theodolite
Forward
Station
Station
000'00"
26449'40"
A
B
C
D
26449'40"
164 29' 10"
D
E
164 29' 10"

4358' 30"
314 18 '20"
31418' 20"
17959' 10"
Station
D
E
if
Back Station
4358'30"
(R.I.C.S. Ans. 12500' 20")
CO-ORDINATES
Rectangular Co-ordinates
3.3
127
may be fixed in a plane by linear values measured

xy axes.
The x values are known as Departures or Eastings whilst the y
values are known as Latitudes or Northings.
The following sign convention is used:
point
parallel to the normal
Direction
East
+x
+ departure
+ Easting (+E)
West
-x
- departure
-Easting (-E)
North
+y
+ latitude
+ Northing (+N)
South
_y
- latitude
-Northing (-N)
N.W. quadrant (270*-360*) N
N.E.
quadrant (0*-90')
Latitude
Departure (eastings)
270* W-+
*90*E
(+4,-2)
(-2,-4)
S.W. quadrant (180'- 270*)
quadrant OC-ieO*)
Rectangular co-ordinates
Fig. 3.11
N.B.
S.E.
0-90
-+
NE
i.e.
90- 180
i.e.
180- 270
i.e.
-N -E
-lat -dep.
270- 360
NW
i.e.
+ N-E
+ lat -dep.
+E
-N +E
+N
or
+ lat + dep.
-lat
+ dep.
This gives a mathematical basis for the determination of a point

with no need for graphical representation and is more satisfactory for
the following reasons:
(1)
Each station can be plotted independently.
(2) In plotting, the point is not
dependent on any angular measur-
ing device.
(3)
Distances and bearings between points can be computed.
128
Rectangular co-ordinates are sub-divided into:

(1) Partial Co-ordinates,
(2)
3.31
which relate
Total Co-ordinates, which

Partial co-ordinates,
AE,
to a line.
relate to a point.
AN
(Fig. 3.12)
These relate one end of a line to the other end.

They represent the distance travelled East (+)/West
(-)
and
North (+)/South (-) for a single line or join between any two points.
Fig. 3.12 Partial co-ordinates
Given a line of bearing d and length
AE
Partial departure =
A E AB
N.B.
always compute
difference in Eastings
= s sin Q
AN
Partial latitude =
AN^g
i.e.
s,
difference in Northings
scosd
=
in
i.e.
(3.1)
(3.2)
bearings not angles and preferably quadrant
bearings.
3.
32
Total co-ordinates (Fig.
These relate any point

The following notation
Total
"
Total
Total
"
Easting of
Northing of
Easting of
Northing of
Easting of
Northing of
3.
to the
13)
axes of the co-ordinate
system used.
is used:
A = EA
A = N^
B = E A + A E AB
B = N A + AN AB
C = E B + A EBC = EA + A EAB + A E BC
C = N B + &NBC = N^ + AN^ + AN BC
129
CO-ORDINATES
Fig. 3.13 Total co-ordinates
Thus
in general terms
Total
Easting of any point =
E^+SAE
(3.3)
= Total easting of the first

point + the sum of the
partial eastings up to that
point.
Total Northing of any point = N^ +
2 AN
(3.4)
= Total northing of the first

point + the sum of the
partial northings up to
that point.
N.B.
If
a traverse is closed polygonally then
SAE
SAN
i.e.
the
sum
Example
(3.5)
(3.6)
of the partial co-ordinates should equal zero.
3.5
AB
BC
CD
m
m
210 100 m
co-ordinates of A E 50 m N
Given: (Fig. 3.14)
Total
Line
AB
045 =
Partial departure
AE^
45
045
100
120
150
40 m
100 m
= 100 sin 45 = 100 x 0-707
= + 70*7 m
Total departure (E^)
A= +
Total departure (E fl )
B=
50*0
+ 120-7 m
130
-50*
(200-6.-50-9)
Fig. 3.14
Partial
Line
latitude
BC
A N^
= 100 cos 45= 100x0*707
120 = S 60
AE BC
Partial departure
= + 70-7 m
Total latitude (N^)
A = +
Total latitude (N5 )
B=
40*0 m
+ 110*7 m
E 150 m
= 150 sin 60 = 150 x 0*866
= + 129*9 m
B = + 120*7 m
(EC )C = + 250*6 m
Total departure (EB )

Total departure
Partial
Line
latitude
AN^C
CD 210= S30W
Partial departure
Partial
= 150 cos 60 = 150 x 0*5
latitude
Check ED = EA +
AE CD
AN CD
= - 75*0
Total latitude
(NB )fi = +110*7 m
Total latitude
(Nc )
C = +
35*7
100 m
= 100 sin 30 = 100 x 0*5
= - 50*0
= + 250*6 m
= + 200*6 m
= 100 cos 30 = 100 x 0*866

Total
latitude (Nc )
Total
latitude (N^)
= - 86*6m
C = +
m
D = - 50*9 m
&E AB + AE BC + AECZ?
= 50*0 + 70*7 + 129*9 - 50*0 = + 200*6 m
35*7
CO-ORDINATES
131
N^= KA + Mi AB + ANSC + ANqd

= - 50-9 m
= 40-0 + 70-7 - 75-0 - 86'6

Exercises 3(b) (Plotting)
Plot the following traverse to a scale of
6.
= 100
1 in
thereafter obtain the length and bearing of the line

in square yards of the
AB
links, and
and the area
enclosed figure.
N
N
21
120 links from
28
100 links
N60E
117 links
E
15 E
40 W
105 links
N
S
S
(Ans. From scaling
32
200 links
75 links
N6245'E 340
to
links; approx. area
3906 sq yd,)
The following table shows angles and distances measured
7.
theodolite traverse from a line

length 110 ft.
AB
in a
bearing due South and of horizontal
Angle
Angle value
Inclination
ABC
BCD
CDE
DEF
19200'
+15
9215'
9330'
-13
17030'
Inclined distance
BC
CD
DE
EF
(ft)
150
200
230
150
Compute the whole
circle bearing of each line, plot the survey to

a scale of 1 in. = 100 ft and measure the horizontal length and bear-
ing of the closing line.
(M.Q.B./M. Ans. 260 ft; 07630')
The following notes reter to an underground traverse

8.
the mouth, A, of a surface drift.
Line
Bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
038
325
111
208
level
006
363
level
308
234
made from
Distance (links)
dipping at 1 in 2-4
rising at 1 in
3-2
Plot the survey to a scale of 1 chain to 1 inch.

Taking A as the origin, measure from your plan, the co-ordinates
of E.
What is the difference in level between
A and E
to the nearest
foot?
(M.Q.B./UM Ans. E, E 233 links N 688

78
ft)
links; diff. in level
AE
132
9.
Plot the following notes of an underground traverse to a scale of
lin
**
100
ft.
Line
Distance
Bearing
N 28 W
AB
354 ft dipping at
W
S 83 W
N 8E
BC
CD
DE
EF
83
S 89
133
ft
1 in
level
253ft level
219
ft
rising at 1 in 4
100
ft
level
Points A,B,C and D are in workings of a lower seam and points

and F are in the upper seam, DE being a cross measure drift between the two seams.
It is proposed to drive a drift from A to F.
Find the bearing, length, and gradient of this drift.
(M.Q.B./UM Ans. N 40 W; 655 ft; +1 in 212)
10.
The co-ordinates
in feet, relative to a
common
point of origin
A, are as follows:
Departure
A
B
C
E
E
360 E
D
Plot the figure
Latitude
A BCD
275
237
552
230
N
N
174 S
to a scale of 1 inch to 100
ft
and from the
co-ordinates calculate the bearing and distance of the line AC.

(M.Q.B./UM Ans. N 6724' E; 598ft)
11.
An area
ABC
in the form of a triangle
co-ordinates of the points
A B and C
has been defined by the

as
in relation to the origin 0,
follows:
A
B
C
South 2460
ft
East 3410
North 2280
ft
North 1210
ft
East 4600 ft
East 1210 ft
Plot the positions of the points to a scale of
ft
1 in. to
find the area, in acres, enclosed by the lines joining
1000
AB,
and
and
ft,
BC
CA.
(M.Q.B./M Ans. 169-826 acres)
There is reason to suspect a gross angular error in a five-legged
12.
closed traverse in which the recorded information was as follows:
Interior angles:
Sides:
110;
AB
EA
180
ft;
245
ft
150;
BC
70;
420 ft;
CD
110;
350 ft;
E 110
DE 410 ft;
CO-ORDINATES
Plot the traverse to a scale of 100
ft
133
to lin.
and locate the gross
angular error*, stating its amount.
(L.U./E)
13.
rough compass traverse of a closed figure led to the following
field record:
Line
Length
AB
EC
422
Bearing
57
405
316
CD
348
284
DE
489
207
EA
514
109
Plot the figure (scale lin = 50ft) and adjust it to close using a
graphical method. Letter your plan and add a north point (magnetic
declination 10 W).
(L.U./E)
3.4
Computation Processes
As tables of trigonometrical functions are generally tabulated only

terms of angles 0-90, it is convenient to convert the whole circle
bearings into reduced or quadrant bearings.
in
The signs of the partial co-ordinates are then related to the symbols of the quadrant bearings, Fig. 3.15.
E +
W -
1
>
r^
Departures
::)
NW
+ -
Latitudes
Alternatively, the whole circle
bearings are used and the sign of

the value of the partial co-ordinate
is derived from the sign of the
N E
+ +
sw
SE
+
trigonometrical function.
s
Fig.
The process may be

(i)
(ii)
3.
15
either
by logarithms or
by machine (using natural trigonometrical functions).
See Chapter 6 on location of errors.
134
Computation by logarithms
3.41
AB
Let
= 243 27'
423-62
(.4
2063-16 m
E 5138 -42 m N)
(243 27' = S6327' W)
Logs
partial departure
(AE) 2-578 579
AB
1-951 602
distance
2-626977
1\
cos bearing
-650 287
partial latitude
2-277 264
sin bearing
(&NAB )
The log distance
N.B.
is written
EA
2063-16
tÂB
EB
-378-95
"a
down once
1684-21
m
m
5138-42
ANAB
-189-35
NB
4949-07
only, being added to the
log sin bearing above and the log cos bearing below, to give the partial
departure and latitude respectively.

It is
often considered good computing practice to separate the log
figures for convenience of adding though the use of squared paper
would obviate
this.
Computation by machine
3.42
partial departure
AR._
sin bearing
0-894 545
EA
AB.o
EB
-378-95
"a
5138-42
2063-16
1684-21
A 23-62
distance
0-446 979
cos bearing
partial latitude
AN
^MB
>
*
WAB
"b
Using a normal
digital machine, the distance (being
189-35
4949-07
common)
in
is
set once in the machine and then separately multiplied by the appropri-
ate trigonometrical function.

In the case of the twin-banked Brunsviga, the processes are simul-
taneous.
N.B.
For both natural and logarithmic trigonometrical functions the
following tables are recommended:
Degrees only
Degrees and minutes
5 figure tables
Degrees, minutes and seconds
6 figure tables
4 figure tables
Degrees, minutes, seconds and decimals of seconds 7 figure tables
135
CO-ORDINATES
Tabulation process (Fig. 3.16)
3.43
Traverse computation sheet
Compiled by
_^y_-
Date
_?j_r/ii.7 : .
Line
Bearing
AB
N*
Traverse
4E =
length x sin B'g
Length
sin/cos Sr
4N= length x cos

AE
AH
243* 27'00" 423-62
S63*27'W
s 0-894
A to
Computed by .^/i.jGreen)
Checked by _!??.
(Red)
B'g
494907
-189-35
1684-21
042* 32' 00" 221-38

N42*32' E
Ftoint
545 -378 95
C0446 979
BC
2063-16 5138-42
SO676 019 H49-66

cO-736 884
+163-13
-229-29 -26-22
1833 87 5112-20
Check
2063-16 5138-42
1833-87 5112-20
Fig.
3.
Tabulated computation
16
Example 3.6
Calculate the total co-ordinates, in feet, of a point

the bearing of AB is 119 45' and the distance is 850 links on a
slope of 15 from the horizontal.
if
The co-ordinates
264-5
of
relative to a local origin are
5356*7
ft
ft.
(M.Q.B./UM)
To find horizontal length
(Fig. 3.17)
Fig.
AB,
but 100 links = 66
be multiplied by
ft;
logs,
17
cos 15 links
therefore to convert links to feet the length must
= 0*66,
AB,
By
AB
3.
i.e.
K.AB
0-66 x 850 x cos 15
cos 15
0-66
1-81954
850
2-92942
cos 15
T-984 94
AB,
2-73390
136
To find
Fig.
119 45'
By
AB
partial co-ordinates of line
3.
(Fig. 3.18)
18
S6015' E
+ 264-5
logs,
partial departure
2*672 52
EB
+734-9
1-938 62
AB,
2-73390 (see above)
cos 60 15'
1-695 67
partial latitude
2-429 57
To
5356-7
5087-8
ft
AN'AB
-268-9
ND
5087-8
E 734-9 ft
obtain the bearing and distance between two points given
their co-ordinates
Let the co-ordinates
Then tan bearing
N.B.
+ 470-4
sin 60 15'
Co-ordinates of B,
3.44
A'AB
(0)
(Fig. 3. 19)
of
A and B
For convenience this

Bearing
be
E^N^
and
E s Nfl
respectively.
_ F
N
nA
B - N
(3.7)
AEAB
ANAB
(3.8)
is frequently written
AB
tan-'AE/AN
(3.9)
(the sign of the differences will indicate the quadrant bearing).
Length
AB
>/(AE*
AN*
(3.10)
137
CO-ORDINATES
This
N.B.
is not
a very good solution for computation purposes and
the trigonometrical solution below is preferred.
AB
(3.11)
cos bearing (0)
AN^g sec#
=
AB
or
(3.12)
AEAB
(3.13)
sin bearing (0)
AE^cosectf
(3.14)
If both of these determinations are used, their agreement provides

a check on the determination of 0, but no check on the subtraction of
the Eastings or Northings.
AZab
N
'B
1
>B
^/*
â
*"ab
N/,
EA
To
Fig. 3.19
Example
find the length
and bearing between two points
3.7
E
A
632-16
925-48
m
m
+ 293-32
AE
Bearing
AB
AN
tan"'
421-74
- 528-14
+ 293 32
-528-14
'
949-88
(E)
(S)
138
By
logs,
293-32
2-467 34
528-14
2-72275
tan (0)
1-744 59
i.e.
Length
AB = AN
sec 6
150^57'
AE
or
= 528-14 sec 29 03'
By
S 29 03'
cosec 6
293-32 cosec 29 03'
logs,
528-14
2-72275
sec 29 03'
0-058 39
2-781 14
or
293-32
2-46734
cosec 29 03'
0-31375
2-78109
The
first
solution is better as
solution is obtained
if
-*
604-14
->
604-07
AN > AE,
but a more compatible
the bearing is more accurately determined, using
7 figure logs,
AE
AN
2-7227491
tan ((9)
9-7445926
Bearing (0)
AN
sec#
2-4673417
2902'50"
2-7227491
10-058 3786
2-7811277
AE
or
cosec
- 604-13 m
2-467 3417
10-3137836
2-7811253
604- 12 m
The following horizontal angle readings were recorded

Example 3.8
during a counter-clockwise traverse ABCD. If the line AD is taken
as an arbitrary meridian, find the quadrantal bearings of the remaining
lines.
Find also the latitudes and departures of the line

length is 893-6 m.
CD whose
COORDINATES
Station at
Sight
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
B
A
C
B
Vernier
139
Vernier
061 36' 40"

218 53' 40"
149 28' 20"
241 36' 20"

038 54' 00"
329 28' 00"
028 29' 00"
208 29' 00"

286 58' 40"
106 58' 20"
224 20' 20"
C
A
026 58' 00"
044 20' 20"

206 58' 40"
053 18' 40"
233 18' 00"
Ans. Mean values
Angle
241 36' 30"
D
B
038 53' 50"

329 28' 10"
DAB
157 17' 20"
028 29' 00"
ABC
5900'50"
BCD
117 21' 50"
CDA
2620'00"
A
C
B
D
C
026 58' 20"
053 18' 20"
106 58' 30"
224 20' 20"
360 00 '00"
AD
Angle DAB
Bearing AB
Angle ABC
000'
Bearing
157 17' 20"
157 17' 20"

59 00' 50"
(S 22 42' 40" E)
216 18' 10"
-180
BC
BCD
036 18' 10"

117 21' 50"
Bearing
Angle
(N 36 18' 10" E)
153 40' 00"
+ 180
Bearing
CD
33340'00
y/
(N 2620'00" W)
26 20' 00"
Angle CD/I
360 00' 00"

Co-ordinates
CD
AE
AN
893-6
(N2620'W)
893-6 sin 26 20'
893-6 cos 26 20' =
-396-39
+800-87m
140
Ans.
Co-ordinates of
AB = S 22 42' 40" E
BC = N3618'10"E
CD = N2620'00" E
line CD AE = -396 -4m
AN
= +800*9
Example 3.9 In order to continue a base line AC to G, beyond a

building which obstructed the sight, it was necessary to make a traverse round the building as follows, the angles being treated as deflection angles
when traversing
ACD
CDE
DEF
Calculate EF
in the direction
92 24' to the
ABCDEFG.
left
= 90 21' to the
right
CD
56-2
ft
89 43' to the
right
DE
123-5
ft
=
for
to be
on
AC
produced and find
EFG
and CF.
(L.U.)
IG
i
I
8943'
^_J
$__.-r
i
i
I
i
i
i
i
I
I
X.
1i
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
9021y
1
9224',
-o-
Fig. 3.20
Assuming the bearing
AC =
000'
WW
CO-ORDINATES
i.e.
AC
ACD (left)
-angle
360 00'
Bearing
92 24'
CD
CDE (right)
267 36'
DE
DBF (right)
357 57'
Bearing
+ angle
i.e.
S 87 36'
i.e.
N 02 03'
i.e.
N 87 40' E
90 2l'
Bearing
+ angle
141
89 43'
447 40'
-360 00'
EF
Bearing
087 40'
FG
EFG
Thus, to obtain the bearing of

the deflection angle
= bearing AC,
= 87 40'
left.
Check on deflection angles

+
To
90 21'
92 24'
89 43'
87 40'
180 04'
180 04'
obtain the co-ordinates of
Line Distance (ft)
AC
CD
56-2
DE
123-5
Bearing
sin Bearing
Ae
cos Bearing
An
ooo'
8736'w
0-999 12
0-04188
-56-15
N0203'w
0-035 77
0-999 36
+ 123*42
4-42
235
+ 123.42
-
2.35
E F - 60.57 N^ +121-07
Thus F must be +60*57
east of E. The line
ft
EF
has a bearing
087 40'
Length
EF
AE^
sin bearing
To
60-62
60 57
sin 87 40'
'
ft
find the co-ordinates of F,
&NEF
60-62 cos 87 40'
+121-07
N/r
+123-54
2-47
142
.-.
F is
CF =
ft
ft.
EF
EFG
CF
Ans.
Example
and
above C on the bearing due N.
123*54
123-54
= 60-6
ft
87 40' deflection
123-5
ft
The co-ordinates (metres)
3.10,
left
of the base line stations
are
26 543-36
26895-48 E
35432-31
35983-37
N
N
The following clockwise angles were measured as

traverse:
part of a closed
ABCDEA
ABC
BCD
CDE
DEA
EAB
183 21'
86 45'
329 17'
354 36'
306 06'
Determine the adjusted quadrant bearings of each of the lines relative to the meridian on which the co-ordinates were based.
26 543-36
26895-48 m
AE
352-12
tan bearing
m
35 983-37 m
AN 551-06 m
35 432-31
AB =
352-12
551-06
bearing
AB
032 34'
corr.
Angles
Corrected Angle
183 20'
183 21'
-01'
86 45'
329 17'
-01'
-01'
329
354
36'
-01'
354 35'
306 06'
-01'
306 05'
Angles should equal

i.e.
.*.
16'
1260 00'
1260 05'
86 44'
(2n + 4) 90
(2x5 +
4)90
1260<
error is 05' distributed as 01' per angle.
CO-ORDINATES
143
Calculation of bearings
Bearing
Angle
AB
ABC
032 34'
>
32 34' F
>
^5 54' F
N5722'W
183 20'
215 54'
-
Bearing
Angle
BC
BCD
180
035 54'
86 44'
122 38'
+ 180
Bearing
Angle
CD
CDE
302 38'
329 16'
631 54'
-540
Bearing
Angle
DE
DEF
091 54'
266 29' -
^ ftRnfi'
354 35'
446 29'
-180
Bearing
Angle
EA
EAB
8629'W
306 05'
572 34'
-540
Bearing
032 34'
AB
Check
A disused colliery shaft C, situated in a flooded area,

surrounded by a circular wall and observations are taken from two
points A and 6 of which the co-ordinates, in feet, relative to a local
Example 3.11
is
origin, are as follows:
is
Station
Eastings
Northings
3608-1
915-1
957-6
1808-8
approximately N.W. of A.
Angles measured
are
at
to the tangential points 1 and 2 of the walls
BAC, = 25 55' and BAC Z = 26 35'.
Angles measured at B to the tangential points 3 and 4 of the wall

C3 BA = 40 29' and CA BA = 39 31'.
Determine the co-ordinates of the centre of the shaft in feet relative to the origin, to one place of decimals and calculate the diameter
are
144
formed by the outside of the wall.
of the circle
(M.Q.B./S)
Fig. 3.21
E
A
3608-1
915-1
957-6
1808-8
AE'AB
AN
D +
VU3
_ 2650-5
893-7
In Fig. 3.21,
Bearing of
AB
tan
-iAE
AN
= N7122'W
Length
In triangle
AB
AN
-2650-5
_
=
tan"
i.e.
+ 893-7
288 38'
sec bearing or
893-7 sec71
2797>1
22' or
AE
cosec bearing
2650-5 cosec 71 22'

2797-1
ABC
Angle A
I {25 55'+ 26 35'}
26 15'
Angle
fi
I 40 29' +39 31'}
40 00'
Angle
C = 180 -
113 45'
(26 15' + 40 00')
180 00'
CO-ORDINATES
By
145
the sine rule,
BC
AC
AB
2797-1 sin 26 15' cosec 113 45' =
BC
1351-6 sin 40 00' cosec 26 15'
sin
sin
A cosec C
1351-6
B cosec A
Bearing
+ Angle
Bearing
Bearing
- Angle
Bearing
AB
BAC
AC
314 53'
BA
108 38'
1964-3ft
288 38'
26 15'
CBA
BC
40 00'
068 38'
To find co-ordinates of C
Line
BC
068 38'
AE^
Ec
AN5C
Nc
N6838'E
i.e.
1351-6
1351-6 sin 68 38'
ft
+1258-7
Es + ÊBC
957-6 + 1258-7
+2216-3
1351-6 cos 68 38' =
+ 492-4
NB + ANSC
1808-8 + 492-4
= +2301-2
Check
Line
AC
314 53'
AE^
EC
To
N4507'W
i.e.
1964-3
1964-3 sin 45 07'
= EA + & EAC
= 3608-1 - 1391-8
ft
-1391-8
2216-3
+1386-1
AN^ C
1964-3 cos 45 07' =
Nc
NA + AKAC
915-1 + 1386-1
2301-2
find the diameter of the wall
Referring to Fig.
a =
3.
21
o
|(40 29'-3931')
R = BCsinO29'
=
ft
cz
1351-6 x 29 x 60
206265
BC
=
029'
x 029'(rad)
11.40
ft
146
Check
p = 1(26 35' -25 55') = 020'
R = AC
x 020'(rad)
1964-3 x 20 x 60
n^ft
206 265
22-8
Diameter of wall
To Find
3.5
3.51
ft
the Co-ordinates of the Intersection of
Two Lines
Given their bearings from two known co-ordinate stations
As an
alternative to solving the triangle and then computing the
may be
co-ordinates the following process
Given
bearings
applied:
A (EA NA )
B (E 5 Nfl )
a and jQ
C (E N )
C C
Fig.
3.
22
From Fig. 3.22,
E c = EA
= EA
= EB
= EB
.-.
Then the
Nc (tana
-tanjS)
(N^-N^tana
AN^
(3.15)
tana
+ (Nc -NB )tan/8

+ ANsc tan0
(3.16)
EB - EA + N^ tana - NB tan0
C
E g - E^ + HA tana - NB
total northing of
Nc =~
To
tanft
tana - tanjS
obtain the partial co-ordinates from equation (3.17)
(3 1?)
147
CO-ORDINATES
Partial Northing
1,C
Nc
NA =
MiAC
Nc
- NA
tan a ~ Ng ta " ^
- N^
tana - tan/8
Eg ~ Ea + Na
E 5 - E^ + N^tan a - N^tanft - N^ tana + NA tanft

tana -
tanft
_ (Es-E.0 -(NB -K4) tanft

tan a - tan ft
A E^,
-/IS - A IWa.
=
AN^
Then
tana -
(3 lg)
tan/3
Similarly, from equation (3.17),
AUBC = N^-N*
Eg-E^ + N^tana-Nstanft
tana -
WBC
Then
The following
& E AB - &NAB
tanft
tan a
"T
tana - f.
(3-19)
tan/8
alternative process
may be used:
Nc = N4 +(E c -Ex)cota = N^ + AE^

= N B + (E c -E5 )cotft = NB + AE 5C
As
(3.20)
cotft
(3.21)
cot
before, the total and partial co-ordinates are given as:
E C = Nb ~ Na + Ea cot a ~ EB
cot a - cot ft
cot
n 2?
ft
~ AE^cotft
AE^ m*B
cot a - cot
and
'
(3.23)
ft
AE
AN4 g - AE^ cot a

cot a - cot ft
(3.24)
N.B.
Theoretically, if Scot > Stan, then it is preferable to use the

cot values, though in practice only one form would be used.
Example 3.12
Let the co-ordinates be

the bearings be
tana
1-7321
tan ft
-0-5774
Using the tan values
cot
A = E4, N6
a = 060
8 = E13, N4
ft
a =
0-5774
-1-7321
cot ft
= 330
from equation (3.17)
Nc =
1-732 1) + (4 x 0-577 4)
(13 - 4) + (6
x
-
'
-
y-397
g
4 + (9-397-6) x 1*7321 =
9-884
1-7321 + 0-5774
from equation (3. 15)
Ec =
148
or equation (3. 16)
Ec =
13 + (9-397 -4) x -0-5774=
9-884
Using the cot values,

from equation (3.22),
E
C
From equation
4 - 6 + 4 x 0-5774+ 13 x 1-7 321

0-577 4+1-7321
^
Q .oo d
(3.20),
Nc =
6 + (9-884 - 4) x 0-577 4
Nc
4 +
9-397
or equation (3.21)
(9-884-13) x -1-7321 = 9-397
If the formulae using partial values are employed the individual

equation computation becomes simplified.
Using the previous values (Ex.
3.5),
from equation (3.18)
WAe
AC
Then
Nc
+ 3-397
AN^
6 + 3-397
this value is
From equation
0,S774
-?-<1-?JL:
1-7321 + 0-577 4
= N^ +
=
When
(13
= 9-397
known, equation (3.15) may be used as before.
(3.23);
AEUc =
Ec
(4-6) - (13-4) x -1-7321
+5-884
0-577 4 + 1-7321
ea +
4 + 5-884
ÂC
= 9-884
When this value is known, equation (3.20) may be used as before.

The above process is prefered and this can now be given in a
tabulated form.
Example 3.13
(1)
AN'AC
AB
a-AN^tan/8
Î
&Etan
- tan
/S
(2)
AE^
(3)
AN5e = AE^ B
tOAAC
tana
-
b&A B tana
tana -
(4)
AEBC
ANflC
tan/3
tan^S
149
CO-ORDINATES
Igloo
Oriented diagram
E base
Stations
_E_B_ase_
Bearings
ÂX + 13 486-85 m
+ 12 759-21 m
13' 57"
+ 10 327-36
182 27' 44"
+ 13 142-72
a 278
_Iglpo__(B)
m
m
tana -6-911745 2
&AB
-727-64
tanjS +
a -
tan
AN^tan/8
&&AC
W Base Ec
0-0430004
ANAB
+ 2815-36
tan
+ 121-06
-848-70
-J-
-843-44
-6-9547456"
x tana
+ 122-03
12 643-41
10 449-39
Check
& EAB
-727-64
Afy^tana -19459-05
tan
+ 18 731-41
&BC
W Base E c
3.52
+ 12643-40
tan /8
-6-9547456"
115-81
a -
x tan/3
2693-33
10 449-39
Given the length and bearing of a line

and C, Fig 3. 23
AB
and
all the
AN,BC
l
m
angles
A,B
Given:
(a)
Length and Bearing of AB,
Ec - E^ =
=
b cos(A +6)
b(cosA cos 6 c sin
sin
(b)
Angles
A sin#)
B cos A cos^ -
sinB sin 4 sin 5
sinC
but
E -
E\d
c cos Q
j4B sin
A,B and
bearing^
C.

C
Fig.
AB
N, - N4
c sintf
180 - 04 + B)
sinC
sin A
and
3.
23
cos bearing^
cosB + cos A
sin 6
Then
E,7
E.
(EB - E4) sinB cos 4 - (NB - N^) sing sin ,4

sin A cos B + cos A sin S
E4 sin A cos g + E^ cos A sin B + Eg sin B cos 4 - E^ sin g cos 4 - NB sin B sinA + Ha sin g sin A
sin 4 cos g + cos A sin B
EA cotB + EB cot 4 + (N.4 - NB )

cot A + cotB
E.4
cotg + Efl cot /I - AN^s

cot 4 + cotB
Similarly,
N^ =
N,4
(3.25)
cotB + NB cot ,4 + &EAB

cot A + cotB
(3.26)
Check
E^cotB -
1)
E fl (cot4 + 1) + N^cot B + 1) +
+ N^cotA - 1) - (E c + Nc )(cot4 +
+
cot B)
=
(3.27)
Using the values of
Example 3.13,
- 727-64/+ 2815-36 =
= 345 30' 32"
Angle
= 278 13' 57"
= 182 27' 44"
Bearing
AB
Bearing
Bearing
AC
BC
BA =
CB =
Bearing
CA = 098 13' 57"
Bearing
Bearing
tan-'
.'
165 30' 32"

02 27' 44"
14 29' 28"
A =
67 16' 35"
Angle
16 57' 12"
.'
Angle
C =
95 46' 13"
151
CO-ORDINATES
Check
cot A
From equation
cotC = -0-10105
cotB = 3*280 40
= 0-41879
P
&
(3.25),
*L
c =
180 00' 00"
A cot B + E B cot A - /SNab

cot .4 + cotB
(13486-85 x 3-2804) + (12759-21 x 0-41879) - 2815-36

0-418 79 + 3-28040
44 242-26 + 5343-43 - 2815-36
3-699 19
E c = 12643-40
From equation
N,4 cot
(3.26),
N^,
=
cot
NB cot A
A E AB
A + cotB
(10 327-36x3-2804) + (13142-72x0-41879) - 727-64
3-699 19
33877-87 + 5504-04 - 727-64

3-699 19
Nc =
10 449-39
Check (equation 3.27)
E/cotB-l) =
E^cot^ + l) =
13486-85 x
12759-21 x
2-28040 = 30755-41
N^(cotB +
NB (cotA -
4-280 40 = 44 205-23
1-41879 = 18102-64
l)
10 327-36 x
1)
13142-72 x -0-58121 = - 7638-68
= 85 424-60
(E<?
N cXcot^ +
Example 3.14
cotS)
(12643-40 + 10449 -39)(3-69919)
85424-62
Given the co-ordinates of four stations,

C
B
C
tL
zoO-00
E
E
E
520-70
N
N
N
652-45
S 263*12
320-70
100-00
170-70
170-70
Fig. 3.24
to find the co-ordirtates of the intersection of the lines
AC
and BD.
152
Method
tan bearing
BD
AE
AN
-r__
652-45 - 320-70
-263-12 - 170-70
bearingSD
tan bearing
250-0 - 520-7
-270-7
100-0 - 170-7
-70-7
S7522'W = 255 22' =
520-7 - 320-7 = 200
(No difference
due E)
BC
BX
XBC
Bearing
.".
Angle
CX
Angle
BX
BC sinBCX
sin BXC
in latitude, therefore
090
142 36'
52 36'
CB = 270
CX = 255 22'
Bearing
Length
bearing
BCX
In triangle
BC =
S3724'E = 142 36' = bearingfiX
CA =
bearing CA
331-75
-433-82
BCX
14 38'
= 200 sin 14 38' cosec (52 36'+ 14 38')
logBX = 1-73875
To
Logs
find co-ordinates of X. (Length
1-522 21
BX
known. Bearing S3724'E)
+ 33-28 (AE)
>
E4 + 320-7
AE
sin bearing 1*78346
E*
length 1-73875
33-28
353-98
cos bearing 1-90005
1-63880
- 43-53 (AN)
>
N* + 170-70
- 43-53
AN
Ans.
X = E 353-98 N
127-17
N* + 127-17
Method 2
From the previous method,
tan bearing
BD
(/S)
Zj&k
-' 76472
tan bearing
CA
(a)
~ ' '
-70-7
3-82885
CO-ORDINATES
153
Using equation (3.18),
AN
AE^
AE CB - AN gg tanj8
tan a - tan )S
ANcx tana
B
C
AE CB tana - tan0 =
AN
320-70
170-70
520-70
170-70
200-00
AN CB 0-0
3-828 85 + 0-76472 = 4-59357
?Hf -
Nc
Nx
AE CX =
=
- 43 - 538
170-70
127-16
-43-538 tana
-43-538x3-82885 = -166-70
Ec
520-70
E^
354-00
Method 3
By normal
co-ordinate geometry,
AC
y-100 = 170-7 - 100

x-250
520-7-250
the equation of line
i.e.
_100 = 0-261 2
^ ~y
70j7
270-7
yz ~
î
= uzolz
(x - 250)
(1)
Similarly,
the equation of line
BD
'
* ~ 170 7
320-7
x
~ 433 82
= -263-12 - 170-7
652-45 - 320-7
'
-1-3076
331-75
y-
i-e.
170-7
- 1-3076 (x - 320-7)
Subtracting (1) from (2),
70-7
= 1-5688 x - (250 x 0-2612) - (320-7 x 1-3076)

= 1-568 8 x _ 65-3 - 419-343 2
555 3432
'
x =
1-5688
= 354-00
(2)
154
Substituting in equation (1),
= 0-261 2 (x- 250) + 100
= 0-2612(354-250) + 100
= (0-2612 xl04) + 100
=
Ans.
127-16
X = E
354-0
127-16
N.B. All these methods are mathematically sound but the first has the
advantages that (1) no formulae are required beyond the solution of
triangles, (2) additional information is derived which might be required in setting-out processes.
Example 3.15. Equalisation of a boundary line.

The following survey notes refer to a boundary traverse and stations A and E are situated on the boundary.
Line
Bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
Horizontal length
83 14'
253-2
4630'E
426-4
N 3613'E
543-8
S 2354'E
1260-2
(ft)
proposed to replace the boundary ABCDE by a boundary AXE

is a straight line and X is situated on the line DE.
Calculate the distance EX which will give equalisation of areas
on each side of the new boundary.
(M.Q.B./S)
It is
where
AX
Computation of co-ordinates with A as the origin, Fig. 3.25

Line
AB N
83 14' E
253-2
ft
Logs
Line
AE
2-400 42
sin#
9-99696
length
2-40346
cos 6
9-071 24
AN
1-47460
BC S4630'E
E,
0-0
+ 251-44
EB +
NA
251-44
0-0
29-83
No +
29-83
EB +
251-44
426-4
AE
2-490 38
sin0
9-86056
+ 309-30
155
CO-ORDINATES
length 2-62982
cos 6
9-83781
AN
2-46763
N5
- 293-51
Nc
CD N
Line
36 13'
29-83
- 263-68
543-8
Ec +
AE
2-50691
sin0
9-77147
560-74
+ 321-30
->
ED +
882-04
length 2-73544
cos#
9-90676
AN
2-642 20
Nc
- 263-68
_+ 438-74
HD
+ 175-06
-200
Fig. 3.25
-400
-600
800-
-1000
200
By
400
800
ED
BDC
800
1000
1200
1400
construction,
Join BD.
Draw
line parallel to
BD
through
to cut
Area of triangle BDC X = area of triangle

between same parallels).
at C,
(triangles on
Join
Draw
line parallel to C,/4 through B to cut ED at 8,.

of triangle AB^C = area of triangle ABC^.
Area
Line
'
same base and
A.
AB
(X) equalises the irregular boundary in such a

triangle
ABP +
Length
triangle
EX =
QDB^ =
977.84
ft
triangle
(calc.)
way
that
PQC
= 978
ft
(scaled).
156
Line
DE
S 23 54'
1260-2
ED +
882-04
AE
2-70805
510-57
sin0
9-60761
EE +
1392-61
N^ +
175-06
length 3-100 44
costf
9-96107
AN
3-06151
- 1152-15
N^ Checks
AE
AN +
977-09
251-44
29-83
- 293-51
309-30
+ 438-74
-1152-15
321-30
+ 468-57
510-57
2AE + 1392-61
ABCDEA (see
Area of figure
-1445-66
+ 468-57
SAN
- 977-09
Chapter 11)
ft)
(2)
(3)
(4)
F.dep.
B.dep.
+ 251-44
+1392-61
A
B
C
+ 29-83
- 263-68
+ 251-44
+ 560-74
+ 560-74
+ 882-04
D
E
+ 175-06
- 977-09
+ 882-04
+ L392-61
+ 1392-61
0-0
Double areas
0-0
(1)
0-0
+ 251-44
+ 560-74
0-0
+ 882-04
(5)
(3)
+ 560-74
+ 630-60
+ 831-87
- 882-04
x (5)
B
C
D
E
167 26-8
166 276-0
145627-0
861832-0
+ 1024185-8
- 166 276-0
2;
857 909-8
428 954-4 sq
ft
From co-ordinates
Bearing
EA
- 1 92 ' 61
tan~1
305 03' 16"
(4)
-1141-17
N 54 56' 44" W
157
CO-ORDINATES
A A
1392-61 cosee 54 56' 44'
-
Length
EA =
=
ED
AED
1701-2
ft
I'
'
(x)
23 54' 00"
336 06' 00"
Bearing
Angle
336 06' 00" - 305 03' 16"
31 02' 44"
To find length EX
(a) such that the area of triangle
AXE
equal
is
to
428 954-4 sq.ft.
Area of triangle
AXE
AED
âx
2 area triangle
sin
AXE
x sin AED
2 x 428 954-4
1701-2 sin3102' 44"
977-84
(length EX).
ft
Exercises 3(c) (Boundaries)

14.
The undernoted bearings and measurements define an irregular
boundary line on a mine plan between two points A and B, the latter
being a point on a straight line XY bearing from South to North.
Plot the bearings and measurements to a scale of 1/2 in. = 100 ft,
and thereafter lay down a straight line from A to a point on XBY so
that the areas to the North and South respectively of that line will be
,
equal.
From A
N 63 30' W
S4500'W
S8045'W
N 55 15' W
S 60 30' W
Check your answer by calculation
185
ft
245
ft
175
ft
250
ft
300
ft
to
of the respective areas.
(M.Q.B./M)
The undernoted traverse was taken along an irregular boundary

15.
between two properties:
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
A
N3245'E
N7130'E
S6115'E
N7130'E
S4030'E
lies on a straight boundary fence
XY
464
ft
308
ft
528
ft
212
ft
248
ft
which bears
7 30' W.
158
Plot the traverse to a scale 1/2400 and thereafter set out a

F to a point G on the fence XAY so that
the areas North and South of the line are equal.
straight line boundary from
What length of fencing will be required
How
far is
from
A?
(N.R.C.T.
3.6
Ans.
1480
ft;
AG
515
ft)
Transposition of Grid
New
Fig.
3.
axis
26
Let the line AB (Fig. 3.26) based upon an existing co-ordinate

system have a bearing 6 and length s.
AE^
ÂB
Then
the
The co-ordinate system

new system is 0.
The co-ordinates of the
is
s sin (9
now
COS0
to be
changed so that the origin of
position of 'slew' or rotation
A =
E^
and the axes are rotated clockwise through an angle
+a
to give a
new
bearing of AB.
i.e.
or
/8
- a
a =
6 -
The new co-ordinates
EB =
i.e.
/8
of
Ejj
Old bearing -
New
bearing
(3.28)
B may now be computed:

+ s sin/S
EA +
Efl
Â + &&AB cos a - &ÂB sin a
Nfl
NJ^
s sin 6 cos
Similarly,
+ s cos/8
a -
s cos 6 sin
a
(3.29)
CO-ORDINATES
N'b
If
NA +
s cos 6 cos
N^ +
AN^
159
a +
cos a +
s sin 6 sin a
AE^sina
(3.30)
a scale factor k is required (e.g. to convert feet into metres),
then,
E 'a + AE^
= E^ + ZctAE^gCos a -
E* =
K5
and
=
=
AN^
sin a]
(3.31)
l^ + iiiMfl
ANJS
Ni
N^ + /ctAN^ cos a + AE^sina]
(3.32)
From the above,
AN^
nAN^
nAEAB
AE^ B = fctAE^ cos a =
AN^ S =
where
If
m=
k cos
mAE^
mAN^
a and n = k
sin
sin a]
(3.33)
(3.34)
the angle of rotation (a) is very small, the equations are simcosa-0 and sin a -> a radians.
plified as
E5 =
VA
+ k[AEAB
-,
NB = N^ + tfAN^ +
Example 3.16
Fig.
3.
27
fiNAB a]
(3.35)
AE^
(3.36)
a]
160
In Fig. 3.27,
OA
OB
OC
OD
Let
AE
045
i.e.
AN
N45E
400
+ 282-84
+ 282-84
120
+ 303-10
- 175-00
210
S60E
S30W
350
350
-175-00
-303-10
330
N30W
400
-200-00
+ 346-40
the axes are now rotated through -15

creased by +15.
If
OA' =
060
OB' =
135
OC' =
225
N60E
S45E
S45W
N15W
OD' = 345
c'
the bearings will be in
AE'
AN'
400
+ 346-40
350
+ 247-49
-247-49
350
+ 247-49
-247-49
400
-103-52
+ 386-36
+ 200-00
Applying the transposition of the grid formulae;

equation (3.29)
AE'
AEcosa- AN
equation(3.30)
AN'
AN
AE
Ae
An
cosa
AN
cos a +
sina
OA + 282*84 + 282-84 +273-20
-73-20
OB + 303.10 -175-00 + 292-77

OC - 175-00 -303.10 -169-04
OD -200-00 + 346-40 -193-19
+ 45-29
N.B.
sina
AE sin a
An cosa Ae
sina
Ae'
An'
+ 273-20
- 169-04
-73-20 + 346-40 + 200-00

-78-45 + 247-48 -247-49
+ 78-45 -292-77
-89-68 + 334-60
+ 51-76 -103-51 + 386-36
(1)
cos (-15) - +0-965 93
(2)
sin (-15) = -0-258 82
+45-29 -247-49 -247-48
had a co-ordinate value (EqNq)

based on the new axes, these values would be added to the par-
(3) If the point of rotation (slew)
tial values,
AE'AN'
3.7
to give the
new
co-ordinate values.
The National Grid Reference System
Based on the Davidson Committee's recommendations, all British

Ordnance Survey Maps will, on complete revision, be based on the
National Grid Reference System with the metre as the unit.
The origin of the 'Modified Transverse Mercator Projection' for
the British Isles is
Latitude
Longitude
49
2
To provide positive co-ordinates for the reference system a 'False

was produced by moving the origin 100 km North and 400 km
Origin'
West
The basic
grid is founded
upon a 100 km square; commencing from
the false origin which lies to the S.W. of the British Isles, and all
squares are referenced by relation to this corner of the square.
CO-ORDINATES
/0
100
200
300
400
161
500
600
False
origin
_1_ 49 N
True
-^T
origin
2*
Fig. 3.28
latitude
long'itucle
Old O.S. grid reference system
700km
162

'Eastings are always quoted
Originally the 100
first.'
km squares were given a
reference based on the
number of 100 kilometres East and North from the origin (see Fig. 3.28).
Subsequently, 500 km squares were given prefix letters of S, N and
H, and then each square was given a letter of the alphabet (neglecting
I). To the right of the large squares the next letter in the alphabet
gives the appropriate prefixes, T, O and J (see Fig. 3.29).
1
km
H- Hebrides
Central
meridian
L
1
800
N- North
SJ
M
L-*-
A
F
-ir
300
S- South
-N- \
II
.'
/
False origin
True
origin
Fig. 3.29
New
u
R
-?# 49* N latitude

-^"^ .
-^
<
W longitude
O.S. grid reference system
Square 32 becomes SO
43 becomes SK
17 becomes
NM
The basic reference map
is to the scale
1/25000
(i.e.
approxi-
mately 2y2 inches to 1 mile), Fig. 3.30.

Each map is prefixed by the reference letters followed by two
digits representing the reference numbers of the SW corner of the
SK54. This shows the relationmaps and the manner in which each
sheet. See example (Fig. 3.30), i.e.
ship between the various scaled
sheet is referenced.
CO-ORDINATES
163
Nottingham Regional College of Technology has the

E 457 076-32 m, N 340 224-19 m. Its full 'Grid Reference' to the nearest metre is written as SK/5740/076 224 and the
sheets on which it will appear are:
point
in
grid co-ordinates
Reference
Grid size
Sheet size
Scale
SK 54
1/25 000
( ^ 2*/2 in.
SK 54 SE
1/10 560
SK 57 40
1/2 500
SK 57 40 SW
1/1 250
( 2;
50
mile)
in. to 1
^ 25 in.
1km
1km
100 m
100 m
km
5 km
10
to 1 mile)
1km
m
to 1 mile)
500
in. to 1 mile)
10km
350 000
SK 54
(1/25000)
49
48
46
5km
45
SK 54 SE
(6" to imile)
SK 5740
SK 5740
SW
(1/2500)
(1/1250)
340000
$5
o
8
o
-*
"
u>A
Fig. 3.30
oi
noo
o
O)
<o
O.S. sheet sizes
Exercises 3(d) (Co-ordinates)

16.
The co-ordinates
of stations
A and B
Latitude
Departure
+8257 m
+7542 m
+ 1321m
- 146 m
Calculate the length and bearing of

17.
are as follows:
The co-ordinates
of two points
S 495-4
188 -6
m
m
AB
(Ans.
A and B
E
E
922-4
58-6
244
01';
are given as:
m
m
1632 m)
164
P midway between A
Calculate the co-ordinates of a point
S 153-4 m,
(Ans.
and B.
E 490-5 m)
18.
The bearings of a traverse have been referred to the magnetic
meridian at the initial station A and the total co-ordinates of B, rela-
tive to A, are found to be 368
W, 796
S.
Calculate (a) the length and magnetic bearing of AB,

declination is 13 10'
AB
bearing of
(b) the true
assuming that the magnetic
of true north,
(c) the co-ordinates of
with reference to the true
meridian at the initial station.
AB
mag. bearing 204 49' 877 m

true bearing 191 39';
(c) corrected co-ordinates 177-1 W, 858-9 S)
(Ans. (a)
(b)
The co-ordinates,
19.
in
metres of two points, X and Y, are as

582-47 m
N 1279-80 m
W
E
follows:
1191-85
755-18
Calculate the length and bearing of XY.

(Ans.
Survey station X has a Northing 424-4
a height above Ordnance datum of 260*8 ft.
20.
2699-92 m;
ft,
13854'50")
Easting 213*7
ft
and
Station Y has a Northing 1728-6 ft, Easting 9263-4 ft and a depth

below Ordnance datum 763*2 ft.
Find the length, bearing and inclination of a line joining XY
(Ans. 9143-3 ft; 081 47' 54"; 1 is 8-92)
The co-ordinates
21.
of four survey stations are given below:
Station
North
A
B
C
822
164
210
D
BD.
East (ft)
90
469
614
(ft)
718
81
Calculate the co-ordinates of the intersection of the lines AC and

(L.U. Ans. N 520, E 277)
22.
Readings of lengths and whole circle bearings from a traverse
carried out by a chain and theodolite reading to 1 minute of arc were as
follows, after adjusting the angles:
AB
Line
BC
000'
35 40'
46 15y2
Length (ft)
487-2
538*6
448-9
W.C.B.
Length
(ft)
'
156 13'
295-4
FA
AG
GH
HD
180 00'
270 00'
64 58'
346 25'
37 40'
963-9
756-2
459-3
590-7
589-0
EF
Line
DE
CD
W.C.B.
CO-ORDINATES
AB
Taking the direction

parture of each line.
165
as north, calculate the latitude and de-
and the mean co-ordinates

as obtained by the three routes are taken as correct, find the coordinates of the other points by correcting along each line in proporof
If
is taken as origin
tion to chainage (answers are required correct to the nearest 0*1
(L.U.
23.
Ans.
= 1234-7
Angle observed
198 06' 30"
284 01 '30"
200 12' 30"
271 33' 30"
268 01 '30"
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FG
245
310
480
709
430
607
61 27' 40" W)
From the following notes, calculate the length and bearing

DA:
Line
Bearing
Length
AB
BC
015 30'
630 m
103 45'
540
CD
270 00'
227
The notes
of the
m
m
(Ans.
25.
E)
Length (metres)
Calculate the length and bearing of the line GA.

(Ans. 220-6 m;
line
ft
traverse:
14 48' 00"
AB
ABC
BCD
CDE
DEF
EFG
ft)
N, 637-6
The following notes were taken during a theodolite

Bearing of line
24.
ft
668 m; S 44 13' W)
of an underground traverse in a level
seam are as
follows:
Line
Azimuth
AB
BC
CD
30 42'
Distance
86 24'
150-6
32 30'
168-3
(ft)
315 06'
DE
45-0
The roadway DE is to be continued on its present bearing
to a
point F such that F is on the same line as
AB produced.
Calculate the lengths of EF and FB.
(M.Q.B./M Ans. EF 88-9 ft; FB 286-2 ft)
A shaft is sunk to a certain seam in which the workings to the

dip have reached a level DE. It is proposed
to deepen the shaft and
26.
connect the point E in the dip workings to a point

X by a crossmeasures drift, dipping at 1 in 200 towards X. The
point X is to be
166
134 ft from the centre of the shaft A and due East from
AX
it,
being
level.
The following
made
ate the notes of a traverse
the centre of the shaft
in the
seam from
to the point E.
Vertical Angle
Line
Azimuth
Distance
AB
BC
270 00'
127
Level
184 30'
550
Dipping 21
CD
159 15'
730
Dipping 18y2
DE
90 00'
83
Level
Calculate (a) the azimuth and horizontal length of the drift
and (b) the amount by which
it
is
EX
necessary to deepen the
shaft.
(M.Q.B./M
Ans.
(a)
358 40'
(b) 434-5
1159-6
ft
ft)
The notes of a traverse between two points A and in a certain

seam are as follows:
Angle of Inclination
Distance (ft)
Azimuth
L,ine
27.
AB
BC
CD
DE
It is
+6
89
600
170
450
181
550
level
280
355
level
-30
proposed to drive a cross-measures
another point
exactly midway between
from a point
drift
A and
to
B.
Calculate the azimuth and length EF.
(M.Q.B./M
Ans. 359 33'; 867
888-3
ft,
ft
inclined)
Undernoted are details of a short traverse between the faces of

two advancing headings, BA and DE, which are to be driven forward
28.
until they meet:
Azimuth
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
Distance
80
270-6
ft
180
488-0
ft
240
377-0
ft
350
318-0
ft
still to be driven in each heading.

(M.Q.B./M Ans. BA + 168-4 ft; DE + 291-5 ft)
29.
In order to set out the curve connecting
two straights of a road
to be constructed, the co-ordinates on the National Grid of /, the point

of intersection of the centre lines of the straights produced, are re-
quired.
167
CO-ORDINATES
a point on the centre line of one straight, the bearing Al
being 72 00' 00", and B is a point on the centre line of the other
straight, the bearing IB being 49 26' 00"
is
Using the following data, calculate with
full
checks the co-ordinates
of/.
Eastings
Northings
(ft)
(ft)
+43758-32
+52202-50
+45165-97
+52874-50
The length AB
is
and the bearing 64 28' 50".

(N.U. Ans. E + 45 309-72 N + 52706-58)
1559-83
ft
proposed to sink a vertical shaft to connect X on a roadway

upper horizon with a roadway GH in the lower horizon which
passes under CD. From surveys in the two horizons the following data
30.
It
CD
is
in the
are compiled:
Upper horizon
Station
Horizontal Angle
Inclined
Inclination
Remarks
Length
co-ordinates of
1 in
200
854-37
400
943-21
276 15' 45"
N
+1
in
1356-24
Bearing
88 19' 10"
E 6549-10 ft
ft
AB
30 14' 00" E.
736-21
Level
D
Lower horizon
Station
Horizontal Angle
Inclined
Inclination
Remarks
Length
Co-ordinates of
+ lin50
326-17
E 7704-08 ft
N 1210-88 ft
+1
278-66
Bearing
193 46' 45"
in 20
83 03' 10"
EF
54 59' 10" E.
626-10
level
H
Calculate the co-ordinates of
31
The surface levels
(Ans.
of two shafts
E
X
8005*54 ft,
and
Y and
respectively as follows:
Surface Level
Depth
820-5
ft
A.O.D.
200yd
535*5
ft
A.O.D.
150 yd
1918*79 ft)
their depth are
168
The co-ordinates of the centre of the two shafts in fact, are respectively as follows:
-778-45
+2195-43
+821*55
+ 359-13
Calculate the length and gradient of a cross-measures

nect the bottom of the shaft.
(Ans.
32.
2439-3 ft(incl.), 2435-6 ft(hor.); 3
The co-ordinates
S44ll' E
are
i.e. 1 in 18)
N25m E13m. From ,4 a line AB runs

AB an equilateral triangle ABC is
to the north of
AB.
Calculate the co-ordinates of B and C.

(Ans. B E + 94-5m, N-55-9m. C
33.
10',
con-
117m. On the line
for
set out with
of
drift to
E+
(a) Calculate the gradient (as a percentage)
N+
126-4 m,
53-7m)
between two points,
and N, which have been co-ordinated and heighted as given below:
Co-ordinates
E(ft)
N(ft)
M
#
(b)
(ft)
6206-5
3465-2
212-4
5103-2
2146-8
196-6
6002-5
2961-4
Determine the length (in centimetres) of the line

500 (assume 1 ft = 0-3048 m).
plotted at a scale 1
(c)
Height
Calculate the bearing of the line MO

(R.I.C.S. Ans. 0-92%;
104-8cm;20203')
From an underground traverse between 2 shaft wires

the following partial co-ordinates in feet were obtained:
34.
AB
BC
CD
MN when
E 150-632 ft,
E 528-314 ft,
82-115
ft
428-862
ft
26-075
ft,
S 327 -958
A and D
ft
Transform the above partials to give the total Grid co-ordinates of

B given that the Grid co-ordinates of A and D were:
N 432 182-684 metres
A
E 520 163-462 metres,
station
E 520378-827
(Aide memoire)
metres,
N 432238-359
x,
+ K(x -yd)
Y =
y,
+ K(y + xd)
metres
(N.R.C.T.)
Bibliography
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, Textbook of Topographical Surveying, 4th ed.

(H.M.S.O.)
169
COORDINATES
GLENDENNING, J., Principles of Surveying (Blackie)
CLARK, D., Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vol. 1 (Constable)
HOLLAND, J.L., WARDELL, K. and WEBSTER, A. C, Surveying, Coal-
mining Series, (Virtue)

Brief Description of the National Grid and Reference System. O.S.
Booklet No. 1/45 (H.M.S.O.)
middleton and CHADWICK, Treatise on Surveying, Vol. 1 (Spon).
salmon, V.G., Practical Surveying and Field Work (Griffin)
BRINKER, R.C. and TAYLOR, W.C., Elementary Surveying, 4th ed.
(International Textbook Co.)
Appendix
Comparison of scales
Scales in
common
use with the
metric system
Scales in
Recommended
Other Alternative
byBSI
Scales
ioooooo
500000
200000
100000
50000
20000
10000
5000
2000
1000
500
200
100
:so
20
:5
10
\
:
625000
250000
125000
62500
25000
2500
1250
use with the
ioooooo
625000
250000
126720
63360
25000
10560
2500
1 in to
1250
500
:384
common
foot/inch system
192
96
48
:24
in to 1 mile approx.
mile approx.
Id in to 1
i in to
\ in to
mile approx.
mile
1 in to 1
mile
2 J in to 1 mile approx.
6 in to 1 mile
208.33
ft
in to 104.17 ft
1 in to
41.6
in to r
ft
ft
is in to 1 ft
J in to 1 ft
i in to 1 ft
\ in to 1 ft
12
3 in to
in to 1 ft
1 ft
From Chartered Surveyor, March, 1968.
Laws
4.11
The
(1)
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
4.1
Reflection at Plane Surfaces
of reflection
incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
mirror at the point of incidence all lie in the
The angle
(2)
same plane.
= the angle of reflection
of incidence (i)
...
(r).
C
Fig. 4.1
AO, Fig. 4. 1, is inclined at a (glancing angle

the minor MN. Since i = r, angle BON = MO A = a. If AO
duced to C,
Angle MO A = NOC = BON = a
The
ray
Thus the deviation
of the ray
AO
is 2a.
MO A)
to
is pro-
Therefore the deviation
angle is twice the glancing angle,

i.e.
= 2a
(4.1)
Deviation by successive reflections on two inclined mirrors
4.12
(Fig. 4.2)
Ray
AB
is incident
on mirror
A^/V, at
a glancing angle a.
thus deflected by reflection + 2a

The reflected ray BC incident upon mirror
angle
j8
is deflected
It
is
M2 NZ at a glancing
by reflection - 2j8 (here clockwise is assumed
+ve).
170
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
171
Fig. 4.2
The
total deflection
In triangle
BCX,
(2a- 2/3) = 2(a-j8).
is thus
)8
a+
=0-a
D =
i.e.
is
2(a-j8) = 20
(4.2)
As
is constant, f/ie deflection after two successive reflections
constant and equal to twice the angle between the mirrors.
The
4.13
optical square (Fig. 4.3)
This instrument, used

above principle.
By
for setting out right angles,
employs the
Eq. (4.2), the deviation of any ray from

2 incident on mirror
a to the normal = 20, i.e. 2 x 45 = 90.
M2
at an angle
4.14
Deviation by rotating the mirror (Fig. 4.4)

Let the incident ray AO be constant, with a glancing angle a.
The mirror M, N, is then rotated by an anticlockwise angle /3 to MgN^.
When the glancing angle
is
the deviation angle is 2a.
After rotation the glancing angle is (a+

is therefore
/3)
and the deviation angle
2(a+ /S )
Thus the
reflected ray is rotated by

<f>
= 2(a+)-2a =
2/8
(4.3)
172
// the incident ray remains constant the reflected ray deviates by twice
the angular rotation of the mirror.
Fig. 4.3 Optical square
Fig. 4.4
4.15
The sextant
Principles of the sextant (Figs. 4.5 and 4.6)

Mirror M,
silvered, is connected to a pointer P.
As
M,
is rotated
the pointer moves along the graduated arc.

Mirror M2 is only half-silvered and is fixed.
When the reading at P is zero, Fig. 4.5, the image K, reflected
from both mirrors, should be seen simultaneously with K through the
With a suitable object K as the horizon, the
plain glass part of M
2
mirrors should be parallel.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
173
Fig. 4.5 Zero setting on the sextant
When observing an elevated object S, Fig. 4.6, above the horizon

K, the mirror M, is rotated through angle <j> until S is simultaneously
observed with K. The angle being measured is therefore 6.
From triangle
M EMz
y
2a =
2/3
from triangle
M^QM2
a = 90 + p +
90 +
a =
4
i.e. f/ie rotation
+ 6
2(a-0)
6 =
j8
<f>
<j6
a-j8 = 0
(4.4)
of the mirror is half the angle of elevation.
with the index pointer MP at

When the mirrors are parallel, <f> =
zero on the graduated arm. When the angle 6 is being observed, the
mirror is turned through angle 0, but the recorded value MP2 = 6,
i.e.
2<f>.
measured if the objects are at

the same height relative to the observer, which means that in most
cases the angle measured is in an inclined plane. The horizontal
angle may be computed from the equation (see page 107):
N.B.
(1) Horizontal angles are only
cos H.A. =
cos
- cos a, cos a.
sina2
i
sin a,
where 6 = the measured angle

= vertical angles.
(2) Vertical angles
artificial horizon.
in the inclined
plane and a, and
must be measured relative
a2
to a true or an
174
Recorded value 8
Fig. 4.6 Principles of the sextant
4.16
Use
of the true horizon
(a) As the angle of deviation, after two successive reflections, is

independent of the angle of incidence on the first mirror, the object
will continue to be seen on the horizon no matter how much the
observer moves. Once the mirror W, has been set, the angle between
the mirrors is set, and the observed angle recorded.
This
is the
main advantage of the sextant as a hand instrument,
particularly in marine and aerial navigation where the observer's position is unstable.
(b) If the observer is well
above the horizon, a correction 50
required for the dip of the horizon, Fig. 4.8.
is
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
175
\
Fig. 4. 7
Box sextant
The Nautical Almanac contains tables
for the correction factor
due to the dip of the horizon based on the

equation:
86 = -0-97
where h = height in feet above sea

or
where
86 = -1-756
yjh
minutes
86
(4.5)
level,
V^
minutes
= height in metres above sea level.
Fig. 4.8 Dip of the horizon
4.17
Artificial horizon (Fig. 4.9)
On land, no true horizon is possible, so an 'artificial

horizon' is
employed. This consists essentially of a trough
of mercury, the surface
of which assumes a horizontal plane
forming
a mirror.
176
-|>
Mercury plane
^^J
Fig. 4.9 Artificial horizon
The
between the object S and the
vertical angle observed
tion of the
image
S,
reflec-
in the mercury is twice the angle of altitude (a)
required.
Observed angle = S,ES
= 2a
True altitude = MS, S = a
Rays SE and
SS^ are
assumed
parallel due to the distance of S from
the instrument.
4.18
Images in plane mirrors
Image
Fig. 4. 10 Images in plane mirrors

in front of the mirror is
Object
situated at
/,
From the glancing angles a and

(a) triangles
(b) triangles
Thus the point

mirror as
seen
at
as though
it
were
Fig. 4.10.
OFC
OFD
/S
it
can be seen that
and ICF are congruent,

and IDF are congruent.
(image) is the same perpendicular distance from the
(object), i.e.
OF =
FI.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
177
Virtual and real images
4.19
As above, the rays reflected from the mirror appear to pass through
the image thus being unreal or virtual. For the image to be real, the
object would have to be virtual.
/,
The
it
can
real test is
be
it
whether the image can be received on a screen:
is real, if
4.2
not
it is
if
virtual.
Refraction at Plane Surfaces
Normal
/= Angle
of incidence
r Angle
of
Boundary
of
refraction
media
Refracted ray
Fig. 4.11
The
e.g.
air
incident ray AO, meeting the boundary between two media,

and glass, is refracted to B, Fig. 4.11.
Laws
4.21
(1)
The
of refraction
incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the bound-
ary plane between the two media at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
(2)
For any two given media the
ratio
sin
is a constant
known as
the refractive index (the light assumed to be monochromatic).
Refractive Index =
Thus
4.22
sin
sin
(4.6)
Total internal reflection (Fig. 4.12)

If
a ray
AO
is incident
on a glass/ air boundary the ray may be
refracted or reflected according to the angle of incidence.
178
(b)
angle
(C)
Reflected
Critical
Fig. 4.12
When the angle
of refraction is 90, the critical angle of incidence
is reached, i.e.
sin c
rMa
g'
1-5
For crown glass the refractive index a fi g
sinc-^g
'
c
If
/a n\
(4.7)
= TTTono = sin c
41 30'
the angle of incidence (glass/ air)
internally reflected, and this principle is
> 41 30' the ray will be

employed in optical prisms
within such surveying instruments as optical squares, reflecting prisms

in binoculars, telescopes and optical scale-reading theodolites.
Total internal reflection can only occur when light travels from
N.B.
one medium to an optically less dense medium,

4.23
e.g.
glass/ air.
Relationships between refractive indices (Fig. 4.13)
index from air to glass is a fj,

g
fractive index from glass to air is g fMa
(a) // the refractive
Therefore
e.g., if a /J.
g
= 1-5 (taking
8
(b)
fjL
as
air
ua
^
=
1),
Given parallel boundaries of

i
/**
then
= 0-66
-Ma =
gfia sin ia
_
air,
glass,
air,
then
= constant
=
then the re-
(4.8)
1-5
sin
(4.9)
sin i a
sin
sin
sin
i,
aPi
= a fi g sin ig = constant
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
179
Fig. 4.13
The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray when returning

same medium although there is relative displacement.
(c)
to the
This factor
is
used in the parallel plate micrometer.
Refraction through triangular prisms
4.24
When the two refractive surfaces are not parallel the ray may be
bent twice in the same direction, thus deviating from its former direction
by an angle D.
can be seen from Fig. 4.14 that
It
and
A =
ft + ft
(a,
- ft) +
(4.10)
(cl,-
(4.11)
ft)
= (a 1+ a 2 )-(ft + ft)
i.e.
D =
(a,
+ a2 ) -
Thus the minimum deviation occurs when

If
(4.12)
(4.13)
a,
+ Og = A
(4.14)
is small, then
a =
and
/x/3
= /ift + /xft -A
= Mft+ft)-^
= AQi-1)
(4.15)
180
Fig. 4.14
Instruments using refraction through prisms
4.25
The
Refraction through a triangular prism
line ranger (Fig. 4.15)

0^
Prism P 2
Prism
P^
Field of view
Fig. 4.15
The
line ranger
a+)8 = 90
.'.
Thus
0,
C0 2
2(a+
is a straight line.
/3)
= 180
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
The prism square (Fig.
181
4.16)
^-~*
Fig. 4.16
This
is precisely the
The prism square
same mathematically as the
optical square
(Fig. 4.3), but light is internally reflected, the incident ray being
greater than the critical angle of the glass.
The double prismatic square (Fig. 4.17) combines the advantages of

both the above hand instruments.
Fig. 4.17
182
Images 2 and 3 are reflected through the prisms. 0, is seen

above and below the prisms.
The
parallel plate micrometer (Fig. 4.18)

t
Fig. 4.18
A
t
The
parallel plate micrometer
parallel- sided disc of glass of refractive index /a and thickness
is rotated through
an angle
Light is refracted to produce displace-
6.
ment of the line of sight by an amount

x =
DB
AB
sin(0 -
cos
x.
<f>)
x sin(0 -
f(sinfl cos<ft
d>)
- cosfl
sin<ft)
cos<
= f(sin# - cos0
tan</>)
but refractive index

fj.
sin0 =
sin#
sin
4>
sinfl
and
2
cos< = y/\l - sin
vV
<}
-sin 2 0}
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
-
sin0
1-
sin 6
VOtx
- sin2
.-.
0).
cos0
2
VO? -sin 0)
sin0~0 rad and
is small, then
If
cos0 sin#
-<[ sin0
183
sin
may be
neglected.
ifl(l-i)
(4.17)
A parallel plate micrometer attached to a level is to

Example 4.1
show a displacement of 0*0 1 when rotated through 15 on either side
of the vertical.
Calculate the thickness of glass required
if its
refractive index is
1-6.
State also the staff reading to the nearest thousandth of a foot
when
the micrometer is brought to division 7 in sighting the next lower readto 20 with 10 for the normal posiing of 4*24, the divisions running
tion.
(L.U.)
Using the formula

x =
sin
'Hfch)\
=
siae
//
*J
(l-s^)(l
\(jjl
si,^ 1
sin 0)Qi + sin &))}
0-01 x 12
in.
sin icoN _
L
sinl5) )]
If (l-sinl5)(l +
a/ 1(1-6 -sin 15) (1-6+ sin 15)/
0-01 x 12
0-25882 x 0-388 24
= 1-1940
N.B.
If
in
'
in.
the approximation formula is used,
The micrometer
is
= 1-222
in.
geared to the parallel plate and must be corre-
lated. Precise levelling staves are usually graduated in feet
and
so the micrometer is also divided into 20 parts,

each representing 0*001 ft. (The metric staff requires a metric microfiftieths of a foot,
meter).
To avoid confusion, the micrometer should be set to zero before each

sight is taken and the micrometer reading is then added to the staff reading
as the parallel plate refracts the line of sight to the next lower reading.
184
Z*
ZP
!R
-
-
- s
-*
\
Reading 4-24
Staff
0-0070 Micrometer
4-2470
Fig. 4.19
Use
of the parallel plate
micrometer in precise levelling
Exercises 4(a)
1.
Describe the parallel plate micrometer and show how
precise work when attached

If
it
is
used in
to a level.
an attachment of this type
is to
give a difference of 0-01 of a

thickness of glass
foot for a rotation of 20, calculate the required
when
the refractive index is 1*6.
Describe how the instrument may be graduated to read to 0-001 of

mean.
a foot for displacements of 0-01 of a foot above and below the
(L.U. Ans. 0-88 in.)
Describe the method of operation of a parallel plate micrometer in
glass is 1*6 and
precise levelling. If the index of refraction from air to
rotation
angular
the
calculate
the parallel plate prism is 0*6 in. thick,
0*001
ft.
of
image
of
the
of the prism to give a vertical displacement
2.
(L.U. Ans. 3 03' 36")

4.3
4.31
Spherical Mirrors
Concave or converging mirrors (Fig. 4.20)
A narrow beam of light produces a real principal focus F. P is

called the pole of the mirror and C is the centre of curvature. PF is
the focal length of the mirror.
A ray AB, parallel to the axis, will be reflected to F.
normal to the curve at B, so that
Angle
As
AB
is parallel to
ABC
= angle
CBF
= angle
ABC
= 6
6.
PC,
Angle
PCB
BF
= FC.
BC
will
be
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
Fig. 4.20
As
Concave
185
mirror
the beam is assumed narrow
:.
If
the
beam
PF ^ BF ~ FC
PC ^ 2PF = 2/ ^
r.
(4.18)
of light is wide a cusp surface is produced with the
apex at the principal focus. The parabolic mirror overcomes this anomaly and is used as a reflector for car headlights, fires, etc, with the
light or heat source at the focus.
Fig. 4.21 Wide
beam on a
circular mirror
186
Fig. 4.22 Parabolic mirror
Convex
4.32
or diverging mirrors (Fig. 4.23)
C^"
Fig. 4.23
Convex mirror
narrow beam of light produces a virtual principal point F,
being reflected away from the axis.

The angular principles are the same as for a concave mirror and
The
4.33
2/
relationship between object and image in curved
mirrors
Assuming a narrow beam, the following rays are considered
in all
cases (Fig. 4.24).

(a)
Ray OA,
parallel to the principal axis, is reflected to pass
through the focus F.

(b)
Ray OB, passing through the focus F,
is then reflected
parallel to the axis.

(c)
Ray OD, passing through the centre
of curvature C, and thus
a line normal to the curve.
N.B.
In graphical solutions,
it
is advantageous to exaggerate the
vertical scale, the position of the
As
image remaining in the true position.

it should be represented as a
the amount of curvature is distorted,
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
187
straight line perpendicular to the axis.
Any two
at their intersection,
above rays produce,
of the
tion of the image
the posi-
/.
\î*
'!
/C
^^r\.
Oy
/*\
Fig. 4.24
relationships between object and image for concave mirrors
The
are:
(a)
When the object
is at infinity, the
image is small,
real,
and
inverted.
(b)
When the object is at the centre of curvature C, the image is

same size and inverted.
When the object is between C and F, the image is real, en-
also at C, real, of the

(c)
larged and inverted.

(d)
(e)
When the object

When the object
image
is at F, the
is
between
is at infinity.
and P, the image is virtual, en-
larged and erect.
For convex mirrors, in

and erect, Fig. 4.25.
all
cases the image is
virtual,
diminished
Fig. 4.25
4.34
Sign convention
There are several sign conventions but here the convention Realmany advantages provided the work
is-positive is adopted. This has

is not too advanced.
188
All real distances are treated as positive values whilst virtual
distances are treated as negative values in
all
cases distances are
measured from the pole.
shown as solid lines whilst
In the diagrams real distances are
N.B.
distances are dotted.
virtual
Derivation of Formulae
4.35
Concave mirror (image
4.26
real), Fig.
Object
|,
Fig. 4.26
To
prove:
where
1
-1
-+
"
= the focal length of the mirror
= the radius of curvature
u = the distance of the object from the pole

v = the distance of the image from the pole
The
OA
ray
is reflected at
to
AI making an equal angle
a on
AC.
either side of the normal
From Fig.
P
P
4.26,
a+
6 =
and
(f>
a = 6-13
.'.
fi
= 2a +
j8
= 209-j3) + 8
i
2B-P
<+j8=
i.e.
As the angles
26.
a, /3,
6 and
<f>
are
^ small, B
is closely
to P.
<f>rad
P rad
6 rad
.
1P
Sin< =
Sin
sin0
2h
0P
j8
CP
I is real
so IP is +ve.
Jp
OP
h
CP
is real
so
OP
is
+ve.
adjacent to
189
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
1
i.e.
< as
(4.19)
f=T )
virtual), Fig. 4.27
Concave mirror (image
Fig. 4.27
From Fig.
4.27,
-a
=
and
<f>
= 2a -
j8
= -20 +
As
j6
208-0-0
/.
a =
/8
j8-0
20 =
before,
2fc
_ft
CP~ OP
_^_
/P
i.e.
u
but the image is virtual, therefore v
11
2
r
Convex
is negative.
~ f
(4.19)
mirror, Fig. 4.28
Fig. 4.28
<f>
= a+
2a =
.-.
i.e.
2(<-0)
<f>
</>
2(9
/S
j3
<-j8 = 20
/S
a =
<f>
- 6
190
As

before,
trad
Siti<f>
Prad
sin/3 ~
sin0
rad
(0
is real
OP
(C
is virtual
~ -PC
Thus
IP
1
^-
i.e.
.*.
(/
OP
-v
-PC
-r
is +ve).
PC
JL = _L
r
Therefore, using the sign convention, the formula is

both types of mirror in all cases.
4.36
is -ve).
2_
+
1
is -ve.)
2h
OP
IP
is virtual
~ -IP
(4.19)
common
to
Magnification in spherical mirrors (Fig. 4.29)

u
Fig. 4.29 Magnification in spherical mirrors
IB
is the
image of OA.
In the right-angled triangles OPO^ and /P/, the angle a is common,

being the angles of incidence and of reflection, and therefore the triangles are similar.
/7 (image size)
/, P (v)
...
A
Thus, magnification
=
0, P (w)
00^ (object size)
i
neglecting signs
(4.20)
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
191
Example 4.2
An object 1 in. high is placed on the principal axis
20 in. from a concave mirror which has a radius of curvature of 15 in.
Find the position, size and nature of the image.
As the
mirror is concave,
/
15.
the object is real
+ 20
Substituting in Eq. (4.19),
i-I+I
U
V
J
1-1
/
u
1
"15 20"
'.
Thus the image
v =
12
is real (but will
Magnification
m =
12
in.
be inverted) as v
-S--
Size of image = 0*6
4.4
4.41
is positive.
in.
Refraction Through Thin Lenses
Definitions
(a)
Types of lens
Convex (converging), Fig. 4.30 (a)

Concave (diverging), Fig. 4.30(b)
Double convex
Piano- convex
Convex meniscus
(a)
Double concave
Plano-concave
Concave meniscus
(b)
Fig. 4.30
Types of lens
192
(b)
Focal points (Fig. 4.31)
Convex lens
(pole)
"1
Princ pal axi s

i
Concave lens
Fig. 4.31
4.42
Conjugate foci
Formation of images (Fig. 4.32)
If a thin lens is assumed to be split into a series of small prisms,

any ray incident on the face will be refracted and will deviate by an
angle
(Eq.4.15)
D = A(/x -1)
Fig. 4.32
N.B. The deviation angle
Formation of images
is also related to the height h
and the
focal length /, i.e.
D =
h/f
(4.21)
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
The
4.43
193
relationship between object and image in a thin lens
The position
of the image can be
drawn using three rays, Fig. 4.33.
Fig. 4. 33
N.B.
Two
(a)
Ray OA
OB
Ray
F2
exist.
parallel to the principal axis is refracted to pass
through principal focus

(b)
and
principal foci, F,
F2
passes through the principal focus
F,
and
is then
refracted parallel to the principal axis.

(c)
Ray OPI passes from object
to
image through the pole
without refraction.
Convex lens
(a) When the object
focus
F2
(b)
real
is at infinity, the
image
is at the principal
and inverted.
When the object
is
between
infinity
and
F,
the image is real
and inverted.
(c) When the object is between F, and P, the image is virtual,
magnified, and erect, i.e. a simple magnifying glass.
Concave lens
The image
4.44
is
always
virtual, erect
and diminished.
Derivation of formulae
The real-is-positive sign convention is again adopted, but for convex lenses the real distances and focal lengths are considered positive, whilst for concave lenses the virtual distances and focal lengths
are considered negative.
As with
mirrors, thin lens formulae
depend on small angle approxi-
mations.
Convex lens
(a)
Image
real, Fig.
4.34
a +
(3
194
By Eq.
(4.21),
1+ V
U
....
= + L
U
(b)
Image
virtual, i.e. object
between
Fig.
4.
D = a h.
i.e.
.e.
/3
A_A
U
but v is virtual,
35
negative.
4/
-iu + iv
Concave lens (Fig. 4.36)

ft
- a
and P, Fig. 4.35.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
195
i.e.
but v and / are negative, being virtual distances
Fig.
4.45
4.
36
Magnification in thin lenses (Fig. 4.37)
Fig.
As with spherical
triangles with angle
4.
37
OPO^ and
mirrors,
/P/,
are similar right-angled
a commpn.
magnification
_L
//i
(image size)
OOi
(object size)
UP
P
(object distance u)
(image distance
as before
v)
196
N.B. This should not be confused with angular magnification or magnifying power (M), which is defined as
the angle subtended at the eye by the image

the angle subtended at the eye by the object
For the astronomical telescope, with the image
focal length of objective
focal length of eyepiece
4.5
4.51
at infinity,
jo
(4.22)
fe
Telescopes
Kepler's astronomical telescope (Fig. 4.38)
Objective
Eyepiece
Diaphragm
Fig. 4.38
The telescope
is
Kepler's atronomical telescope
designed to increase the angle subtending dis-
tant objects and thus apparently to bring them nearer.
The objective
lens, converging and of long focal length, produces
an image FX, inverted but real, of the object at infinity.

The eyepiece lens, converging but of short focal length, is placed
F so as to produce from the real object

magnified but similarly inverted.
close to
IY
4.52
FX
a virtual image
Galileo's telescope (Fig. 4.39)
The eyepiece
is
concave and produces a
objective.
As the
is unsuitable for
virtual, magnified, but
XF produced by the
image lies outside the telescope eyepiece, it
surveying purposes where cross hairs are required.
erect image IY of the original inverted image

latter
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
197
Objective
Galileo's telescope
Fig. 4.39
4.53
Eyepieces
Ideally, the eyepieces should reduce chromatic
and spherical
aberration.
Lenses of the same material are achromatic

is equal to the
average of their focal lengths,
If their
distance apart
i(/,+/2 )
if their
i.e.
(4-23)
distance apart is equal to the differences between their
focal lengths, spherical aberration is reduced, i.e.
/,
(4.24)
For surveying purposes the diaphragm must be between the eyeThe most suitable is Ramsden* s eyepiece,
piece and the objective.

Fig. 4.40.
Diaphragm
Fig. 4.40
The
Ramsden's eyepiece
focal length of each lens is the same, namely
/.
Neither of the
conditions (4.23) or (4.24) is satisfied.
Chromatic
Spherical
|-(/i+/2 )
/, - / 2
=
=
compared with 2/3/
compared with 2/3
Huyghen's eyepiece, Fig. 4.41, satisfies the conditions but the

It is used in the Galileo telescope.
focal plane lies between the lenses.
198
Diaphragm
Huyghen's eyepiece
Fig. 4.41
Chromatic condition
-j (3/
= 2/ =
2/
An astronomical telescope consists
Example 4.3
in. apart.
f)
3/ - /
Spherical condition
24
If
of
two thin lenses
the magnifying power is xl2, what are the focal lengths
of the two lenses ?
Fig. 4.42
magnifying power
=
12/.
But
+ fe
26
in.
12/e + fe
26
in.
fe
=-r
12/e
f
/.
fo
4.54
is
The
26
in.
24
12
eyepiece lens
in.
objective lens
internal focussing telescope (Fig. 4.43)
The eyepiece and objective are fixed and an internal concave lens
used for focussing.
For the convex lens, by Eq. (4.19)
1
/,
199
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
Internal focussing
lens
Objective
Diaphragm
Fig. 4.43
Internal focussing telescope
i.e.
or
u,
u,
For the concave lens,
= -(f,-<0
.1+1V
"2
/a
- d
v,
l-d
-d
v,
/a
An
internal focussing telescope has a length
to the diaphragm.
The respective
internal focussing lens are
/,
(4.25)
-d
/
from the objective
focal lengths of the objective and the
and /2
To find the distance d of the focussing lens from the objective

when the object focussed is u, from the objective, Fig. 4.43.
For the objective,
11
For the focussing lens,
-JU
/a
i.e.
1
u.
v,
(v,
i.e.
d)(/ - d) =
-d
/a(/
d) -
/2 (v,
d)
-/2 (/-v,)} =
dtf
v,)
dC/
v,)
W/ + /
/ Vl
-d
-f2 l\ =
(4.26)
200
This
is a quadratic
equation in d and
its
value will vary according to
the distance , of the object from the instrument.
Example 4.4
Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the function of an
internal focussing lens in a surveyors' telescope and state the advant-
ages and disadvantages of internal focussing as compared with external

focussing.
In a telescope, the object glass of focal length 7 in. is located 9
away from the diaphragm. The focussing lens is midway between

these when the staff 60 ft away is focussed. Determine the focal length
in.
of the focussing lens.
(L.U.)
Internal focussing
lens
Diaphragm
Fig. 4.44
For the convex objective lens,

/,
m,
60 x 12
in.
=
720
in.
Then, by Eq. (4.19),

1
JL -
1- JL
720
720 - 7
720 x
713
5040

u2
v,
- 4-5
7-068
4-5
2-568
4-5
1
u.
2-568
4-5
-4-5 + 2-568
11-556
-5-98
in.
(i.e.
the lens is concave)
201
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
In an internally focussing telescope, Fig. 4.43, the

objective of focal length 5 in. is 7*5 in. from the diaphragm. If the internal focussing lens is of focal length 10 in., find its distance from
Example 4.5
the diaphragm
when focussed to infinity.

/, = 5 in. and thus the position
For the objective,

5
in.
of F,
will be
from C,.
C 2 F,
5 - d
For the internal focussing lens,
u2
-(5-d)
v,
7-5 - d
+ JU
f2
5 _ d
-(5 - <0(7-5 - d)
7-5 - d
+ 10(5 - d)
-10(7-5 -
-75 + lOd + 50 - lOd = -25
- 12-5d + 12-5
+ d
= 4-235
v9 =
i.e.
'
(37-5 - 12-5d
2
10
i.e.
*2
i.e.
-10
=
=
/a
d)
in.
7-5 - 4-235
the internal focussing lens will be 3-265
phragm when focussed to
4.55.
=
in.
3-265
in.
away from the
dia-
infinity.
The tacheometric telescope
(external focussing) (Fig. 4.45)

Staff
\fertical axis
Diaphragm
Fig. 4.45
The tacheometric telescope (external focussing)
Let a, b and c represent the three horizontal cross hairs of the

diaphragm, ac being a distance i apart and b midway between a and
202

With the telescope in focus, these lines will coincide with the
image of the staff observed at A, B and C respectively; the distance

AC = s is known as the staff intercept. The line bOB represents the
line of collimation of the telescope, with bO and OB conjugate focal
lengths of the lens, v and u, respectively. The principal focal length
of the lens is
FO
(/),
whilst the vertical axis is a distance k from
the principal focus F.
ACO
Because the triangles acO and
AC
QB
are similar,
or
ob
ac
u_
Using the lens formula, Eq.(4.19),
and multiplying both sides by uf gives,
V
Substituting the value of u/v from Eq.(4.27),
s- +
Thus the distance from the vertical axis
to the staff is given as
D = sl+ (/+d)
(4.28)
This is the formula which is applied for normal stadia observations

with the telescope horizontal and the staff vertical.
The
ratio f/i
is
given a convenient value
sionally 50), whilst the additive constant (/ + d) =

ing upon the instrument.
of,
say, 100 (occawill vary depend-
The formula may thus be simplified as
M.s + K
(4.29)
The constants M and K for a certain instrument were

100 and 1*5 respectively. Readings taken on to the vertical staff were
Example 4.6
3*15, 4*26 and 5*37
ft respectively, the telescope being horizontal.

Calculate the horizontal distance from the instrument to the staff.
The stadia
intercept s
Horizontal distance
5-37-3-15 =
D =
=
If
the instrument
trunnion axis at 4-83
was
ft,
set at 103-62
2-22
ft
100 x 2-22 + 1-5

223-5 ft (68-1 m)
ft
A.O.D. and the height to the
203
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
then the reduced level of the staff station
103-62 + 4-83 - 4-26
104-19
ft
A.O.D.
(31-757 m)
N.B. 4-26 - 3-15

If
5-37 - 4-26
= Is
1-11
the readings taken on to a metre staff were 0*960, 1*298, 1*636
respectively, then the horizontal distance = 100 x (1*636-0*960)
= 67*6m + 0*5
If
the instrument
was
set at 31*583
68*1
A.O.D. and the height of the
trunnion axis at 1*472 m,
then the reduced level of the staff station
4.56.
The
31*583 + 1*472 - 1-298
31*757
anallatic lens (Fig. 4.46)

Vertical axis
Staff
Anallatic
Diaphragm
*>*
Fig. 4.46
The
anallatic lens
In the equation D = s(f/i) + (/ + d), the additive factor (/ + d)

can be eliminated by introducing a convex lens between the objective
and the diaphragm.
The basic principles can be seen in Fig. 4.46. The rays from the
Ad and Ce will for a given distance D always form a constant
angle d intersecting at G. If this fixed point G is made to fall on the
staff
vertical axis of the instrument the additive term will be eliminated.

i.e.
Consider the object lens with the object

neglecting the anallatic lens.
By Eq.(4.19)
and the image
1= 1+1
U
u
a, c,,
(4.30)
and by Eq. (4.27)
AC
s
(4.31)
a,c.
Consider the anallatic lens with the object as a^c
and the image
204
as ac. Thus the object distance
-x
v,
and
the image distance = v - x

Applying the previous equations to this lens,
i
U
v - *
(4.32)
v - x
v ~ * =
J^L
v - x
a c
and
(4.33)
'
N.B. The object distance
is
assumed positive but the image distance
is negative.
An expression
a^c^
for
can now be found by eliminating
from these four equations.

From Eq. (4.32)
v,
- x
*< v ~ *>
+ v - *
/,
From Eq.(4.33)
a,Ci
ac(v - x)
v,
- x
Combining these gives

a
"fr
v-x)
Qc (/i +
7
but from Eq. (4.30)
v =
-Hi
u - f
Substituting in the above
a c
i
Uf
ac[f,
u-f
- )
U
but from Eq. (4.31)
a,c,
sv
sf
u - f
giving
ac(fi
sf
i.e.
s//,
Writing ac as
i,
sfU
aciu -
(/,
uf
u-f
- ')
- -
*)
the distance apart of the stadia lines
HfM-f)
*[(/,+/-*) + /(*-/,)]
+ uf - *(-/)]
s //i
(/+/,-*)
/(* ~
/,
/t)
- x
v,
v,
and
205
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
D =
but
u + d
+ /,-*)
t(/
^ x ~ f'>
= Ms and
if
U-x
+ d
^-^
(4-34)
U-x
D = Ms
where
(4.35)
//i
=
i
(4.36)
+ /,-*)
(/
a constant factor usually 100.

therefore choose the lenses where the focal
<
x <f
/,
Today, this is mainly of academic interest only, as all instruments
have internal focussing telescopes, and the tacheometic formula D =
/(s/i) + (f + d) is not applicable; nor can the internal focussing be
The manufacturer can
length / t is such that
considered anallatic as
The
ally considered to
ample
it
is
movable.
variation of the focal length of the objective system is gener-
be negligible
4.7), manufacturers
for
most practical purposes (see Ex-
aiming at a low value for K, and in many
cases the telescopes are so designed that when focussed at infinity

midway between the objective and the diaphragm.
This allows accuracies for horizontal sights of up to 1/1000 for most
the focussing lens is
distances required in this type of work.
Example 4.7
6
in.
An
focal length.
axis 4
anallatic telescope is fitted with an object lens of

If
the stadia lines are 0*06 in. apart and the vertical
from the object lens, calculate the focal length of the anallatic lens and its position relative to the vertical axis if the multiplying
in.
constant is 100.
From Eq. (4.34) the distance between objective and axis
f+U-x
When
= 6
in.
6 (*-/i)
6 +
Also, from Eq.(4.36),
/,
= 4
- x
&
!(/+/, -X)
Therefore when
= 100,
= 0-06, /=6,
6/,
0-06(6 +
100
U-x)
206
Combining these equations,
4(6+/,-*) = 6(*-/,)
10* = 24 +
= 6/,
and
10/,
100 x 0-06(6 + /,-*)
6*
36+0
6 in.
/,
3*6 in.
and
Thus the focal length of the anallatic lens

(6-4) = 2 in. from the vertical axis.
is 3*6 in.
and
its posi-
tion is
Example 4.7a An anallatic tacheometer in use on a remote survey

was damaged and it was decided to use a glass diaphragm not originally designed for the instrument. The spacing of the outer lines of the
new diaphragm was 0*05 in., focal lengths of the object glass and the
anallatic lens 3 in., fixed distance between object glass and trunnion
in., and the anallatic lens could be moved by an adjusting
screw between its limiting positions 3 in. and 4 in. from the object
glass. In order to make the multiplier 100 it was decided to adjust the
axis 3
if this proved inadequate to graduate

a special staff for use with the instrument. Make calculations to de-
position of the anallatic lens, or
termine which course was necessary, and
if a special staff is required,

determine the correct calibration and the additive constant (if any).
What is the obvious disadvantage to the use of such a special staff?
(L.U.)
From Eq. (4.36),
,,
ILL
+ u
u
-JL
Mi
100 x 0-05
6 - 1-8
4-2 in.
the anallatic lens should be 4*2 in. from the objective. As this is
not possible, the lens is set as near as possible to this value, i.e.
4 in.
^-*-3Then
=
= 90
0-05(3 + 3 - 4)
i.e.
The additive
factor
from Eq.(4.34)
/(*-/,)
/+/,-*
3(4-3)
3 +
3-4
V5in
207
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
the multiplying factor is to be 100, then the staff must be graduated

in such a way that in reading 1 foot the actual length on the staff is
If
12 x
15 in.
i.e.
13!
4.57.
in.
The tacheometric telescope
(internal focussing) (Fig. 4.47)

Mechanical axis
Diaphragm
H43?
u2
Fig. 4.47
To
tor
for the
Tacheometric telescope (internal focussing)
find the spacing of the stadia lines to give a multiplying fac-
for a given sight distance:

if
stadia interval,
and
stadia intercept;
convex lens (objective)

i.e.
= Tl
m ,s
u,
where m, is the magnifying power,

for the concave lens (focussing)
*
v2
i.e.
Vfir
but
distance
-
xYl = m2 x
m^TTizS
(4.37)
D = Ms
'-$
M
(4.38)
Example 4.8
An internally focussing telescope has an objective 6 in.
from the diaphragm. The respective focal lengths of the objective and
the internal focussing lens are 5 in and 10 in. Find the distance apart
the stadia lines should be to have a multiplying factor of 100 for an
observed distance of 500
ft.
208
At 500
the object will be 500
ft
i.e.
ft
- 6/2
500 x 12 - 3
X
?
5997 - 5
mi
5997
5-004 2
from the objective,
in.
in
in.
From Eq.(4.26),
d
- d(/ +
d
i.e.
v,)
- d(6 +
- /2 /}
+/2 )
{v,(/
+ {16v, - 60} =
v,)
- 64 v, + 240}]
| [(6 + v)
VK6
|[(6 + v) +
V(6-v )(46-v )].
v,)
= i[ 11-004 2 VCO'995 8 x 40-995 8)]
i.e.
2-308
u2
v,-d
in.
_ d =
- 2-308
5-004
3-692 in
2-2-308 -
2-696 in
From Eq.(4.38),
_
Dm m 2
Dv^V2
Mu u 2
M
500xl2x 5-0042x3-692
x
100 x 5997 x 2-696
0-068 56
in.
What errors will be introduced if the previous instrument

Example 4.9
used for distances varying from 50 to 500 ft ?
is
At 50
ft
rrt
50 x 12 - 3
597x5
597
2985
597 - 5
in.
5-0422 in.
592
Then, from Eq.(4.26),
|[(6 + v,) +
|[ll-042 2 - VC0-9578 x 40-9578)]
2-389
v2 =
"2
4(6-^X46-^)]
in.
6 - 2-389
= 5-042 - 2-389
3-611
in.
2-653
in.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
The
0-068 56 x
stadia intercept (s)
209
" "2
1
v,v 2
0-06856 x 597 x 2-653

5-042 x 3-611
=
5-9641
0-497 Oft
in.
The value should be 0-500

=
error
representing
At
An
Example 4.10
0-0030
ft
Q-30
in 100
ft
100
ft
error
0-27
ft
200
ft
error
0-20
ft
300
ft
error
400
ft
error
= 0-09 ft
= 0-01 ft
500
ft
error
= 0-00
ft
ft
internal focussing telescope has an object glass
The distance between the object glass and the

diaphragm is 10 in. When the telescope is at infinity focus, the internal focussing lens is exactly midway between the objective and the
diaphragm. Determine the focal length of the focussing lens.
of 8 in. focal length.
At infinity focus the optical centre of the focussing lens lies on

the line joining the optical centre of the objective and the cross-hairs,
but deviates laterally 0*001 in. from
at
25
ft.
it when the telescope is focussed

Calculate the angular error in seconds due to this cause.
(L.U.)
With the telescope focussed at infinity,
1
V2
1
=
v,
u
With focus at 25
ft
l-d
-5
7-5 in.
(assuming 25
u,
25 x 12
v,
JjL
,
/,
10-5
15
Focal length of focussing lens
ft
=
=
/,
l-d
- d
U-d
=
v,
from object lens.)
300
30 x 8
300 - 8
= 8-2192
in.
210
From Eq.
(4.26),
2
dO
d d
i.e.
+ IV1O +
Vt)
/2) -/a/I
- 18-219 2d + (143-836 - 75)
Solving for d,
= 5-348
/-if,
\\i
x
'
H-* oooi
x J X\
T
Fig. 4.48
With focus at 25
the image would appear at x, neglecting the
ft
OX
internal focussing lens, i.e.

off line, the line of sight is
With the focussing lens moving

all images produced by the
v,.
now EXJZ and
objective appear as on this line.
The
line of sight through the objective is thus displaced
the length
To
v,.
calculate XX,.
XE
UE
XX,
/,/2
i.e.
0-001 x
(/
v,)
l-d
0-001 x (10 - 8*219)
10 - 5-348
0-001781
o-OOO 391
in.
4-552
To
calculate the angular error (5),

tan 8
4.6
4.61
Ml
OX
206
265x0-000 391
Q.010
9 . 8 nccondc
Instrumental Errors in the Theodolite
Eccentricity of the horizontal circle
In Fig. 4.49, let
0,
= vertical axis
XX,
in
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
2
Graduated circle axis
0^0 2
Z A,
0,4 2 =
211
eccentricity
r
Fig. 4.49
the graduated circle (Centre

2 ) is not concentric with the veraxis (centre 0,) containing the readers A and B, the recorded
value 6 will be in error by the angle a.
As the instrument is rotated, the readers will successively occupy
If
tical
positions 4,6,,
AZ B 2 A 3 B 3
,
a,
0i-
a2 =
a.
(4.39)
e sin</>
Since e is small compared with

Similarly,
<f>
- e cos
+ e cos0
sin0
(4.41)
(4.40)
the readers are 180 apart, 4,0,8, is a straight line and the
true value of the angle <f>.
mean of the recorded values 6 give the
212

i.e.
0,
a,
2cf>
0,
4>
(0, +
<f>
"'
+ a2
~ a2
as a,
(4.42)
2)
N.B. (1) On the line

a = 0.
2
(2) At 90 to this line, a = maximum.
,
(3) If the instrument has only one reader, the angle should be
repeated by transitting the telescope and rotating anticlockwise, thus
giving recorded values 180 from original values This is of particular
importance with glass arc theodolites in which the graduated circle is

of small radius.
To determine
the amount of eccentricity and index error on the
horizontal circle:
(1) Set
index
to 0
to 0
and read displacement of index
from
180, i.e. 5,.
and read displacement of index A from

82
Repeat these operations at a constant interval around the
(2) Set
180, i.e.
(3)
index
.
plate, i.e. zeros at multiples of 10.

If the readers A and B are diametrically opposed,
placement of reader B, from 180, Fig. 4.50.
Index A at 0.
Index B, at 180 - 8,, i.e. 180 - (2a + A).
let 5,
Reading
fli
180-6
Index error \
Fig. 4.50
Let 2 = displacement of reader Az from 180, Fig. 4.51,

Index B2 at 0.
Index A 2 at 180 - 8 2 i.e. 180 - (2a + A).
,
= dis-
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
213
Index error X
Fig. 4.51
If
there is no eccentricity and
S2 =
If
A and B
are 180 apart, then 5, =
0.
there is eccentricity and
A and B
are 180 apart, then
5,
= 8Z =
a constant
If
there is no eccentricity and
+ 5, = -S 2
i.e.
A and B
are not 180 apart, then
equal, but opposite in sign.
there is eccentricity and A and B are not 180 apart, then 5, and 8
2
will vary in magnitude as the zero setting is consecutively changed
around the circle of centre
but their difference will remain conIf
2f
stant.
A plotting of the values using a different zero for each pair of

dex settings will give the results shown in Fig. 4.52.
in-
360
+x and -x are 180" apart

Fig. 4.52
4.62.
The
line of collimation not perpendicular to the trunnion axis
Let the line of sight make an angle of 90 + with the trunnion

axis inclined at an angle a, Fig. 4.53.
214
Vfcrtical
Fig.
4.
axis
Line of collimation not perpendicular
53
to the trunnion axis
The angular error Q in the horizontal plane due to the error e may
be found by reference to Fig. 4.53.
=
*I
YZ
tane =
*X
TY
tan0
TY = YZ sec a
But
tan0
.-.
X]f
i.e.
YZ
i.e.
TYt * ne
TY
tan e
TY cos a
tan sec
(4.43)
TY cos a
and e are small,
If
then
If
tions
(4.44)
observations are made on the same face to two stations of eleva-
a and a 2
,
then the error in the horizontal angle will be
2 )
tan-1 (tan sec a,) - tan"' (tan e sec
(0,-0 2 )
2:
e(seca, -seca 2 )
(#i
On changing
sign.
sec a
a2 )
(4.45)
(4.46)
face, the error will be of equal value but opposite in
Thus the mean
of face left and face right eliminates the error
to collimation in azimuth.
The sign
due
of the angle, i.e. elevation of de-
pression, is ignored in the equation.
The extension of a straight line, Fig. 4.54. If this instrument is

used to extend a straight line by transitting the telescope, the following conditions prevail
With the axis on the line TQ the line of sight will be 0A V To

observe A, the instrument must be rotated through the angle e to give
pointing (1)
T,Qr
On
the
axis will be rotated through the
same angle E
transitting the telescope the line of sight will be (180
A,OB, =
A0B 2
B2
is thus fixed
-pointing
On changing face the process
is
to
- 2a)
(2).
repeated pointing (3) and then
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
215
Fig. 4.54
pointing (4) will give position S4

The angle B2 0BA = 4e, but the
rect extension of the line AO.
.
mean position B
will be the cor-
The method of adjustment follows the above process,

measured on a horizontal scale.
The collimation
graticule to read on
The
4.63
error
B3
B 2 B4
being
may be corrected by moving the telescope
i.e.
aB^.
trunnion axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis
(Fig. 4.55)
The trunnion
(horizontal or transit) axis should be at right angles
to the vertical axis;
if
the plate bubbles are centralised, the trunnion

if a trunnion axis error occurs. Thus the
axis will not be horizontal
on transitting, will sweep out a plane inclined to the verby an angle equal to the tilt of the trunnion axis.
line of sight,
tical
Fig. 4.55
Trunnion axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis
the instrument is in correct adjustment, the line of sight sweeps

out the vertical plane ABCD, Fig. 4.55.
If
If the trunnion axis is tilted
by an angle
e,
the line of sight sweeps
216
out the inclined plane ABEF.

In Fig. 4.55, the line of sight is
assumed to be AE. To correct
for
necessary to rotate the horizontal bearing of

the line of sight by an angle 6, to bring it back to its correct position.
the
of the plane
tilt
Thus
sin#
sin#
i.e.
and
it is
EC
ED
AD
ED
tane
BC tan e
ED
tana tane
tana tane
(4.47)
6 and e are small, then
if
where
6
e
=
=
e tan
(4.48)
correction to the horizontal bearing
trunnion axis error
a = angle
On
of inclination of sight
transitting the telescope, the inclination of the trunnion axis
will be in the opposite direction but of equal magnitude.
mean
of face left
and face
Thus
the
right eliminates the error.
Method of adjustment (Fig. 4.56)

(1) Observe a highly elevated target A,
e.g. a church spire.
(2) With horizontal plates clamped, depress the telescope to

observe a horizontal scale 8.
(3)
Change face and re-observe A.
(4)
As
before, depress the telescope to observe the scale at C.
(5) Rotate horizontally to
D midway between B
and C.
(6)
Elevate the telescope to the altitude of A.
(7)
Adjust the trunnion axis until
is observed.
(8)
On depressing
should now be observed.
the telescope,
Fig. 4.56 Field test of trunnion axis error
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
217
Vertical axis not truly vertical (Fig. 4.57)
4.64
If the instrument is in correct adjustment but the vertical axis is

not truly vertical by an angle E, then the horizontal axis will not be
by the same angle E.

due to this will be
truly horizontal
Thus the
error in bearing
E tana
This
is
(4.49)
a variable error dependent on the direction of pointing

tilt of the vertical axis, and its effect is
relative to the direction of
not eliminated on change of face, as the vertical axis does not change
in position or inclination.
Face
1/
t^
Horizontal line
left
Face
r ight
Trunnion axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis
Face
Horizontal
left
lin e
V.
Fac e right
Vertical axis
unchanged on
change of face
Vertical axis not truly vertical
Fig. 4.57
In Fig. 4.58, the true horizontal angle (0)
A)B 2 -( c i)Ei tana, +

Thus the
(c 2 )
Ez
tan
a2
error in pointing (0) is
A OB = angle
x
(</>)
dependent on (1) the
tilt
of the
axis E, which itself is dependent on the direction of pointing, vary-
maximum ( ) when on the line of tilt of the vertical axis to

zero when at 90 to this line, and (2) the angle of inclination of the
ing from
line of sight.
To measure the value

4.59.
of e and
a striding level is used, Fig.
218
Fig. 4.58
Bubble axis
Trunnion axis
Face right
Vertical axis
Vertical axis
Fig. 4.59
Let the vertical axis be inclined at an angle
Let the trunnion axis be inclined at an angle e
Let the bubble be out of adjustment by an angle
Then face
j3.
left
tilt
of the trunnion axis
tilt
of the bubble axis
tilt
tilt
of the bubble aîs
E E -
e
j8
face right
E +
= E +
e
jS
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
Mean
tilt
= -|[(E -
e)
Mean
tilt
of the bubble axis
= -[(E -
j8)
219
+ (E +
+ (E +
e)]
j8)]
(4.50)
(4.51)
Therefore the mean correction taking all factors into account is
Etana
N.B. The value of
(4.52)
is related to the direction of observation and its
effective value will vary from
maximum
to nil. Tilting level readings
should be taken for each pointing.

If
is the
maximum
of the axis in a given direction, then
tilt
E,
where
is the
cos 6
angle between pointing and direction of
maximum
tilt.
does not strictly need to be in

adjustment, nor is it necessary to change it end for end as some
authors suggest, the mean of face left and face right giving the true
Then the bubble recording the
tilt
value.
If
the striding level is graduated from the centre outwards for n
pointings and 2n readings of the bubble, then the correction to the
mean observed
direction is given by
A (XL -1R) tana
(4.53)
2n
where c = the correction in seconds

d = the value of one division of the bubble in seconds
XL =
the
2/? = the
a =
sum
sum
of the readings of the left-hand end of the bubble

of the readings of the right-hand end of the bubble
the angle of inclination of sight
n = the number of pointings.
The sign
of the correction is positive as stated.
pends upon the sign of
XL
N.B. The greater the change in the value of

on the horizontal angle.
4.65
Any changes de-
- 2/2 and that of a.
the greater the effect
Vertical circle index error (Fig. 4.60)
When the telescope
is horizontal,
the altitude bubble should be
central and the circle index reading zero (90 or 270 on whole circle
reading instruments).
If
the true angle of altitude

the recorded angles of altitude
the vertical collimation error
and the circle index error
=
=
=
=
a
a, and
<f>
6,
a2
220
Recorded value (F.L.)
(F.R.)
-1(0.,
a =
a, -
a = a2 +
+ a2 )
<f>
- 6
cf>
+
(4.54)
Collimation error
Objective end
Bubble axis
Index error
Eyepiece
end
Face
left
S
^\^X^"
/ Collimation
error
& Ssf
VC -''A
^fe.~r*
ble
axis
2 \
-.-4
Index error
^J
Mf
^f^-
\^s^
Face right
Fig. 4.60
Thus, provided the altitude bubble is centralised for each reading,

of face left and face right will give the true angle of altitude.
If the bubble is not centralised then bubble error will occur, and,
depending on the recorded displacement of the bubble at the objective
and eyepiece ends, the sensitivity will indicate the angular error. As
the bubble is rotated, the index is also rotated.
Thus 6 will be subjected to an error of i"(0 - E)8", where 8" =
the
mean
the angular sensitivity of the bubble.

If the objective end of the bubble is higher than the eyepiece end
on face left, i.e.
L > EL then 6 will be decreased by -(0 - B )8",
i.e.
and
F.L.
a = a, -
F.R.
a = a2 +
<f>
cf>
{6
- \{0L
{0
UoR
-EL )8"\
-
ER )8"\
221
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
a = |(a + a 2
1
+y{(0L+
/e
~(EL
E R )\
= i<a + a 2 ) + |(20 - SB)
(4.55)
To
*es*
and adjust the index
error
(1) Centralise the altitude bubble and set the telescope to read
zero (face
(2)
left).
Observe a card on a vertical wall record the
line of sight
at A.
and repeat the operation. Record the
(3) Transit the telescope
line of sight at B.
(4)
point of
(5)
Using the slow motion screw (vertical circle) observe the midAB. (The line of sight will now be horizontal.)
Bring the reading index to zero and then adjust the bubble to
its midpoint.
Example 4.11
Trunnion axis
of the bubble ends
A and B
The following
error.
of a striding level
are the readings
which was placed on
the trunnion axis of a theodolite and then reversed ('Left' indicates

the left-hand side of the trunnion axis
when looking along the
scope from the eyepiece end with the theodolite face
A on
B on
left 11-0,
left
10*8,
B on
A on
tele-
right.)
right 8*4
right 8*6
One division of the striding level corresponds to 15". All adjustments other than the horizontal trunnion axis adjustment of the theodolite being presumed correct, determine the true horizontal angle between P and Q in the following observations (taken with the theodolite
face
left).
Object
Horizontal circle
Vertical circle
158 20' 30"

218 35' 42"
42 24'
15 42'
(L.U.)
By
Eq.(4.53),
Correction to bearing
= --(%L - 2R) tana

2n
to
= ^{(11-0 + 10-8) - (8-4 + 8-6)}tan 42 24'

=
15 x 4 ' 8
tan 42 24'
-18" tan 42 24" = -16"
222

to
-18 tan 15 42' = -
5'
N.B. The correction would normally be positive when using the general notation, but the face is changed by the definition given in the
problem.
True bearing to
158 20' 30" - 16"
True bearing to
218 35'
42"-
5"
True horizontal angle
158 20' 14"
218 35' 37"
60 15' 23"
Example 4.12
In an underground traverse the following mean values
were recorded from station B on to stations A and C
Station
Horizontal
Vertical
Observed
Angle
Angle
Striding Level readings
136 21' 32"
-13 25' 20"

+47 36' 45"
A
C
17-4
5-8
14-5
2-7
1 division = 10 seconds
bubble graduated
to 20
Height of instrument at B 4-63 ft
Height of target
at A 3-42 ft
Striding level:
C
AB
BC
at
Ground length
5-15
ft
256-32 ft
452-84
Calculate the gradient of the line
ft
AC
(R.I.C.S.)
Striding level corrections

to
L
R
17-4
5-8
2 )23-2
11-6
i.e.
centre of bubble is 1-6 to left of centre of graduations.

to
L
R
14-5
2-7
2 ) 17-2
8-6
i.e.
centre of bubble is 1-4 to right of centre of graduations.

The same, results may be obtained by using the basic equation
(4.53) and transposing the readings as though the graduation were from
the centre of the bubble.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
i.e.
to
becomes 7-4 (L)
5-8 (R)
becomes 4*2 (R)
XL - XR
7-4 - 4-2
to
17-4 (L)
1#6
14-5 (L)
becomes 4-5 (L)
2-7 (R)
becomes 7-3 (R)
XL - XR
4-5
_
~
223
7-3
= _ 1>4
Applying these values to Eq.(4.52),
A = +1*6 x
Correction to
10 x tan (-13 25')
= -3'8*
Correction to
C = -1-4 x
10 x tan(+4737')
- 15,3 "
Total angle correction
-11*5"
Corrected horizontal angle
136 21' 32" - 11-5"
136 21' 20"
To find
Line
true inclination of the
ground and true distances (Fig. 4.61)
AB
=
Ba
sin"
1-21 cos 13 25' 20"
256-32
5a,
-015'47"
a,
13 25' 20"
13 09' 33"
Horizontal length
(D,)
Vertical difference
Line
BC
(tf,)
AB
AB
256-32 cos 13 09' 33" =
256-32 sin 13 09' 33"
ft
58-35
ft
0-52 cos 47 36' 45"
8a 2z = sin"
249-59
r=^rzrz
452-84
-002'40"
a 2 = 47 36' 45"
=
Horizontal length
BC
Vertical difference
Difference in height
To
47 34' 05"
452-84 cos 47 34' 05" =
305-54 ft
452-84 sin 47 34' 05" =
334-23
AC
AC
find the horizontal length

In triangle
tan
58-35 + 334-23
392-58
ABC,
305-54 - 249-59
305-54 + 249-59
- 136 21' 20")

tan (180
2
ft
ft
224
4-63
4-63
3-42 A
TffKS^
5-15
4-63
4-63
Fig. 4.61
A-C
2 18' 40"
A+C
2149'20'
A = 2408'00"
,
Then
AC
= 305-54sinl3621 20"cosec2408 00" = 515-77
Gradient
AC
= 392*58 ft
=
in 515'77ft
in 1-314
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
225
(a) Show that when a pointing is made to an object

Example 4.13
which has a vertical angle h with a theodolite having its trunnion
axis inclined at a small angle
to the horizontal, the error introduced
into the horizontal circle reading as a result of the trunnion axis tilt
is
tan/i.
(b)
The observations
set out below have been taken at a station
with a theodolite, both circles of which have two index marks. On

face left, the vertical circle nominally records 90 minus the angle of
The plate bubble is mounted parallel to the trunnion axis

graduated with the zero of the scale at the centre of the tube
one division represents 20".
elevation.
and
is
The
was set on signals

on both faces of the theodolite. The means of the readings
of the circle and the plate bubble readings were
intersection of the telescope cross-hairs
A and B
Signal
Face
left
Horizontal Circle
Vertical Circle
116 39' 15"
90 00' 15"
Midpoint of Bubble
1-0 division
towards circle
right
346 39' 29"
270 00' 17"
1-0 division
towards circle
left
301 18' 36"
80 03' 52"
right
121 18' 30"
279 56' 38"
central
2-0 division
towards circle
The vertical axis was then rotated so that the horizontal circle
reading with the telescope in the face left position was 256 40'; the
reading of the midpoint of the bubble was then 0*4 division away from
the circle.
If
the effect of collimation error c on a horizontal circle reading

calculate the collimation error, the tilt of the trunnion axis
is c sec/i,
and the index error of the theodolite, the altitude of the vertical axis
the above observations were taken, and the value of the horizon-
when
tal
angle
APB.
(N.U.)
At A (Fig. 4.62). As the bubble reading is equal and opposite, on

change of face the horizontal plate is horizontal at 90 to the line of
sight. The bubble is out of adjustment by 1 division = -20" F.L.
At 90 to A the corrected bubble reading gives
F.L.
The
0-4 + 1-0
= +1-4
div.
= +28"
horizontal plate is thus inclined at 28" as is the vertical axis, in
the direction A.
226
Fig. 4.62
At
(Fig. 4.63).
The corrected bubble readings give

= +1-CH
F.
\L.
0-0+
F.
\R
2-0-1-0 = +1-0
1-0
i.e.
N.B. This value may be checked (see
p.
+20'
414)
166* (28")
Fig. 4.63
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
Apparent dip
The
227
dip cosine angle between
full
28"cos(301-256)
28" cos 45
20^_
effect of instrumental errors in pointings (Fig. 4.64)
Fig. 4.64
Horizontal
Collimation 6C = c sec/i (if h =

and right gives the correct value.
Qc =
Trunnion Axis $t = i tan ft (if h =

and right give the correct value.
c);
the
mean
of faces left
dt = 0); the mean of faces left
Vertical Axis d v = v tan/i (if h =
6 V = 0); the sign is dependent on
the inclination of the axis. (F.L. inclination towards circle, with +h,
d v is -ve
Vertical
Index error Bh = 2\h t -hr

correct value
\;
mean
the
of faces left
and
right gives the
Application to given values:
At A
(F.L.)
i.e.
(F.R.)
166 39' 15" + c sech - v tank +
tan/i
166 39' 15" + c
346 39' 29" - c
F.L. must equal F.R.

.-.
166 39' 15" + c
346 39' 29" - 180 - c
2c
+14"
7'
(collimation error)
228
At
(F.L.) 301 18'36" + 7 sec957" - 20 tan957' +
tan 9 57"
30118'36" +7-1 - 3-5 + 0-175*
i.e.
(F.R.) 12118'30" -7-1 - 3-5 - 0-175
F.L. must equal F.R.

/.
30118'36" + 7-1 -3-5 + 0-175
= 121 18' 30" + 180 - 7-1 - 3-5 -
-0-175
0-35
i.e.
= -20-2"
= -58"
(fli
=-10-1")
(trunnion axis error)
Corrected readings
F.L.
166 39' 15" + 7"
166 39' 22"
301 18' 36" + 7-1" - 3-5" - 10-1
301 18' 29-5"
APB
134 39' 07-5"
346 39' 29" - 7"
346 39' 22"
121 18' 30" - 7-1 - 3-5 + 10-1
121 18' 29-5"
134 39' 07-5"
Angle
F.R.
Angle
APB
Vertical angles
At A:
8h
I{(90-9000'15") - (27000'17" -270)} = -16"
At B:
Sh
|{(90-8003'52") - (279
N.B. The discrepancy
is
4.7
This
is
assumed
to
56' 38"
-270)} = -15"
be an observational
error.
The Auxiliary Telescope
used where steep sights are involved and
in
two possible
forms:
(1) Side
4.71
telescope
(2)
Top telescope
Side telescope
There are two methods of using this form of telescope:

ment and (b) out of adjustment with the main telescope.
(a) in adjust-
Adjustment
(a) Alignment (Fig. 4.65). Observe a point A with the main telescope. Turn in azimuth to observe with the side telescope without
altering the vertical circle. Raise or lower the side telescope until the
horizontal cross-hair coincides with the target A. The horizontal hairs
are
now
in the
same plane.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
229
Main telescope
Side telescope
Fig. 4.65
Alignment of telescopes
Fig. 4.66
(b) Parallel lines of sight (Fig. 4.66). If x is the eccentricity of

the telescope at the instrument this should be constant between the
lines of sight (see Fig. 4.66).
At a distance d from the instrument, a scale set horizontally may

be read as a,b, giving an intercept s,, and then at a\ readings a 2 b 2
x
give intercept s 2
If
If not,
the lines of sight are parallel,
the angle of convergence/divergence e is given as

e
tan-i
s2
Si
d2
d,
(4.56)
If
s2
the angle is +ve,
i.e.
diverging
If
s 2 < s,, the angle is -ve,
i.e.
converging.
The amount
ings.
>
s,,
of eccentricity x can be obtained from the
same
read-
230
d\
Si
- X
d2 - d,
x =
i.e.
Si(**2
<*i)
^1(^2
Si)
(d 2 -d,)
s 2 di
d 2 - d,
s,d 2
(4.57)
By making the intercept s 2 = x, the collimation of the auxiliary

telescope can be adjusted to give parallelism of the lines of sight.
Observations with the side telescope
Vertical Angles. If the alignment
angle will be observed.
(a)
If
is adjusted, then the true vertical
an angular error of 8a exists between the main and the side
telescope, then the mean of face left and face right observations is required, i.e.
(b) Horizontal
= a, + da
F.R.
Angles (Fig. 4.67)
Fig. 4.67
Horizontal angles with the side telescope
If
<f>
S,
= a
a 2 - Sa = a
a = i(a, + a 2 )
F.L.
and 8 2
=
=
=
the true horizontal angle;
the recorded horizontal angle;

errors
due to eccentricity,
(4.58)
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
=
then
<f> 2
i.e.
<t> x
231
+ 82
say F.L.
+ S, - 8 2
F.R.
ya(^,
5,
+ <^)
(4.59)
In testing the eccentricity of a side telescope, readExample 4.14

ings were taken on to levelling staves placed horizontally at X and Y
100 and 200 ft respectively from the instrument.
Readings at
5-42
ft
5-01
ft
at
3-29
ft
2-79
ft
Calculate (a) the collimation error (e), (b) the eccentricity (x).
(R.I.C.S./M)
From the readings,
Si
5-42 - 5-01
= 0-41
s2
3-29 - 2-79
0-50
Si
d2 -
<*,
S2
fan"'
206265 x (0-50 - 0-41)

200 - 100
"
185-6"
03' 06"
by Eq. (4.57)
X
S\d 2 s 2 d
d2 -
d,
0-41 x 200 - 0-50 x 100
200 - 100
82 - 50
0-32
ft
Based on the metric system the question becomes:

were taken
and Y, 30*48 m and
In testing the eccentricity of a side telescope, readings
on to levelling staves placed horizontally at

60*96 m respectively from the instrument.
Readings
at
1*652
1*527
at
1*003
0*850
m
m
Calculate (a) the collimation error (), (b) the eccentricity (x)
s,
s2
Then
m
m
1*652 - 1*527
= 0*125
1*003 - 0*850
206 265 x (0*153-0*125)
0*153
60*96 - 30*48
189*5"
03' 10"
232
and
0-125 X 60-96 - 0-153 x 30-48

30-48
~~
The
0-097
(0-32
ft)
effect of eccentricity x and collimation error e

In Fig. 4.68,
assuming small
angles,
AOB
Angle
8"
206 265 x
Angle
BSC =
(4.60)
e"
206 265 y
Angle
(4.61)
AOC
206265(x+y)
(4 62)
d
e
Angle
As
8 + e
BOC
(4.63)
Angle
the eccentricity x is con-
stant, the angle (5) is
dependent
upon the length of sight
As
BSC
d.
the collimation angle is
constant,
it
has the same effect as
the collimation error in the main
telescope.
It
Fig. 4.68
affects the horizontal
angle by e sec a, where
Assuming the targets
is the vertical angle.
are at different altitudes, the true horizontal
angle #,Fig. 4.67, is given as
Also
<,
eseca 2 )
say F.L.
(4.64)
<j>
+ (8 2 + eseca,) - (5 2 + e seca 2 )
F.R.
(4.65)
= %(<, +
Thus the mean
(5,
+ seca,) + (5 2 +
2)
(4.66)
of the face left and face right values eliminates
errors from all the above sources.
Using the instrument of Example 4.14, the following

Example 4.15
data were recorded:
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
( = 03' 06"
x = 0-32
233
ft)
Remarks
Station set
Station
Horizontal
Vertical
at
observed
circle
circle
005'20"
+ 30
26'
Horizontal lengths
124 10' 40"
-10
14'
AB
BC
= 100'
= 300'
side telescope on
right.
ABC
Calculate the true horizontal angle
(R.I.C.S./M)
By Eq. (4.64),
True horizontal angle (6)
5,
- (5,+ e sec a,) + (52 + e secci^
<f>
206265 x 0-32
66
1'06'
22" =
0'22"
100
6\
206265 x 0-32
300
eseca, =
eseca 2
186" sec3026'
189*0"
186" sec 10 14'
<f>
124 10' 40" - 0 05' 20"
12405'20" - (1'06"+ 3'36") +
124 04' 09"
3'
36"
3'
09"
say 216" =
215-7",
12405'20"
(0'
22"+
3'
09")
Top telescope
4.72
In this position the instrument
angles only
if it is in
can be used to measure horizontal

it is not possible to change
correct adjustment, as
face.
Adjustment
(a)
Alignment. The adjustment is similar to that of the side tele-
scope but observations are required by both telescopes on to a plumb

line to ensure that the cross-hairs are in the same plane.
(b) Parallel lines of sight (Fig. 4.69).
Here readings are taken on
vertical staves with the vertical circle reading zero.
The calculations
are the
6'
same as
=
for the side telescope:
tan-' S z
~ s
'
d, - d,
and
Sid 2 s 2 d,
d2 ~
dy
(4.67)
(4.68)
234
'
V
/
"
-~.
Si
<*1
<*2
Fig. 4.69
Measurement of Vertical Angles (Fig. 4.70)
Angle ATB is assumed

equal to angle AOB as
both are small values
Measurement of vertical angles with the top telescope
Fig. 4.70
The angular
error (') due to eccentricity is given as

8'
tan-'
eccentricity
horizontal distance
<
recorded vertical angle
where
If
e'
is the error
(4.69)
sec0
due to collimation then the true vertical angle
(0) is given as
6 =
assuming
4.8
8'
and
e'
(0+S'+
')
(4.70)
small.
Angular Error due to Defective Centring of the Theodolite
The angular
(a) linear
error depends on the following, Fig. 4.72:

displacement x,
(b) direction of the instrument B,
(c) length of lines a
and
c.
relative to the station
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
235
Locus of centring
error
Minimum
Fig. 4.71
due to defective centring of the theodolite
error
The instrument may be
set on the circumference of the circle of
radius x.
No
4.71),
error will occur if the instrument is set
where
A,B ,B,B 2 and C

y
The
Fig. 4.72
i.e.
Assume
AB.
is
0,
ABB U
sin
(Fig.
be set at
instead of B.
measured instead of 6
0, - (a + B)
the misplumbing x to be in a direction
In triangle
B2
effects of centring errors
In Fig. 4.72, let the instrument
Angle
up at B, or
on the arc of a circle.
lie
a =
<f>
relative to the line
x sin<
(4.71)
AB,
As
the angle
is small,
a
206265 x sin <f>
(4.72)
B" =
Similarly,
206265 x sin (0 -
<^)
(4 73)
a
.'.
Total error
E = a + B = 206265
Je^ +
sin(fl
For maximum and minimum values,

4*L
= 206265 r[ cos< _
cos(fl
- 0) 1 = Q
<ft) 1
(4.74)
236
COS 4>
i.e.
COS (0 -
(f>)
cos
= -(cos 6 cos < + sin 6 sin </>)
<ji
cot0 = (cos0 cot< + sin0)
-j-sin<
cot0(l- ccos
N.B. (1)
If
(2) If
a :
when
90,
cot<
6 =
c sin 6
csind
(4.75)
n
a - c cos d
or
180
then <f>
maximum error exists
tends towards 90 relative to the shorter line.
c,
(f>
a =
(3) If
c,
-*
<f>
90, i.e. the
= 6/2.
Professor Briggs proves that the probable error in the measured

angle is
Example
4.
//J: +
The centring
16
I _!)
(4.76)
error in setting up the theodolite at
in an underground traverse survey is 0*2 in.
Compute the
measurement of the clockwise
angle ABC induced by the centring error if the magnitude of the angle
is approximately 120 and the length of the lines AB and BC is approximately 80*1 and 79*8 ft respectively.
station
maximum and minimum
errors in the
(R.I.C.S.)
(1)
(2)
The minimum error as before will be nil.

The maximum error on the bisection of the angle
i.e.
<f>
60
= 9^1 = 0-0167
80
ABC
is
ft
ft
12
l
206265 x 0-016 7[ sin60 + sin(120-60)
80
80
L
J
206265 x 0-0167 x 2 sin 60/80
74 seconds
By Professor
e
i.e.
l'
14"
Briggs' equation, the probable error
2 x0-016 7 //_1_ + J_ _ 2 cos 120 \

2
3-1416 aJ\S0 2
80
80+80 /
35"
i.e.
1/2
max
error.
AB ~
BC.
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
237
The Vernier
4.9
This device for determining the decimal parts of a graduated scale

of two types:
may be
(1) Direct reading

(2)
Retrograde
both of which may be single or double.
'
*'
'
'
'
I
Vernier scale
reading
{C)
'
|
.
'
5
X
5
'
'
'|
'
'
'
'
'
'
40
20
30
'
'
10
(b)
(a)
36-0
50
0-3 = 36-3
'
30
'
3^.3
40
50
Retrograde vernier
Fig. 4.73
4.91
Verniers
Direct reading vernier
Let d
v =
the smallest value on the main scale
the smallest value on the vernier scale
number of spaces on the vernier

n vernier spaces occupy (ji - 1) main scale spaces
n
nv =
i.e.
(n
- l)d
(n-l)d
(4.77)
n
Therefore the least count of the reading system is given by:
d-v
d - v
d -
d(
\
"
n - n + *)
/
n
Thus the vernier enables the main scale
to
(4.78)
be read to -th of
1 division.
238
ii
If the main scale value d = -^ and the number of

17
spaces on the vernier (n) = 10, the vernier will read to 1/10 x 1/10 =
Example
1/100
4.
in.
Retrograde vernier
4.92
In this type, n vernier division
occupy (n +
1)
main scale divi-
sions,
nv =
i.e.
(n
+ l)d
1
d HJ^
-'fcr )
v =
The
least count
v - d
v - d
(4.79)
*m
teM
as before
(4.80)
n
Special forms used in vernier theodolites
4.93
down
In order to provide a better break
may be extended
vernier
(mn -
1)
nv =
The
least count
md -
(jnn
- l)d
d(HLzl)
md
md - v =
4.94
of the graduations, the
such a way that n vernier spaces occupy

spaces on the main scale, (m is frequently 2.)
in
(4.81)
as before
(4.82)
Geometrical construction of the vernier scale

In Fig. 4.74(a) the main scale and vernier zeros are coincident.
For the direct reading vernier 10 divisions on the vernier must

occupy 9 divisions on the main scale. Therefore
(1) Set off a
(2) Join
random line
to
i.e.
OR
of 10 units.
the end of the random line
to the
end of
the vernier V.
(3) Parallel
through each of the graduated lines or the random line
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
main scale so that
main scale.
to cut the
of the
1 division of the vernier
10
Vernier scale
reading
Fig. 4.74
To construct a vernier
239
= 0*9 divisions
36-0
0-3= 36-3
Construction of a direct reading vernier

to
a given reading
In Fig. 4.74(b) the vernier is required to read 36*3.
quired to coincide at the 3rd division,
It is thus re3 x 0*9 = 2*7 main scale
i.e.
division beyond the vernier index.
Therefore coincidence will occur at (36*3 + 2*7) = 39*0 on the

main scale and 3 on the vernier scale.
The vernier is constructed as above in the vicinity of the point of
coincidence. The appropriate vernier coincidence line (i.e. 3rd) is
joined to the main scale coincidence line (i.e. 3S9*0) and lines drawn
parallel as before will produce the appropriate position of the vernier
on the main scale.
In the case of the retrograde vernier, Fig. 4.75, 10 divisions on the
vernier equals 11 divisions on the main scale, and therefore the point
of coincidence of 3 on the vernier with the main scale value is
= 36-3 - 3-3
36-3 - (3 x 1-1)
= 33-0
30
40
50
Coincidence
Fig.
4.
75
Construction of a retrograde vernier
240
Show how to construct the following verniers:

Example 4.18
(1) To read to 10" on a limb divided to 10 minutes.
(2) To read to 20" on a limb divided to 15 minutes.
(3)
The
arc of a sextant is divided to 10 minutes. If 119 of these
divisions are taken as the length of the vernier, into how many divisions must the vernier be divided in order to read to (a) 5 seconds (b)
10 seconds?
(1)
The
(ICE.)
least count of the vernier is given by Eq. (4.77) as d/n
10"
10 x 60
n
=
10
60
Therefore the number of spaces on the vernier is 60 and the number of

spaces on the main scale is 59.
(2)
20" =
Similarly,
60
11
n
...
llx!
20
i.e.
45
the number of spaces in the vernier is 45 and the number of spaces
on the main scale is 44.

(3)
The number
of divisions 119 is not required,
and the calculation
is exactly as above.
(a)
(b)
10 * 60
10
*60
10
120
60
Exercises 4(b)
3.
The
eccentricity of the line of collimation of a theodolite telescope
in relation to the
azimuth axis is 1/40 th of an inch. What will be the

difference, attributable to this defect, between face right and face left
measurement
of
strument are 20
an angle if the lengths of the drafts adjacent to the

and 120 ft respectively ?
in-
ft
(M.Q.B./S
Ans.
17-9")
A horizontal angle is to be measured having one sight elevated to

32 15 whilst the other is horizontal. If the vertical axis is inclined
at 40 to the vertical, what will be the error in the recorded value ?
4.
(Ans.
25")
measurement of a horizontal angle the mean angle of elevation of the backsight is 22 12' whilst the foresight is a depression
5.
In the
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
241
of 37 10'. If the lack of vertically of the vertical axis causes the

horizontal axis to be inclined at 50" and 40" respectively in the same
direction, what will be the error in the recorded value of the horizontal
angle as the mean of face
left
and right observations ?

51")
(Ans.
In a theodolite telescope the line of sight is not perpendicular to
6.
the horizontal axis in but in error by 5 minutes. In measuring a horizontal

angle on one face, the backsight is elevated at 33 34' whilst the foresight is horizontal. What error is recorded in the measured angle ?
(Ans. 60")
The instrument above is used for producing a level line AB by

transiting the telescope, setting out C,, and then by changing face
the whole operation is repeated to give C 2 If the foresight distance
is 100 ft, what will be the distance between the face left and face
7.
right positions, i.e.
C,C 2 ?
(Ans. 6-98
in.)
Describe with the aid of a sketch, the function of an internal

focussing lens in a surveyors telescope and state the advantages and
disadvantages of internal focussing as compared to external focussing.
8.
In a telescope, the object glass of focal length 6 in. is located
in.
from the diaphragm. The focussing lens is midway between these
when a
staff
80
ft
away
is
focussed. Determine the focal length of the
focussing lens.
(L.U.
Ans.
4-154
in.)
9.
In testing the trunnion axis of a vernier theodolite, the instrument
was
set up at '0', 100
ft
from the base of the vertical wall of a tall
A was observed on face left at a

On lowering the telescope horizontally with
the horizontal plate clamped, a mark was placed at B on the wall. On
changing face, the whole operation was repeated and a second position
C was fixed.
building where a well-defined point
vertical angle of 36 52'.
If
the distance
BC
measured 0*145
ft,
calculate the inclination of
the trunnion axis.
(Ans.
3'
The following readings were taken on fine sighting marks

10.
and C from a theodolite station A.
Instrument
Tq Vertical
At
Angle
B 72 30
C -10 24'
B 72 30
F.R.S.R.
Vernier
Vernier A
'
29226'30"
11226'30"
52 39' 36"
232 39' 36"
'
29226'30"
112 26*30"
at
20
F.L.S.L.
Vernier A
Vernier
23 36' 24" 203 36' 24"
14350'lo" 323
23 36' 24"
50* 10"
203 36* 24"
Calculate the value of the horizontal collimation error assuming
242
this to be the only error in the theodolite and state whether

right or left of the line perpendicular to the trunnion axis
strument is face
it
is to the
when the
in-
left.
Describe as briefly as possible how you would adjust the theodoeliminate this error.
lite to
The
11.
(L.U.
Ans. 8-66
, v
left)
focal length of object glass and anallatic lens are 5 in and

The stadia interval was 0*1 in.
4jin. respectively.
field test with vertical staffing yielded the following:
Staff
Inst
Vertical
Staff
Measured Horizontal
Station
Station
Intercept
Angle
Distance
2-30
224-7
6-11
+7 24'
-4 42'
(ft)
602-3
Find the distance between the object glass and anallatic lens.
far, and in what direction, must the latter be moved so that the
multiplying constant of the instrument is to be 100 exactly ?
(L.U. Ans. 7-25 in.; 0*02 in. away from objective)
How
12.
An
object is 20
ft
from a convex lens of focal length 6
in.
On
the far side of this lens a concave lens of focal length 3 in. is placed.
Their principal axes are on the line of the object, and 3 in. apart. Determine the position, magnification and nature of the image formed.
(Ans. Virtual image 43 in. away from the concave lens towards object;
magnification 0-28)
13.
A compound
lens consists of two thin lenses, one convex, the
other concave, each of focal length 6
in. and placed 3 in apart with

axes common. Find the position of the principal focus
of the combination when the light is incident first on (a) the convex
lens and (b) the concave lens.
their principal
(Ans. (a) real image 6

(b) real
in.
image 18
from concave lens away from object,
in.
from convex lens away from object)
Construct accurately a 30 second vernier showing a reading of

124 23 30 on a main scale divided to 20 minutes. A straight line may
be used to represent a sufficient length of the arc to a scale of 0*1 in.
14.
'
to 20 min.
(N.R.C.T.)
Explain the function of a vernier.
(b) Construct a vernier reading 4*57 in. on a main scale divided
to 1/10 in.
15.
(a)
(c) A theodolite is fitted with a vernier in which 30 vernier divisions are equal to 14 30' on a main scale divided to 30 minutes. Is the
vernier direct or retrograde, and what is its least count ?
(N.R.T.C. Ans. direct;
1 min.)
INSTRUMENTAL OPTICS
243
Bibliography
THOMAS, W.N.
Surveying (Edward Arnold)
SANDOVER, J. A., Plane Surveying (Edward Arnold)

GLENDENNING, J., Principles and Use of Surveying
Instruments
(Blackie)

HIGGINS, A.L., Elementary Surveying (Longmans)
TAYLOR, W.E., Theodolite Design and Construction (Cooke,
Troughton & Simms)
CURTIN, w. and LANE, R.F., Concise Practical Surveying (English
Universities Press)
Theodolite Errors and Adjustments (Stanley)
The Theodolite and Its Application English version by A.H. Ward,
F.R.I.C.S. (Wild (Heerbrugg))
JAMESON, A.H. Advanced Surveying (Pitman)
higgins, A.L. Higher Surveying (Macmillan)
SMIRNOFF, M.V., Measurements for Engineering and Other Surveys
(Prentice -Hall)
BANNISTER, A. and RAYMOND, s., Surveying (Pitman)
DIBDIN, F.S.H., Essentials of Light (Macmillan)
SHEPPARD, J.S.
NELKON, M., Light and Sound (Heinemann)

STANLEY, W.W., Introduction to Mine Surveying
Press)
(Stanford University
LEVELLING
5.1
Levelling
is
Definitions
the process concerned with the determination of the
differences in elevation of two or more points between each other or

relative to
some given datum.
A Datum may be purely arbitrary but for many purposes

as the mean sea level (M.S.L.) or Ordnance Datum (O.D.).
A Level
it
is
taken
Surface can be defined as a plane, tangential to the

The plane is assumed to be perpen-
earth's surface at any given point.
dicular to the direction of gravity which for most practical purposes is
taken as the direction assumed by a plumb-bob.
which
level line, Fig. 5.1, is a line on
from the centre of gravity. Therefore,

earth to be a sphere)
it
is circular.
it
is
all points are equidistant
curved and (assuming the
For more precise determinations
the geoidal shape of the earth must be taken into consideration.
Horizontal
line
Vertical
Fig. 5.1
Horizontal Line, Fig. 5.1, is tangential to a level line and is
taken, neglecting refraction, as the line of collimation of a perfectly
adjusted levelling instrument. (As the lengths of sights in levelling

are usually less than 450 ft, level and horizontal lines are
be the
same see
The Line
assumed to
5.6 Curvature and Refraction.)
of Collimation is the imaginary line joining the inter-
section of the main lines of the diaphragm to the optical centre of the
object-glass.
Mean Sea Level. This
is the level
datum line taken as the
LEVELLING
245
reference plane. In the British Isles the Ordnance Survey originally

accepted the derived mean sea level value for Liverpool. This has
been superseded by a value based upon Newly n in Cornwall.
Bench Mark (7\) (B.M.). This is a mark fixed by the Ordnance

Survey and cut in stable constructions such as houses or walls. The
reduced level of the horizontal bar of the mark is recorded on O.S.
maps and plans.

Temporary Bench Mark (T.B.M.). Any mark fixed by the observer
for reference purposes.
Backsight (B.S.)
instrument. Initially
Foresight (F.S.)
taken after the setting up of the
is the first sight

it is
usually
made
is the last sight
Intermediate Sight
(I.S.) is
to
some form
of
bench mark.
taken before moving the instrument.
any other sight taken.
During the process of levelling the instrument and staff are

N.B.
never moved together, i.e. whilst the instrument is set the staff may
be moved, but when the observations at one setting are completed the
staff is held at a selected stable point
forward.
The
a, b,
Inverted staff
reading (f)
I.S.
point (CR)
moved
(C.P.).
c etc.
Change
is
Principles
5.2
Let the staff readings be
and the instrument
known as a Change Point
staff station here is
F.S.
Fig. 5.2
In Fig. 5.2,
Difference in level
to
B
C
to
C = b-c
to
DtoE
 c
c <d
a-b
c-d
= e-(-/)
inverted staff
Eto F = -f-g
AtoF
= (a-fo)+
(b--c)
= a - d + e
'.
-ve
i.e. fall
'
+ve
i.e. rise
-ve
i.e. fall
'
+ve
i.e. rise
-ve
i.e. fall
+ (c-d) + <+/) + <-/-*)
246
= (a+e)- (d+g)
= 2B.S.
2
The
rises -
2
2
2
rises =
-2 F.S.
(b-c) + (e+f)
(b-a)+(d-c)+(f+g)
= (a + e) -(d + g) = 2B.S. - 2F.S.
=
falls
falls
(5.1)
difference in level between the start and finish
= 2B.S. -2F.S. =
rises -
(5.2)
falls
values have no effect on the final results, and

thus reading errors at intermediate points are not shown up.
(1) Intermediate
N.B.
Where the staff
(2)
is inverted, the
readings are treated as nega-
tive values and indicated in booking by a bracket or an

asterisk.
Booking of Readings
5.3
5.31
rise and fall
Method
1,
I.S.
F.S.
B.S.
Rise
Reduced Level
Fall
a
b
x-(b-a)
x- (b-a)+
b-c
d-c
x-(b-a)+(b-c)-(d-c)
-(-/)
[/]
(b-c)
x - (b-a)+ (b-c)- (d-c)
(e
+ f)
x-(b-a) + (b-c)- (d-c)
f+g
+ (e+f)- (f+g)
a+e
d+g
(b-c)+(e+f)
- (d + g)
Example 5.1
(b-a)+ (d-c)
+ (/+*)
Given the following readings:
a = 2-06
b = 5-13
/ = -6-84
= 3-28
g =
7'41
3-25
d = 3-97
N.B.
(1)
The difference between adjacent readings from the same
in-
strument position gives rise or fall according to the sign
+ or -.
(2)
At the change point B.S. and F.S. are recorded on the same
line.
LEVELLING
Check 2 B.S. - 2 F.S. = 2 Rise - 2 Fall before working out

reduced levels. Difference between reduced levels at start
and finish must equal 2 B.S. - 2 F.S.
(3)
B.S.
Rise
F.S.
I.S.
Fall
100-00
St.
A. B.M. 100-00 A.O.D.
96-93
St.
B.
98-78
St. C.
3-07
5-13
3-28
1-85
St.
D.
St.
E. Inverted staff on girder
10-09
102-25
St.
F.
16-10 13-85
0-69
14-25
[6-84]
3-25
-7-22
-13-85
102-25
100-00
+ 2-25
+ 2-25
+ 2-25
9-47
7-22
Method
B.S.
height of collimation
2,
F.S.
I.S.
Reduced Level
Height of Collimation
x+a
x + a-b
x+ac
x+ad+e
x + a-d
x + a-d + e-(-f)
[/]
x+a-d+e-g
i
a+e
C.P.
98-09
112-34
3-97
7-41
Remarks
Reduced Level
2-06
5.32
247
b + c-f
6x+5a-b-c-3d + 2e+f-g
d+g
Arithmetical Check
Height of each collimation
x no. of applications = 3(x + a) + 2(x + a-d + e)
= 5x + 5a - 2d + 2e
2 Reduced
2 I.S.
2 F.S.
= 5x +
levels - first
5a-b-c-3d
+ d
full arithmetical
check
is
-2d
+ g
+ 2e
given as:
levels less the first + 2 I.S. + 2 F.S. should equal

Height of each collimation x no. of applications
(5.3)
2 Reduced
2e+f-g
+ b + c
5x + 5a
Thus the
Using the values
in
Example
5.1,
248
B.S.
F.S.
I.S.
Height of
Collimation
Reduced Level
102-06
100-00
St.
96-93
St.
2-06
5-13
3-28
98-09
St.
St.
3-25
102-25
St.
7-22
508-39
[6-84]
8-41
9-47
7-22 -6-84
2-25
98-78
A B.M. + 100-00 A.O.D.

B
St. c
112-34
105-50
3-97
7-41
Remarks
D
E
F
C.P.
Inverted staff on girder
1-57
Check
517-18
508*39 + 1-57 + 7-22
102-06x3 = 306-18
105-50x2 = 211-00 = 517-18

N.B.
The height
(1)
of collimation
= the reduced level of the B.S. +
the B.S. reading.
The reduced level of any station = height of collimation reading at that station.
(3) Whilst 2B.S.- 2 F.S. = the difference in the reduced level
of start and finish this does not give a complete check on
(2)
the intermediate values; an arithmetical error can be
made
without being noticed.

(4)
The
full arithmetical
check
is
needed to ensure there
is
no
arithmetical error.
On
the metric system the bookings would appear thus:
(for
less accurate work the third decimal place
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
0-628
31-108
2-201
0-479
0-686
32-157
29-898
3-076
31-166
2-201 4-908 4-222
154-958
0-991
2-564
2-085
A 30-480m A.O.D.
34-242
4-344
[2-085]
St.
30-108
0-210
1-210
30-480
Remarks
29-544
0-564
1-000
2-259
2-887
Height of Reduced
Collimation
Level
0-936
1-564
may be omitted)
4-222
0-686
Check on collimation
0-686
154-958 + 0-479 + 2-201 = 157-638
LEVELLING
249
31-108 x 3 = 93-324
32-157 x 2 = 64-314
157-638
Using the height of collimation calculate the respective
Example 5.2
levels of floor and roof at each staff station relative to the floor level
at A which is 20 ft above an assumed datum. It is important that a
complete arithmetical check on the results should be shown. Note that
the staff readings enclosed by brackets thus (3*43) were taken with
the staff reversed.
B.S.
F.S.
I.S.
Height of
Collimation
Reduced
22-47
20-00
Floor
at
25-90
Roof
at
2-47
(3-43)
Level
Horizontal
Distance (ft)
Remarks
3-96
18-51
50
Floor at
(2-07)
24-54
50
Roof
4-17
18-30
100
Floor at
(1-22)
23-69
100
Roof
3-54
18-93
150
Floor
25-20
150
Roof
1-96
19-13
200
Floor at
(5-31)
26-40
200
Roof at
2-85
18-24
250
Floor at
(3-09)
24-18
250
Roof
4-58
16-51
300
Floor at
at
at
at
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
22-25
300
Roof
2-22
16-47
350
Floor
at
D
E
E
F
F
G
G
H
(4-67)
23-36
350
Roof
at
1-15
17-54
400
Floor at
24-76
400
Roof
(4-11)
(2-73)
(3-56)
(1-16)
21-09
18-69
(6-07)
+ 2-47
-7-67
+ 24-43
-19-79
-5-20
+ 4-64
-9-96
363-91
-(-9-96)
+ 4-76
4-76
Checks
1.
ZB.S. -2F.S. = 4-76 =
2.
(a)
2 Reduced
(b) 22-47 x 7
diff. in
level
levels except first
157-29
21-09 x 6
= 126-54
18-69 x 4
74-76
358-59
A-I
363*91
at
at
at
at
250
(c)
2F.S. + 2I.S. =
-9-96
+ 4-64
-5-32
5-32
363*91
Checks with
(a)
Inverted staff readings must always be treated as negative
N.B.
values.
The following readings were taken with a level and a

Example 5.3
14 ft staff. Draw up a level book page and reduce the levels by
(a) the rise
and
fall
method,
(b) the height of collimation method.
2-24,
3-64,
6-03,
(12'72 and 1-48) C.P.,
11-15,
B.M. (102-12 ft A.O.D.),

2-13,
5-60,
4'61,
6*22,
8'78,
(13'25 and 6'02) C.P.,
11-41,
12-21.
What error would occur in the final level if the staff had been
wrongly extended and a plain gap of 0*04 had occurred at the 5 ft section joint?
(L.U.)
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
Height of
Reduced
Collimation
Level
122-14
2-24
119-90
3-64
1-40
118-50
6-03
2-39
116-11
11-15
1-48
110-99
5-12
1-57
12-72
110-90
109-42
4-61
3-
13
106-29
6-22
1-61
104-68
8-78
2-56
102-12
11-41
2-63
99-49
6-02
1-84
13-25
103-67
3-47
98-07
6-61
91-46
38-18
3-89 32-23
32-23
28-44
38-18
28-44
28-44
9-74
A
If
102-12
A.O.D.
97-65
12-21
5-60
B.M.
101-54
3-89
2-13
Remarks
combined booking is shown for convenience.

a 0*04 ft gap occurred at the 5 ft section all readings > 5 ft will
be 0-04 ft too small.
LEVELLING
251
The final level value will only be affected by the B.S. and F.S.
readings after the reduced level of the datum, i.e. 102*12, although the
I.S. 8*78 would need to be treated for booking purposes as a B.S.
1 B.S.
2 F.S.
i.e.
8-78+
6*02 =
14*80
- 13-25 + 12-21 =
25-46
Difference = - 10*66
.*.
As
all the
all
Final level
102' 12 - 10*66 =
these values are > 5 ft no final error will be created, since
readings are subjected to equal error.
Therefore the final reduced level is correct,
Example 5.4
3*75
i.e.
91*46 ft A.O.D.
The following readings were observed with a
(B.M. 112*28),
1*48,
(a)
91*46
5*79,
C.P.,
C.P.,
12*53,
8*42,
12*21,
9*47,
5*31,
4*56,
2*02,
level:
7*42,
2*18,
T.B.M.
Reduce the levels by the Rise and Fall method.
(b) Calculate the level of the
T.B.M. if the line of collimation

upwards at an angle of 6min and each backsight
length was 300ft and the foresight length 100 ft.
was
(c)
tilted
Calculate the level of the T.B.M.

right but leaning
backwards
if
the staff
was not held
(L.U.)
(a)
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
2-04
8-42
4-56
12-53
7-42
2-63
107-61
4-11
103-50
2-86
100-64
105-88
106-64
9-47
2-74
109-38
5-31
4-16
113-54
2-02
3-29
116-83
15-97
16-19
11-64
1-42
4-55
Remarks
B.M.
112-28
110-24
0-76
12-21
4-55
Level
5-24
2-18
20-52
15-97
Reduced
112-28
3-75
5-79
up-
at 5 to the vertical in all cases.
11-64
4-55
T.B.M.
252
39
100ft
300 ft
Fig. 5.3
(b) In Fig. 5.3,
True difference in level = (a-3e) - (b-e) = (a-b) - 2e
where e = 100 tan
06'
= 100 x 06' radian8
= 1 x 6 x 60 = 0-175 per
100 ft
~
206 265
Total length of backsight = 3 x 300 = 900 ft
of foresight = 3 x 100 = 300 ft
= 600 ft
Effective difference in length
Error = 6 x 0*175 = 1*050 ft
.".
i.e.
B.S. readings are effectively too large by 1*05 ft.

/.
True difference in level = 4*55 - 1*05 = 3*50 ft

.'.
(c) If the staff
Level of T.B.M. = 112*28 + 3*50 = 115*78 ft A.O.D.
was
not held vertical the readings would be too large,
the value depending on the staff reading.
True reading = observed reading x cos 5

Line of sight
Apparent difference
in level
2 B.S.
- 2F.S. = 4*55
True difference
in level
2 B.S. cos 5 - 2 F.S. cos 5
-2 F.S.) cos 5
= 4*55 cos 5 = 4*53
= (2 B.S.
Fig. 5.4
Example 5.5
Level of T.B.M. = 112*28 + 4*53 = 116*81 ft
in booking. It has been found necessary

dumpy levelling carried out some years ago.
Missing values
to consult the notes of a
LEVELLING
253
Whilst various staff readings, rises and falls and reduced levels are
undecipherable, sufficient data remain from which all the missing
values can be calculated.

B.S.
I.S.
F.S. Rise
B.M. on Watson House
121.36
2.36
100
200
300
400
500
1-94
7-29
4-05
4.46
4-31
6.93
113-32
7-79
3-22
0-63
1-58
112-01
6-53
113-53
5-86
3-10
21-18
14-96
Remarks
Fall Level A.O.D. Distance
600
715
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1286
Peg
36
B.M. on boundary wall
Calculate the missing values and show the conventional arithmetical
checks on your results.
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
Reduced
Level A.O.D.
B.M. on Watson House
121-36
2-36
Remarks
Distance
(a)
119-42
100
2-99
116-43
200
4-46
111-97
300
116-17
400
2-62
113-55
500
0-23
113-32
600
0-63
112-69
715
114-27
800
112-01
900
110-96
1000
113-53
1100
1-90
111-63
1200
3-10
108-53
1286
1-94
4-30
(b)
7-29
4-05
(c)
8-51
(d)
4-20
4-31
(e)
6-93
CO
7-16
(g)
7-79
4-80
1-58
3-22
Peg 36
(h)
5-48
2-26
0)
1-05
6-53
(k)
2-57
3-96
(m)
3-75
(1)
5-86
(n)
6-85
14-96
27-79
-12-83
27-79 8-35
21-18
8-35
-12-83
-12-83
B.M. on boundary wall
254
Notes:
I.S. is deduced from fall 1-94.

Fall 2-99 is obtained from I.S.-F.S., 4-30-7-29.
(c) 8-51 as (a).
(d) Rise 4-20 as (b).
(e) Fall 2-62 as (b).
(f ) Reduced levels 113-32 - 113-55 gives fall 0-23, which gives staff reading
(a)
4-30
(b)
7-16.
(g)
4-80 B.S. must occur on line of F.S. deduced value from rise 1-58 with
I.S. 3-22.
5-48
1-05
(k) 3-96
(1) Fall
(m) 3-75
(n) 6-85
(h)
(j)
as (f).
as normal.
as
(f).
1-90 normal.
B.S. must occur opposite 5-86 F.S. Value from 2b.S. 14-96.
from fall 3-10.
Checks as usual.
Exercises 5(a) (Booking)

1.
The undernoted
staff readings
were taken successively with a
level along an underground roadway.
Staff
Readings
Distances from A
Remarks
B.S. to
5-77
2-83
120
0-30
240
5-54
I.S.
F.S.
B.S.
1-41
360
3-01
480
2-23
I.S.
F.S.
B.S.
2-20
600
1-62
720
I.S.
F.S.
B.S.
7-36
5-52
840
I.S.
0-71
960
F.S.
4-99
B.S.
1080
2-25
F.S. to
Using the Height of Collimation method, calculate the reduced

level of each staff station relative to the level of A, which is
6010*37 ft above an assumed datum of 10000ft below O.D.

Thereafter check your results by application of the appropriate
method used
for verifying levelling
calculations derived from heights
of collimation.
(M.Q.B./S Ans. Reduced level of
6028*37)
LEVELLING
2.
255
section levelling is made from the bottom of a staple pit
the bottom of a staple pit B.
Each group
to
of the following staff read-
ings relates to a setting of the levelling instrument and the appropriate
distances from the staff points are given.

From bottom of staple pit A.
Staff
Readings
Distance
(ft)
4-63
2-41
72
0-50
51
7-23
4-80
32
3-08
26
1-02
45
4-09
3-22
48
1-98
53
1-47
3-85
52
6-98
46
1-17
2-55
106
2-16
3-64
54
5-27
45
To bottom of staple pit B.

The top of staple pit A is 8440ft above the assumed datum
10000ft below O.D. and the shaft
is
of
225ft deep.
(a) Enter the staff readings and distances in level book form, complete the reduced levels and apply the usual checks.
(b) Plot a section on a scale 100 ft to lin. for horizontals and 10 ft

to lin. for verticals.
(c) If the staple pit
is
187*4 ft deep what is the reduced level at
the top of the shaft?
(M.Q.B./UM Ans. 8404-85
ft)
Reduce the following notes of a levelling made along a railway

A and B are outside the affected area,
and the grade was originally constant between them.
Find the original grade of the track, the amount of subsidence at
each chain length and the maximum grade in any chain length.
3.
affected by subsidence. Points
256
I.S.
B.S.
Remarks
Distance (links)
F.S.
10-15
100
8-84
200
7-69
7-58
300
6-65
400
5-50
4-21
500
2-72
Not on track
5-55
8-21
600
3-76
700
2-38
800
1-09
(M.Q.B./M Ans. Grade 1*29 in 100 links;

subsidence +0*02, -0*12, -0'48,
-0-62, -0-42, -0-90
max. grade l'62ft in 100 links between 500 - 600 ft)
4.
The following staff readings were observed in the given order
when levelling up a hillside from a temporary bench mark 135* 20 ft
A.O.D. With the exception of the staff position immediately after the
bench mark, each staff position was higher than the preceding one.
Enter the readings in level book form by both the rise and fall and
collimation systems. These may be combined, if desired, into a single
form to save copying.
4*62,
8-95,
6-09,
3'19,
12*43,
9-01,
5*24,
1*33,
2-05,
13-57,
8-74,
3*26,
12'80,
6*33,
11-41,
4*37.
10*76,
6*60,
(L.U.)
N.B. There are alternative solutions

5.
The undernoted readings, in feet, on a levelling staff were taken

AB with a dumpy level, the staff being held in the
along a roadway
first
case
at a starting point
A and
then at 50ft intervals: 2*51, 3*49,
[2-02], 6-02, 5-00.
The
level
was then moved forward
to another position
and further
readings taken. These were as follows, the last reading being at B:

7-73, 4-52, [6-77], 2'22, 6*65.
The
level of
is 137'2ft
A.O.D.
Set out the staff readings and complete the bookings.
Calculate the gradient from A to B.

(Figures in brackets denote inverted staff readings.)
(R.I.C.S./M Ans.
1 in
284)
An extract from a level book is given below, in which various

6.
bookings are missing. Fill in the missing bookings and re-book and
LEVELLING
257
complete the figures by the Height of Collimation method.

B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
Reduced Level
154-86
3-70
7-62
2-32
5-30
7-11
147-72
5-55
7-37
1-56
149-28
2-00
151-28
8-72
149-93
1-61
4-24
All the figures are
assumed
6-09
154-41
correct.
(I.C.E.)
The following
7.
figures are the staff readings taken in order on a
particular scheme, the backsights being

2'67,
7*12,
9-54,
8'63,
9-22,
5-06,
4-18,
2' 11.
10-28,
shown
12'31,
in italics:
10*75,
6*23,
7*84,
The
first reading was taken on a bench mark 129*80 O.D.

Enter the readings in level book form, check the entries and find
the reduced level of the last point.
Comment on your completed
reduction.
(L.U./E)
5.4
Field Testing of the Level
Methods available are
(1)
by reciprocal levelling,
(2) the
two-peg
methods.
5.41
Reciprocal levelling method

In Fig. 5.5, the instrument is first set at
of sight is
assumed
to
an error e in the length AB.
of height a.
The
line
an angle of elevation + a giving

The reading on the staff at B is b.
be inclined
at
Difference in level
A-B =
a - (b-e)
(5.4)
Fig. 5.5
Difference
in level
258
Fig. 5.6
In Fig. 5.6, the instrument is set at
on the staff
at
of height
ft,
and the reading
is a r
A -B =
Difference in level
Thus, from Eqs (5.4) and
(a,-e) -
(5.5)
b,
(5.5),
Difference in level = a - b + e
Adding
(5.4)
and
fe,
- e
= i[(a-b) +
(5.5),
By subtracting Eqs.
a,
(5.4)
and
(5.4)
(5.5)
(a,-ft,)]
(5.6)
(5.5), the error in collimation
e = i[(a,-5,)-(a-5)]
Example 5.6
A dumpy
over a peg A.
The height from the top
(5.7)
level is set up with the eyepiece vertically

of
piece is measured and found to be 4*62 ft.
A
A
to the centre of the eye-
level staff is then held on
and read. This reading is 2*12 ft. The level is then

set over B. The height of the eyepiece above B is 4* 47 ft and a reading on A is 6* 59 ft.
a distant peg
(1)
What is the difference in level between
(2) Is the collimation of the

(3) If out of adjustment,
moving the level from

(1)
From Eq.
its
A and B ?
telescope in adjustment?
can the collimation be corrected without
6?
position at
(I.C.E.)
(5.6),
Difference in level
(A-B) =
[(4- 62 -2-1 2)
(6* 59
-4* 47)]
= \ [2-50 + 2-12]
= +2-31
(2)
From Eq.
ft
(5.7),
Error in collimation e
= | [2*12 - 2*50]
= - 0-19 ft per length AB.
(i.e.
the line of sight is depressed.)
LEVELLING
True staff reading at
(3.)
259
(instrument at B) should be
6-59 -(-0-19)
= 6-59 + 0*19 = 6-78 ft.
The cross-hairs must be adjusted
to provide this reading.
Two-peg method
5.42
In the following field tests the true difference in level is
ensured
by making backsight and foresight of equal length.
/>-
a-b
Fig. 5.7
Assuming the
line of collimation is elevated
= dtana
the displacement vertically
Thus,
if
B.S. = F.S.,
*
dtana = e
True difference
in level
by a,
AB
in
each case.
= (a-e)-(b-e)
= a ~ b
Method (a). Pegs are inserted at A and B so that the staff reading
a = b when the instrument is midway between A and B. The instrument may now be moved to A or B.
a,- 2=^
Fig. 5.8
In Fig. 5.8, if the height of the instrument at
B, the staff reading at peg
a=
A should be
b,
if
is
fc,
above peg
there is no error,
i.e. if
0.
If
the reading is a, and the distance
AB
2d, then the true read-
260
ing at
should be
a,
= |[a,-b,]
:.
- 2e
(5.8)
Method (b). The instrument is placed midway between staff positions

A and B, Fig. 5.9. Readings taken give the true difference in level =
a-b.
a,-kt
Fig. 5.9
The instrument
is
now placed
XA
where k
If
so that
kXB
depending on the ratio of AX/BX.

A = ke
is the multiplying factor
AX
at
= kBX, then the error at
True difference
= (a -ke) -
in level
(fe,
a-b
-e) =
a,-6,-(&-l)e = a-b
Error per length
BX
(a,-b,)-(a-fc)
* ~
N.B.
(1) If the
instrument is placed nearer to
(5.9)
than B, k will be
less than 1 and /c-1 will be negative (see Example 5.8).
placed
(2) If the instrument is
at station B,
then Eq. (5.9) is
modified as follows:
(a,-) .'.
where
a-b
b,
= (a,-b,)-(a-b)
is the error in the length
AB
(5.10)
(see Example 5.9).
Example 5.7 (a) When checking a dumpy level, the following readings
were obtained in the two-peg test:
Level set up midway between two staff stations A and
A 5'75ft and on B 4*31 ft.
B 400 ft
apart; staff readings on
3-41
Level set up 40 ft behind

ft and on A 4*95 ft.
and in line AB; staff reading on
LEVELLING
261
Complete the calculation and state the amount of instrumental

error.
Describe the necessary adjustments to the following types of

making use of the above readings in each case:
(b)
level,
(i)
Dumpy
level fitted with diaphragm screws and level tube
screws
(ii)
(a)
level fitted with level screws and tilting screw.
By Eq.
(5.9)
- 3-41) - (5-75 - 4-31)

11 - 1
(4-95
e
1-54 - 1-44
= 0*01 per 40 ft
10
Check
With instrument 40 ft beyond B,
Staff reading at
A should be
Staff reading at
4*95 -(11 x 0-01)
= 4-95- 0-11 =
Difference in level =
This agrees with the
(b) (i)
4-
84 ft
should be 3'41 - 0*01 = 3'40ft
first
readings
5*75 - 4'31
1*44
= 1'44
With a dumpy level the main spirit level should be
first ad-
justed.
The collimation
phragm screws
error is then adjusted
by means of the diaA from the second
until the staff reading at
setting is 4*84 and this should check with the staff reading
at
(ii)
of 3*40.
With a tilting level, the circular (pill-box) level should be

adjusted.
first
The
line of sight should
be set by the
tilting
screw until the
calculated readings above are obtained.
The main bubble
will
now be
off centre and
must be central-
ised by the level tube screws.
Example 5.8
(a) Describe with the aid of a diagram the basic principles of a tilting level, and state the advantages and disadvantages
of this type of level
(b)
compared with the dumpy
level.
The following readings were obtained with a
level to two staves
A and B
200ft apart.
tilting
262
Reading
Position of Instrument
Midway between A and B

10 ft from
A and 200 ft
from
Reading
at
at
B(ft)
(ft)
5-43
6-12
6-17
6-67
What is the error in the line of sight per 100 ft of distance and how
(R.I.C.S. L/Inter.)
would you adjust the instrument?
Part (b) illustrates the testing of a level involving a negative
angle of inclination of the line of collimation and a fractional k value.
Using Eq.
e
(5.9),
10
("!-.>-("->
k-
where
BX
200
(6-17-6-67)- (5-43 -6- 12)

1/20 -
20(- 0-50 +0-69)
= - 0-01 x 20 = - 0-2 ft per length
BX
19
i.e.
= - 0-2 per 200ft = - Q-l per 100ft
Check
At X, Reading on
should be 6*17 + 0*01 =
6*18
Reading on
should be 6*67 + 0-20 =
6*87
difference in
level = - 0*69
Alternative solution from first principles (Fig.5.10)
6-67 -209
Fig. 5.10
True difference in level = (6'17-e) - (6'67-20e) = (5'43-6'12)

i.e.
19e- 0-50 = -0*69

e =
0-19
19
= -0*01 per 10 ft
= -0*1
ft
per 100 ft
LEVELLING
263
Example 5.9 The following readings taken on to two stations A and

were obtained during a field test of a dumpy level. Suggest what
type of error exists in the level and give the magnitude of the error as
a percentage. How would you correct it in the field?
B.S.
Remarks
F.S.
6-21
5-46
4-99
4-30
A-B
Staff at station
Staff at station
Instrument midway
Staff at station
AB
Staff at station
Instrument
200ft apart
200 ft apart
v.
near to
(R.I.C.S./G)
By Eq.
(5.10)
= (,-&,) -(a-*)
= (4-99-4-30) -(6-21-5-46)
= 0-69-0-75
= - 0-06 ft per 200 ft
= -0-03 ft per 100 ft.
Check
4-99 + 0-06
= 5-05
4-30 +
4-30
0-75 ft
True difference in level = 6-21 - 5-46 = 0-75 ft.
Example 5.10
In levelling
up a hillside to establish a T.B.M. (tem-
porary bench mark) the average lengths of ten backsights and ten
foresights were 80ft and 40ft respectively.
As
the reduced level of the T.B.M. of 82*50ft A.O.D.
was in doubt,
midway between two pegs A and B 200 ft apart,
the reading on A being 4*56 and that on B 5*24. When the instrument
was moved 40ft beyond B on the line AB produced, the reading on A
was 5*34 and on B 5*88.
the level
was
set up
Calculate the true value of the reduced level.
True difference in level A-B = 4-56-5*24 = -0*68

set up 40 ft beyond B,
When
(5'34-6e)-(5-88-e) = -0-68
5-34 - 5-88 - Se = - 0*68
Se =
e
0-14
0-028 ft/40 ft.
264
Check
True readings should have been:
at
at
A 5-34-0-168 =
B 5-88 - 0-028 =
5-172
5-852
- 0-680
Error in levelling
= 0*028 ft per 40 ft
Difference in length between B.S. and F.S. per set =

per 10 sets
10 x 0*028 = -
.*
Error
.".
True value of T.B.M.
80-40
= 40 ft
= 400 ft
0*28 ft
82'50 - 0'28
82-22 ft A.O.D.
Exercises 5(b) (Adjustment)

8.
Describe how you would adjust a level fitted with tribrach screws,
a graduated tilting screw and bubble-tube screws, introducing into
your answer the following readings which were taken in a 2 peg test:
Staff stations at
A and B
400ft apart.
Level set up halfway between A and

4-21 ft, on B 2-82 ft.
Level set up 40 ft behind
5-29 ft, on
in line
AB
staff readings on
on
staff readings
4*00 ft.
Complete the calculation and show how the result would be used
to adjust the level.
(L.U. Ans. Error -0*01 per 40ft)

9.
two
A modern dumpy level was set up at a position equidistant from

pegs A and B. The bubble was adjusted to its central position
each reading, as
when the telescope

The readings on A and B were 4*86 and
5*22 ft respectively. The instrument was then moved to D, so that the
distance DB was about five times the distance DA, and the readings
with the bubble central were 5*12 and 5*43 ft respectively. Was the
for
was moved from A
it
did not remain quite central
to B.
instrument in adjustment?
(I.C.E. Ans. Error = 0*0125 ft at
10.
from D)
The table gives a summary of the readings taken when running a

The level used was fitted with stadia hairs
line of levels A, B, C, D.
and had tacheome trie constants of 100 and

staff
was held
vertically.
0.
For
all the
readings the
LEVELLING
Reduce the levels shown
check
in the table
Foresight
Backsight
Position of
It
265
Top
Middle
Bottom
1-18
11-06
9-38
7-70
2-91
9-32
7-43
5-54
8-17
6-04
3-91
Staff
Top
Middle
Bottom
6-22
4-37
2-52
B
C
D
4-70
2-94
7-63
5-27
was suspected
that the instrument
this, the following staff readings
hair of the level diaphragm;
and
Instrument Station
was out
of adjustment and to
were taken, using the centre
are 300 ft apart.
Staff at
Staff at
4-65
8-29
Near Q
2-97
6-17
Near
Find the true reduced level of
if
the reduced level of
is
125-67 ft A.O.D.
(Ans. 115-36 ft A.O.D.)
11.
A level was set up on the line of two pegs A and B and
readings were taken to a staff with the bubble central. If A and B
were 150 metres apart, and the readings were 2*763 m and 1*792 m re-
spectively, compute the collimation error. The reduced levels were

known to be 27*002 m and 27*995 m respectively.
The level was subsequently used, without adjustment, to level
between two points X and Y situated 1 km apart. The average length
of the backsights was 45 m and of the foresights 55 m. What is the error
between X and Y?
(N.R.C.T. Ans. 30*5" depressed; error + 0*0145m)
in the difference in level
12.
The following readings were taken during a 'two-peg'
test on a
level fitted with stadia, and reading on a vertical staff, the bubble
being brought to the centre of its run before each reading.

The points A, B, X and Y were in a straight line, X being midway between A and B and Y being on the side of B remote from A.
(A)
If
the reduced level of
is 106*23, find the
reduced level
of B.
(B) Explain what is wrong with the instrument and

correct
how you would
it.
(C) Find what the centre hair readings would have been
instrument had not been out of adjustment.
if
the
266
Instrument at
Staff at
Staff
Readings
5-56
4-81
4-06
8-19
7-44
6-69
5-32
3-72
2-12
6-31
6-21
6-11
(R.I.C.S./IVM. Ans. 103-60; 4-74, 7-37, 3*57, 6*20)
A level set up in a position 100 ft from peg A and 200 ft from peg
reads 6*28 on a staff held on A and 7*34 on a staff held on B, the
13.
bubble having been carefully brought to the centre of its run before
each reading. It is known that the reduced levels of the tops of the
pegs A and B are 287*32 and 286*35 ft O.D. respectively.
Find
and
would have been obtained had there
(a) the collimation error
(b) the readings that
been no collimation error.

(L.U. Ans. (a) 0*09ft per 100ft,
14.
wide.
and
(b) 6*19; 7* 16ft)
are two points on opposite banks of a river about 100 yds
level with an anallatic telescope with a constant 100 is set up
A on the line QP produced, then at B on the line PQ produced,

and the following readings taken on to a graduated staff held vertically
at P and Q.
at
Staff
From
What
To
Upper Stadia
Readings in
ft
Lower Stadia
Collimation
5-14
4-67
3-27
1-21
10-63
8-51
6-39
5-26
4-73
4-20
is the true difference in level
between
4-20
below ground
and
Q and what
is
the collimation error of the level expressed in seconds of arc, there
being 206 265 seconds in a radian?

(I.C.E. Ans. 3*62ft; 104" above horizon)
LEVELLING
Sensitivity of the Bubble
5.5
The
267
Tube
sensitivity of the bubble tube depends on the radius of curva-
ture (R) and is usually expressed as an angle (0) per unit division
(d) of the bubble scale.
Field test
5.51
Staff readings may be recorded as the position of the bubble is

changed by a footscrew or tilting screw. Readings at the eye and objective ends of the bubble may be recorded or alternatively the bubble
may be set to the exact scale division.
Reading
sac
(a)
Reading (M
Fig. 5.11
tan(n0) =
In Fig. 5.11,
(5.11)
I
but e is very small (usually 1 to 60 seconds)
'
"0rad
(5.12)
#rad
s
= 206265
nl
(5.13)
nl
where s = difference in staff readings a and b

n = number of divisions the bubble is displaced between readings
/
If
= distance from staff to instrument.
d = length of
division on the bubble tube, then
R =
R.dTBd
*
(5.14)
ndl
s
(5.15)
268
5.52
If
correction
the bubble tube is graduated from the centre then an accurate
reading is possible, particularly when seen through a prismatic reader,

Fig. 5.12.
Objective end
20
16
Eye end
12
-+I-H
8
lrf-
20
16
12
I
li
fl
Fig. 5.12
If
the readings at the objective end are 0, and
the eye end E, and
E2
and those at
then the movement of the bubble in n divi-
sions will equal
(0
-E
+ (02
- 2 )
(5.16)
2
or
The length
(0,+02 )-(E,
>
<
5.53
E
E
E2 )
of the bubble will be
The displacement
If
of the bubble will
be
E
F
(5.17)
(5.18)
the telescope is elevated,

the telescope is depressed.
Bubble scale correction

With a geodetic level, the bubble is generally very sensitive, say
division = 1 second.
Instead of attempting to line up the prismatically viewed ends of
LEVELLING
269
the bubble, their relative positions are read on the scale provided and
observed in the eyepiece at the time of the staff reading.
The correction to the middle levelling hair is thus required.
ByEq.
(5.13),
206 265 s
''sec
Transposing gives
nl
"*.,.
(5.19)
206 265
where e - the
error in the staff reading
6 = the sensitivity of the bubble tube in seconds

n = the number of divisions displaced
/
= length of sight.
Example 5.11 Find the radius of curvature of the bubble tube attached
and the angular value of each 2 mm division from the follow-
to a level
ing readings taken to a staff 200 ft from the instrument.

(2 mm = 0-006 56 ft).
Staff
Readings
3-510
Bubble Readings
Eye End
6-4
3-4
15-3
Objective End
By Eq.
By Eq.
(5.16),
(5.13),
3-742
18-3
| [(18*3 - 3-4) + (15*3 - 6-4)]
|[14-9 + 8-9]
11*9 divisions.
206265
nl
206 265 x (3-742-3-510)

11-9 x 200
By Eq.
(5.15),
R =
20 sec
ndl
s
0-006 56 x 200 x 11-9

0-232
=
In the metric
67-
ft
system the above readings would be given as:
Staff readings
l'070m
M41m
Distance between staff and level = 60- 96 m
270
,r,^
Then, Lby r,
Eq. (5.13),
n*.
by Eq. (5.15),
206 265 x (1-141 -1-070)
R .
x^
- 02
6 *
"' 9
^^
2H3
IT9TW96
Example 5. 12 The following readings were taken through the eyepiece during precise levelling. What should be the true middle hair
reading of the bubble value
if 1
division is 1 second.
The stadia con-
stant of the level is x 100.
Bubble Scale Readings
Stadia Readings
Top
Middle
Bottom
6-3716
5-507 4
4-643
By Eq.
(5.18),
O
8*48
10-6
"
2
8-4 - 10-6
2
- 1-1
Then by Eq.
(5.19),
nW
206 265
1-1 x
100(6-3716-- 4-643
1)
1"
206 265
110 x 1-7285
206265
=
- 0*0009
True middle reading should be
.*.
5'
507 4 + 0*0009
5-508 3
Exercises 5(c) (Sensitivity)

15.
level is set with the telescope perpendicular to two footscrews
100 ft from a staff.

the bubble were found to be 0*1 in. apart and
after moving the bubble through 3 divisions the staff readings differed
by 0-029 ft.
Find the sensitivity of the spirit bubble tube and its radius of
at a distance of
The graduations on
curvature.
(Ans. e
16.
^ 20
State what is meant by the term 'sensitivity'
spirit level,
seconds;
R=
when applied
86*2 ft)
to a
and discuss briefly the factors which influence the choice
LEVELLING
271
of spirit level of sensitivity appropriate for the levelling instrument of
specified precision.
The
spirit level attached to a levelling instrument contains a
bubble which moves 1/10 in. per 20 seconds change in the inclination
of the axis of the spirit level tube. Calculate the radius of curvature
of the spirit level tube.
(M.Q.B./S Ans. 85*94 ft)

5.54
Gradient screws (tilting mechanism)
On some instruments the
tilting
screw
is graduated
as shown in
Fig. 5.13.
The
vertical scale indicates
the number of complete revolutions
whilst the horizontal scale indi-
cates the fraction of a revolution.
The positive and negative tilt

shown
10-
of the telescope are usually

in
black and red respectively and
these must be correlated with similar colours on the horizontal scale.
The gradient
is
Vertical
scale
-5
given as
mrrrrrm
fio 40 30
of the line of sight
1 in x.
50 60
where 1/x = nr
= the
v\
80 90
(5.20)
where n = numbers of revs.

r
70
20
Horizontal scale
ratio of 1 rev (fre-
quently 1/1000).
Fig. 5.13
Using the gradient screw, it is also possible to obtain the approximate distance by taking staff readings.
If
gradient
then
j-
= nr
L =
nr
where s = staff intercept
L =
Example 5.13
length of sight
Staff reading
Number
(a)
= 6-32
00
= 6-84
of revs (n) = 6-35
Gradient ratio
(r)
= 1/1000
(5.21)
272
Then
L =
(6-84 - 6-32) x 1 000
6-35
520
6-35
= 81- 88 ft
5.6
5.61
The Effect
The
of the Earth's Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction
earth's curvature
Over long distances the effect of the earth's curvature becomes

significant.
Let the error due to the earth's curvature
= AC.
Refracted
line
of sight
Fig. 5.14
In Fig. 5.14,
ACAD
.*.
AC
=
=
TA
TA
AD
L
2R +
i.e.
(intersecting chord and tangent)
E ~ L
AC
(where L = length of sight
~ TA)
(as
is small
compared with R) (5.22)
2R
Alternatively, by Pythagoras,
i.e.
AO 2 - 0T 2 +AT
2
2
(E + Rf = R +L
E 2 + 2RE
R 2 +L'
+ /T
2R + E
2R
as above.
LEVELLING
As R, the radius
of the earth, is
273
3 960 miles
(^6 370 km).
E ~
280L)
(5
5280 x 3960
2 x
5280L
7920
=
where
L =
0-667
(5.23)
ft.
length of sight in miles;
or metric values give
L2
= 0'0785
metres (where
L =
length in km)
Atmospheric refraction
5.62
Due to variation in the density of the earth's atmosphere, affected

by atmospheric pressure and temperature, a horizontal ray of light TA
is refracted to give the bent line TB.
If
the coefficient of refraction
factor applied to the angle
angle
TO A
is defined as the multiplying
(subtended at the centre) to give the
ATB,
Angle of refraction A TB
As
m TOA
2m ATC
the angles are small
AB
AC
AB
Then
ATB ATC
2mA C x AC
J
ATC
2m AC
:
The value
of
(5.24)
varies with time, geographical position, atmos-
pheric pressure and temperature.
A mean
value is frequently taken as
0-07.
AB
/.
^ AC
Error due to refraction
~
5.63
The combined
0-14 AC
0M567_L
(5.25)
2
a
095L (526 )
effect of curvature and refraction
The net
effect e
=
=
BC
AC
AB
Lz
2R
2R
Ll[l-2m]
ZK
(5.27)
274
If
is taken as 0*07
then
or metric value
0-667
0-667
L
L2
0-574
0*0673
em
(1
0-
14)
x 0-86
(5.28)
ft
metres
Alternatively, taking refraction as 1/7 of the curvature error,
6
|7 x 0-667
0-572 L*
Example 5.14
0-57
Effect of curvature
What difference will exist between horizontal and level lines
1.
at
the following distances?
Ea
(a)
(a)
1 mile
(d)
100 miles
(b)
220 yards
(e)
(c)
5 miles
(f)
160 km
= 0-667
L2
(Lin miles)
ft
= 0-667 ft
(b)
8-004 inches
Eb
oc
Eb
= 0-667
Ec
= 0-667 x 5
thus
(c)
(|)
2
0*667 _ 0-010
4 ft
64
25 x 0-667
66 ' 7
4
(d)
Ed
= 0-667 x 100 2
(0
Ee = 0-0785 x
Ef
- 16-675 ft
= 0-667 x 1000
6670
(e)
km
l
2
= 0-078 5 x 160
ft
= 0-078 5
= 2 009-6
In ordinary precise levelling it is essential that the lengths of the

backsight and foresight be equal to eliminate instrumental error. This
is also required to counteract the error due to curvature and refraction,
as this error should be the same in both directions providing the climatic conditions remain constant. To minimise the effect of climatic
change the length of sights should be kept below 150 ft.
In precise surveys, where the length of- sight is greater than this
value and climatic change is possible, e.g. crossing a river or ravine,
'reciprocal levelling' is employed.
LEVELLING
275
Exercises 5(d) (Curvature and refraction)

Derive the expression for the combined curvature and refraction
17.
correction used in levelling practice.

If
the sensitivity of the bubble tube of a level is 20 seconds of
arc per division, at what distance does the combined curvature and refraction correction
become numerically equal
to the error induced by
dislevelment of one division of the level tube.
D/M
(R.I.C.S.
Ans. 4 742*4 ft)
18. A geodetic levelling instrument which is known to be in adjustment is used to obtain the difference in level between two stations A
and B which are 2430ft apart. The instrument is set 20ft from B on
the line AB produced
If A is 1*290 ft above B, what should be the reading on the staff
at A if the reading on the staff at B is 4*055 ft.
(M.Q.B./S Ans. 2*886ft)
5.64
Intervisibility
The
earth's curvature and the effect of atmospheric refraction
maximum length
affect the
of sight, Fig. 5.15.
ft,
= 0*57 d
ft,
= 0*57 (D - df
Fig. 5.15
from
This will give the minimum height ft 2 at C which can be observed

A height ft, assuming the ray grazes the surface of the earth or
sea.
With intervening ground at
In Fig. 5.16,
let the height of
AA^
ft,
of
BB 3
h2
5280dtana +
h3
5280 D tan +
of
If
If
a=
is to
/3,
CC3
be visible from A then a
SB, + S,B2 + B2 B 3
ft,
ft,
+ 0*57 d'
+ 0*57 D'
(5.29)
(5.30)
/8.
then
tana =
h2 -
/i,
- 0*57d'
5280d
ft,
- 0-57P'
5280D
(5.31)
276
Fig. 5.16
Thus the minimum height
d
= jj(K
-h,-
0-57 D
h,
+ 0-57d
*(D-d) -0-57.)
(5.32)
Clendinning quotes the formula as

Hz
+
1)
where
K ~ 0*57
Z is the zenith
^ (D " d)
" Kd( ~ d ) cosec2Z
angle of observation.
Z^
Over large distances
90
.'.
cosec
Z ^
1.
Example 5.15
If
= 2 300 ft
(at A),
d = 46 miles
h2 =
1050 ft
(at B),
h3 =
1800 ft
(at C).
Can C be seen from

By Eq. (5.32),
2
/I
1800x46
84
= 84 miles
+ (g4
985-7 + 44-1
1029-8 ft
46)
2300
( 84
0-57 x 46
(5.33)
LEVELLING
277
2300'
54-8'
1800'
Fig. 5.17
The
If
station
C cannot be seen
from
as h z is > 1029*8.
the line of sight is not to be nearer than 10 ft to the surface at
B, then
it
would be necessary
to erect a
that the line of sight would be 10
so that
i.e.
its
height h
ft
tower at
of such a height
above B,
050 + 10 -
(1
30*2 x 1*826
54* 8 ft
029*8)
84
46
Exercises 5(e) (Intervisibility)
Two
19.
at
ships
is 20
A and B
are 20 miles (32* 18 km) apart. If the observer

096 m) above sea level, what should be the height of
above the sea for it to be seen at A?
ft (6*
the mast of
(Ans. 113* Oft (34* 5 m))

20.
As
part of a minor triangulation a station
A was
selected at
A.O.D. Resection has been difficult in the area and as an

additional check it is required to observe a triangulation station C
35 miles away (reduced level 325*75 ft A.O.D.). If there is an inter708*63
ft
hill at B, 15 miles from A (spot height shown on map near

370 ft A.O.D.), will it be possible to observe station C from A assuming that the ray should be 10 ft above B?
(N.R.C.T. Ans. Instrument + target should be ~ 20 ft)
mediate
21.
(a)
Discuss the effects of curvature and refraction on long sights
as met with in triangulation, deriving a compounded equation for their

correction.
(b)
colliery headgear at A, ground level 452*48
ft
A.O.D., is
145ft to the observing platform.

It is required to observe a triangulation station C, reduced level
412*68 ft A.O.D., which is 15 miles from A, but it is thought that intervening ground at B approximately 500ft A.O.D. and 5 miles from A
278
will prevent the line of sight.
Assuming
that the ray should not be nearer than 10 ft to the ground
be possible?
what height should the target be at C?
at any point, will the observation

not,
If
(R.I.C.S./M Ans. >5ft)
Describe the effect of earth's curvature and refraction on long

sights. Show how these effects can be cancelled by taking reciprocal
22.
observations.
Two beacons A and B are 60 miles apart and are respectively

120 ft and 1200 ft above mean sea level. At C, which is in the line
AB and Is 15 miles from B,. the ground level is 548 ft above mean sea
level.
Find by how much, if at all, B should be raised so that the line

A to B should pass 10 ft above the ground at C. The
mean radius of the earth may be taken as 3960 miles.
(L.U. Ans. +17 ft)
of sight from
Trigonometrical levelling
5.65
For plane surveying purposes where the length of sight is limited

to say 10 miles the foregoing principles can be applied, Fig. 5.18.
5280d
tanoC
"I?*
0-57of
Fig. 5.18
The difference
in elevation
where d = distance
a = angle
If
h.
h,
= 5 280dtana+0'57d
(5.34)
in miles
of elevation.
the distance
is given in feet,
A, - A,
then
(^
Dtana +
0-57
Dtana +
8
2
2'04 x 10~ D
(5.35)
It is considered advisable in trigonometrical levelling, and in

N.B.
normal geometrical levelling over long distances, to observe in both
directions, simultaneously where possible, in order to eliminate the
effects of curvature and refraction, as well as instrumental errors.
This
is
known as reciprocal
levelling.
LEVELLING
279
Example 5.16 The reduced level of the observation station A is

350*36 ft A.O.D. From A, instrument height 4*31 ft, the angle of elevation is 5 30' to station B, target height 6*44 ft. If the computed
distance
AB
is
35 680* lft what is the reduced level of B?
Reduced level of B
By
= Reduced level of A + difference in elevation + instrument height - target height
Eq. (5.35),
Difference in elevation = 35 680*1 tan 5 30' + 2*04 x 10~ 8 x 35 680'
- 3 435-60 + 25-97
= 3 461- 57 ft
Reduced level
of
= 3 461*57 + 4*31 -
6- 44
= 3 459- 44 ft A.O.D.
Based on metric values the problem becomes:

The reduced level of the observation station A is 106'790m A.O.D.
From A, instrument height 1-314 m, the angle of elevation is 5 30' to
AB
station B, target height 1*963 m.
If the computed distance

10-875 3 km, what is the reduced level of B?
is
2
10 875*3 tan 5 30' + 0*067 3 (10*875 3
Difference in elevation =
1047-172 + 7-960
= 1055- 132 m
Reduced level of B
= 1055-132 + 1-314 - 1*963
= 1054* 483m
5.7
(3 459* 59 ft)
A.O.D.
Reciprocal Levelling
Corrections for curvature and refraction are only approximations

as they depend on the observer's position, the shape of the geoid and
atmospheric conditions.
To eliminate
the need for corrections a system of Reciprocal
Levelling is adopted for long sights.

In Fig. 5.19,
Difference in level = d = fiX,

from
a^
+ c +
(a,
- b
x
Also from
By
adding,
d =
2d
d
AX2
e-r-by
+
(c -
= - (b 2 + c + e -
r)
+ e
~ a2 )
= ( 2
~b2 )
- (c-r) - e
+ (a 2 - b2 )
(a,
ft,)
= |[(a,-ft.) +
(a 2
-b2 )]
(5.36)
280
Uneo^g^f-^^^li^
Horizontal line
Line due to refractTol?
~-^-ê,
L|n_o'_sight_due to
col/fmati,
Horizontal
line
due ^
fll i?T^ Line ;^Tw
:
retraction
^^-
b2
Fig. 5.19
Subtracting,
2(c -
Total error
(c
+ e)
r)
+ e
[(a 2
- b2 ) -
(a,
= [(a 2 - b2 ) -
(a,
b,)]
&,)]
(5.37
due to refraction and curvature, Eq. (5.28),

(c-r) the collimation error e may be derived. (See 5.4.)
By calculating the
for
error
Example 5.17 (a) Obtain from first principles an expression giving

the combined correction for earth's curvature and atmospheric refracmiles
tion in levelling, assuming that the earth is a sphere of 7 920
diameter.
and Z
(b) Reciprocal levelling between two points Y
results:
2 400ft apart on opposite sides of a river gave the following
LEVELLING
281
Instrument at
Height of instrument
Staff at
Staff reading
Y
Z
4-80
4-71
Z
y
3-25
5-54
Determine the difference in level between Y and

amount of any collimation error in the instrument.
(a)
By Eq.
(5.28),
(b)
By Eq.
(5.36),
i.e.
By Eq.
is
and the
(I.C.E.)
~ 0'57d 2
Difference in level
|[(a, -
i[(4-80 - 5-54) + (3-25 - 4*71)]
\ [-0-74 - 1-46]
MOft
MO
ft,)
+ (a 2 - b2 )]
ft
below Y
(5.37),
Total error
By Eq.
(c
r)
+ e
(5.28), (c--r)
|[- 1*46 + 0-74]
- 0-36 ft
r^
0-57d
[(a 2
57
~ bz ) ~
(a,
&,)]
/2400\
V5 280/
0-118 ft
e
- 0-478 ft per 2 400 ft
- 0-02 ft per 100 ft
i.e
(collimation depressed)
Cfcecfc
Difference
in
also
5.71
level
4-80
3-25
The use
To improve
atic
5-54 - 0-48 + 0-12
4-71 + 0-48 - 0-12
MOft
MOft
of two instruments
the observations by removing the likelihood of climchange two instruments should be used, as in the following
example.
282
Example 5.18
Staff at
Instrument
L
M
U
L
M
U
L
M
U
L
M
U
II
Mean
Mean
Apparent Difference
Inst.
6-784
9-424
8-072
6-722
8-073
-1-289
6-335
4-985
3-633
4-984
6-426
6-276
6-126
6-276
-1-292
5-099
6-514
6-364
6-214
6-364
-1-265
6-632
9-249
7-893
6-543
6-895
-1-263
3-747
6-782
6-632
6-482
is 1-277
ft
on same
side as
on same
Inst. II
side as
Inst.
on same
side as
Inst. II
on same
side as
4 ) -5-109
- 1*277
True difference in level
Thus B
Remarks
in level
6-934
6-784
6-634
6-452
5-098
Staff at
below A.
Exercises 5(f) (Reciprocal levelling)

23.
The
1 500ft apart
on opposite sides
Level
of
Height of Eyepiece
at
(b) the error
ing the
(ft)
Staff
Readings
4-59
8-26 on
4-37
1-72 on
(a) the true difference in level
Find
24.
between stations A and

a wide river were as follows:
results of reciprocal levelling
between the stations
due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument assumof the earth 3 956 miles.
(L.U./E Ans. (a) -3-16 ft; (b) + 0' 031 ft /100ft)
mean radius
In levelling across a
Instrument at
wide river the following readings were taken:
Staff
Reading
at
5-
98 ft (l-823m)
8-
20 ft
If
the reduced level at
is the
reduced level of B?
(2- 499
is
m)
Staff
8-
Reading
at
14 ft (2-481 m)
10- 44 ft (3- 182
m)
102*63 ft (31*282 m) above datum what
(Ans. 100*43 ft (30*612 m))
LEVELLING
5.8
283
Levelling for Construction
Grading of constructions
5.81
The gradient
1 in x,
i.e. 1
be expressed as
of the proposed construction will
vertical to x horizontal.
The reduced formation
level is then computed from the reduced
level of a point on the formation, e.g. the starting point, and the pro-
posed gradient.
By comparing the existing reduced levels with the proposed
duced levels the amount of cut and fill is obtained.
If formation > existing, fill is required.
If formation < existing, cut is required.
re-
Example 5.19 The following notes of a sectional levelling were taken

along a line of a proposed road on the surface.
B.S.
F.S.
I.S.
Height of
Collimation
10-24
Reduced
Horizontal
Level
Distance
104-52
B.M.
4-63
Station
1-47
8-52
0-41
5-23
12-64
Remarks
100
Station 2
200
Station 3
300
Station 4
3-37
400
Station 5
5-87
500
Station 6
Calculate the reduced level of each station and apply the conventional arithmetical checks. Thereafter calculate the depth of cutting
and
necessary at each station to form an even gradient rising at

20 and starting at a level of 105 ft above datum at station 1.
filling
1 in
(M.Q.B./M)
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
10-24
Height of
Collimation
114-76
Formation
Level
Cut
Fill
Station
104-52
110-13
105-00
5-13
1-47
113-29
110-00
3-29
114-35
115-00
0-65
117-64
120-00
2-36
0-41
122-87
5-23
12-64
21-75
Level
4-63
8-52
31-40
9-65
Reduced
3-37
11-33
132-14
119-50
125-00
5-50
5-87
126-27
130-00
3-73
9-65
701-18
284
NB. Vertical scale exaggerated

(x10 horizontal scale)
CM
CO
0)
o
6
1
o
6
CM
in
8
o
to
CM
8
o
8
o>
CM
Chainage
Existing level
Formation
level
Cut
<*>
<0
CO
CM
IS
o
in
CO
in
CO
Fill
Fig. 5.20
701-18 + 11*33 + 9*65
722-16
(114*76 x 3) + (122-87 x 2) + (132-14 x 2)
722-16
Check
5.82
The use
of sight rails and boning (or travelling) rods
Sight rails and boning rods are used for excavation purposes as-
sociated with the grading of drains and sewers.

The sight rails are established at fixed points along the excavation line, at a height
the boning rod.
above the formation level equal to the length of

level compared with the surface level
The formation
gives the depth of excavation, Fig. 5.21.
Sight
Boning rod
Fig. 5.21
rail
LEVELLING
When the boning rod
285
is in line with the sight rails the
excavation
s at the correct depth, Fig. 5.22.

Sight
Sight
rail
rail
Boning rod
^Jimmmmsmm^mmm^mm
Length
of
boning rod
Length of
boning rod
oradie_t_
Formation^
Fig. 5.22
Example 5.20 In preparing the fixing of sight rails, the following

consecutive staff readings were taken from one setting of the level:
Benchmark
(165*65ft A.O.D.)
Ground level at
sewer
at
Invert of
Ground level
at
Ground level at
2*73
5*92
10* 63
B
C
4*27
3*54
the sewer is to rise at 1 in 300 and the distance AB 105 ft and

153 ft, what will be the height of the sight rails for use with 10 ft
boning rods?
If
BC
What is the reduced level of the invert at A,
2-73
5-92
and C?
3-54 168-38'A.O.D.
(10-63 invert)
165-65
A.O.D.
1Q5'
153'
*mVmVMW;WM\WW/AWMWM>
Invert of
ew-rJJP. 300
Fig. 5.23
In Fig. 5.23,
Height of collimation = 165*65 +

Invert of sewer at
Sight rail at
Ground level
at
Height of sight
A
rail
2* 73
168*38 ft A.O.D.
= 168*38 - 10*63
157*75 ft
= 157*75 + 10*00
167*75 ft
= 168*38 -
162*46 ft
5*92
above ground at A
5*29 ft
286
Gradient of sewer
1 in
Invert of sewer at
300
A +
= Invert at
rise due to gradient
= 157-75 + 105/300
Sight rail at
158- 10 ft
168* 10 ft
4' 27
164- 11
Ground level at
Height of sight
rail
Invert of sewer at
Sight rail at
= 168'38 -
above ground
C =
Ground level at
at
Invert at
B+
rise
ft
3' 99 ft
due to gradient
= 158-10+153/300
158-61
ft
= 158-61 + 10-00
168*61
ft
164-84 ft
= 168-38 -
3' 54
3- 77 ft
5. S3
The
setting of slope stakes
A slope stake is set in the ground at the intersection of the ground

and the formation slope of the cutting or embankment.
The position of the slope stake relative to the centre line of the
formation
(a)
may be obtained:
by scaling from the development plan,
or
(b) by calculation involving the cross-slope of the ground and the
formation slope, using the rate of approach method suggested

in 8.3.
Formation
level
Fig. 5.24
By
the rate of approach method, in Fig. 5.24,
h
<
ft,
w
2K
(5.38)
(5.39)
287
LEVELLING
By Eq.
*,
(8.14),
*,
hi
d2
Similarly,
Example 5.21
(5.40)
(5.41)
To determine the position
of slope stakes, staff read-
ings were taken at ground level as follows:
Point
Point
Centre line of proposed road
(Reduced level 103' 72 ft A.O.D.)
5- 63 ft
50 ft from centre line and at

6-
right angles to
13 ft
it
If the reduced level of the formation at the centre line is to be

123-96 A.O.D., the formation width 20ft, and the batter is to be 1 in 2,
what will be the staff reading, from the same instrument height at the
slope stake and how far will the peg be from the centre line point A?
123-96
Fig. 5.25
Gradient of
AB
= (6*13- 5*63) in 50ft
i.e.
0-5 in 50ft
1 in
= 123*96 - 103*72
In Fig. 5.25,
AA,
By Eq.
XX, =
By
(5.38),
fc
= 20*24 +
Eq. (5.40), the horizontal distance
100
= 20*24 ft
20
100
= 20*34 ft
2x
<2,i.e.
XP,
20*34
1
M
100
100 x 20*34
50 - 1
= 41*51
ft
288
The distance from the centre
line point
A =
XP
the inclined length
51* 51 ft
2
VUOO
41-51 x
+ 1)
100
= 41-72 ft
Level of A
= 103-72
'
Difference in level
Level of
AP
- 41 5} + 10
100
0-52 ft
= 103-20
Height of collimation = 103*72 + 5*63
Staff reading at
109-35ft
6-
15 ft
Exercises 5(g) (Construction levelling)

25.
A and B 350 ft
Sight rails are to be fixed at
apart for the setting
out of a sewer at an inclination of 1 in 200 rising towards B.

If
A 106*23 and B 104*46 and the

what height above ground should the
use with boning rods 10 ft long?
the levels of the surface are
invert level at
is 100*74, at
sight rails be set for
(Ans. 4*51 at A; 8'03 at B)

26. A sewer is to be laid at a uniform gradient of 1 in 200 between
two points X and Y, 800 ft apart. The reduced level of the invert at
the outfall
is 494*82.
In order to fix sight rails at
and Y, readings are taken with a
level in the following order:
Reading
2-66
B.S.
I.S.
3-52
I.S.
Staff Station
T.B.M. (near X) Reduced level 504-64
Top
Peg
of sight rail at
at
X and Y
X and Y
rail at Y
F.S.
1-80
T.P. between
B.S.
7-04
T.P. between
I.S.
6-15
F.S.
(i)
(ii)
of sight
at
Draw up a level book and

If
a boning rod of length
a and
(iii)
Top
Peg
find the reduced levels of the pegs,

9'- 6" is to
be used, find the readings
b.
Find the height of the sight rails above the pegs at X and Y.
(L.U. Ans. (ii)2*98, 4*22; (iii) 0- 54, 1*93)
27. The levelling shown on the field sheet given below was undertaken during the laying out of a sewer line. Determine the height of
LEVELLING
289
the ground at each observed point along the sewer line and calculate
the depth of the trench at points X and Y if the sewer is to have a
gradient of 1 in 200 downwards from
to
and is to be 4*20 ft below
the surface at A.
B.S.
F.S.
I.S.
Distance
(ft)
11-21
Remarks
B.M. 321-53
4-56
5-82
3-78
100
11-65
3-66
200
2-40
3-57
300
10-81
400
7-82
Point
Y
B
5-91
500
6-56
600
Point
700
Point
6-32
8-65
3-81
B.M. 329-15
(R.I.C.S./M/L Ans. 6*10, 9'03)

Exercises 5(h) (General)
28. The following staff readings in fact were taken successively with
a level, the instrument having been moved forward after the second,
fourth and eighth reading. 1*54, 7*24, 4'03, M5, 8'62, 8'52, 6*41,
1-13, 7-31, 2-75 and 5'41.
The last reading was taken with the staff on a bench mark having
an elevation of 103-74 ft.
Enter the readings in level book form, complete the reduced levels
and apply the usual checks.
29.
The following readings were taken using a dumpy level on a
slightly undulating underground roadway.

B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
5-32
Reduced Level
6-43
A +
Point
8 752-20
200
4-12
4-30
300
400
2-23
3-02
Point
100
5-23
3-06
Remarks
Distance
+ 8 752-20
500
1-09
600
4-01
700
5-12
800
6-67
900
Work out the reduced levels relative to the assumed datum of mean
290
sea level +10 000 ft (as used by the National Coal Board to avoid
negative reduced levels).
State the amount of excavation necessary at point B to form an
even gradient dipping 1 in 300 from A to B, the reduced level of A
to remain at 8 752*20 ft.
(Ans.
Reduce the page of a level book and plot the result

= 100' horizontal and 1" = 10' vertical.
30.
1
B.S.
I.S.
Rise
F.S.
Fall
9-92
Reduced Level
Distance
25-23
8-22
3-15
200
2-12
400
300
460
5-63
500
5-00
560
3-65
600
4-19
630
700
5-91
4-71
8-04
800
5-35
830
4-01
900
6-24
Remarks
Start of Section
6-05
5-63
to a scale of
100
5-59
8-13
52 ft)
B.M.
5-98
7-35
2-
1000
1100
1200
2-73
5-82
4-36
End
3-72
of Section
B.M.
(R.I.C.S./Q)
31.
levelling party ran a line of levels from point
135*43 to point
for
at elevation
which the reduced level was found to be 87*15.

was taken back to the starting
series of flying levels (as below)
point A.
B.S.
F.S.
9-67
11-54
1-38
8-22
4-81
7-94
3-35
10-56
2-07
9-92
5-33
8-88
Remarks
1-04
0-42
LEVELLING
291
Find the misclosure on the starting point.
(L.U./E Ans. 0'05ft)

32.
(a)
Explain the difference between 'rise and
fall'
and 'height of
collimation' method of reducing levels, stating the advantages and dis-
advantages of each.
(b)
The following
is
an extract from a level book. Reduce the
levels by whichever method you think appropriate, making all the
necessary checks and insert the staff readings in the correct blank
spaces for setting in the levels pegs A, B and C so that they have
the reduced levels given in the book.
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
3-24
Reduced Level
B.M.
58-63
Beginning of Se
6-42
50
9-69
4-19
49-69
10-87
48-55
5-54
Peg A
50
100
C.P.
100
Peg B
150
47-41
Peg C
End of Section
150
200
4-30
11-73
C.P.
9-65
5-03
Remarks
Distance
C.P.
2-32
8-61
B.M.
51-35
(R.I.C.S./M/L Ans. Staff Readings,
7'56,
2*02,
3-16;
Error in levelling, 0*02)

33. The level book refers to a grid of levels taken
on 4 parallel lines 100ft apart.
Reduce and check the level book.

(B) Draw a grid to a scale of 50 ft to lin. and
at
100 ft intervals
(A)
for a 2
B.S.
I.S.
ft
plot the contours
vertical interval.
F.S.
Reduced Level
Distance on Line
Remarks
Line A T.B.M.
89-14
1-23
2-75
100
3-51
200
4-26
300
12-35
300
9-06
200
6-78
100
Line
Line
4-18
4-15
6-97
5-51
100
292
LS.
B.S.
F.S.
Remarks
Distance on Line
Reduced Level
200
7-88
10-45
300
8-93
300
7-18
200
5-34
100
Line
4-59
8-37
2-62
C.P.
4-14
T.B.M.
(R.I.C.S./L/M)
Discuss the various ways in which 'errors' can occur in levelling

and measures that can be adopted to keep each source of error to a
minimum.
In levelling from a bench mark 347*79 ft above O.D. and closing on
to another 330*61 ft above O.D., staff readings were taken in the fol34.
lowing order:
3*72, 8*21;
4*91, 8*33, 7*28;
The position
2*28, 3*91, 3*72, 9*23.
0*89, 4*27;
of the instrument
was moved immediately
after taking
the 2nd, 5th, and 7th readings indicated by semi-colons in the above
series of readings.
Show how these readings would be booked and

using either the 'collimation' or the 'rise and
fall'
the levels reduced
method. Carry out
the usual arithmetical checks and quote the closing error.
Explain briefly why
it
is particularly important not to
35.
The record
of a levelling
/T
N
(l.U.L.)
made some years ago has become
of cur-
Some
of the data are undecipherable but sufficient re-
all the
missing values to be calculated. Reproduce the
rent importance.
main to enable
make a mis_
take in reading an intermediate sight.
following levelling notes and calculate and insert the missing values.
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall
2-36
Reduced Level
121-36
Remarks
B.M. at No.
Shaft
1-94
4-05
7-29
4-46
4-31
6-93
113-32
7-79
3-22
B.M. on School
0-63
1-58
112-01
6-53
LEVELLING
B.S.
I.S.
Rise
F.S.
293
Remarks
Reduced Level
Fall
113-53
5-86
B.M. on Church
3-10
14-96
36.
21-18
The following is an
B.S.
extract from a level book

F.S.
I.S.
Reduced Level
Remarks
4-20
Point
2-70
2-64
119-30
11-40
C.P. B.M. 119-30
3-42
9-51
11-74
2-56
13-75
C.P.
11-23
C.P.
C
C
B
3-10
6-91
3-61
5-60
12-98
3-61
C.P.
13-62
3-31
C.P.
2-51
C.P. B.M.
4-83
Point
12-03
(a)
Reduce the above
(b) If
levels.
you consider a mistake has been made suggest how
it
occurred.
(c)
Give reasons
choice of 'Rise and Fall' or 'Height of ColThe B.S. and F.S. lengths
were approximately equal.
(L.U. Ans. probably 11*98 instead of 12*98)
for
limation' for reducing the levels.
37.
The following are the levels along a

Distance
line
Reduced Level
0-00
10
1-21
20
30
40
50
60
2-46
ABC.
Remarks
At
At
3-39
4-54
6-03
7-65
70
9-03
80
10-32
At C
294
Plot the reduced levels to a scale of 10 ft to lin. for the horizonscale and 1ft to lin. for the vertical scale.
A roadway is to be constructed from A to C at a uniform gradient.
From the section state the height of filling required at each plotting
tal
point.
(R.I.C.S./M)
38.
check the underground levellings of a colliery it was
decided to remeasure the depth of the shaft and connect the levelling
to a recently established Ordnance Survey Bench Mark A, 272*45 ft
In order to
above O.D.
The following levels were taken with a dumpy

to the
mouth of the shaft
B.S.
F.S.
2-17
3-36
5-79
The
level starting at
at D.
Reduced Level
272-45 ft
Remarks
B.M. at
11-32
Mark B
7-93
Mark C
0-00
Mark
on rails
was then measured from D to E

bottom and found to be 1 745 ft 8^ in.
A backsight underground to E was found to be 3*98 and a foresight to the colliery Bench Mark F on a wall near the pit bottom was
vertical depth of the shaft
at the pit
2-73.
Tabulate the above readings and find the value of the underground
F expressing this as a depth below Ordnance Datum.
B.M. at
(Ans. 1479-94 ft)

39. Levels were taken at 100 ft intervals down a road with a fairly
uniform gradient and the following staff readings booked:
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Distance
7-00
T.B.M. 98-50
9-50
11-75
100
6-00
200
8-55
300
400
10-81
13-05
5-60
500
7-90
600
10-20
12-70
700
6-00
800
8-48
900
10-98
1000
13-20
100
LEVELLING
Errors were
made
295
in booking, correct these and reduce the levels.
(L.U. Ans. B.S. and F.S. transposed)

Spot levels are given below at 200 ft intervals on a grid
40.
Draw the plan
to a scale of 200
ft
to 1 in. and
show on
it
ABCD.
where you
would place the level in order to take readings.

Draw up a level book by the 'height of collimation' method showing your readings. Take the level at A as a T.B.M.
100-70
102-00
103-50
105*20
106-80
108-20
109-50
101-30
103-40
104-10
106'30
108*20
109-30
110-70
105-00
106-20
107-30
109-10
110-40
111-50
112*30
108-00
107-10
108-60
110-40
111-30
112*20
113-80
(L.U.)
41.
In levelling
up a hillside, the sight lengths were observed with
stadia lines, the average length of the ten backsights and foresights
being 70 ft and 35 ft respectively.

Since the observed difference of the reduced level of 78* 40 ft was
was set up midway between two pegs A and B

300 ft apart, and the reading on A was 4*60 and on B 5*11; and when
set up in line AB, 30 ft behind B, the reading on A was 5*17 and on
disputed, the level
5-64.
Calculate the true difference of reduced level.

(L.U. Ans. 78-35 ft; 0*013 ft per 100ft)
42.
A, B, C, D,
straight sewer.
and
are the sites of manholes, 300 ft apart on a
The natural ground can be considered as a plane
face rising uniformly from
to
horizontally, the ground level at
sur-
500
being 103*00. The level of the
at a gradient of 1 vertically in
sewer invert is to be 95*00 at A, the invert then rising uniformly at

1 in 200 to F. Site rails are to be set up at A, B, C, D, E and F so
that a 10ft boning rod or traveller can be used. The backsights and
foresights were made approximately equal and a peg at ground level at
A was used as datum.
Draw up a level book showing the readings.
(L.U.)
43.
The following
staff readings
levels between two bench marks
3*56
were obtained when running a line of
A and
B:
(A) 6*68, 7-32, 9*89 change point, 2*01, 6*57, 7*66, C.P.
5*32, 4*21,
1-78, C.P.
4*68, 5*89, 2*99
(S)
Enter and reduce the readings in an accepted form of field book.

of the bench marks at A and B were known to be
143-21 ft and 136*72 ft respectively.
The reduced levels

It
is
found after the readings have been taken with the staff
296
supposedly vertical, as indicated by a level on the staff, that the level

plane of the staff and instrument.
is 5 in error in the
Is the collimation error of the instrument elevated or depressed

and what is its value in seconds if the backsights and foresights
averaged 100ft and 200 ft respectively.
(L.U. True difference in level 6*72; collimation elevated 119sec)
Undernoted are levels taken on the floor of an undulating underground roadway AB, 10 ft in width and 6 ft in height, which is to be
regraded and heightened.
44.
Distance
(ft)
B.S.
I.S.
F.S.
Rise
Fall Reduced Level
6-95
50
0-65
0-00
2-50
200
3-50
250
6-00
300
6-50
350
Floor level at A
3-40
100
150
30-00
Remarks
5-00
7-75
400
4-50
450
1-25
500
2-20
1-00
Floor level at
6-65
Floor level at A
6-55
Plot the section of the roadway to a scale of lin. = 50 ft for horizontals and lin. = 10ft for verticals. Thereafter calculate and mark
on the section the amount of ripping and
filling at the respective
intervals to give a uniform gradient from
to
50 ft
and a minimum height
of 8 ft.
Calculate the volume, in cubic yards, of the material to be ripped

from the roof in giving effect to the above improvements.
(M.Q.B./M Ans. 320yd

45.
The
3
)
centre-line of a section of a proposed road in cutting is indi-
cated by pegs at equal intervals and the corresponding longitudinal

section gives the existing ground level and the proposed formation
level at each peg, but no cross-sections have been taken, or sidelong
slopes observed.
Given the proposed formation width (d) and the batter of the sides
(S horizontal to 1 vertical) how would you set out the batter pegs
marking the tops of the slopes at each centre line peg, without taking
and plotting the usual cross-sections?
An alternative method would be acceptable.
(I.C.E.)
LEVELLING
297
46. (a) Determine from first principles the approximate distance at

which correction for curvature and refraction in levelling amounts to
0*01 ft, assuming that the effect of refraction is one seventh that of
the earth's curvature and that the earth is a sphere of 7 920 miles di-
ameter.
(b)
are
Two
2510 ft
survey stations
A and B on
apart, and reciprocal levels
opposite sides of a river
have been taken between them
with the following results:

Instrument at
Height of instrument
Staff at
A
B
4-83
B
A
Compute the
4-91
Staff reading
(ft)
6-02
3-98
ratio of refraction correction to curvature correction,
and the difference
in level
between A and B.
(LOE.
Ans.
(a)
700ft;
(b)
is 1-06
Ratio
ft
above B.
0*14 to 1)
Bibliography
HOLLAND,
J.L., WARDELL, K. and WEBSTER, A.G., Surveying, Coal

Mining Series (Virtue).
SANDOVER, J. A. Plane Surveying (Edward Arnold).
TRUTMAN, O., Levelling (Wild (Heerbrugg)).
PARRY, R. and JENKINS, W.R., Land Surveying (Estates Gazette).
BANNISTER, A. and RAYMOND, S., Surveying (Pitman).
CURTEN, w. and LANE, R.F., Concise Practical Surveying (English
Universities Press).
O TRAVERSE SURVEYS
The purpose
i.e.
of traverse surveys is to control
subsequent detail,
the fixing of specific points to which detail can be related. The
accuracy of the control survey must be superior
to that of the subsi-
diary survey.
traverse consists of a series of related points or stations, which
when connected by angular and

6.1
linear values form a framework.
Types
of Traverse
Open
6.11
ABCDE,
Traverse
Fig.6.1.
The
start
Open
traverse
and finish are not fixed
points.
Fig. 6. 1
A check
on the angles may be made by (a) taking meridian observa-
tions at the start and finish or (b) taking observations to a
common
fixed point X.
Closed
6.12
(a)
On
to
fixed points.
the start and finish are fixed points, e.g.
If
E, then the length and bearing between them is known. From

the traverse the distance may be computed.
A and
(b)
Checks
Closed polygon, Fig.

(i)
2a
or
(ii)
The sum
6.2.
of the deflection angles should equal 360, i.e.
= 360 = 4 x 90
= a, + a 2 + a 3 ...an
The sum
of the internal angles should equal
(2 - 4) x 90
where n = no. of angles or sides,

S/3 =
or
(iii)
The sum
jQ,
/S
i.e.
p3
.../3 n
= (2n -4)90
of the external angles should equal
298
(6.1)
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
299
(2n + 4) 90
Le
20 =
0,
...0n
= (2n + 4)90
(6.2)
Fig. 6.2 Closed traverse
N.B.
a, +
/3,
= a2 +
2(a + 0) =
(4
= an +
= 2 x 90
x 90) + (2n - 4)90 = (2 x 90) x
n.
The sum
will seldom add up exactly to the theoretical value and

the 'closing error' must be distributed before plotting or computing.
6.2
Methods of Traversing
The method is dependent upon the accuracy required and the equipment available. The following are alternative methods.
Compass
(1)
traversing using one of the following:
(a) a prismatic
compass
(b) a miners' dial

(c) a tubular or trough
(d) a special
(2)
compass
compass
fitted to a theodolite
theodolite.
Continuous azimuth (fixed needle traversing) using either (a)

a miners' dial or (b) a theodolite.
(3) Direction
method using any angular measuring equipment.
(4) Separate angular
measurement (double foresight method) using

any angular measuring equipment.
300
Compass traversing (loose needle
6.21
traversing), Fig. 6.3
Application. Reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.
Advantages.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Rapid surveys.
Each line is independent errors tend

The bearing of a line can be observed
along the
(4)
to compensate.
at
any point
line.
Only every second station needs to be occupied (this

recommended because of the possibility of
is not
local attraction)
Disadvantages. (1) Lack of accuracy.
Accuracy of survey. Due

vation errors, the
i.e.
(2)
Local attraction.
to magnetic variations, instrument and obser-
maximum accuracy
is probably limited to
lOmin,
linear equivalent 1 in 300.
Detection of effects of local attraction. Forward and back bearings

should differ by 180 assuming no instrumental or personal errors exist.
Elimination of the effect of local attraction. The effect of local attraction is that all bearings from a given station will be in error by a constant value, the angle between adjacent bearings being correct.
Where forward and back bearings of a line agree this indicates that
the terminal stations are both free of local attraction.
Thus, starting from bearings which are unaffected, a comparison of

forward and back bearings will show the correction factors to be applied.
X source
of
attraction
Fig. 6.3
Compass traversing
In Fig. 6.3 the bearings at
of
CB
will be in error by
A and B
a compared
are correct.
The back bearing
with the forward bearing BC.
'
'
'
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
'
301
The forward bearing CD can thus be corrected by a. Comparison of

the corrected forward bearing CD with the observed back bearing DC
will
show the
error
DA must be corcheck with back bearing AD.
by which the forward bearing
/3
rected. This should finally
Example 6.1
Station
Line
Forward Bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
120 10'
300 10'
124 08'
137 10'
310 08
159 08'
349 08'
138 15'
313 10'
Back Bearing
A
B
C
Forward Bearing
306 15'
Correction
Corrected
Forward
Bearing
120 10*
D
E
F
180
300 10
124 08'
306 15'
137 10'
-2 07'
135 03'
315 03'
310 08'
159 08'
164 03'
344 03
349 08'
138 15'
+ 4 55'
-5 05'
133 10
313 10'
124 08'
304 08'
313 10'
Thus stations A, B, and

N.B.
Back Beari
(1)
Line AB.
tions
are free from local attraction.
Forward and Back bearings agree; therefore sta-
A and B
are free from attraction
B + 180 compared with back

bearing at C shows an error of 2 07', i.e. 304 08' 306 15' = -2 07'.
(2) Corrected forward bearing at
CD 137 10' - 2 07' = 135 03'.

Comparison of corrected forward bearing EF + 180 agrees
with back bearing FE. Therefore station F is also free
(3) Corrected forward bearing
(4)
from local attraction
6.22
Continuous azimuth method (Fig. 6.4)
This method was ideally suited to the old type of miners' dial with
open-vane sights which could be used in either direction.
The instrument is orientated at each station by observing the backsight, with the reader clamped, from the reverse end of the 'dial'
sights.
The recorded value of each foresight is thus the bearing of each

line relative to the original orientation. For mining purposes this
was
the magnetic meridian and hence the method was known as 'the fixed
needle method*.
302
The method may be modified for use with a theodolite by changing

face between backsight and foresight observations.
Fig. 6.4 Continuous azimuth method of traversing
Direction method
6.23
of traversing is restrictive for use

with the theodolite where the accuracy must be improved, as the observations cannot be repeated.
To overcome this difficulty, and still retain the benefit of carrying
the bearing, the Direction method may be employed.
This requires only approximate orientation, corrections being made
either on a 'Direction' bearing sheet if one arc on each face is taken,
or, alternatively, on the field booking sheet.
The continuous azimuth method
No angles are extracted, the theodolite showing approximate

N.B.
bearings of the traverse lines as the work proceeds.
Direction bearing sheet
Set!
at
B
C
D
E
Obs. Mean observed

to
E
B
A
C
B
D
C
E
D
A
directions
Back
Correction
bearing
08-00
08-00
283 09.05
103 00.60
345 37*05
165 36-40
039 40-05
219 55-50
101 31-35
281 31-20
180 15-10
Forward
Final
bearing
correction
283 09-05
+ 8-45 103 09-05

345 45-50
+ 8-45
+ 9-10 165 45-50
039 49-15
+ 9-10
-6-35 219 49-15
101 25-00
-6-35
-6-20 281 25-00
180 08-90
-6-20
Initial
j
bearing
Error
180 08-00
0-90
Final
bearing
08-00
-0-18
283 08-87
-0-36
345 45-14
-0-54
039 48-61
-0-72
101 24-28
-0-90
180 08-00
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
303
N.B.
(1) Here the instrument has been approximately orientated at
each station, i.e. the reciprocal of the previous forward bearing is set
as a back bearing. Any variation from the previous mean forward bearing thus requires an orientation correction.
closed traverse the closing error is seen immediately

first back bearing with the final forward bearing.
(2) In the
by comparing the
(3)
As a simple adjustment
the closing error is distributed
equally amongst the lines.
Method of booking by the direction method
Station set at
FL.
Arc Obs.
Back bearing
Mean
F.R.
Correction
to
E
B
E
'
'
'
180 08-0
283 09-0 103 09-1
090 12-2 270 12-2 090 12-20 -90 04-20
013 13-2 193 13'4 013 13-30 -90 04-20
27-6
27-4
27-50
28-5
28*5
28-50
19-50
Back
Forward
bearing
bearing
'
08-0
B
E
B
'
C 08'
AE
'
08-00
283 09-05
08-00
283 09-10
08-00
19-50
283 09-00
Mean Forward Bearing
Station set at
Arc Obs.
F.L.
Back bearing BA 103 09-05*
Mean
F.R.
Correction
to
'
A
C
A
'
'
103 00-6 283 00-5 103 00-55

345 37-1 165 37*2 345 37-15
199 04-9 019 05-0 199 04-95
081 41-3 261 41-5 081 41-40
A
C
283 09-05
15-6
15-7
15-65
52-0
52-2
52-10
'
+
+
-95
-95
-
08-50
Back
Forward
bearing
bearing
'
'
103 09-05
08-50
55-90
345 45-65
103 09-05
55-90
06-60
06-60
345 45-50
103 09-05
345 45-50
Mean Forward Bearing

N.B.
(1)
No
(2)
The back bearing
angles are extracted.
the backsight, e.g.

.*
(3)
the
mean
On
345 45-55
AE
AB
is approximately set on the instrument for

set exactly here 008-0'
is the correctly oriented bearing 283 09-0'
is
arc 2 the instrument zero is changed. After taking out
of the faces, a correction is applied to give the
back bearing,
090 12-20'
i.e.
Correction
This correction
is
0 08-00'
090 04-20'
now applied
to give the
second forward bearing.
304
(4) On the 3rd and subsequent arcs, if required, only the minutes are booked, a new zero being obtained each time.
(5)
The mean forward bearing
is
now extracted and
carried for-
ward to the next station.

Separate angular measurement
6.24
Angles are measured by finding the difference between adjacent

recorded pointings.
After extracting the
mean values these
are converted into bearings
purposes.
In the case of a closed polygon, the angles may be summated to
for co-ordinate
conform with the geometrical properties, Eq. (6.1) or
(6.2).
Exercises 6(a)
1.
colliery plan has been laid
down on
the national grid of the
Ordnance Survey and the co-ordinates of the two stations A and B

have been converted into feet and reduced to A as a local origin.
Departure
Station
Station
4
B
(ft)
East 109-2
Latitude
(ft)
South 991-7.
Calculate the Grid bearing of the line AB. The mean magnetic
AB is S 3 54 'W and the mean magnetic bearing of
bearing of the line
an underground line
CD
is
N 1755'W.
State the Grid bearing of the line
CD.
(M.Q.B./M Ans.
331 54')
The following angles were measured in a clockwise direction, from

2.
the National Grid North lines on a colliery plan:
(c) 354 00'
(d) 17 45'
(a) 156 15'
(b) 181 30'
At the present time in this locality, the magnetic north is found to
be 10 30 'W of the Grid North.
Express the above directions as quadrant bearings to be set off
using the magnetic needle.
(a)S1315'E; (b)S1200'W;
Ans.
(M.Q.B./UM
(c)N430'E; (d)N2815'E)
3.
The following underground survey was made with a miners' dial in

Assuming that station A was free from local
the presence of iron rails.
attraction calculate the correct magnetic bearing of each line.
Station
A
B
C
BS
FS
358 30'
352 00'
12 20'
14 35'
282 15'
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Station
BS
FS
D
E
280 00'
168 42'
164 24'
200 22'
(Ans.
(N.B.
305
35200'; 0550'; 27330'; 15754'; 18934')
miners' dial has vane sights,
i.e.
B.S. = F.S., not reciprocal
bearings).
The geographical azimuth of a church spire is observed from a triangulation station as 346 20'. At a certain time of the day a magnetic
bearing was taken of this same line as 003 23'. On the following day
4.
at the same time an underground survey line was magnetically observed

as 195 20' with the same instrument.
Calculate
(a) the
magnetic declination,
(b) the true bearing of the
underground line.
1703'W; 178 17')
(Ans.
Describe and sketch a prismatic compass. What precautions are

taken when using the compass for field observations?
5.
The following readings were obtained in a short traverse

Adjust the readings and calculate the co-ordinates of B and
co-ordinates of
are 250
ft
E, 75
Compass bearing
AC
AB
BA
BC
CB
CA
00 00'
44 59'
Length
if
the
(ft)
195-5
169-5
225 01'
302 10'
122 10'
180 00'
Ans.
N.
Line
(R.I.C.S.
6.
ft
ABC A.
169-5
141-7
141-7
195-5
B 370E, 195N C 250E, 270N)
The following notes were obtained during a compass survey made
to determine the approximate area covered by an old dirt-tip.
Correct the compass readings for local attraction. Plot the survey
to a scale of 1 in 2400 and adjust graphically by Bowditch's rule.
Thereafter find the area enclosed by equalising to a triangle.
Line
Forward bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FG
GA
N5710'E
N8140'E
(N.R.C.T. Ans.
S 1530'E
S
1020'W
Back bearing
S 5820'W
S 7800'W
N 1530'W
N 1200'E
S 7850'W
N7600'E
N6930'E
N 22 10'W
AB
5440';
BC
Length
6830'W
1930'E
7800';
CD
(ft)
750
828
764
405
540
950
383
164 30'; D19020';
EF25710'; FG 291 40'; GA 338 00'; area 32-64
acres)
306
7.
A and B
and
it
are two reference stations in an underground roadway,
is required to
to a third station C.
Horizontal angle
extend the survey through a drift from station

The observations at B were as follows:
ABC
271 05' 20".
C + 10 15' 00".
Vertical angle to staff at
Staff reading at
1-50
Instrument height at
Measured distance
BC
ft.
5ft 7 in.
284-86
ft.
of AB was 349 56' 10" and the co-ordinates of

4689-22 ft, N 5873-50 ft.
The bearing
Calculate the true slope of
BC,
horizontal length of
its
BC
to the nearest 10 seconds, the
bearing, and the co-ordinates of C.
(N.R.C.T. Ans. 1106'20"; 279-55 ft;

08101'30"; E 4965-35, N 5917-11)
6.3
6.31
If
Office Tests for Locating Mistakes in Traversing
mistake in the linear value of one line
the figure is closed the co-ordinates can be computed and the
closing error found.
Linear mistake
Fig. 6.5 Location of a linear mistake
Let the computed co-ordinates give values for ABC DÂ V Fig. 6.5.
of AA suggests that the mistake lies in
this direction, and if it is parallel to any given line of the traverse
X
The length and bearing
this is
where the mistake has been made.
The amount AA
to the line
BC
is therefore the linear mistake,

X
gives the new station values of C,
and a correction
thus closes
D and
on A.
If
the closing error is parallel to a number of lines then a repetition
of their measurements is suggested.
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
6.32
307
mistake in the angular value at one station
Let the traverse be plotted as
ABCDÂ V
Fig. 6.6
Station
where
mistake occurred
Fig. 6.6 Location of an angular mistake
The closing error AA is not parallel to any line but the perpendicular bisector of /L4, when produced passes through station C. Here
an angular mistake exists.
y
Proof.
AA) represents a chord of a circle of radius AC, the perpendicular bisector of the chord passing through the centre of the circle of
centre C.
The
6.33
line
When
CD, must be turned through the angle a =
ACA V
the traverse is closed on to fixed points and a mistake in

known to exist
the bearing is
i.e.
The survey should be plotted or computed from each end in turn,

ABCDE - E,D C,BA, Fig. 6.7.
The station which is common to both systems will suggest where
X
the mistake has been made.
Fig. 6.7
308
there are two or more mistakes, either in length or bearing, then

impossible to locate their positions but they may be localised.
If
it
is
Omitted Measurements in Closed Traverses
6.4
Where it is impossible to measure all the values (either linear,

angular or a combination of both) in a closed traverse, the missing
quantities can be calculated provided they do not exceed two.
As
the traverse is closed the algebraic
ates must each
sum
sum
of the partial co-ordin-
to zero, i.e.
sin0 2 +
/,sin0, +
/,cos0, +
2 cos0 2 +
3
J
sin0 3 +
3 cos0 3 +
where the lengths of the lines are
... / n
...
sin0n
=
I n cos0 n
etc - ana< the bearings 0,02
/,/2 / 3
etc.
As
only 2 independent equations are involved only 2 unknowns are
possible.
Failure to close the traverse in any way transfers all the traverse
errors to the
unknown quantities. Therefore use
of the process is to
be
deprecated unless there is no other solution.

Six cases
may
arise:
(1) Bearing of one line.

(2) Length of one line.
(3)
Length and bearing of one
(4)
Bearing of two lines.
(5)
Length of two lines.
(6)
Bearing of one line and length of another
line.
line.
Cases 1, 2 and 3 are merely part of the calculation of a join between

two co-ordinates.
Where the bearing of one line
6.41
/
n sin0n
where
(1)
is
missing
= the sum of the other partial

departures
n cos dn
= Q
(2)
where Q = the sum of the other partial

latitudes
Dividing (1) by (2),
tan0n =
P
^
AE
i.e.
jrzi
= the difference
in the total coordinates of the stations form-
ing the ends of the missing

line
(6.3)
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
6.42
Where the length of one line
is
(1)
/
n cos0n = Q
(2)
n sin0n
309
missing
By squaring each and adding

2
sin 2 n
P2
2
2
n cos n =
Q2
n (sin
'.
i-
P2 +
n + cos 6n ) =
2
k = V(P +Q*)
= y/(AE2 + AN 2 )
AE
iinT
<
AN
Where the length and bearing of a
The two previous cases provide

6.44
65 >
(6.6)
cos6n
6.43
(6.4)
line are
missing
the required values.
Where the bearings of two lines are missing
(1) // the bearings are equal

l
sindp
*%
sindQ
cos6q = Q
l
Q
p cos dp +
= eq =
Then
smd
sin$ =
* + lg)sin0 =
sin 6
P
P
P
=
l
tan# =
(6.7)
(2) // the bearings are adjacent
/,cos<9,
P
Q
/,sin#,
la
cos 6 =
or
sin0 2
cosd 2 = Q
310
In Fig.6.8, /,, l 2 Z 3 l A <9 3 ,and

64 are known.
AC = l s can be found with the
,
bearing AC.
ABC,
In triangle
tan
_ fa-bKs-.c)
2
"V
S (s
a)
a + b + c
where
b sin
sinS
a
Fig. 6.8
From
the value of the angles the required bearings can be found.
Bearing
Bearing
AB
BC
= bearing
AC -
angle
= bearing
BA -
angle
(3) // the bearings are not adjacent
Fig. 6.9
Assume
6
'
and 6
are missing.
Graphical solution (Fig. 6.9)

Plot the part of the survey in which the lengths and bearings are
known, giving the relative positions of A and D.
At A draw circle of radius
AB
/,;
this gives the locus of station
DC
this gives the locus of station
B.
At
draw circle of radius
3;
C.
From A
plot length and bearing l2 62 to give line AH.

draw arcs HC and HC 2 radius /,, cutting the locus of
station C at C, and C 2 At C, and C2 draw arcs of radius BC - l 2
cutting the other locus at B, and B z
At
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
311
Mathematical solution
Using the graphical solution:
Find the length and bearing AD. Solve triangle AHD to give HD.
Solve triangle HC^D to give <f> and /3 and thence obtain the bearings
of tfC, = bearing AB
HC 2 = bearing AB Z C,D and C D.
X
There are two possible solutions in all cases (1), (2) and (3),
and some knowledge of the shape or direction of the lines is required
N.B.
to give the required values.
Alternative solution
Let
/,sin0, +
/,cos0, +
/3
^sintf,
i.e.
(1)
= Q
(2)
sin03
(3)
/3
cos0 3
(4)
sin03 =
cos
P -
/,cos0, = Q -
Squaring (3) and (4) and adding,

If
P2
+ Q
\\
P
sin $3 +
C0S
Vtf^+Q2 )
V(P 2 + Q2)
P 2 + Q z +H-l?
=
2l 3 y/(P 2
2/ 3 (P sin
+ Q cos
3)
+Q 2 )
Referring to Fig. 6.10
sin
sin0_ + cos a cos0 a =
P2
Q +
2l 3 yJ(P
i.e.
l\
+&)
2
I
= k
cos(0 3 - a) = k
63 -
a =
cos"'/:
a =
tan
rP
Q
= cos -1
fc
+ tan -1
from (3),
SU10, =
P -
3
2
(6.9)
sin0_
Example 6.2 The following data relate to a closed traverse

which the bearings of the lines AB and CD are missing.
in
(6.8)
(6.10)
ABCD
'
312
Length
AB
BC
200
102 36
270 00'
350
CD
DA
Bearing
-
150
400
Calculate the missing data.
Method
(1)
Fig. 6. 11
s.
Fig. 6.11
In triangle
ADE, AE = BC = 350
AD
By
400
co-ordinates relative to A,
ON
st.(D)
400
st.(E)
350 sinl0236' = +350 sin7724' = +341-57

350 cos 102 36' = - 350 cos 77 24' = tan bearing
ED
- 34 ^ 57 _ *43
+ 76-34
bearing
length
ED
ED
76-34
76-34
= N3726'E = 037 26'

= 76-34 sec 37 26' = 96-14
58-43 cosec3726' = 96-13
In triangle
EDC,
where s
(126-93) (73 -07) )
I
[
A/l(223-07)(23-07)j
<f>/2
cf>
{check)
53 19'
check
ED
126-93
73-07
23-07
s 223-07
= 106 38'
DC
EC
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
DC
sin/8
313
sin<
EC
150 sin 106 38'
200
= 45 56'
/3
Bearing
AB2
= 037 26' + 45 56' = 083 22'
or
AB,
= 037 26' - 45 56' = 351 30'
Bearing DC,
= 217 26' + 106 38' = 324 04'
DC2
= 217 26' - 10638' = 110 48'
or
.".
Bearing
CD
= 144 04'
or
Method
(2)
+ 400 sin 270 =
(1)
15Ocos02 + 400cos270 =
(2)
200 sin 0, + 350 sin 102 36' + 150 sin

200cos<9, + 350cosl0236' +
i.e.
290 48'
200 sin 0, + 150 sin
= -341*57 + 400 = 58*43
(3)
200 cos 0, + 150 cos
= 76*34
(4)
.*.
76*34 +
200 sin0, = 58*43 - 150 sin0 2
200 cos
= 76*34 - 150 cos
0,
(5)
(6)
Squaring and adding,
200
= S8-43
+ 76*34
+ 150
- 2 x 150 (58*43 sin

2
koa
a =
cq^q sin a O + 76*34 cos 0,
58*43
58*43 + 76*34 + 150
+ 76*34 cos
-200 2
300
2
5S-43 + 76*34 + 150 - 200
cos (02 - a)
300 V(58*43 2 + 76*342 )

3414*07 + 5827*79 + 22500 - 40 000
300 V(3414*07 + 5827*79)

2
- a = -73
22'
= 106 38'
.
but4
tana =
t
0,
253 22'
or
290 48'
58*43
76*34
a - 37
or
26'
= 144 04'
2)
314
from (5)
58*43- 150 sin 144
sin 6.
04'
200
= 351 30'
0,
-150
58-43
sin#,
or
sin 290 48'
200
83 21'
*,
Where two lengths are missing
6.45
Let
/,cos#, +
sin02
cos0 2 = Q
The simultaneous equations may be solved
(a)
l
/,sin0, +
to give values for
and
regardless of their position.
(b)
If they are adjacent lines the solution of a triangle ADE will give
the required values (Fig. 6.12), as length AD together with angles a
and
/3
are obtainable*
Fig. 6.12
~"X> e *
(c)
If 0,
= 62
=6
(i.e.
the lines are parallel)
(/,+
)sin0 = P
(/,+
)cos0 = Q
Squaring and adding,

</
+/ a ) a = P 2 + Q Z
Therefore this is not determinate.

(d)
If
/,
and
6,
= d2 = 6
2/sin0 =
/
P
2 sin<9
The
(b)
(6.11)
lines can be adjusted so that the missing values are adjacent. Solution
can then be applied.
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
315
Where the length of one line and the bearing of another line are
missing
6.46
Let
where
and
0,
/,sin0, +
/,cos0, +
sin02
= Q
2 cos02
are missing.
Then, as before,
/,
sin0, =
Z,cos0, =
sin02
(1)
Q -
cos02
(2)
Square and add,

2
P 2 + Q 2 + l\-
2/ 2 (Psin02
this resolves into a quadratic equation in

2
Then from
2/2 (P
sin0 2 +
the value of
Example 6.3
0,
Qcos0 2 )
Q cos02 ) + P + Q 2 -
if =
(6.12)
may be obtained from equation
(1).
Using the data of a closed traverse given below, calculBC and CD.
ate the lengths of the lines
Line Length
AB
BC
W.C.B.
Reduced bearing
Latitude
014 31'
N 1431'E
N 40 18' W
N 1245'W
N 0516'E
+333-0
+298*8
+ 27-6
-1916-4
+400-4
(ft)
344
319 42'
CD
347
15'
DE
300
005
16'
EA
1958
168
12'
1148'E
Departure
86-2
(I.C.E.)
Assuming the co-ordinates
of
to be + 1000 E, + 1000 N, from the
given co-ordinates:
*A
+ 1000-0
N*
+ 1000-0
+ 1916-4
& AE
400-4
âe
*E
599-6
N*
&EED
27-6
*D
572-0
KD
2617-6
Ea
+ 1000-0
KA
+ 1000-0
ÂB
E*
AE
-"BD
86-2
+ 1086-2
514-2
Jlii
ÊD
ÂB
N*
2916-4
298-8
333-0
+ 1333-0
AN n +
^"BD
1284*6.
316
BD = tan"'N2149'W =
Bearing
Angle
Angle
(fi
BC
CBD
DB
DC
BDC
338 11'
= 319 42'
dn
(B)
18 29'
= 158 11'
= 167 15'
=
9 04'
+ D) =
27 33'
BD
Length
514*2/+ 1284'6
(D)
= 1284'6/cos2149'
= 1383-7
In triangle
DC
BCD,
DB sin B
1383-7 sin 18 29'

sin 27 33'
sin(B + D)
= 948-4
DB sin D
BC =
ft
18 29'
1383-7 sin 9 04'

sin 27 33'
sin(B + D)
471 -4
ft
Exercises 6(b) (Omitted values)

8.
clockwise traverse
ABCDEA was
surveyed with the following
results:
AB
BC
CD
331-4
ft
460-1
ft
325-7
ft
EAB
128 10' 20"
BCD
84 18' 10"
ABC
102 04' 30"
CDE
121 30' 30"
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
317
The angle DEA and the sides DE and EA could not be measured
Assuming no error in the survey, find the missing lengths and
direct.
AB is due north.
= 223-lft, DE = 293-7ft, 308 10' 20", 232 06' 50"
their bearings if
EA
(L.U. Ans.
9.
An open
was
traverse
and bearing of the line
run from
AE
to
in order to obtain the length
which could not be measured direct, with
the following results:
AB
BC
1025
1087
Line
Length
W.C.B. 261
DE
CD
1250
925
9 06' 282 22'
41'
71 30'
Find by calculation the required information.

Ans.
(L.U.
10.
The following measurements were obtained when surveying a
ABCDEA:
closed traverse
Line
Length (ft)
It
EA
AB
BC
793-7
1512-1
863-7
DEA
EAB
ABC
BCD
Included angles
93 14'
122 36'
131 42'
95 43'
is not possible to
occupy D, but
C and
it
could be observed from both
E.
Calculate the angle CDE, and the lengths
as the datum, and assuming
11.
In a traverse
meridian.
and
1901; 342 51')
EF
The
and DE, taking
ABCDEFG,
the line
BA
is
DE
taken as the reference
latitudes and departures of the sides
AB, BC, CD,
DE
are:
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
- 1190*0
- 565*3
+ 736*4
+ 590'5
+ 796*8
+ 606*9
+ 1097*2
+ 370*4
Line
Latitude
Departure
If
CD
observations to be correct.
(L.U. Ans. 96 45'; 1848-0 ft, 1501-6 ft)
all
the bearing of
FG
is
N 7547'W
and
- 468*0
its length is 896'Oft, find
the length and bearing of GA.
(L.U.
The Adjustment
6.5
(a)
(b)
6.51
Ans. 947-6 ft; S 3645'W)
of Closed Traverses
Traverses connecting two known points.

Traverses which return to their starting point.
Where the
start and finish of a traverse are fixed
The length and bearing of

and must be
in
the line joining these points are
known
agreement with the length and bearing of the closing
line of the traverse.
318
Where the traverse is not orientated to the fixed line an angle of

swing (a) has to be applied.
Where there is discrepancy between the closing lengths, a scale
factor k must be applied to all the traverse lengths.
k =
length between the fixed points
closing length of traverse
Fig. 6.14
In Fig. 6.14, the traverse is turned through
ABCD becomes
AB^D
and
AD
angle
is orientated
}
a so
on to line
that traverse
XY. The
XY
scale factor k ^~rf\ must be applied to the traverse lines.
Traverses are often orientated originally on their
first line.
Co-
ordinates are then computed, and from these the length and bearing of
the closing line (AD).
The
latter is then
compared with the length and
bearing XY.
Co-ordinates of the traverse can now be adjusted by either

(1)
recomputing the traverse by adjusting the bearings by the

a and the length by multiplying by k, or
angle
(2)
transposing the co-ordinates by changing the grid (Eqs.

3.33/3.34) and also applying the scale factor k, or
(3)
N.B.
The
applying one of the following adjustment methods, e.g.

Bowditch.
factor k can be a
compounded value involving:
(a) traverse error,
(b) local scale factor

(c)
change of units,
(ground
distance to national grid),
e.g. feet to metres.
Example 6.4. A traverse XaY is made between two survey

X (E 1000 N 1000) and Y (E 1424*5 N754'9).
stations
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
319
Based upon an assumed meridian, the following
partial co-ordinates
are computed:
AE
AN
Xa
69-5
aY
199-3
- 393*9
17-4
Adjust the traverse so that the co-ordinates conform to the fixed

stations X and Y.
Ans.
1000-0
1000-0
1424-5
754-9
AE
424*5
AN
245*1
Bearing of control line
XY
= tan"' 424*5/- 245*1
Length of control line
XY
= 424*5/sin60
= S 60 OO'E
i.e.
120 00'
= 490*2.
From
the partial co-ordinates,
AEXY
AN^ y
=
=
Bearing of traverse line
69*5 + 199*3 - + 268*8
-393*9-
XY
= tan
-1
17-4 = -411*3
+ 268*8/- 411*3
= S3310
Length of traverse line
XY
i.e.
146 50'
= 411*3/cos33 10'
= 491*4.
Angle
of
swing
= traverse bearing
XY -
fixed bearing
= 146 50' - 120 00'
= + 26 50'
Scale factor k
= fixed length/traverse length
= 490*2/491*4
= 0*99756
Using Eqs.(3.33) and
(3.34),
AE' = +
AN' =
m = kcosa =
n = ksina =
mAE
mAN
nAN
AE
0*99756 cos 26 50' = 0*89014
0*99756 sin 26 50' = 0*45030
XY
320
Ae
Line
mAE
An
nAN
mAN
Ae'
nAE
+ 69-5 -393-9 + 61-86 -177-37 + 239-23 -350-63 +31-30 -319-33

+ 199-3 - 17-4 + 177-40- 7-84 + 185-24 - 15-48 +89-74 + 74-26
Xa
aY
-245-07
+ 424-47
Example 6.5
An'
1266-9
Total co-ordinates
1000-0
1000-0
1239-2
680-7
1424-5
754-9
If in
the previous example the co-ordinates of
are
589-1,
then the bearing of
XY
= tan
-1
+ 266*9/ - 410-9
= S3300'E
length
XY
i.e.
147 00'
= 410-9/cos33
- 490-0
angle of swing
a = 146 50' - 147

= -010'
00'
afad = -0-002 91
Scale factor k = 490*0/491-4
= 0-99716
Using Eqs. (3.35) and (3.36),
Line
Ae
An
AE' =
fc[AE
- ANa]
AN' =
fc[AN
+ AEa]
ANa AEa Ae - ANa An + AEa
+ 69-5 -393-9 + 1-15 -0-20

+ 199-3 - 17-4 + 0-05 -0-58
Xa
aY
+ 68-35
+ 199-25
Ae'
An'
-394-10
+ 68-16 -392-98
- 17-98
+ 198-68 - 17-93
+266-84 -410-91
Example 6.6 An underground traverse between two wires in shafts A

D based on an assumed meridian gives the following partial co-
and
ordinates:
AN (ft)
AE(ft)
AB
BC
CD
If
263-516
+ 523-684
+ 36-862
the grid co-ordinates of the wires are:
21*743
+421*827
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
321
N (metres)
E (metres)
A
552361-63
441 372-48
552 532-50
441428-18
Transform the underground partials into grid co-ordinates.

Arts.
AD = tan" + 560*546/ + 180-054 - N72ll'33"E

AD = 560*546 /sin 72 11 '33" = 588*755 ft
1
Bearing of traverse line
Length of traverse line

Bearing of grid line
Length of grid line
AD
AD
= tan" 170-87/55*70 = N7156'45"E

1
= 170*87/sin71 56'45"
Angle of swing a = 7211'33" - 7156'45"
a rad =
= 179*713
= +014'48"
0*004 31.
0*30523
Scale factor k = 179*713/588*755 =
Using Eqs.(3.35) and
(3.36),
AE' = fc[AE - ANa]
AN' =
ANa AN
AEa
ANa
AE
- 1-136
1-136 -263-516
21-743
+ 0-094 +2-257
+ 523-590 +
36-862 + 421-827
+ 1-818 + 0-159
o-o
+ 523-684 +
+
AEa
AN
- 263-516
AE
Line
AB
BC
CD
AEa]
fc[AN +
24-000
35-044 +421-986
X
E
A
B
C
Example 6.7
Fig. 6.15
E 45603-1
ft
N 35 709-9 ft
80-43
+ 159-82 +
7-33
10-70 + 128-80
+170-87 +
55-70
m
m
m
441 428-18 m
441 372-48
441 292-05
441 299-38
shows a short
theodolite lines in a mine survey.
AN'
0-35 -
m
m
552 521 -80 m
552 532-50 m
552 361 -63

552 361-98
AE'
+
The
'dial' traverse
connecting two
co-ordinates of T.M.64 are
and of T.M.86
E 46 163*6 ft N 35 411*8 ft.
Cal-
culate the co-ordinates of the traverse and adjust to close on T.M.86.
(N.R.C.T.)
241 26'
216 57'
251 06'
T.M.87
Fig. 6.15
322
This is a subsidiary survey carried out with a 1 minute instrument

(miners' dial) and the method of adjustment should be as simple as
possible.
Bearing T.M.
63- T.M.
048 19'
64
241 26'
+ angle
289 45'
Adjusted Bearings
-180
Bearing T.M. 64 -(1)
109 45'
+ angle
216 57'
+ 01'
109 46'
S7014' E
+ 02'
146 44'
S3316 E
+ 03'
077 26'
N7726 E
+ 04'
148 33'
S3127 E
326 42'
- 180
Bearing
1-2
146 42'
110 41'
+ angle
257 23'
- 180
Bearing 2 -T.M. 86
077 23'
+ angle
251 06'
328 29'
- 180
Bearing T.M. 86 - T.M .87
148 29'
Fixed bearing T.M. 86- T.M.8714833'

04'
Error
.-.
Horizontal length T.M.
64-1(1
in 6 = 9 28') = 286*1
cos 9 28' = 282'2
Co-ordinates
Ae
Line
Length
64-1
1-2
282-2
7014'E
273-2
3316'E
2-86
146-4
N 7726'E +
Bearing
+ 265-6 - 0-5 + 265-1

153-2 - 0-5 + 152-7
142-9 - 0-2 + 142-7
+ 561-7 -
An
Ae'
Se
1-2
+ 31-9 -
0-2
+ 31-9 - 328-9
1-1
- 297-0
T.M. 64
45603-1
35 709*9
T.M. 86
46163-6
'
Error in traverse =
E+
1*2,
+ 560-5
+ 1*1
35 411-8
AN -
An'
- 95-4 -0-5 - 95-9

- 233-5 - 0-4 - 233-9
From the theodolite station co-ordinates,
AE
Sn
298-1
+ 31-7
ft
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Applying Bowditch's method (see
a-,
1*2 x length
2
SN
1-1 x
p. 330),
1*2 x
701-8
length
1-1 X
2/
323
701-8
- 1/1 X 1U
- = 1-57 x 10~ 3 X
/.
Total co-ordinates (adjusted)
T.M.64
45603-1
35709-9
35614-0
45868-2
46020-9
35380-1
86
46163-6
35411-8
Traverses which return to their starting point
6.52
The closing error may be expressed as either (a) the length and
bearing of the closing line or (b) the errors in latitude and departure.
To make
the traverse consistent, the error must be distributed and
can be done by adjusting either
this
(a) the lengths only, without altering the bearings or
(b) the length and bearing of
6.53
each line by adjusting the co-ordinates.
Adjusting the lengths without altering the bearings
Where all the angles in a closed traverse have been measured, the
closing angular error may be distributed either (a) equally or (b) by
weight inversely proportional to the square of the probable error.
It may therefore be assumed that the most probable values for
the
bearings have been obtained and that any subsequent error relates to
the lengths, i.e. a similar figure should be obtained.
Three methods are proposed:

(1) Scale factor axis method.
(2) xy method (Ormsby method).
(3) Crandal's method.
In the following description of
these methods, to simplify the solunormal co-ordinate notation will be altered as follows: partial
departure AE becomes d with error in departure Sd. The sum of the
tion, the
errors in departure
XSd becomes Ad.
becomes / with error

25/ becomes A/.
in latitude 81.
Similarly, partial latitude
The sum
AN
of the errors in latitude
(1) Scale factor axis method (after R.E. Middleton and Q. Chadwick).
This follows the principles proposed for traverses closed on fixed
points.
324
Graphical solution (Fig. 6. 16)
The traverse
two
is plotted
and the closing
error obtained.
It is intended that this error produced should divide the figure into
approximately equal parts. To decide on the position of this line,
the closing error bearing is drawn through each station until the above
condition is obtained.
(a) Original plot with

lines
drawn parade
to closing error A A
(b) Adjusted figure
\^/
Fig. 6.16 Scale factor axis method
need to be reduced by a scale factor so as to

finish at D 2 midway between D and D,. The lines below XD need
to be enlarged by a scale factor so as to finish at D 2
The
lines above
XD
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Example 6.8
325
(Fig. 6.17)
Fig. 6.17 Graphical adjustment
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The traverse is plotted as ABCDEA^ -closing error AA

The closing error is transferred to station D, so that the traverse
now plots as DÊÂBCD. D^D2 is produced to cut the traverse
into two parts at X on line AB.
From X, rays are drawn through B, C, D, , and A.
.
From 0, midway between D, and D, lines are drawn parallel to

D,/},, giving 0E 2
Lines paraland parallel to DC, giving 0C2
lel to BC and EA^ through C2 and E2 give B z and A 2
The figure A 2 B 2 C2 0E 2 A2 is the adjusted shape with the bear.
ings of the lines unaltered,
Lines XB,
BC
and
CD
Lines XA,
AE
and
ED
(5) If the traverse is to
i.e.
OX
are reduced in length in the ratio jrzs
OX
are enlarged in length in the ratio pr~-
be plotted relative to the original station A,
then all the new stations will require adjustment in length and bearing A Z A, giving B 3 , C3 , D3 , E3
.
The
final figure is
AB 3 C3 D3 E
A.
326
The graphical solution can now

be expressed mathematically as
follows (after R.E. Middleton and
O. Chadwick).
In the figure
XBCD,
Fig. 6.18,
the lengths need to be reduced by
a scale factor
As
XD
the co-ordinates are dependent
on their respective lengths, the partial
co-ordinates can be multiplied
by the factor k v
Let the partial departure be d

and the partial latitude /, the error
in d be 8d and the error in / be 81.
Expressing this as a correction,
8d = d -dk, = d(l -
fc,)
XD-XD
d-
XD
D,D
d^-
XD
_ partial departure x terror

length of axis of error
Thus
for all lines
above the line XD,
dd = Ad
where
(6.13)
X =
Also
Similarly in figure
(6.14)
traverse error (),D)

2 x axis of error
81 =
XDÊÂ
(XD)
XI
(6.15)
the lengths need to be enlarged by a
scale factor
XD
~xb~.
8d = d(kz -\)
= d(
= d.
XD *
XD
XD,
D,
XD,
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Thus similarly
327
below line XD.
for all lines
8d = fxd
where
(6.16)
traverse error (DDi)
(XD
2 x axis of error
Also
81 =
By comparison
fil
(6.17)
with the traverse lines DD, is small and thus
~ XD
XD,
21
XD 2
/z
Summary
Sd = Ad
5/
The sign
= A/
depends on the position of the
of the correction
whether the line needs to be reduced
N.B.
A special case needs to be dealt with, viz. the line
sected by line DD, produced to X.
XB
AX
XB
AX
V dAB X^g
8dAB
= fidAB
MB
= V-IaB
xy (Ormsby) method
AX-XB
(6.18)
AB
AX- XB
(6.19)
AB
(Fig. 6.19)
any line is varied in length by

a fractional value then the partial
co-ordinates will be varied in the
If
same proportion without
altering
the bearing, i.e.
8s _
s
Let
8d_
_
~
8l_
(a) the lines in the
NE/SW
quad-
rants be altered by a factor
x and the lines in the

quadrants by a factor
inter-
must be enlarged.
8dAX = +
(2)
AB
must be reduced
8dXB
Also
line, i.e.
or enlarged.
NW/SE
y,
Fig.
6.
19
328
summation of the partial co-ordinates in one of the equations (say Eq.6.20) be the same as the
(b) the sign of all the terms in
sign of the greater closing error,

(c) the sign in the other equation (say
Eq.6.21) be made consis-
tent with the figure, to bring the corrections back to the
same
bearing (Fig. 6. 20).
r~
i
i
\j-
i
i
"71
s
+
Ad>AI
a/
/
\Al
Fig. 6.20
i.e.
Ad = xd + yd z + xd z + yd 4
Ad =
+ A/
i.e.
where the
+ A/ =
x(d,
+ d 3 ) + y(d 2 + d 4 )
x/,
x(/,
y/ 2 + xl
/
3)
partial co-ordinates are d,
y(/ 2
/,;
d2
- y/ 4
+
l
2,
(6.20)
4)
(6.21)
etc.
The solution of these simultaneous equations gives values for x

and y which are then applied to each value in turn to give the corrected values of the partial co-ordinates.
(3)
CrandaVs method by applying the principle
of least squares,
Fig. 6.21.
Let the length of each side be varied by a fraction x of its lengths,

then if / and d be the partial latitude and departure of the line AB
of bearing 6, they also will be varied by xl and xd respectively.
If the probable error in length is assumed to be proportional to V s
then the weight to be applied to each line will be 1/s, i.e.
'
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
329
wt
oc
P.E.
OC
y/J
wt
oc
(probable error) 2
(The value of x is thus dependent on the length of the line.)
By the theory of 'Least Squares',

the sum of the weighted residual
errors should
i.e.
x*s*
be a minimum.
2x
s = minimum.
Fig. 6.21
Let
Ixl = 25/ =
?Lxd =
Then
18d =
Ad, total error in departure.
differentiating these equations and equating them to zero
will give the
The
total error in latitude.
A/,
minima values,
i.e.
xs 8x =
(1)
ISx =
(2)
d8x =
(3)
differentiated equations (2) and (3), being conditional equa-
now be multiplied by factors (correlatives) -&, and -k.

(Reference: Rainsford Survey Adjustments and Least Squares).
tions, should
Adding all three equations together and equating the coefficients

of each 8x to zero, we have
8x(x,
s,
8x(x 2s2 -
Thus
x,
fc, /,
- k2 d,) =
/c, l
- k 2d 2 ) =
fc,/,
fc,/ 2
+ k 2 d2
etc.
fcjjd,
etc.
Substituting the values of x into the original equations (2) and

'3),
we have
* f/| +/c2f
f
M2 +k
d2 \
...
= A/
330
2 =M
fc, +k 2
i.e.
(*'
d,
aiso
i.e.
*,
M.J
+ da
2+
*2
The corrections
îlhh^
2-
- k
obtain values for
fc,
i.e.
AA
s
A;
2
'
etc.
(6.24)
etc
(6.25)
should be noted that a check on the equations
fe
and k 2
,dl
2
Ai
+ ^ i
s
s
_5__L_JLl_
fc,
become
s
8d,
. Ad
...
(6.23)
to the partial co-ordinates then

81
It
= Ad
we
Solving Eqs.(6.22) and (6.23),
(6.22)
UMi + MI
d '^
^1
is
Zf
given by
_A_
^^
dl
no change in bearing.
The assumption
that the probable error in length is proportional to
\Js applies to
compensating errors. It has been shown that, where the

accuracy of the linear measurement decreases, the probable error in
length becomes proportional to the length itself,
P.E.
oc
oc
i.e.
wt
i.e.
The
effect of this on the foregoing equations is to
remove the
factor s from them, i.e.
6.54
Adjustment
^+^/
81,
/c
Sd,
k^d +
to the length
k2 d*
etc
(6.26)
etc
(6.27)
and bearing
Three methods are compared:

(1) Bowditch, (2) Transit (Wilson's method),
(3) Smirnoff.
(1) The Bowditch method (Fig. 6.22). This method is more widely
used than any other because of its simplicity. It was originally devised for the adjustment of compass traverses.
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Bowditch assumed that
331
(a) the
linear errors were compensating and
thus the probable error (P.E.)
was
proportional to the square root of
the distance s,
i.e.
P.E.
y^-
oc
and (b) the angular error 86 in the

d would produce an equal displacement B, B2 at right angles to the
line
AB.
resultant
AB 2
is thus develo-
ped with the total probable
BB Z
error.
= Vfi.S 2 + B,Bi
= y/2B^B
(BtB = B,B2 )
also
y/Sl
Fig. 6.22
+ Sd 2
where 81 and 8d are the corrections to the partial co-ordinates.

The weight, as before, becomes 1/s.
By
the theory of least squares
s (' + "*)
The
As
minimum
conditional equations are:
in the previous
181 = A/
(1)
28d
(2)
= Ad
method, using correlatives, differentiation of
each equation gives:
81
8(8Q
2*
8d 8(8d)
28(81)
8(8d) =
Multiplying the last two equations by the correlatives -fc, and

respectively, adding the equations and equating the coefficients of
5(50 and 5(5d) to zero we have:
5(5/)
[H
5(5d)| ~K\ =
i.e.
5/,
i.e.
5d,
s,*,
= 5,^
= s2 k,
etc.
8d z = s z k.
etc.
dl z
Substituting the values into equations (1) and (2),
-k z
332
2s =
fc,
kz
A/
2s = Ad
A/
i.e.
=2s
i.e.
k2 =
Ad
Is
A/_
The corrections
sL
s,
Ad
=
to the departures od,
s.
-=
s,
to the latitudes 67,
od,
2s
^ 2s
etc.
Ad
2s
Ad
2s
etc.
Correction to the partial co-ordinate = total correction
i.e.
length of corresponding side

______
x __________________
total length of traverse
__
The
BB 2
effect at a station is that the resultant
the closing error x
s/2s and
(6.28)
will
be equal to
parallel to the bearing of the closing
error,
i.e.
through an angle
a =
-1
tan
= tan"
-d
Sd
5/
The
total
movement of each station
is therefore parallel to the
closing error and equal to
2 (lengths
up to that point)
x closing
error.
total length of traverse
The
correction can thus be applied either graphically in the manner
originally intended or mathematically to the co-ordinates.
Jameson points out
that the bearings of all the lines are altered
unless they lie in the direction of the closing error and that the maximum alteration in the bearing occurs when the line is at right angles
to the closing bearing,
when
2s x
86 rad
The
it
becomes
closing error
closing error
2s
closing error expressed as a fraction of the length of the tra-
verse may vary from 1/1000 to 1/10000, so taking the maximum error
as 1/1000
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
86" =
2 6265
333
= 206"
1000
03' 26"
a value far in excess of any theodolite station error. A change of bearing of 20" represents 1/10000 and this would be excessive even
using a 20" theodolite.
Graphical Solution by the Bowditch Method (Fig. 6.23)
Fig. 6.23
survey and obtain the closing error
(1) Plot the

(2)
Draw a
line representing the length of
AA E
each line of the traverse
to any convenient scale.

(3)
(4)
At A E draw a perpendicular A E A^ equal to the closing error

and to the same scale as the plan.
,
Join
and
C,
(5)
AA
D
forming a triangle
AA A E
X
and then through B, C
similarly draw perpendiculars to cut the line
AA
at
and D,
Draw a
line through
each station parallel
to the closing error
334
BB U CC
and plot lines equal to

figure Afi,C,D,A
and
DD
giving the
new
(2) The Transit or Wilson method. This is an empirical method

which can only be justified on the basis that (a) it is simple to operate, (b) it has generally less effect on the bearings than the Bowditch
method.
It
can be stated
as:
the correction to the partial co-ordinate

.,
closing error in the co-ordinate
..
,.
A
= the partialf co-ordinate
laie x
Z partial
co-ordinates
(ignoring the signs)
(6.29)
(6.30)
8d
- d
<
'
(6.31)
Td
(3) The Smirnoff method. The partial latitude

and bearing 6 is given by
= s COS0.
If the two variables s and cos0 are subjected

8(cosd} respectively, then
1
81
and
from each side and neglecting the small
8s S(cos0), gives
= 8s cos# + s 8(cosd)
81
Dividing both sides by
i.e.
/,
_ 8s cos e
s
s _S(cos0)
cos0
s cos 6
8s
81
i.e.
to errors of 8s
+ 8s)[cos0 + S(cos0)]
(s
Subtracting the value of
value
of a line length s
8(cosd)'
(6.32)
cos#
the relative accuracy in latitude
= the relative accuracy in distance +

the relative accuracy in the cosine of the bearing
Thus,
in a traverse of n lines,
8s
j.
Sl 2
s2
g ( cos fl)
cos 6/,
s,
cosu 2
etc.
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
25/ = A/
(total error in latitude)
8s
v
2*1
+
I.
SCcosfl,
Similarly, as d = s sin
= f
s
cos0,
335
S(cos0 2 )
/
2
"
...
cos02
5(cos0n )
l
cos0n
0,
S(sinfl)
(6.33)
sin
18d = Ad = 2df + d
S(5in ^
,
sin0,
+ w2
g(sin ^>
5 < sin
..
sin02
where the linear relative accuracy 8s/s
is
<*
sin0n
considered constant for
all
lines.
From the above equations,

8s _
s
^s
S(cos0)l
1_[
~ 2/1
1>-Sdl
zdl
sin0
(6.35)
The value of 8s/ s should closely approximate to the actual accuracy in linear measurement attained if the traverse consists of a large
number of
lines, but in short traverses there may be quite a large discrepency. In such cases the ratio shows the accuracy attained as it
affects the closing error.
The ratio is first worked out separately for latitude and departure
from Eqs. 6.34/6.35 and these allow subsequent corrections to be
applied as in Eqs. 6.32/6.33.
The precision ratios for cosine and sine of the bearings are
obtained by extraction from trigonometrical tables. Special attention
is necessary when values of 0 or 90 are involved as the
trigonometrical values of oo will be obtained. The traverse containing such
bearings may be rotated before adjustment and then re-orientated to the
N.B.
original bearings.
To
calculate the precision ratio for cos 0,
Let
= 60 + 6"
cos0 =
0-5
8 (cos 0) difference/ 6" = 0-000025
S(cos0) _ 0-000025
1
=
~
cos0
0^5
20000
The
ratio is therefore proportional to the angular accuracy.
Where a negative ratio 8s/ s is obtained

precision has been over-estimated.
it
implies that the angular
336
As
the precision of the angular values increases relative to the
linear values, the precision ratios of the former reduce and
become
negligible.
8s
Thus
Al
11
and, substituting this into the partial latitude equation,
Similarly,
A/
21
81,
Z,
sd,
d,
These equations thus reduce
Td
to method of adjustment (2), the
Transit Rule.
6.55
Comparison of methods of adjustment
Example 6.8
Length s
Line
Bearing 6
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
045 00'
514-63
363-898
363-898
090 00'
341-36
341-360
0-0
180 00'
324-15
0-0
210 00'
462-37
231-185
300 00'
386-44
334-667
FA
320 16'
217-42
138-978
324-150
705-258
2s 2246-37
704-830
400-420
193-220
167-202
1
724-320
Assuming the co-ordinates
of
+ 0-428
A/
(0,0)
Total Co-ordinates
D
A
L
0-0
0-0
+ 363-898
C
D
E
F
+ 705-258
+ 705-258
+ 474-073
A,
+ 363-898
+ 363-898
+ 39-748
-360-672
-167-452
+ 139-406
Bearing of closing line AA,
Length of closing line
0-428
A A,
724-570
724-320
704-830
Ad
tan-'
0-250
+0-428/-0-250
S5943'F
0-428 cosec5943'
0-496
-0-250
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
(1)
'Axis' scale factor
337
method (Figs. 6.24 and 6.25)
400r
300
200
700
800
-100-
200-
-300-
-400
Fig. 6.24
Lines above axis

require reduction
\D
Lines below axis
require enlargement
\io>2>
/ ^*\ î
Âxis
'E
E,
Fig. 6.25
Scaled values from plotting (station D is chosen to contain the closing

error as the axis approximately bisects the figure):
DX
AX
XB
From Eqs. 6.14/6.15,
where
'
487
406
108
8d = \d
81
\l
AA
0-496
2 x Axis(DX)
8dAB =
AX - XB
AB
2x487
4
5-1 x 10"
x XdAB
- 108
406=:
c.-i
o*o o
1n -4 x 363-9
x + 5*1 x 10
514
+0-105
338
(AX
requires enlarging,
8dBC
AX
> XB)
-5-1 x 10" 4 x +341-4
= -0-174
0-0
x -231-2
-0-118
x -334-7
-0-171
x -139-C
-0- 070
+0- 105
SdcD
-4
8dDE =
+5-1 x 10
8d EF =
+5-1 x 10
8dFA =
=
81ab
-4
f5-l x 10"
-4
s.i
in
f5-l
x 10
406 - 108 x +363-9

r-A
514
$Ibc
0-
8l CD
4
-5-1 x 10" x -324-2
+0-165
8lDE
4
+5-1 x 10" x -400-4
-0-204
+0-098
+0-086
10"
8l EF
+5-1 x
8l FA
+5-1 x 10
-4
x +193-2
x +167-2
Co-ordinates
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
8d
dn
+ 363-898
+0-105
+ 341-360
-0-174
+ 364-063
+ 341-186
0-0
0-0
0-0
+ 363-898
+ 364-063
+ 0-105
0-0
0-0
0-0
-324-150
+0-165
-323-985
-231-185
-0-118
-231-303
-400-420
-0-204
-400-624
-334-667
-0-171
-334-838
+ 193-220
+0-098
+ 193-318
-138-978
-0-070
-139-048
+ 167-202
+ 0-086
+ 167-288
-0-533
+0-454
+0-105
-0-204
Ad -0-428
(2)
81
la
+0-250
Ormsby's xy method (Fig. 6.26)
Term
8d
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
045 00"
+ 363-898
-0-063
090 00'
+ 341-360
-0-060
180 00'
0-0
-324-150
+0-181
210 00'
-231-185
-0-040
-400-420
-0-069
300 00'
-334-667
-0-187
+ 193-220
+ 0-108
FA
320
-138-978
-0-078
+ 167-202
+0-093
Bearing
16'
0-0
Ad
81
-0-063
+363-898
0-0
0-0
-0-428
+0-382
-0-132
+0-250
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
339
N.B. Term x is assumed to be 0 - 90 inclusive

y is assumed to be 90-* 180
As
the error in departure is greater, the equation takes the sign of the
correction, i.e.
-364 x -341 x - Oy -231 x -335y -139y

(AB) (SC)
(CD)(DE) (F) (FA)
-0-428
(1)
Adjusting the latitude values and signs to make them consistent,
-364 x + Ox + 324y -400 x +193y + 167y
+0-250
(2)
Fig. 6.26
Simplifying the equations,
-936x -474y = -0-428

-764* +684y = +0-250
(1)
(2)
Solving the equations simultaneously,
HT4
+1-74 x
+5-59 x 10~ 4
The values of x and y are now applied to each term to give corrections
as above.
(3)
CrandaVs method (least squares)
(a) Probable
Using equations,
error
oc
length s
k,2ld + k 2 ^d z
k,Xl 2 + k2 lid
Ad
A/
340
d
Id
AB
EC
CD
DE
EF
+ 363-898
FA
+ 132421-8
+ 363-898
0-0
+ 341-360
+ 132421-8
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
105 073-2
116526-6
-324-150
0-0
+ 132 421-8
f
-231-185
-400-420
53 446-5
+ 92571-1
160 336-2
-334-667
+ 193-220
112002-0
- 64664-4
37 334-0
-138-978
+ 167-202
19 314-9
- 23237-4
Ad -0-428
+0-250
(Id
27956-5
463121-7
433 711-8
2
+ 224 992-9
- 87901-8
+ 137091-1
(2/d)
137091-U,+ 433711-8fc 2 = -0-428
(1)
+0-250
(2)
463 121-7
fc,+
137 091-1 k 2
Solving simultaneously,
+9-1768 x 10~ 7
6
= -1-2769 x 10~
-
fc,
k2
Substituting in the equations

/c, /,
k,/
d,
+ k2 d
+
fc
2 /,d,
5d,
S/,
gives the correction for each partial co-ordinate:
Sd
kyld
k 2d
AB
EC
CD
DE
EF
+ 0-122
-0-169
-0-047
FA
+ 0-122
k 2 ld
81
-0-169
-0-047
0-0
-0-149
-0-149
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
+ 0-096
0-0
+ 0-096
+ 0-085
-0-059
-0-068
+ 0-017
+ 0-147
-0-118
+0-029
-0-143
-0-202
+ 0-034
+ 0-083
+0-117
-0-021
-0-026
-0-047
+0-026
0-029
+ 0-055
+ 0-207
-0-555
-0-445
+ 0-425
- 0-287
+0-297
-0-080
+0-127
+ 0-017
-0-175
+ 0-112
-0-047
+ 0-127
-0-428
-0-428
+ 0-250
-0-175
+ 0-250
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
(b)
Probable error
-y/
1/s
AB
BC
CD
DB
EF
FA
oc
341
d7s
Id/s
17 s
+ 257-295
257-295
514-63
0-001 945
257-295
341-36
0-002929
341-306
0-0
0-0
0-0
324-151
324-15
0-003 085
0-0
462-37
0-002 163
115-605
+ 200-231
386-44
0-002 588
289-861
-167-351
96-620
217-42
0-004 599
88-292
-106-869
128-572
2d 2/s
346-807
2
+ 457-526 S/ /s 1153-445
1092-359
-274-220
Xld/s +183-306
Using equations
= Ad
s
k,
2s +
s ld
and substituting values gives
+ 183-306 k, + 1092-359 k 2 =
+ 1153-445 k, + 183-306 k 2 =
-0-428
(1)
+ 0-250
(2)
Solving simultaneously,
*,
4
+2-867 x 10~
k2
-4-398 x 10~ 5
Substituting values into equations
8d,
Id/s
k 2 d /s
8d
+ 0-074
-0-113
-0-039
0-0
/c,
*,
1+
2
/c,/
/s
AA
= 8L
k 2 ld/s
81
-0-113
-0-039
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
-0-150
-0-150
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
+ 0-093
0-0
+ 0-093
+ 0-057
-0-048
-0-051
+ 0-006
-0-175
+ 0-099
-0-088
+ 0-011
+ 0-027
+ 0-074
FA
-0-031
-0-039
-0-070
+ 0-037
+ 0-047
+ 0-101
+ 0-084
+ 0-131
-0-480
-0-434
+ 0-330
-0-201
+ 0-289
-0-079
+ 0-052
+0-006
-0-080
+ 0-121
-0-039
+0-052
-0-428
-0-428
+ 0-250
-0-080
+ 0-250
-0-127
+ 0-074
342
Bowditch's method
(4)
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
514-63
+363-898
341-36
+341-360
324-15
FA
8d
81
-0-098
+0-057
+363-898
-0-065
+0-038
-324-150
-0-062
+0-036
-0-088
+0-052
0-0
0-0
462-37
-231-185
-400-420
386-44
-334-667
+193-220
-0-074
+0-043
217-42
-138-978
+167-202
-0-041
+0-024
-0-428
+0-250
Is 2246-37
[id
Xd
-0-428
A/ +0-250
1410-088
1448-890
2/
Using the formulae,

8d
=^xs
2s
*L
81
2s
Ex.
Sd,
81,
(5)
-1-906 x 10~ 4 5
-;f*
2246-37
+' 250s
2246-37
4
+1-112 x 10- s
4
-1-906 x 10" x 514-63
+1-112 x 10~
x 514-63
-0-098
+0-057
Transit or Wilson's method
Using the formulae,

8d
M.
x d
-' 428<i =
1410-088
-3-035 x 10" 4d
+0-250
+1 725
2d
5/
A/
2/
Ex.
Sd,
5/,
10
-4
1448-890
-3-035 x 10
-4
x +363-898
+1-725 x 10~ 4 x +363-898
-0-111
= +0-063
8d
81
AB
BC
-0-111
+ 0-063
-0-103
0-0
CD
-0-0
+ 0-056
DE
EF
-0-070
+ 0-069
-0-102
+0-033
FA
-0-042
+0-029
Ad -0-428
A/ +0-250
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
(6) Smirnoff's
343
method
BC
N.B. As bearings of
CD
and
are 90 and 180 respectively, the
g ^ cos90 >
5 < sinl80>
and
will be infinity,
cos 90
sin 180
Thus the whole survey is turned clockwise through 20 giving new
bearings (with an accuracy of 10")
values of
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
sin0
8 (sin 6)
xlO"
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
065-00
514-630
110-00
341-360
200-00
324-150
230-00
462-370
320-00
386-440
340-16
217-420
-6
dS(sin#)
sin#
8d
d (Adj)
0-906 308
20
+ 466-413
+0-010
0-074 -0-084 + 466-329
0-939693
17
-t
320-774
+0-006
0-051 -0-057 +320-717
0-342020
45
110-866
-0-013
0-017 -0-030 -110-896
0-766044
31
354-196
-0-014
0-056 -0-070 -354-266
0-642 788
37
248-399
-0-014
0-039 -0-053 -248-452
0-337643
46
73-410
-0-010
0-012 -0-022 - 73-432
+ 787-187
786-871
Ad + 0-316
2d 1574-058
cosO
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
5 ( cos
0-067
0-249 - 0-316
l8(cos&)
xlO"i6
Ss_
z
Sl
/(Adj)
cos e
0-422618
44
0-342020
45
-116-752
0-015
0-025 +0-040 -116-712
0-939693
17
-304-601
0-006
0-065 +0-071 -304-530
+217-492
0-023
0-046 +0-069 +217-561
0-642788
37
-297-206
0-017
0-064 +0-081 -297-125
0-766 044
31
+296-030
0-012
0-064 +0*076 +296-106
0-941274
17
+204-652
0-004
0-044 +0-048 +204-700
+ 718-174
-718-559
A/ 21
0-385
1436-733
0-077
+0-385
344
Departure
8s =
J_
d8(sin0)
]
sintf
[+0-316-0-067]
' 249
4
1-581 x 10~
1574-1
1574-1
Latitude
8s
1T A/
/a(cosg) 1
cos0
/[
=
L_
[0-385 - 0-077]
--^ -8-
1436-7
2-14 x 10~ 4
1436-7
The co-ordinates must now be transposed
to their original orienta-
tion.
Using Eqs. (3.29/30)
Line
+466-329
y,
+217-561
x,
y,
x,
y,
=304-530
-354-266
y,
-297-125
x,
y,
x,
y,
y2
cos 20
y,
cos 20 +
x,
0-939 693
sin 20
0-342020
20
sin 20
+ 438-206 - 74-410
+ 204-441 + 159-494
+363-796
8d
+363-935
81
8d
=
=
-0-102
+0-037
+341-294
+
0-019
81
=
=
-0-074
-104-208 + 104-155
-286-165 - 37-929
0-053
8d
-0-053
-324-094
5/
+ 0-056
-332-901 + 101-623
-297-206 - 121-166
-231-278
8d
-0-093
-400-372
81
-0-048
-233-469 - 101-274
+ 278-249 - 84-976
8d
-334-743
+193-273
=
=
+0-053
-0-037
+ 301-376 + 39-918
-109-673 + 109-692
+ 0-019
EF
-248-452
+296-106
Line
y, sin
DE
x,
Line
cos 20 -
CD
-110-869
Line
x,
BC
+320-717
+116-712
Line
AB
x,
Line
x2
81
-0-076
FA
- 73-432
+204-700
- 69-004 -
70-011
-139-015
8d
+ 192-355 -
25-115
+167-240
81
= + 0-038
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Analysis of corrections (Figs. 6.27
Line
345
6.31)
AB fs- 514ft J
045* 00;
Fig. 6. 27
thod
86
8d
8s
5/
+0-15
-0-09
+0-105
-0-063
-0-063
3a
-0-07
-0-047
-0-047
-0-039
+0-105
-0-05
-0-039
-44"
-0-03
-0-098
+0-057
-48"
-36"
-0-03
-0-111
+ 0-063
-0-05
-0-102
+ 0-037
BC (S-3AM
3b
Line
090* 00'
4
,
3o
o3b
oLo
>
6d
Fig. 6.28
Method
86
8s
8d
-0-17
-0-06
-0-174
-0-060
0-0
3a
-0-15
-0-149
0-0
-0-15
-0-150
0-0
+ 22"
-0-07
-0-10
-0-065
+0-038
-0-103
0-0
+ 11"
-0-07
-0-074
+0-019
3b
4
5
81
0-0
346
Line CD (S=-324)
180* 00'
6
4o-
Fig.
Method
6.
29
8d
8s
86
81
+ 0-165
+0-181
+0-17
0-0
+0-18
0-0
3a
+0-10
0-0
+0-096
3b
+0-09
0-0
+ 0-093
+0-036
+ 44"
-0-062
0-07
0-0
+0-056
-0-053
+0-056
+0-06
+ 38"
Line
Of
0-06
s = 462
210* 00'
6/
/D
0-10
5
4
-oio
*\b
0-10
60
V /
^r 2
9C ' to closing error
Fig. 6. 30
Method
86
8s
8d
0-23
-0-118
0-08
-0-040
3a
3b
0-04
+0-017
0-02
+ 0-006
81
-0-204
-0-069
+0-029
+0-011
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
thod
347
8d
86
8s
0-0
-0-088
+0-052
+45"
+44"
0-03
-0-070
+0-069
+ 26"
0-09
-0-093
-0-048
81
(N.B. 90 to closing error)
Line
EF
s=
386
300 00'
\3o
61
01
3?\?
\4
5/>
F
-0-1
On
Method
line of closing
86
error
8s
8d
81
0-19
0-12
-0-171
-0-187
+0-098
+0-108
3a
0-23
-0-202
+0-117
3b
0-19
- 0-175
+0-101
0-09
- 0-074
0-10
-0-102
+ 0-043
+0-033
0-09
-0-076
+ 0-053
-5"
On
6d
(N.B.
0-1
line of closing error)
The following may be conjectured:

The
methods do not change the bearings.

has
(2)
a greater effect on the linear values than any other.
(1)
(3) There is no change in bearing in Wilson's method when the line
coincides with the axes.
(1)
first four
Method
There is little or no change in bearing on any line parallel to the

closing error in any of the methods analysed - maximum linear correc-
(4)
tion.
(5)
Wilson's method has less effect on the bearings than Bowditch's,
but more than Smirnoff's.
The maximum change in bearing occurs at 90 to the closing

error maximum linear correction.
(6)
348
Exercises 6(c)
(Traverse Adjustment)
The mean observed
12.
ABCDA
closed traverse
internal angles and
measured sides of a
(in anticlockwise order) are as follows:
Angle
Observed Value
Side
DAB
ABC
BCD
97 41'
CD A
89 59'
AB
BC
CD
DA
99 53'
72 23'
Measured Length
(ft)
221-1
583-4
399-7
521-0
Adjust the angles, compute the latitudes and departures assuming

that D is due N of A, adjust the traverse by the Bowditch method;
and give the co-ordinates of 3, C and D relative to A.
Assess the accuracy
of these observations and justify your assess-
ment.
(I.C.E.
Ans.
B -30-3 N, + 219-7 E,
C +523-9 N, +397-5 E,
D +522-6 N, -
13.
The measured lengths and reduced bearings
lite traverse
ABCD
Line
of a closed theodo-
are as follows:
Length
AB
BC
CD
DA
(ft)
Bearing
Due N
Due W
454-9
527-3
S2518'W
N7854'E
681-0
831-2
(a) Adjust the traverse by the Bowditch method and taking

the origin, find the co-ordinates of B, C and D.
(b)
1-2 E)
Assess the accuracy
as
of the unadjusted traverse.
and outline briefly, an alternative method of adjusting

the traverse so that the bearing of AB is unaltered by the adjustment.
0-5 E,
(I.C.E. Ans. B 455-0 N,
(c) Suggest,
C
D
14.
The following
traverse
ABCDEA
lengths, latitudes and departures refer to a closed
Length
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
455-1 N, 526-2 W,
160-3 S, 816-5 W)
Latitude
3425-9
Departure
3425-9
938-2
812-6
469-1
4573-4
2287-1
-3961-0
2651-3
-2295-7
-1325-9
1606-4
- 803-0
1391-1
Adjust the traverse by the Bowditch method, finding the corrected

latitudes and departures to the nearest 0*1 ft.
349
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Discuss the merits and demerits of this method, with particular

CD and DE.
0*3, + 3426-1
(L.U. Ans. AB BC + 812-5, + 469-2
CD + 2286-8, -3960-7
DE -2295-9, -1325-8
EA - 803-1, + 1391-2)
reference to its effect on lines
ABCDEFA
In a closed traverse
15.
departures of lines (in
Line
Length
the lengths, latitudes and
are as follows:
DE
AB
BC
CD
1342-0
860-4
916-3
-135-58
+910-35
+529-11+525-99-483-23
+849-65
+104-26
+ 853-38- 966-08-849-42
-1342-00
Latitude
ft)
0-0
Departure
EF
1004-1
1100-0
FA
977-3
Adjust the traverse by the Bowditch method and give the corrected
A as (0, 0)
0-0,
(L.U. Ans. A
0-0
D -569-56, +958-04
B -1343-00, +1-77 E - 41-20, +1812-74
C -1479-22, + 852-56 F +483-96, + 848-12
co-ordinates of
A traverse ACDB is surveyed by theodolite and chain. The

lengths and quadrantal bearings of the lines, AC, CD and DB are
16.
given below.
If the co-ordinates of A are x = 0, y =
and those of B are
x = 0, y = +897-05, adjust the traverse and determine the co-ordinates
of C and D.
The co-ordinates
of
and
AC
Line
B must
not be altered.
CD
480-6
292-0
448-1
Bearing
N2519'E
N3753'E
N5900'W
(L.U.
The
17.
DB
Length
Ans.
C
D
+205-2, 435-0
+384-4, 665-8)
lengths, latitudes and departures of the lines of a closed
traverse are given below.
one of the lines it appears that a chainage has been misread by

Select the line in which the error is most likely to have occurred,
correct it and adjust the latitudes and departures by the Bowditch
method to the nearest 0-1 ft.
In
40
ft.
Line
Length
Latitude
Departure
AB
BC
310-5
+ 301-2
695-8
CD
492-8
+ 267-1
-299-8
+ 75-4
-642-5
(ft)
-391-1
350

Line
Length
Latitude
Departure
DE
EF
431-7
-359-1
343-1
+ 239-6
+ 296-0
FA
401-9
+ 173-5
- 49-0
(ft)
Ans.
+301-1
+267-0
-299-9
(L.U.
AB
BC
CD
+ 398-9
Line DE 40 ft too long

+ 75-6 DE -392-5 +262-0
-642-1 EF +173-4 +296-2
-390-8 FA - 49-1 +399-1)
18.
(a) Why is the accuracy of angular measurement so important in
a traverse for which a theodolite and steel tape are used?
(b) A and D are the terminals of traverse
rectangular co-ordinates on the survey grid are:
Eastings
A
D
ABCD.
Northings
+5861-14
ft
+3677-90
ft
+6444-46
ft
+3327-27
ft
The bearings adjusted
for
Their plane
angular misclosure and the lengths of
the legs are:
AB
BC
111 53' 50"

170 56' 30"
306-57
256-60
ft
CD
86 43' 10"
303-67
ft
Calculate the adjusted co-ordinates of

(N.U.
Ans.
ft
B and C
B E 6100*70
C E 6141-19
N
N
19.
From an underground traverse between two shaft-wires,
the following partial co-ordinates in feet were obtained:
AB
BC
CD
E 150-632 ft
E 528 -314 ft
E 26-075 ft
S 327-958
3563-47
3309-99)
A and
D,
ft
N 82-115 ft
N 428 -862 ft
Transform the above partials to give the total Grid co-ordinates of

B given that the Grid co-ordinates of A and D were:
station
(aide
E520 163-462 metres
metres
E 520 378-827
memoire
X =
:
Y =
*,
y,
N 432182-684
N 432238-359
metres
metres
+ k(x-y6)
+ k(y + xd))
(N.R.C.T. Ans.
B E 520 209-364 N 432082-480)
(a) A traverse to control the survey of a long straight street forms

an approximate rectangle of which the long sides, on the pavements,
are formed by several legs, each about 300 ft long and the short sides
are about 40 ft long; heavy traffic prevents the measurement of lines
obliquely across the road. A theodolite reading to 20" and a tape
20.
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
graduated to 0*01
351
are used and the co-ordinates of the stations are
ft
required as accurately as possible.
Explain how the short legs in the traverse can reduce the accuracy
of results and suggest a procedure in measurement and calculation
which will minimize this reduction.
(b)
traverse
TABP was
run between the fixed stations
E
T
+6155-04
+9091-73
+6349-48
+9385-14
The co-ordinate differences

which they were calculated
for the traverse legs
and the data from
are:
Length
Adjusted Bearing
AE
TA
354-40
21041'40"
-180-91
-304-75
AB
BP
275-82
50 28' 30"
20 59' 50"
+212-75
+175-54
+162-33
+422-95
453-03
Applying the Bowditch
The co-ordinates
AN
A and fi.
A E 5974-22 N 8786-87
B E 6187-04 N 8962-33)
rule, calculate the co-ordinates of
Ans.
(L.U.
21.
T and
of which the co-ordinates are:
in feet of
survey control stations A and
in a
mine are as follows:

Station
Station
A
B
E 8432-50
E 9357-56
N 6981-23
N 4145-53
Undernoted are azimuths and distances of a traverse survey between
A and
B.
Line
Azimuth
4-1
151 54' 20"

158 30' 25"
564-31
161 02' 10"
953-65
Horizontal Distance
1-2
2-3
3-4
168 15' 00"
540-03
4-fi
170 03' 50"
548-90
394-82
Adjust the traverse on the assumption that the co-ordinates of

A and B are correct and state the corrected co-ordinates of
stations
the traverse station
(M.Q.B./S
Ans.
E
A 8432-50
9152-83
9262-82
6981-23
6483-55
6116-28
5214-64
4686-07
fi
9357-56
4145-53)
8698-24
2 8842-91
352
Define the terms 'error of closure' and 'fractional linear closing

as applied to closed traverse surveys. What error of closure
would be acceptable for a main road traverse survey underground ?
22.
error'
Starting with the equations

/
s cos
s sin
a
a
derive the Smirnoff equations
d
JL
V/
d(cosa))
cos a
Sd
= -Lf [dD)
*?
and
lUdL)
Zl{
<*(sina)]
sin
a =
where
d(cosa)
ana
bearing angle
length of traverse draft
ds/s
linear precision ratios
angular precision ratios
11
sum
of latitudes
Xd
sum
of departures
dh
total closing error in latitudes
dD
total closing error in departures.
d(sina)
sin a
cos a
(N.U.)
Exercises 6(d)
23.
(General)
The following are the notes
faces of two advancing roadways
between the
and FG, which are to be driven
of a theodolite traverse
BA
until they meet.
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FG
still to
be driven in each roadway.
Azimuth
267 55'
Distance
355 01'
350
001 41'
315
150
000 53'
503
086 01'
1060
203 55'
420
BA
FG
(Ans.
24.
(ft)
The following measurements were made
in a
closed traverse,
ABCD
A = 70 45'
D = 39
produced 352-6
produced 916-5
15'
ft
ft)
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
AB
400
ft
CD =
700
ft
353
AD
1019
ft
Calculate the missing measurements.
(L.U./E
B =
Ans.
119
C = 130 02',
58',
BC
= 351-1
ft)
Particulars of a traverse survey are as follows:
25.
Length
_ine
AB
BC
CD
515
DA
375
Deflection Angle
(ft)
B
C
D
A
330
500
76 23' right
118 29' right
79 02 'right
86 06' right
Bearing of line AB 97 15'

Prepare a traverse sheet and so calculate the length and bearing
of the closing error.
(L.U./E
The
26.
Ans.
6*4
N34704'W)
ft,
interior angles of a closed (clockwise) traverse
ABCDEA
have been measured with a vernier theodolite reading to 20", with
re-
sults as follows:
Angle
at
A
B
C
88 03' 20"
117 41' 40"
D
E
119 28' 40"

88 35' 00"
126 13' 00"
Adjust the measurements to closure and find the reduced bearings

if that for line AB is S 42 57' 20" E.
of the other lines
(L.U./E.
Ans.
BC S4859'40"W DE N1454'20"W
CD N 68 41' 40" W EA N
An approximate compass
27.
45 37' 20" E)
traverse carried out over marshy ground
yielded the following results:
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
Length
139
436
50
495
335
271
249
355
200
Plot the traverse to a scale of 100

ically to closure.
28.
area.
As a quick check,
Bearing
(ft)
386
ft
to the inch and adjust
plot of land is up for sale and there is
it
some doubt about
graph-
its
a compass traverse is run along the boundaries.

Determine the area enclosed by the traverse from the following data:
354
Feet
528
Bearing
195
Line
AB
BC
275
548
CD
182 1/2
813
DE
EF
FG
261^
1293
343
788
GH
HA
653
8oy2
1421
102 1/2
778
Ans. 56 acres)
(I.C.E.
The
29.
traverse table below refers to a closed traverse run from
station D, through
bearing of
line
to
from
0,G and H and closing on D. The whole-circle

D is 06 26' and G and H lie to the west of the
OD.
Compute the latitudes and departures
of
0,G
with reference
Observed
Internal Angles
Length
HDO
DOG
OGH
GHD
79
102 10'
DO
OG
939-8
41 11'
GH
840-2
136 56'
HD
426-5
47'
(I.C.E
The
field results for a
Ans.
CD
DE
EF
FA
The observed values
+121-6, -408-2)
Length
000'
AB
BC
+545-1, + 61-0
+846-1, -830-7
closed traverse are:
Whole Circle Bearing
Line
in feet
547-7
G
H
30.
and
as origin, making any adjustments necessary.
63 49'
166
246
89
13'
220
160 55'
202
264 02'
135
258
399
18'
of the included angles
(ft)
check satisfactorily,
but there is a mistake in the length of a line.
wrong and by how much ?

by an accurate 100 ft chain, suggest
how the mistake was made.
(I.C.E. Ans. Line BC 20 ft short)
Which length
As
31.
is
the lengths were measured
The following traverse was
run from station
tween which there occur certain obstacles.
to station
be-
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
Length
Line
I
-II
Bearing
(ft)
N 8228'E
N 3041'E
351-3
- HI
III - IV
IV- V
149-3
II
355
8143'E
447-3
213-3
S 8621'E
required to peg the mid-point of I V.

Calculate the length and bearing of a line from station
It is
quired point.
(I.C.E.
Ans.
171-1
ft
to the re-
III
S4228'E)
Two shafts, A and B, have been accurately connected to the

National Grid of the Ordnance Survey and the co-ordinates of the shaft
32.
centres, reduced to a local origin, are as follows:

Shaft
Shaft
E 10 055-02 metres
E 11801-90 metres
N 9768-32
metres
8549-68 metres
From shaft A, a connection to an underground survey was made by

wires and the grid bearing of a base line was established from which
the underground survey was calculated. Recently, owing to a holing
through between the collieries, an opportunity arose to make an underground traverse survey between the shafts A and B. This survey was
based on the grid bearing as established from A by wires, and the coordinates of B in relation to A as origin were computed as
E 5720-8 ft
Assuming
S 4007 -0
that the underground survey
ft
between A and B
is correct,
state the adjustment required on the underground base line as estab-
lished from shaft
to
conform to the Nation Grid bearing of that line.

(M.Q.B./S Ans. 0006'30")
proposed to sink a vertical staple shaft to connect X on a

on the top horizon at a colliery with a roadway GH on the
lower horizon which passes under CD.
From the surveys on the two horizons, the undernoted data are
33.
It is
roadway
CD
available:
Upper Horizon
Station
Horizontal Angle
Inclination
1 in
200
Inclined
Length
Remarks
(ft)
854-37
co-ordinates of
E 6549 -10 ft
N
B
1 in
400
943-21
ft
Bearing AB
30 14' 00"
N
88 19' 10'
level
1356-24
276 15' 45'
736-21
356
Lower Horizon
Horizontal Angle
Station
Inclined
Inclination
Length
Remarks
(ft)
co-ordinates of
50
326-17
+ 1 in 20
278-66
193 46' 45"
83 03' 10"
1 in
E 7704-08 ft
N 1210-88 ft
Bearing
EF
N 54 59'
10"
626-10
level
H
34.
ABCDEA,
Data:
Bearing of line
AB
000'
Length of
AB
342*0
(R.I.C.S.
The
ft
the details of which are given below.
Co-ordinates of
line
1000*0
Interior
Angle
BAE
CBA
DCB
EDC
AED
27 18' 00"
Ans.
E 8005-54
N 1918-79 ft)
B,C,D and E
Calculate the co-ordinate values of the stations
of the traverse
35.
Ans.
(M.Q.B./S
B
D
ft
E 1000 -0
ft
Length
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
194 18' 40"

146 16' 00"
47 27' 20"
124 40' 00"
1000-0 E,
1035-2 E,
ft
N C
2129-6 N E
1342-0
(ft)
342
412
412
592
683
898-2 E,
1313-4 E,
1741-1
1607-0 N)
table below gives the forward and back quadrantal bearings
of a closed
compass traverse.
Tabulate the whole-circle bearings corrected for local attraction,

indicating clearly your reasons for any corrections.
Line
Length
(ft)
AB
BC
CD
650
328
S 671/2
DE
280
EA
A gross
325
440
Back Bearing
Forward Bearing
55
S54 W
N 66 W
N 25 E
N 75 /2 E
s 63y2 e
E
E
W
W
N 64% W
S 25
S 77
mistake of 100 ft has been made in the measurement or

booking of one of the lines. State which line is in error. Using this
corrected length, adjust the departure and latitude of each line of the
traverse to close, using Bowditch's method of adjustment.
(L.U.
Ans. Local attraction at
B and
E,
CD
100 ft too small)
TRAVERSE SURVEYS
357
It is proposed to extend a straight road AB in the direction AB

produced. The centre line of the extension passes through a small
farm and in order to obtain the centre line of the road beyond the farm
36.
a traverse is run from
where A,
to a point C,
and
lie in the
same straight line.

The following angles and distance were recorded, the angles being
measured clockwise from the back to the forward station:
ABD
BDE
DEC
87 42'
282 36'
291 06'
BD
DE
(b) the
angle to be measured
can be extended beyond C.
(c) the
and
AB =
362
chainage of
95-2
ft
253-1
ft
at
C so
EC
Calculate (a) the length of the line
line of the road
that the centre
taking the chainage of
as zero
ft.
(L.U.
Ans. (a) 58-3
(b)
ft;
58 36'; (c) 576-8
ft)
The following are the notes of a traverse made to ascertain the

position if the point F was in line with BA produced.
37.
Line
Azimuth
AB
BC
355 30'
600
ft
125 00'
310
ft
rising 1 in 2
CD
DE
EF
210
18'
378
ft
level
130 36'
412
ft
level
214 00'
465
ft
level
Distance
level
Calculate the difference in the azimuths of AF and BA and the

extent to which the point F is out of alignment with BA produced.
(N.R.C.T.
Ans. 001'; 0-3
ft)
The following notes were made when running a traverse from a
38.
station
to a station E:
Side
W.C. Bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
119 32'
264-8
Length
171 28'
162-4
223 36'
188-3
118 34'
316-5
series of levels were also taken along the
BS
I.S.
F.S.
6 *84
R.L.
246-20
3-86
same
route as follows;
Remarks
B.M. near
Sta.
A
B
C.P.
Sta.
11*02
1*32
(ft)
13-66
358
BS
12-96
Sta.
C
D
13-44
C.P. 2
12-88
Sta.
Calculate the plan length, bearing and average gradient of the line
(L.U. Ans. 705-1 ft; 145 11'; 1 in 22-75)
The following are
39.
Remarks
Sta.
0-82
AE.
R.L.
F.S.
I.S.
9-66
the notes of an underground theodolite traverse.
Line
Azimuth
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
180 00'
Distance
(ft)
Vertical Angle
119 01'
181-6
+15
+12 45'
-19 30'
-14 12'
160 35'
312-0
207 38'
320-0
333 26'
200-0
25'
drift dipping from station

on the line of AB produced to intersect at a
point X, a level cross-measures drift to be driven from station F.
Calculate the azimuth and length of the proposed drift FX.
(Ans. 340 34'; 83-1 ft)
It is
proposed to drive a cross-measures
at a gradient of 1 in 10
40.
The following are
the notes of an underground theodolite traverse:
Azimuth
089 54'
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
Distance
(ft)
Vertical Angle
350
150 12'
190
180 00'
600
140 18'
155
228 36'
800
+28
-12
It is proposed to drive a cross-measures drift to connect stations

and F. Calculate the gradient and length of the cross-measures
drift, and the azimuth of the line FA.
(M.Q.B./M Ans. 1 in 14-8 (3 52'); 1391-3 ft (incl); 18217')
Bibliography
MIDDLETON,R.E. and chadwick, O., A Treatise on Surveying (Spon)

JAMESON, A.H., Advanced Surveying (Pitman)
CLARK, D., Plane and Geodetic Surveying (Constable)
RICHARDSON, P., Project Surveying (North Holland Publishing Co.)
HOLLAND, J. L. WARDELL, K and WEBSTER, A.G., Surveying, Coal
Mining Series (Virtue)
SMIRNOFF,
M. v.,
Measurements for Engineering and Other Surveys
(Prentice-Hall)
RAINSFORD, HUME
F.,
Survey Adjustments and Least Squares

(Constable)
7 TACHEOMETRY
Greek tocyus swift,
usually confined to the
is
surveying
This form of
The word tacheometry
is derived from the
êTpov a measure.
optical measurement of distance.
In all forms of tacheometry there are two alternatives:
(a)
(b)
In
A
A
fixed angle with a variable length observed.
variable angle with a fixed length observed.
each case the standard instrument is the theodolite, modified to suit
the conditions.
The
(1)
alternatives are classified as:
Fixed angle:
(a) Stadia
systems, (b) Optical wedge systems.
(2) Variable angle: (a) Tangential system

tense system horizontal staff.
- vertical
staff, (b) Sub-
There are two forms of stadia:

and levels.
(1)
Fixed stadia, found
(2)
Variable stadia, used in special tacheometers.

7.1
in all theodolites
Stadia systems
Fixed
stadia
The stadia lines are fine lines cut on glass diaphragms placed
close to the eyepiece of the telescope, Fig. 7.1.
Stadia lines
From Chapter
4,
the basic form-
ulae are:
D = ms + K
(Eq. 4.29)
(f+d)
(Eq. 4.28)
Fig. 7.1.
Diaphragm
where
s +
/ =
= the multiplying constant,
i
= the focal length of the object lens,

= the spacing of the stadia lines on the diaphragm,
i
d = the distance from the object lens to the vertical axis.
359
360

Determination of the Tacheometric Constants
7.2
Two methods
are available:
(a)
by physical measurement of the instrument
(b)
by reference to linear base lines.
By physical measurement of
7.21
m and K
itself,
the instrument
From the general equation,
m =f
where
and
K=
= ms +
f+d.
In the equation
(Eq. 4.19)
where u = the distance from the objective to the staff is very large
compared with / and v and thus 1/u is negligible compared with
1/v and 1//,
i.e.
i.e.
at
fn
the length from the objective to the diaphragm with the focus
oo.
With the external focussing telescope, this distance can be changed to correspond to the value of u in one of two ways:
(1)
by moving the objective forward,
(2)
by moving the eyepiece backwards.
In the former
case the value of
varies with
u,
whilst the latter
gives a constant value.
The physical value

value
factors
cannot easily be measured, so that a linear

value of / to give the
is required for the substitution of the

i
and K,
i.e.
sl+U+
d)
Thus a
vertical staff is observed at a distance D, the readings on the
staff giving the value of s.
Example 7.1. A vertical staff is observed with a horizontal external

focussing telescope at a distance of 366 ft 3 in.
Measurements of the telescope are recorded as:
Objective to diaphragm
in.
Objective to vertical axis
in.
361
TACHEOMETRY
If
the readings taken to the staff were 3-52, 5*35 and 7*17
ft,
calculate
(a) the
distance apart of the stadia lines
(b) the multiplying
constant (m),
constant (K).
(c) the additive
From Eqs.
(i),
(4.28) and (4.29),
= ms +
= l. s + (f+d)
i
fs
D-(f + d)
9-0 x (7-17-3-52)
in.
366-25 -(0-75+0-50)
9-0 x 3-65
366-25 - 1-25
= 0-09 in.
.-.
m = 1
K
By
7.22
field
f+d
= 100
0-09
= 9 in. +6in. = 1-25 ft
measurement
The more usual approach is to set out on a level site a base line of
say 400 ft with pegs at 100 ft intervals.
The instrument is then set up at one end of the line and stadia
readings are taken successively on to a staff held vertically at the
pegs.
By
substitution into the formula for selected pairs of observations,
the solution of simultaneous equations will give the factors

i.e.
D,
= ms, +
D =
Example 7.2
olite
Stadia Readings
4-106
6-146 7-150 8-154
K.
K
K
The following readings were taken with
on to a vertical
2-613 3-359
m s
m and
a vernier theod-
staff:
Vertical Angle
Horizontal Distance
150
ft
500'
200
ft
Calculate the tacheometric constants.
362
D = m
(4-106 - 2-613) +
= l*493m
D2 = m
+K
= 150
=150
(8-154 - 6-146) cos2
5+ Kcos 5
= 2-008 mx 0-99620* + 0-996 20 K

= 1-992 76
m+
= 200
= 200
0-99620
= 200
Solving these two equations simultaneously gives
m =
K
N.B.
i.e.
100-05
0-7
(say 100)
ft
The three readings at each staff station should produce a check,

Middle-Upper = Lower-Middle
3-359 - 2-613 = 0-746
4-106 - 3-359 = 0-747
7-150-6-146 = 1-004
8*154-7-150 = 1-004
Inclined Sights
7.3
The
staff
may be held
(a)
normal to the line of sight or
(b) vertical.
7.31 Staff normal to the line of sight (Fig. 7.2)
Fig. 7.2 Inclined sights with staff normal
As
before,
but
D = ms
=
=
i.e.
+ K
Dcos0+ SB,
Dcos0+ BE sin Q
= (ms +
K)cos6+ BE
(7.1)
sin
(9
N.B.
BE = hz = staff reading of middle line of diaphragm. BB,
- ve when 6 is a depression.
Vertical difference
V = Dsin0
(7.2)
is
(7.3)
363
TACHEOMETRY
V = (ms + K) sin0
i.e.
As
K may
the factor
be neglected generally,
= ms cos 6 +
V = ms
If
(7.4)
BE
sin
(7.5)
sin
(7.6)
the height of the instrument to the trunnion axis is
middle staff reading
ft
h^
and the
,then the difference in elevation

2
h,V-h z cosd
(7.7)
Setting the staff normal to the line of sight is not easy in practice and
more common
it is
7.32
to
use the vertical
staff.
Staff vertical (Fig. 7.3)

S*Ay\ A
B
V
0^
^Ke
/r
-<3?r
^^
V
10 HBr
H
/>i
*(ff%
Fig. 7.3 Inclined sights with staff vertical
As
before
= ms, +
= mC4,C,) +
i.e.
but
AC
thus
are the staff readings
m(AC
cos0) + K
/k
(assuming BAÂ =
BC,C =
= ms cos
H
Also
It
90)
(7.8)
DcosS
ms cos z 8 + K cos
(7.9)
V = Dsintf
= ms sin
Also
V = H
tan
(9
cos
+ K sin
(7.10)
(7.11)
can be readily seen that the constant K =

simplifies the equations.
Therefore the equations are generally modified to
364
= ms cos 6
V = V2 ms
If it is felt that
sin
(7.12)
26
(7.13)
the additive factor is required, then the following
approximations are justified:
+k) cos 2 6
V = y2 (ms+K) sin 26
H
The
= (ms
(7.14)
(7.15)
now becomes
difference in elevation
K V-h 2
(7.16)
Example 7.3 A line of third order levelling is run by theodolite, using tacheometric methods with a staff held vertically. The usual three
staff readings, of centre and both stadia hairs, are recorded together
A second value of height difference is

found by altering the telescope elevation and recording the new readings by the vertical circle and centre hair only.
with the vertical angle (V.A.)
The two values
of the height differences are then meaned.
pute the difference in height between the points
A and B
Com-
from the
following data:
The
stadia constants are
multiplying constant =
100.
0.
additive constant
Foresig hts
Backsights
V.A.
+ 002'
V.A.
Staff
Staff
(all
6-20
Remarks
measurements in
Point
Point
ft)
4-65
3-10
+ 020'
6-26
-018'
10-20
6-60
3-00
000'
10-37
(Aide memoir e:
Height difference between the two ends of the theod= 100s sin0 cos0, where s = stadia intercept and 6 = V.A.)
olite ray
(R.I.C.S.)
V = 100 s
=
To A,
V =
=
sin 6 cos 6
50 s sin 2 6
50(6-20 - 3*10) sin 004'
+0-18
ft
TACHEOMETRY
365
+0*18
-4-65
Difference in level from instrument axis
-4-47
Check reading
V = 50(3-10) sin040'
= +1-80
+ 1-80
-6-26
-4-46
-4-465
mean
V = 50(10-20 -3-00)
B,
sin 036'
-3-76
- 3-76
- 6-60
- 10-36
Check level
-10*37
mean
Difference in level
A-B
-10*365
- 10-365
- 4-465
- 5-900 ft
Example 7.4
station
The readings below were obtained from an instrument

using an anallatic tacheometer having the following con-
stants: focal length of the object glass 8 in., focal length of the
anallatic lens 4*5 in., distance
between object glass and anallatic lens

7 in., spacing of outer cross hairs 0*0655 in.
Instrument
at
Height of
To Bearing Vertical Stadia Readings Remarks
Instrument
4*93ft
Angle
A
C
6930'
+5
15930'
2-16/3-46/ 4-76 Staff held

7-32/9-34/11-36 vertical
for both
observations
Boreholes were sunk at A,B and C to expose a plane bed of rock,

the ground surface being respectively 39-10, 33-68 and 18-45 ft
above'
the rock plane. Given that the reduced level of B was 120*02
ft., determine the line of steepest rock slope relative to the direction
AB.
(L.U.)
366
By Eq. (4.36),
/ =
/,
8in
- 4-5 in
x = 7 in
i
Then
the multiplying factor
= 0*0655 in
//,
m=
8x4*5
0-065 5(8 + 4-5-7)
= 99-93 (say 100)
At station B:
To
= 100 x 2-60 cos 2 5= 258*02ft
A,
V = 258-02
.'.
To
tan 5
= +22-57 ft
Level of A = 120*02 + 22*57 + 4*93 - 3*46 = 144*06 ft
C,
= 100 x 4*04
= 404*00
=0
V
.'.
ft
Level of C = 120*02 +
+ 4*93 - 9'34 = 115-61
ft
Dip
Surface level 144-06

Depth
39-10
Bed level
104-96
Surface
Depth
Bed
level
120-02
33-68
86-34
level
Surface level 115-61

18-45
97-16
Depth
Bed level
Fig. 7.4
Gradient
AB
is
(104*96 - 86*34) in 258*02 ft
18*62
At point
in Fig. 7.4, i.e.
on line
in
AB
258*02 ft
where the bed level is that of
C,
Difference in level
AC
= 104*96 - 97*16 = 7*80
Length
AX
= 7*80 x
258*02
18*62
= 108 *09 ft

TACHEOMETRY
BX
Angle
In triangle
= 258-02 - 108*09 = 149-93 ft
= 159 30' - 6930'
BCX (a)
Angle
BXC,
367
tan"
= 9000'
BX/BC
= tan" 149-93/404-0
1
= 20 22'
Therefore the bearing of
full
dip is perpendicular to the level line CX,
i.e.
= Bearing
AB
+ a
= 6930'+ 180+2022'
= 26952'
7.4
The Effect
of Errors in Stadia Tacheometry
7.41 Staff tilted from the normal (Fig. 7.5)
Fig. 7.5 Staff tilted from the normal

If
the angle of
tilt
is small
~ AC
4,C,
then
Thus
C,
i.e.
the ratio of error e =
= s
= A 2 C2 cosB
s,
cosjS
= l-cos/8
Thus the
error e is independent of the inclination
7.42 Error
in the
cos
0.
with the staff normal
angle of elevation
H
N
(7.17)
BE
sin
(9
368
Differentiating gives
= - D sin d +
BE
cos Q
86
8H
7.43
(-D
sintf
BE
cos 0) Si
(7.18)
Staff tilted from the vertical (Fig. 7.6)
Fig. 7.6 Staff tilted from the vertical
Consider the staff readings on the vertical staff at A, B and C,

If the staff is inclined at an angle /S away from the observer, the position of the staff normal to the line of collimation will be at
when normal to the collimation at the interXY when vertical and
Fig. 7.6.
X^
section with the inclined staff.
Assuming
that
BXX,
BYC
= B,X,A, = B,Y,Y
90
then, with angle 6 an elevation,
XY
X,y,
Assuming
that
AC
= s cos Q
cos d
= 4,C, cos(6>+/3) = s^cos(d +
XY ~
X, Y,
s cos
fi)
then
s =
s,
cos (0 +
/S )
s,
cos (0 +
/3)
COS0
(7.19)
the reading s on the staff if it had been held vertically compared

with the actual reading s, taken on to the inclined staff.
i.e.
Similarly;
if
the staff is inclined towards the observer,

s,
cos (0 -
COS0
/S)
(7.20)
TACHEOMETRY
If
sense,
369
the angle 6 is a depression the equations have the opposite

i.e.
s,
Away
cos (0 - B)
from the observer s =
(7.21)
COS0
^
Towards
,
s =
the observer
cos
(.0
fi)
'
(7.22)
cos 8
Thus the general expression may be written as

s,
B)
1Ti
cos (0
(7.23)
cos 6
The
error e in the horizontal length
due to reading
instead of s is
s,
thus shown as
True length =
HT
= ms cos 2 6
ms, cos (d 8)
cos 2
(7.24)
cos 6
HA
= ms, cos 2
H T -HA
= ms. cos 2
Apparent length =
Error e =
^^
error
expressed as a ratio =
cos 6
The
~-
B)
Tcos (6
(9
(7.25)
J
Hf H A
ms. cos2 d
8)
cos (6
cos 6
ms^ cos 2
cos(0 B)
-
(7.26)
cos
cos 6 cos
yS
+ sin 6 sin
/3
- cos 6
cos 6
= cos B tan
If /3 is
small, <5, then e =
sin
/3
tantf.
Example 7.5
In a tacheometric survey an intercept of 2*47 ft. was

recorded on a staff which was believed to be vertical and the vertical
angle measured on the theodolite was 15.
Actually the staff which
was 12 ft long was 5 in out
of plumb and leaning backwards
away from
the instrument position.
Assuming
it
was an
anallatic instrument with a multiplying con-
stant of 100, what would have been the error in the computed horizontal
distance?
370
what conditions will the effect of not holding the staff vertical
same time assuming it to be vertical be most serious? What
alternative procedure can be adopted in such conditions ?
In
but at the
Fig. 7.7
By
Eq. (7.19),
s,
cos (6 +
j8)
COS0
-1
/8
Thus
= tan
5712 x 12
= 159'20"
=
2-47 cos (15 + 1 59' 20")

cos 15
= 2-4456
ByEq.(7.12),
= ms cos 6
8H = m cos 2
8s
= 100 x cos 2 15 x (2-47 - 2'4456)

= 2-44 cos 2 15
= 2-28
ft
Alternatively,
By
Eq.(7.25),
8H = ms cos 2a
J cos(g +
2
247 cos
/B )
cos 1659'20'
-[
cos 15
230-130 3 [0-99009-1]
2-28
ft
COS0
TACHEOMETRY
371
Accuracy of the vertical angle 6 to conform to the overall

accuracy (Assuming an accuracy of 1/1000)
7.44
From
= ms cos 2 6
8H = -2mscos 6 sin 6 86
3H
2ms cos d sin d 86
1
differentiation gives
For the ratio
ms cos 2 6
1000
cos 6
86 =
2 sin0 x 1000
1
cot 6
2000
Tf
If
206 265 cot 30
rtQ
(9=30,
86 =
seconds
= 178 seconds;
i.e.
3 minutes
N.B.
1 in 1000 represents 0*1 in 100 ft. The staff is graduated to
0*01 ft but as the multiplying factor is usually 100 this would represent 1ft.
If estimating to the nearest 0*01
Thus taking the average
error
ft
the
maximum
as 0*0025
error
= 0*005
two
for sighting the
stadii,
Average error = 0*0025
V2
= 0*0035
Error in distance (H) due to reading
The
effect is greater as 6
Thus,
if
m =
100,
8H
H
If
= 0*35 ft
= 100
8H ^
H
8V =
8V
~V
8V
1000
ft
300
V = D
From
If
0*0035 m, cos 6
sin 6
D cos 6 86
Dcos6 86
= cot0 86
D sin 6
77= 77^^= c ^6 86:
when
45,
86 =
206 265
'
= 206 sec = 3min 26 sec
ft.

372
when 6 =
10,
206 265 tan 10
3d
206 265 x 0-176 3

1000
1000
= 36 sec
7.45
The
(i.e.
effect of the stadia intercept assumption
B&C
assuming BAÂ =
= 90, Fig. 7.8)

90-(8+oc)
90- Oi
Fig. 7.8
Let the multiplying factor
Then
m=
100
206265
'a = tan
200
sec
200
= 017'11'35"
= 034'23"
la
s
In triangle
BA A
sin [90
- (6 + a)
sin (90 + a)
s
cos (d + a)
s,
cos a
In triangle
BC^
BC,
s2
cos a
-a)
cos(0-a)
s 2 (cos# cos
at
(cos 6 cos a - sin 6 sin a )
= s (cos
i4
1
=
1
(s,
sin a)
s,(cos 6 cos a + sin
sin a )
cos a
cos a
+ sin
cos a
cos a
s,
(cos d cos a - sin 6 sin a )
s2 sin[9O-(0-a)]
sin (90
A^B =
- sin
+ s 2 ) cos
tan a) + s (cos
2
+ (s 2 - s,)(sin
+ sin 6 tan a )
tana)
(7.27)
TACHEOMETRY
Thus the accuracy of assuming A C^ =
ond term (s 2 - s,) (sin 6 tana).
X
373
AC
cos 6 depends on the sec-
Example 7.6 (see Fig. 7.8)

If
6 = 30,
FB
= 1000
ft.,
m=
^B
100 and
BC
0,
= 5 0ft
'
loo
<
i4,B
s.
=
- sin
cos
tan a
5-0
0-866 - 0-5 x 0*005

5-0
0-866 - 0-0025
5-790 4
BC,
Similarly
cos 6 + sin
tan a
5-0
0-866 + 0-0025
= 5-757
Therefore the effect of ignoring the second term

(s
-s;) (sin
tana) = (5-790 4 - 5-757
1)
(0-002 5)
- -0-033 3x0-0025
5
= -8-325 x 10~
The inaccuracy
in the
measurement
FB
thus
= -8-325 x 10~ 2
~
and the effect
Thus the
0-1
ft
in
1000
ft
is negligible.
relative accuracy is very dependent on the ability to es-
timate the stadia readings. For very short distances the staff must be
read to 0*001 ft, whilst as the distances increase beyond clear read-
ing distance the accuracy will again diminish.
Example 7.7
A theodolite has a tacheometric multiplying constant of 100 and

an additive constant of zero. The centre reading on a vertical staff
held at a point B was 7*64 ft when sighted from A. If the vertical
374
A B 634*42 ft,
angle was +25 and the horizontal distance

the other staff readings and
show
calculate
that the two intercept intervals are
not equal.
Using these values, calculate the level of B

A.O.D. and the height of the instrument 4*50 ft.
if
is
126*50
ft
(L.U.)
90-(B + oe)
90+<*
90-otT
Horizontal distance
mcos 2 d
100 cos 2 25
= 7-72 ft
Inclined distance
HD sec
= 634-42 sec 25
= 700-00
ft
= 3-50
s n cosa
(sine rule)
cos (0 + a)
3-50 cos 017'11"
cos 25 17 '11"
= 3-87
TACHEOMETRY
cos a
s
Similarly,
375
(sine rule)
S2
cos(0-a)
3-50 cos 017'11"
cos 2442'49"
= 3^85
Check
3-87 + 3-85
= 7-72 ft
7-64
Staff readings are
Upper
7-64
-3-85
+ 3-87
and
11-51
Lower
3-79
-3-79
Check
7-72
Vertical difference
HDtand
= 634-42 tan 25
= +295-84 ft
A =
Level of
126-50
+ 295-84
+
4-50
+ 426-84
7-64
B = +419-20
Level of
Example 7.8 Two sets of tacheometric readings were taken from an

instrument station A, the reduced level of which was 15-05 ft., to a
staff station B.
P multiplying constant 100, additive constant

14-4 in, staff held vertical.
(a) Instrument
Q multiplying constant 95, additive constant

15-0 in, staff held normal to line of sight.
(b) Instrument
Inst
At
To
A
A
B
B
Height of
Inst.
Vertical Angle
4-52
30
4-47
30
Stadia Readings
2-37/3-31/4-27
What should be the stadia readings with instrument Q?
To find level of B (using instrument P)
By
Eq. (7.10),
V = ms
sin B cos
6+
sin 6
(L.U.)
376
V,
= 100 x (4-27 - 2-37) sin 30 cos 30 +1-2 sin 30
= 190 x 0-5x0-8660+ 1-2x0-5

= 82-27 + 0-60 = 82-87
By Eq.
(7.9),
tf,
= ms cos
ft
cos
= 190 x 0-866 03 2 + 1-2 x 0-866 03:

=
V,=
Also by Eq. (7.11),
142-49+ 1-03 - 143-52 ft

//1
tan0
= 143-52x0-57735 = 82-86
(Check)
ft
= 15-05 + Ht of inst + V - middle
Level of B
staff reading
= 15-05 +4-52+ 82-87 -3-31 = 99-13
ft
Using instrument Q
In
Fig 7. 2,
V = (H - BE
sin 6) tan 6
V2 = (143-52 -
BE
sin 30) tan 30
BE
BE
= 143-52 x 0-577 35 = 82-86 - 0-28868
Level of
= 15-05 + 4-47 + V2 -
BE
x 0-5 x 0-577 35
= 99-13
cos
= (82-86 -0-288 68 BE) -0-866 03
-1-15471
BE
= 79-61
=-3-25
BE
BE
= -3-25
1-154 71
middle reading
By Eq.
H2
(7.5),
= ms cos 6 +
BE
= 95 x 0-866 03
2-81
sin d
s+ 2-81x0-5 =
= 82-27 s = 143-52-
143-52
1-40
142-12
s =
= 1-727
82-27
/2 s = 0-86
'.Readings are 2-81 0-86 =
1-95/2-81/3-67
Three points A,B and C lie on the centre line of an

Example 7.9
existing mine roadway. A theodolite is set up at 6 and the following
observations were taken on to a vertical staff.
TACHEOMETRY
Staff at
A
C
If
Horizontal
Vertical
377
Staff
Readings
Collimation
Stadia
Circle
Circle
00210'20"
+210'
6-83/4-43
5-63
13524'40"
-124'
7*46/4-12
5-79
the multiplying constant is 100 and the additive constant zero
calculate:
(a) the radius of the circular
curve which will pass through A,B
and C.
(b) the gradient of the track laid from
to
if
the instrument
height is 5-16.
(R.I.C.S.)
Fig. 7.10
Assumed bearing
BA =
BC =
13524'40"
Angle
ABC
Angle
AOC
= 360 - 2(133 14 '20")

=
Line
00210'20"
133 14' 20"
9331 20"
,
AB
Horizontal length (H) =
ms cos Q
2
= 100(6-83-4-43) cos 2 10'
= 240 cos2 2 10'

- 239-66
ft
378
Vertical difference (V) =
tand
= 239-66 tan 2 10'
=
Line
+9-07
ft
BC
H =
2
100(7-46 -4-12) cos 124'
= 333-80 ft
V = 333-80 tan
=
In triangle
8-16
1 24'
ft
ABC
Tan
A-C
a-
A+ C
c
tan
2
a + c
333-80 - 239-66
180 - 133 14 '20"

tan
333-80 + 239-66
94-14
tan 2322'50'
573-46
A- C
= 403'35"
A
C
^^
-i-
= 2322'50"
A =
AB
sin
27 26 '25"
= 1919'15"
= 2R
(sine rule)
239-66
R =
2 sin 19 19 '15"
= 362-18 ft
Differences in level
BA =
5-16 + 9-07-5-63
= +8-60
Length of arc
BC
= 5-16-8-16-5-79
= -8-79
AC
AC
= 362-18 x 9331' 20" rad
17-39
= 362-18 x 1-632 271

= 591-18 ft
TACHEOMETRY
379
Gradient = 17-39 ft in 591-18 ft
Example 7.10
1 in
34
The following observations were taken during
a tacheo-
metric survey using the stadia lines of a theodolite (multiplying const-
ant 100, no additive constant.)

Station Set
Station
at
Observed
A
C
Calculate
Readings
Vertical
Bearing
5-62 6-92 8-22
Angle
+532'
02636'
3-14 4-45 5-76
-646'
17418'
Staff
AB and BC.
between A and C.
(a) the horizontal lengths

(b) the difference in level
(c) the horizontal length
Line
AC.
BA
s =
Horizontal length =
8-22-5-62 =
2-60
100 s cos 6
= 100 x 2-60 cos2
*/
5<D 32'
257-58
Vertical difference
$/
y
ft
HtanO
i
1
= 257-58 tan 532'
if
+ 24-95 ft
Line
BC
s
= 5-76-3-14 = 2-62
H = 100x2-62
8< ( Jl47 # 42'

\ *
258-36
V = 258-36
ft
\
tan 646'
-*
>
\*
-30-66 ft
^*
'
|
jo
\46'
\&
+ 24-95
- 6-92
+ 18-03
above
below
-30-66
- 4-45
-35-11
c
Fig. 7.11
Difference i n level
A-C
53' 14 ft
380
In triangle
ABC,
Tan
A-C
180 - 14742
258-36 - 257-58
ta "
258-36 + 257-58
A-C
001'
A + C
1609'
A =
Length
AC
16 10'
= 258-36 sinl4742' cosec 1610' = 4 95-82
Exercises 7(a)
1.
wide.
and
A
A
are two points on opposite banks of a river about 100 yd
level with an anallatic telescope and a constant of 100 is set
up at
on the line QP produced, then at B on the line PQ produced
and the following readings taken on to a graduated staff held vertically
at P and Q.
What
is the true difference in level
between
and
Q and what
is
the collimation error of the level expressed in seconds of arc, there
being 206 265 seconds in a radian.

Staff readings in feet
From
To
5-14
4-67
3-27
1-21
10-63
8-51
6-39
5-26
4-73
4-20
Upper Stadia
Collimation
Lower Stadia
4-20
below ground
(I.C.E. Ans. 3-62 ft; 104" above horizontal)
Readings taken with a tacheometer that has a multiplying const2.

ant of 100 and an additive constant of 2*0 ft were recorded as follows:
Instrument at
Staff at
Vertical Angle
3000' elevation
Stadia Readings
Remarks
5-73, 6-65, 7-57
Vertical
staff
Although the calculations were made on the assumption that the

was vertical, it was in fact made at right angles to the collimation.
Compute the errors, caused by the mistake, in the calculation of
staff
horizontal and vertical distances from the instrument to the foot of the
Give the sign of each error.

the collimation is not horizontal, is it preferable to have the
staff vertical or at right angles to the collimation? Give reasons for
staff.
If
TACHEOMETRY
your preference.
(I.C.E.
Ans.
381
Horizontal error -24*7
Vertical error -13'2
ft,
The following readings were taken with an
3.
ft)
anallatic tacheometer
set up at each station in turn and a staff held vertically on the forward
station, the forward station from D being A.
Station
Height of
Stadia Readings
Inclination (elevation + ve)
Instrument
A
B
C
4-43
4-93 3-54 2-15
+ 054'
4-61
5-96 4-75 3-54
-254'
4-74
5-15 3-72 2-29
4-59
6-07 4-64 3-21
+ 248'
-148'
The reduced level of A is 172-0 ft and the constant of the tacheometer is 100.
Determine the reduced levels of B, C and D, adjusted to close
on A, indicating and justifying your method of adjustment.
(I.C.E. Ans.
177-5; 165-4; 180-7)
The
focal lengths of the object glass and anallatic lens are 5 in

and 4y2 in respectively. The stadia interval was 0-lin.
4.
field test with vertical staffing yielded the following:

Staff
Staff
Vertical
Measured Horizontal
Instrument
Station
Station
Intercept
Q
R
Angle
+724'
Distance
2-30
6-11
-442'
602-3
(ft)
224-7
Find the distance between the object glass and anallatic lens.
How far and in what direction must the latter be moved so that the
multiplying constant of the instrument is to be 100 exactly.
(L.U. 0*02 in away from objective)
5.
Sighted horizontally a tacheometer reads
= 6'71 and r3 = 8'71
on a vertical staff 361*25 ft away. The focal length of the object glass
is 9 in. and the distance from the object glass to the trunnion axis 6 in.
Calculate the stadia interval.
0*05 in)
(I.C.E.
Ans.
r,
6.
With a tacheometer stationed at
points, A, B, and
nstrument
To
at
C as
Vertical
Stadia
Angle
Readings
-430'
sights were taken on three
follows:
7-93/6-94/5-95
Remarks
R.L. of
A = 357-09 (Staff
nor-
mal to line of sight
000'
4-55/3-54/2-54
R.L. of
+ 230'
8-85/5-62/2-39
Staff vertical
B= 375-95 (Staff
vertical)
382
The telescope was of the draw-tube type and the

was 10 in. For the sights to A and
the object glass
focal length of
J5,
which were of
equal length, the distance of the object glass from the vertical axis
was 4*65 in.
Derive any formulae you use. Calculate (a) the spacing of the
cross hairs in the diaphragm and (b) the reduced level of C.
(L.U. Ans. 0-102 in.; 401-7
ft)
The following readings were taken on a vertical staff with a tacheometer fitted with an anallatic lens and having a constant of 100:
7.
Staff Station
A
B
Bearing
2730'
Stadia Readings
20730'
2-54 6*00 9-46
Vertical Angle
+ 800'
-500'
2-82 4*50 6*18
A and
Calculate the reduced levels of the ground at
mean slope between A and
(L.U.
8.
B, and the
B.
Ans.
+41-81; -66-08;
1 in
9*42)
Tacheometric readings were taken from a survey station S to a

two pegs A and B, and the following readings
staff held vertically at
were recorded:
Point
Vertical Circle
Horizontal Circle
Stadia Readings
6200'
+ 4 10 '30"
4-10/6-17/8-24
15200'
-505'00"
2-89/6-17/9-45
The multiplying constant

tive constant zero.
of the instrument
was 100 and
Calculate the horizontal distance from
the addi-
to
and the height of peg A above the axis level of the instrument.
Ans.
770-1 ft; 23-89
(I.CE.
ft)
In a tacheometric survey made with an instrument whose constants

were f/i:*= 100, (f+d) = 1*5, the staff was held inclined so as to be
normal to the line of sight for each reading. How is the correct inclination assured in the field?
Two sets of readings were as given below. Calculate the gradient
between the staff stations C and D and the reduced level of each.
The reduced level of station A was 125*40 ft.
9.
Instrument
Staff
Height of
at
at
Instrument
C
D
4-80
Azimuth
Vertical
Stadia Readings
Angle
44
97
+ 430'
-400'
3-00/4-25/5-50
3-00/4-97/6-94
(L. U.
Ans.
1 in 6-57)
TACHEOMETRY
(a)
10.
383
telescope with tacheometric constants
and c
is set
up
A and
sighted on a staff held vertically at B. Assuming the usual

relationship D = ms + c derive expressions for the horizontal and
at
vertical distances
(b)
An
between A and B.
instrument at A, sighted on to a vertical staff held at
and C, in turn gave the following readings:

Sight
If
Horizontal Circle
Vertical Circle
0520'
+ 429'00"
1-45/2-44/3-43
9520'
-011'40"
2-
the instrument constants are
of the straight line
m=
Staff
Readings
(ft)
15/3- 15/4- 15
100, c = 0, calculate the gradient
BC.
(N.U.
1 in
16-63)
Subtense systems
7.5
7.51 Tangential method

angles a and /S)
Ans.
(with fixed intercept s and variable vertical
Fig. 7.12 Tangential method
From
Fig. 7.12
DC
AD
AC
= //tana
= s + y =
H (tan
H
7
Alternatively, as
/8
- tana)
s
=
tan
/3
(7.28)
- tan a
= /3-a,
///cos a
sin
tan
7
H
sin(90-j8)
= s cos a cos
/8
cosec
(7.29)
384
This equation (7.29) was modified by M. Geisler (Survey Review, Oct.

1964) as follows:
cos a cos
siny
(y + a)
cos (2 a + y) + cos
siny
+ cos y) -
- cos (2 a + y)
siny
2
-i- - sin
cos ay
y
cos L
2 sin
2
= -s cot - s cot2
As
is small,
'
y ^ 1.
cos2 -^
y
a+-y =
Also
= -~s cot -
ys
cot-j sin
= -^scot^- (l-sin 2 0)
cot cos 2
(7.30)
Alternatively, the above equation
may be derived by reference
to
Fig. 7.13.
H x=
but
s,
^
s
where s
s cot~2~
i
cos 6 (assuming
= î C
A,AB and BC C
X
similar figures)
and
= H.cosd
1
y cos 2 6
s cot
7^
.2/
y
-^s cot-~
1
N.B.
In the term
sin (a +
COS
as above
~2
4r
cot -^ is very large,
are
TACHEOMETRY
385
Fig. 7.13
so
that
any approximation to cos 2 Z
is greatly
magnified and the
following approximation is preferred:
As
before
= rr, cos a cos (
siny
s
sin
cos
y+
K)~K)
\
II
cos 20 +
a)
(-?)
cosy
siny
but
cosy
r ~i
["
cos
20+1 1
siny
s cos 2 ^
siny
cosecycos 2
(7.31)
Geisler suggests that by using special targets on the staff, thus

ensuring the accuracy of the value of s, and the use of a 1" theodolite, a relative accuracy up to 1/5000 may be attained. He improved the
efficiency of the operation by using prepared tables and graphs relative to his equation.
The accuracy
(1)
(2)
An
An
of the
method
is affected by:
error in the length of the intercept s.

error in the vertical angle.
(3) Tilt of the staff from the vertical.
386
(1)
Error in the intercept s
This depends on
(a) error in the graduation, (b) the
degree of
precision of the target attachment.
8H
^-^
(7.32)
s
(2)
Error in the vertical angle
From Eq.
(7.28),
tan
- tan a
jS
+ s sec a 8a
(tan
/3
- tan a )
-s sec 2 ^
/8 8B
8H = ,
P
(tanjS-tana)2
total r.m.s. error
8H
2
= y/8H* + S/J
Jseâ&^ + sec^S/S2
R _
- tan^
tana) 2
"
If
5a
/'fan
(tan/3
= 83,
B
s 5a
-r.
(tan
4
4
:
B]
a - tan a)r;2 [sec a + sec ^
-^f.[sec4 a +
If
(7.33)
sec*
BY
(7.34)
a and B are small,

z
8H
yj2H 8a
V
(7.35)
Tilt of the staff
(3)
The
effect here is the
same as
=
that described in Section 7.43, i.e.
s,cos(0 B)
cos
where
B=
tilt
Example 7.11
of the staff from the vertical.
theodolite
was set over
station A, with a reduced
level of 148-73 ft A.O.D., the instrument height being 4-74ft.
Obser-
vations were taken to the 10 ft and 2 ft marks on a staff held vertical

at three stations with the following results:
Instrument Station
Station Observed
Vertical Angles
Top
A
A
A
B
C
D
+154'
Bottom
+330'
-224'
-515'
-1210'
+910'
TACHEOMETRY
A
Find the distance from
to
387
each station and also their reduced
levels.
(E.M.E.U.)
By Eq.
(7.28),
AB
Horizontal distance
=
tan
- tan a
/8
tan910' -tan330'
8
0-100 21
= Afitan330'
Vertical distance
Level of
= 4-883 ft
= 4-88 + 4-74+ 148-73 -2-00 ft

= 156-35 ft
Horizontal distance
AC
A.O.D.
8
tanl54' +tan224'
106-5=1
ft
0-07509
= -106-55 tan 2 24'
Vertical distance
Level of
148-73 + 4-74 - 4-47 - 2-00

147-00
Horizontal distance
AD
= -4-47 ft
A.O.D.
ft
tanl210'-tan5 o 15'
8
= 64-53
ft
0-12371
= -64-53 tan 1210'
Vertical distance
Level of
= -13-91 ft
148-73 + 4-74 - 13-91 - 2-00
137-56 ft A.O.D.
ft
Alternative solutions
ByEq.(7.29),
H
Horizontal distance
AD
8cos910' cos330'
^^^
- 330
:
,.,-,
sin (9 10
8 x 0-987 23 x 0-998 14
0-098 74
= 79-84 ft
or by Eq. (7.30),
AB
2
x 8 x cot 250' x cos V2 (1240'
= 4cot250' cos 2 6 o 20'
388
4x20-2056x0-99390
= 79-84 ft
7.52
Horizontal subtense bar system (Fig. 7.14)
Theodolite
Horizontal angle
Fig. 7.14
(oc)
measured by the theodolite
Horizontal subtense bar system
The horizontal bar of known length b, usually 2 metres, is set

perpendicular to the line of sight TB. Targets at A and C are
successively sighted and the angle a, which is measured in the
horizontal plane, recorded.
The
horizontal distance TB, =
is
cot
2
If
then obtained
a
-
(7.36)
the bar is 2 metres long,
H
The horizontal angle a
= cot metres
is not
(7.37)
dependent on the altitude of the bar
relative to the theodolite.
N.B.
As
the bar is horizontal, readings on one face only are necess-
ary.
Factors affecting the accuracy of the result are

(1)
The
effect of an error in the subtended angle a
By Eq.(7.36),
b
a
j cot -
TACHEOMETRY
389
b
2 tan
If
a is small, then
tan
radians.
-b
(7.38)
Differentiating with respect to a,
SOa -
(7-39)
a=ft
but
8Ha =
lhe error ratio
-rr-
(7 40)
(7.41)
where 8a and a are expressed

If
-uya
in the
same
units.
8a = +1" and b = 2m,
then by Eq. (7.40),

8//
metres
2 x 206 265
metreS
8H =
412^0
* Slfôo
metres
(742)
(743)
Example 7.12 To what accuracy should the subtense angle a be

measured to a bar 2 metres long if the length of sight is approximately
50 metres and a fractional error of 1/10 000 must not be exceeded?
By Eq.
(7.41),
SH
8a
10000
5a =
10000
b
but
8a
=ll
10000//
390
Example
7.
13
accurately must
If
it
2 x 206 265
ÔOOOxSO
+ 0-825
8600
^5
"
the measured angle a is approximately 2, how

be recorded if the fractional linear error must not
exceed 1/10 000?
8H
8a
10000
8a =
2 x 3600
10 000
The
(2)
effect
an error
0-72"
in th e length
From Eq.(7.38),
a
8b
8Hb =
(7.44)
H
If
8b
(7.45)
the error ratio is not to exceed 1/10000, then
,?3 = k
As
the bar = 2 metres
The
bar is usually
10000
= 2000 mm, 8b is limited to 0-2 mm.
made
of invar steel and guaranteed by the manu0-05 mm. It requires a change of 20C for these limits
and thus for most uses the bar is considered constant.
facturer to
(3)
The effect of an error in the orientation of the bar

Consider half the bar, Fig. 7. 15.
Fig.
7.
15
Orientation of the bar
TACHEOMETRY
Let the half bar
AB
of sight will thus be
AAi =
be rotated through an angle 6

assumed to be at A z
to
B.
The
line
2x
r,
sin- =
u
osm
.
AA
AA 2
391
sin
= 8H
sin
T
6
osin-^jsin ycos^- + cos-
j8
sin-|j-
sin -2
= b sinz x-cot + b sin-^ cos

2
P
bcot-~2f/
but
8H = 2H
Neglecting the second term as both
sin
and
J.
- +- sin0
6 are small,
2
-f =2sin -^
If
(7.46)
(7.47)
the relative accuracy is limited to 1/10000, then
10000
2sin
sin
2 -2-
4
5 x 10~
$ = 117'
As the bar usually has a sighting device, it can be oriented far

more accurately than to the above limit, and this non-rigorous analysis
shows that this effect can be ignored.
The accuracy of the whole system is thus entirely dependent on
the angle a
Assuming the angle a can be measured to 1" and the bar is 2
.
metres,
da
10000
a = 10000'
392
2 x 206 265
"
10000
metres
= 41-25m
For most practical purposes, for an accuracy of lcm, the distance can be increased to 75 metres.
To increase the range of the instrument various processes

used, and these are described in the next section.
Methods used
7.6
7.61 Serial measurement
in the.field
(Fig. 7.16)
Fig. 7.16
tj
may be
Serial
+h2
//,
measurement
...
cot
~2l[
By Eq.
(7.40),
H,
8H,
8a
Total r.m.s. error = y/2*(5H)
If ff,
T +cot f + -]
=H2
Hn
2SH
H;8a 2
+...
a,
= a 2 = an
\/n
and 8a, = 8a 2 = 8n
nz b
+H
8a
(7.49)
n^b
b = 2 metres,
Total
H2 8a
2
If
(7.48)
5a = 1" and
f/
n//,
8H =
2 x 206 265 x n
412 530 n 3
(7.50)
TACHEOMETRY
393
HZ
+
400000n
The
If
8H
error ratio
(7.51)
3/2
400000/x
5a = 1", b = 2 metres, n =
(7.52)
372
2 and
8H
~
= 1/10000
/7
then
10000
400000 2
7.62
400000x2-83
=
= 113 metres
10000
Auxiliary base measurement (Fig. 7.17)
For lines in excess of 150m, an auxiliary base of 20

be set out at right angles to the traverse line, Fig. 7.17.
Fig. 7.17
Angles a and
/3
30 m may
Auxiliary base measurement
are measured
a
b
cot
= }% cotjS
cot
~2
cotjS
Cot
(7.53)
(7.54)
Differentiating,
8Hn
bcotjS
Z?cosec
Sty =
5a
2
j3
5/3
394
b cot
Total r.m.s. error
If
a and
/8
8H
bcosec
5a
ft 8(3
(7.55)
are both small,
8a
8H =
a
(3
z
*
8fi
2
(7.56)
J
but
=
a/3
If
a =
/8
and 5a =
and as
-b
a =
j8,
and
H 2 8fi 2
J
# Sa
\/2
(7.58)
= -2-
H,
= s/(bH)
(7.59)
and
y/(bH)
8H
If
(7.57)
5j3,
8H =
As H
~H 2 8a
8H =
V2f/
3/2
VH
Sa
(7.60)
b = 2 metres and 8a = 1",
8H
(7.61)
206 265
and the fractional error
If
__ = 1/10 000,
" 206 265
(7.62)
TACHEOMETRY
y/H =
then
H
Hb
the sub-base
395
20-626 5
= 410 metres
= \/(2H)
= V(2x410)
= 28*7 metres
7.63
Central auxiliary base (Fig. 7.18)
For lines in excess of 400 metres, a double bay system may be

adopted with the auxiliary base in the middle.
Fig. 7.18
Length
TJ2
Central auxiliary base
= H, +
=
Hz
_
b
a +
b cot,ol
cot p.
cot cot /3
^ a.
j8,
and
j82
2'
= ^cot^[cota + cotaj
2
(7.63)
= *[cot# + cot/62 ]
a
(7.64)
If
are each small,
(7.65)
Differentiating,
"*.--#.
396
8Hn = --^r<5)3
2
2
a/3"2
2
Total t.m.s. error
8H =
y/{8fg +8H/3* + 8Hfi
(7.66)
If
a =
ft
= j^ and 5a = Sft =
<5/8 2
then
/fea
/2
\a
as\ (a
V6 b8a
but by Eq. (7.65)
(7.67)
2b
(ff,
a2
8H =
= #2)
lb
^/6H
/2
2f
3/2
ff
3/2
V3
fl
b8a
2
Sa
(7.68)
2yjb
If
b= 2m
and 5a = 1",
V3/T
2V2x 206 265

H3/2
(7.69)
336 818
,3/2
<5tf
z.
(7.70)
350 000
If
SH/ff = 1/10000,
8H
y/H
10000
The
auxiliary base
V^ H ~
35
Hb
f^
350000
1225 metres
= \/H
= 35 metres.

TACHEOMETRY
7.64
397
Auxiliary base perpendicularly bisected by the traverse line

(Fig. 7.19)
Fig. 7. 19
Here
Auxiliary base bisected by the traverse line
u
H
.a
cot
cot
/3,
and
62
H2
H + H2
cot
T
2 + cot
2 J
TCOtT cot- +
cot
cot
If
(7.71)
are all small,

"
"2
2a
/>[
li
^ Ii
"i
s/t
SB.
aff
5/Z/9
5a
8H3 =
(7.72)
=
"ft
398
cw, 2
Total r.m.s. error
8H =y/{Sf + 8Hp* +
SH/3,
MfeVl IT
If
a =
/3,
j8 2
and da =
(7.73)
= S&,,
8/3,
da
8H =
A ^
4
2
a 2
8a
Sa
V6 b8a
but
a =
2b
2b
J~H
8tf
b//
V6
2
3/z
3/2
3' 2
J/
V3
5a
3/2
8a
(7.74)
2V^
N.B.
This is the same value as
7.65
With two auxiliary bases (Fig. 7.20)
The
for the central auxiliary
auxiliary base f^ is extended twice to H.
Two
Fig. 7.20
Here
auxiliary bases
K6
= cot
//,
Hb
cotjS
cot<
base
(7.68).
TACHEOMETRY
If
/3
and
399
= cot cot /8 cot
(7.75)
= -cot/3 cot0
(7.76)
are all small,
SH =
6
a/80
ba
~a2 /80
b5/8
BHp =
a/3
bd</>
5fk *
Total r.m.s. error
a/30 2
8H = yJSHj +8Hp2 + SHj

b
l\8a
5/8
a/80/s/
If
a =
/8
and
5a =
then
//,
Hb
H,
, =
VftH
Hb
H
b
8H =
(7.77)
/S
,_
",
50'
= 50,
5/8
Hb
i.e.
= JUT
v
'
/35a
a */
V3 b8a
but
a =
8H
Jw
3
V3b5aH
b
4/3
4/3
/3
4/3,
V3/^ 5a
J/3
(7.78)
400
If
b= 2m
and da = 1",
y/3H
8H =
206 265 x
'\/2
A/3
(7.79)
150000
If
8H
=
H
1/10000,
8H
H
3/
*JH
10 000
150000
= 15
= 3375 metres
Hb
b_
a
1/3
and
w
r ,i/3
a/3
fi
= *
= 2
H'
2/3
H U3
= 1-5866 x 15
= 23'8 metres
7.66
The
auxiliary base used in between two traverse lines
(Fig. 7.21)
Fig. 7.21
Auxiliary base between two traverse lines
Hb
H.
-cot-
sinCft+fl,)
sin/3,
TACHEOMETRY
b
a
2 cot 7j sin
401
(j8,
0,)
(7.80)
sin/3,
bsinQ3 +
1
0,)
(7.81)
a sin
/3,
ft
2 cot g sin (p 2 + #2)
Similarly
=
sin
/32
fcsin(j32 +<9 2)
a sin
j8 2
Here the errors are not analysed as the lengths and angles are
variable.
Example 7.14
colliery base line
AB
is
unavoidably situated on
ground where there are numerous obstructions which prevent direct
measurement .It was decided to determine the length of AB by the

method illustrated in Fig. 7.22, where DE is a 50 metre band hung in
catenary with light targets attached at the zero and 50 metre marks.
From the approximate angular values shown, determine the maximum allowable error in the measurements of the angles such that the
projection of error due to these measurements does not exceed:
(a)
1/200000 of the actual length CD when computing

DE and the angle DCE and
CD
from
the length
(b)
AB when computing AB from

ACD, CDA, BDC, and DCB and the length DC.
calculation, assume that the length DC is free from
1/100 000 of the actual length

the angles
For this
(R.I.C.S.)
error.
^
A
S r
50m
'QOSvV
70^~ "^70/
i3>\
0(J
V.
70^_
fJO*^
c
Fig. 7.22
402
DAB
Assuming Angle DCE(a) = Angle

(a)
DC
DE
cot a
*
cosec a 8a
(-|)= /2 (180-2x70) =
1
The
error
8DC
DE
TU
The
error ratio
8DC
DC
DE cosec a 8a
DE cot a
8a
sin a cos a
200 000
206 265 x
8a =
Vi
sin 2a
200000
= 0-51566 sin 40 = 0-33 seconds

(say 1/3")
(b)
DC
AB
8ABR
546^
ft]
ft
cot
~J
C
cot-j
T+
ft ^
cosec y
2
5/8,
DC
ft
SB.
cosec
DC
Total error
SAB
cosec
1 5/3f +
but ft = ft and assuming 5ft = 5ft.
8A B =
The
SAB
error ratio
DC/2
2 cosec
cosec B/28B
DC/2 x
~AB
=
5/8
2
y/2
2 cot
0/2
V2 5/3
2 sin ft/2 cos jS/2
V25/3 _
=
sin/6
100000
206 265 sin 40

5/3
V2x
100000
= 0*94 seconds
4 ft
cosec
(say 1")
-8B%
20,
TACHEOMETRY
403
Exercises 7(b)
11.
(i)
What do you understand by systematic and accidental errors

and how do they affect the assessment of the
in linear measurement,
probable error?
Does the
error in the
measurement of a particular distance vary
in
proportion to the distance or to the square loot of the distance?

(ii) Assume you have a subtense bar the length of which is known
be exactly 2 metres (6*562 ft) and a theodolite with which horizontal
angles can be measured to within a second of arc. In measuring a
length of 2000 ft., what error in distance would you get from an angular
to
error of 1
second?
With the same equipment, how would you measure the distance of 2000 ft in order to achieve an accuracy of about 1/5000?
(Aide memoire:
1 second of arc = 1/206265 radians.)
(iii)
(I.C.E. Ans.
(ii)
2-95 ft
(a) When traversing with a 2 metre subtense bar, discuss the

methods which can be adopted to measure lines of varying length. Include comments on the relative methods of angular measurement by
repetition and reiteration.
(b) A bay length AB is measured with a subtense bar 2 metres
in length, approximately midway between and in line with AB.
The mean angle subtended at A = 127'00"
at B = 135'00"
12.
Calculate the length AB.
(E.M.E.U. Ans. 151-393 m)

13.
The base
AB
is to
be measured using a subtense bar of length
b and the double extension layout shown in the figure.

If the standard error of each of the two measured angles is + 8a
develop a formula for the proportional standard error of the base length.
Find the ratio a^
a 2 which will give the minimum proportional
:
standard error of the base length.
What assumptions have you made in arriving at your answers?
(R.I. C.S.)
404
14.
(a) Describe, with the aid of sketches, the principles of sub-
tense bar tacheometry.

(b) The sketch shows two adjacent lines of a traverse AB and
BD with a common sub-base BC.
Calculate the lengths of the traverse lines from the following data:
BAC
CBA
YBX
CDB
DBC
Angles
510'30"
= 6856'10"
156'00"
= 1254'20"
= 7318'40"
Length of bar 2 metres.

(E.M.E.U. Ans. AB, 631-96 m; BD, 264-78 m)
vi
Not to scale
Fig. 7.24
15.
Describe the 'single bay* and 'double bay' methods of measuring

use of the subtense bar.
Show that for a subtense bar
linear distance by
L =
where
L =
cot
cf>/2
the horizontal distance between stations,
S = length of subtense
<f>
bar,
= angle subtended by targets at the theodolite.
Thereafter show that if S = 2 metres and an error of A< is made

measurement of the subtended angle, then
in the
AL
L
where
AL
is the
Assuming an
= ~
A0L
2
corresponding error in the computed length.

error of lsec(A<) in the
measurement of the sub-
tended angle what will be the fractional error at the following lengths?
(a) 50 metres (b) 100 metres (c) 500 metres.
(N.U. Ans. (a) 1/8250; (b) 1/4125; (c) 1/825.)
TACHEOMETRY
405
Exercises 7(c) (General)
The following readings were taken with a theodolite set over a
16.
B and
station A, on to a staff held vertically on two points
Inst. St.
Vertical Circle
Stadia Readings
3359'55"
Reading
+1048'
8-44 6-25 4-06
20955'21"
- 405'
7-78 6-95 6-12
Horizontal Circle
Reading
A
A
C.
Staff
St.
B
C
the instrumental constant is 100 and there is no additive conBC and the difference in
If
stant; calculate the horizontal distance
elevation between
C.
Ans.
(E.M.E.U.
587*48
Readings were taken on a vertical staff held
17.
B and
ft;
93*11
at points A, B,
with a tacheometer whose constants are 100 and
0.
If
ft)
and
the horizon-
distances from instrument to staff were respectively 153, 212,
and
and the vertical angles +5, +6 and -5, calculate the staff
intercepts. If the middle-hair reading was 7*00 ft in each case what
was the difference in level between A, B and C?
(L.U. Ans. 7-77/7-00/6-23; 8-07/7-00/5-93; 8-50/7-00/5-50; A-B.
tal
298
ft,
+ 8-88;
B-C.
-48-30)
A theodolite has a tacheometric multiplying constant of 100 and

18.
an additive constant of zero. When set 4*50 ft above a station B, the
following readings were obtained:
Station
Sight
Horizontal
A
C
are
E 546-2 N
Top
Middle
3-80
7-64
Bottom
02821'00"
2030'
08203'00"
The co-ordinates of
Circle
Circle
at
Stadia Readings
Vertical
station
are
546-2,
11-40
0-0 and those of
-394-7.
Find the co-ordinates of C and its height above datum, if the

B above datum is 91-01 ft.
(L.U. Ans. 1083-6 E 0-1 N; +337-17
height of station
19.
The following readings were obtained
fitted with
in a
survey with a level
tacheometric webs, the constant multiplier being 100 and
the additive constant zero.
ft)
406
Point
Inst, at
A
C
B
B
D
E
E
Readings
Staff
B.M. 207*56
T.B.M.
1-32
2-64
3-96
2-37
3-81
5-25
5-84
7-95
10-06
10-11
11-71
13-31
8-75
9-80
10-85
11-16
13-17
15-18
3-78
5-34
6-90
Subsequently the level was tested and the following readings obtained:
t.
Point
at
Q
R
Q
R
Readings
Staff
4-61
5-36
6-11
3-16
3-91
4-66
4-12
4-95
5-78
3-09
3-17
3-25
Find the level of the T.B.M.

(L.U. Ans. 212-98
20.
theodolite
was set up
at P, the end of a survey line
ft)
on uni-
formly sloping ground and the readings taken at approximately 100
ft
intervals along the line as follows:
At
Point
416'
3-66
4-16
4 16'
2-45
3-46
4-47
506'
1-30
2-82
4-34
D
E
506'
5-87 7-88
9-89
506'
6-15 8-65
11-15
Elevation Angle
Stadia Readings
4-66
An error of booking was apparent when reducing the observations.

Find this error, the levels of the points
and the gradient
PE, if the ground level below the instrument was 104-20 O.D. and
ABCDE
the height of the instrument 4-75.
(L.U. Ans.
112-21,
120-48,
Instrument constants 100 and 0.

128-68, D 136-66, E 144-57;
Grad.
1 in 12-28)
The following data were taken during a survey when stadia readings were taken. The levelling staff was held vertically on the stations.
The height above datum of station A is 475-5 ft above Ordinance Datum. The multiplying factor of the instrument is 99-5 and the additive
constant 1*3 ft. Assume station A to be the point of origin and calculate the level above Ordinance Datum of each station and the horiz21.
ontal distance of each line.
TACHEOMETRY
Back
Instrument
Station
Fore
407
Instrument Horizontal Vertical
Angle
Angle
Readings
Staff
Upper Middle Lower
Station
Station
Height
B
C
4-95
+ 540'
9.90
8*00
5-00
16455'
+ 700'
8.44
6.61
4.7.8
5-10
17950'
-820'
9.20 7.57
5-94
A
B
B
C
(R.I.C.S. Ans.
475-50,
509-73,
D
BC
552-33,
502-66;
360-04,
AB
CD
6.10
375-70,
322-23)
22.
The undermentioned readings were taken with a fixed-hair tacheometer theodolite on a vertical staff. The instrument constant is 100.
Calculate the horizontal distance and difference in elevation between
the two staves.
Horizontal
Instrument
Vertical
Circle
Station
3359'55"
Staff Station
Circle
+ 1048'00"
[8-44
|
6-25}
1
20955'21"
- 405'00"
4-06
(7-78]
6-95
U-12J
(MQB/S Ans. 587-5 ft;
23.
The undernoted readings were taken
at the
commencement
93-1
ft)
of a
tacheometric survey, the multiplying factor of the tacheometer being

100 and the additive constant 1-3 ft.
Calculate the co-ordinates and reduced level of station D assuming A to be the point of origin and the reduced level there at 657*6 ft
above datum. The azimuth of the line AB is 205 10'
(MQB/S Ans. S 893-83 ft; W 469-90 ft; 718-54 ft)
The following readings were taken by a theodolite used for tach24.

eometry from a station B on to stations A, C and D:
Sight
Horizontal
A
C
D
Vertical
Stadia Readings
Angle
Top
Centre
Bottom
152 36'
-500'
3-48
7-61
11-74
20506'
230'
2-15
7-92
13-70
Angle
30110'
The line BA has a bearing of N 2846' E and the instrument

has a constant multiplier of 100 and an additive constant zero. Find
the slope of the line CD and its quadrantal bearing.
Ans.
1 in 7*57; N 22 27' 10" W)
(L.U.
408
25.
The following observations were taken with a tacheometer
(mult-
iplier 100, additive constant 0) from a point A, to B and C.

The distance EC was measured as 157 ft. Assuming the ground to
be a plane within the triangle ABC, calculate the volume of filling

required to make the area level with the highest point, assuming the
sides to be supported by concrete walls.
Height of instrument 4'7ft, staff held vertically.
At
To
Vertical Angle
Staff
Readings
1-48
2-73
3-98
+736'
2-08
2-82 3-56
-524'
(L.U.
26.
Ans.
297600
3
ft
Explain the principles underlying the measurement of a horizontal
distance by means of stadia readings.

Using stadia readings, the horizontal distance between two stations A and B is found to be 301*7 ft.
difference in height between the two stations is 3*17 ft. Calculate the appropriate stadia readings, stating clearly the assumptions
The
you have made.

(R.I.C.S.)
Derive expressions for the probable errors of determination of

horizontal and vertical distances tacheometrically due to known probable errors ds in the measurement of stadia intercept and da in the meas27.
(i)
urement of the vertical angle.

It may be assumed that an anallactic instrument is used and the
staff is held vertically.
(ii) In a series of tacheometric observations a sight is taken to
the top of a building where the vertical angle is about 1130'. If the
stadia intercept is 2-52 ft and ds = +0-002 5 ft and da = 1' what are
the probable errors in determining the horizontal distances? The tacheometric constant is 100.
(iii) Assuming that using a staff graduated to 0'Olft each stadia
hair can be read correctly to the nearest 0*01 ft will such a staff be
good enough to give an accuracy of 1 500 over distances from 100 to
:
500 ft, and
if
not what accuracy can be achieved?
It
may be assumed
that the vertical angles will be small and errors in the vertical angle
can be ignored.
(R.I.C.S.
Ans.
(ii)
0-24
ft;
0-03
ft)
A third order traverse line AB is measured by the following

method: measure angles a,, a 2 6 shown on the diagram; measure distances AC,, AC Z by the angles at A to a subtense bar at C, and C 2
Two measures of AB are thus obtained, their mean being accept28.
ed.
TACHEOMETRY
A 2m subtense
angles to
AC
and
bar is centred at C, and
AC2
409
C 2 and
oriented at right
Observed horizontal angles are as follows.

Subtense angles at A: to C, = 105'27-1"
to C 2 = l04'30-0"
= 251'27"; a 2 = 253'55"
Compute the horizontal distance AB.
6 = 10035'33"
a,
(R.I.C.S.
Ans.
104-70 m)
Describe in detail how you would determine the tacheometric constants of a theodolite in the field. Show how the most probable values
could be derived by the method of least squares.
29.
Sighted horizontally a tacheometer reads

= 6*71 and r3 = 8*71
on a vertical staff 361*25 ft away. The focal length of the object glass
is 9 in and the distance from the object glass to the trunnion
axis 6 in.
Calculate the stadia interval.
r,
Given
D =
s + (/+ c)
(N.U.
Ans.
0-05
in.)
Describe the essential features of a subtense bar and show how

used in the determination of distance by a single measurement.
Allowing for a 1 second error in the measurement of the angle, cal30.
it is
culate from first principles the accuracy of the measurement of 200 ft

if a 2 metre subtense bar is used. Show how the accuracy of such a
measurement varies with distance and outline the method by which max
imum accuracy will be obtained if subtense tacheometry is used in the
determination of the distance between points situated on opposite banks
of a river about 600 ft wide.
(I.C.E. Ans.
31.
1 in
6 800)
An area
of ground was surveyed with a fixed stadia hair tacheometer (constants 100 and 0) set up in turn at each of four stations
A, B, C and D. Observations were made with the staff held vertically.
BCD A
formed a closed traverse and it was found that the difference

between these four stations as calculated from the tacheometreadings would not balance.
in level
ric
410
Later
it
was realised
that a
new
altitude bubble had recently been
fitted to the instrument but unfortunately
had not been correctly adjust-
ed. In order to determine the true differences of level between the four
stations, a level
known
to be in perfect order
was used.
Fieldbook observations from both surveys are as follows:

Instrument
Station
Height of
Instrument
Staff
Station
Vertical
Stadia Readings
Angle
(ft)
(ft)
A
B
C
4-55
+ 3
4-05
4-60
+ 220'
8-71
4-70
-230'
3-74
5-67
7-60
4-50
2-38
4-99
7-60
Backsight
Intermediate sight
11-78
10-30
3-19
Foresight
-
5-66
Remarks
Station
5-04
7-27
11-02 13-33
Change point
Station
9-84
1-65
Change point
3-27
1-69
2-83
14-78
11-34
6-41
-
Station
Change point
Station
9-70
Change point
11-57
Station
Calculate the vertical angles that would have been observed from
stations A and C if the altitude bubble of the tacheometer had been
in correct adjustment.
Describe the procedure which should be adopted in correcting the

adjustment of the altitude bubble, identifying the type of instrument
for which your procedure is appropriate.
(I.C.E. Ans. +240'; -250')
Bibliography
THOMAS, W.N., Surveying (Edward Arnold).

BANNISTER, A. and RAYMOND, S., Surveying
(Pitman).
REDMOND,
F.A., Tacheometry (Technical Press).

HIGGINS, A.L., Higher Surveying (Macmillan).
HODGES, D.J., Articles in Colliery Engineering, Dec.
1965 - Oct. 1966.

tacheometry with vertical subtense bar applied
to topographical surveying', Survey Review, Oct. 1964.
and SHADBOLT, 'The subtense bar applied to mine surveying',
Chartered Surveyor, Vol. 90, No. 11, May 1958.
GEISLER,
WATSON
M., 'Precision
DIP
AND FAULT PROBLEMS
Problems on gradients take a number of different forms and may be

solved graphically or trigonometrically according to the accuracy required.
8.1 Definitions
ABDE
Let
represent a plane inclined to the horizontal at a,
Fig. 8.1.
line (strike)
Level
JC
A
Fig. 8.1
The
Dip.
dip of a bed,
seam
or road in any direction is the angle of
inclination from the horizontal plane.

It
may be expressed
(a)
An angle from
(b)
gradient,
as:
the horizontal, e.g. 603'
1 vertical in n horizontal (the fraction
1/n repre-
sents the tangent of the angle of inclination, whilst n represents

its cotangent) or
(c)
vertical fall of x inches per horizontal yard, e.g. 3 inches
per yard.
N.B.
The
term rise denotes the opposite of dip.
Full Dip (or true dip) is the maximum inclination of any plane from
the horizontal and its direction is always at right-angles to the mini-
mum
inclination (i.e. nil) or level line

In Fig. 8.1, lines
and
AB
AE
and
BD
known as
strike.
are lines of full dip, whilst
ED
are level lines or strike lines.
Apparent Dip
is the dip observed in any other direction. It is always
less than full dip and more than strike. In Fig. 8.1 the line AD is an
411
412
apparent dip inclined
Depth of
angle of /8 in a direction 6 from
at. an
full dip.
The depth of a stratum is generally measured relative

Ordnance Mean Sea Level (as used in levelling) or, in
order to obtain positive values, may be expressed relative to some
arbitrary datum, e.g. the N.C.B. (National Coal Board) datum, which
is 10 000 ft below M.S.L.
Strata.
to the surface, to
Thickness of Strata.
The true thickness is measured at right- angles
bedding plane. For inclined strata penetrated by vertical boreholes, an apparent thickness would be derived from the borehole core.
to the
Example 8.1
known to dip
vertical borehole
passes through a seam which
at 40. If the apparent thickness of the
is
seam as shown by
the borehole core is 5 ft calculate: (a) the true thickness of the seam;
seam.
(b) the gradient of the
Fig. 8.2
(a)
True thickness
= 5 cos 40 = 3*83 ft
= 3 ft 10 in.
(b) Gradient of
seam
Gradient is
cot 40? =
1 in
M92
1*192
Example 8.2
If a seam dips at 1 in 4 what is the true area of one

square mile in plan
Cot0 = 4
6 = 14 02'
.*.
True length of one dipping side

1760
COS0
413
AND FAULT PROBLEMS
DIP
1760
yd
0-970 15
True area
=
176 2
yd
= 3192908 sq.
~
JL
0-97015
compared with 3097 600
sq. yd in plan.
Dip Problems
8.2
8.21
full dip, to find the apparent dip
in any other direction
Strike
Let Fig. 8.3 represent the plan.
Graphical Solution
Draw
AB
and
AC
><
representing
Let the length
strike and full dip.
" e
be x units long. As the line AC

C will be 1 unit
vertically below A. Draw the strike
line CE through C, which is now 1
AC
unit
below strike line AB.

line starting from
it
>s^>
3'
(n
dips at I'm x,
Any
^^7/
E
D
'
Fig. 8.3
will then
be
below A when
where y is the
1 unit vertically
cuts the line CE, and its gradient will be
1 in y,
length measured in the same units.
Trigonometrical solution
Triangle
ADC
is right-angled at
AD
ie
AC
COS0
= ^k?)
COSC7
g- 1)
- y cos#
(8.2)
or
i.e.
the gradient value of full dip x = the gradient value of apparent
dip y x cosine of the angle between.
Given the direction of
8.22
full dip
apparent dip, to find the rate of
and the rate and direction of an

full dip (Fig. 8.4)
Graphical solution
Draw directions
AB
and
AC
of full dip and apparent dip respec-
tively.
AC = y units.
Draw CD perpendicular
Let
to
AB
through
cutting the full dip
it
414
direction at B.
Length
AB =
x units
is the gradient equivalent of full dip.
Fig. 8.4
AB
x -
i.e.
AC cos0
ycos(/3-a)
(8.3)
cot full dip = cot apparent dip cosine angle between

or tan apparent dip = tan full dip cosine angle between
i.e.
Example 8.3
The
full dip of
a seam is
1 in
30 E.
gradients of roadways driven in the seam

(a)
due N,
(b)
75 E,
(c)
due
E.
<o
c
c
HI
"c
"
*>
^v
^\ 6
î.
>/
--*~
units
_
N^
Fig. 8.5
Graphically,
(a)
(b)
(c)
AC due N
AD N 75 E
AE due E
Due E
in 8
f^\1
1 in 4*6
1 in
5*7
1 in 8
(8.4)
(8.5)
Find the
DIP AND
FAULT PROBLEMS
415
Trigonometrically,
N.B.
(a)
AC
(b)
AD
^ AE
OTo
at
45 to
(a)
Lines
= 4-618 (12
cos 30
0-8660
cos 45
0-7071
(b)
Lines
at
60 to
=8-0
full dip
1 in y/2
have gradients
x 4 =
full dip
(7" 08')
1 in yJ2x,
1 in 5-657
have double the gradient value,
1 in 2x,
e.g.
8.23
= 5-657 (10 02'
e.g.
i.e.
13'
2x4
1 in
1 in 8
full dip, to find the
bearing of
an apparent dip (Fig. 8.6)
Fig. 8.6
This is the converse of 8.22 but it should be noted that there are
two directions in which a given apparent dip occurs.
Graphical solution
Plot
full dip, direction a,
Draw
strike lines through
of length x units as before.
A and
B.
With centre A draw arcs of length y to cut strike line through B,
giving 6 on either side of AB as at AC and AD.
a =
cosO
x
y
416
Bearing
Example 8.4
A seam
AC
AD
=
=
a-d
a+0
dips 1 in 5 in a direction 208 00'
In
what
direction will a gradient of 1 in 8 occur?
By
plotting
AC 156*45'
AD 259 15'
Fig. 8.7
Trigonometrical ly
6 = cos
-1
= 51
.".
Bearing
8.24
AC
AD
5/8
19'
= 208 00' - 51 19'
+ 51
= 208 00'
Given two apparent dips,
19'
= 156 41'
= 259
to find the rate
dip (Fig. 8.8)
Fig. 8.8
19'
and direction of
full
DIP AND
417
FAULT PROBLEMS
Graphical Solution
AC
Plot direction of apparent dips
and
AD
of length y and z
units respectively.
Join CD.
AB
Draw
y and
perpendicular to CD.
Measure
AB
in
the same units as
z.
Fig. 8.9
In triangle
ADC,
AC
Fig. 8.9,
Tan
C -~D
z-y
z + y
From
this,
Triangle
angles
C and
ABC may now
are
=y
AD
DAC
= z
tan 180 - $
=
2
known and thus
A.
be solved
AB = AC cos A
Bearing AB = Bearing AC
- A
x = y cos A
x = z cos(0 -
also
A)
y cos A = z cos(0 - A)
= z (cos 6 cos A + sin 6 sin A)
Dividing by cos A
y =
z (cos
$ + sin 6 tan
A)
= 6
418
Thus
tanA =
1
sin0
22*
sin0
ycosecfl _
cQte
z
If
y and z are given as angles of inclination,

y = cot a
z
= cot )6
then tanA = tan/3 cosectf cot a- cot0

This gives the direction of full dip.
x =
The amount
N.B.
(8.6)
cot a cos A
or
cotS = cotacosA
(8.7)
or
tana = tan 8 cos A
(8.8)
6 = 90, by Eq.(8.6),
If
tanA = tan/3 cot a
(8.9)
Alternative solution given angles of inclination, Fig. 8.10

a.
Fig. 8.10
Let A, B and C be three points

level and
Let
AB C^D
}
vertically below
plane of
BC
AB^C^
in a
plane with
at the
highest
at the lowest.
be a horizontal plane through A, with
B and C
respectively and
and B, C, each produced
a line of strike.
ABCD, AD
BE
B,
and C,
the intersection on this
represents the plan of points
In the plane
A,B and
is in the horizontal
is perpendicular to
AD
C.
plane and is therefore
and is therefore the line
of full dip.
In the right-angled triangle
ABB V
BB,
= AB, tana.
In the right-angled triangle
DB, B,
BB,
= DB, tan/3
AB tana
y
DB
tan/3
DIP AND
AB.
tanjS
DB,
tana
i.e.
Also in triangle
419
FAULT PROBLEMS
AB D
X
AB,
sine
DB.
sin^zS
sine _ tan/6
but
0=
tana
sin<
180 - 6 =
= P-cf>
sin(P -
cf>)
sin<
i.e.
= sin P cos (f> - cos P sin <f>
sin<
= sin P cot <f> - cos P

= sin(180 - 0) cot < - cos(180 - 0)
= sin cot
+ cos
K-cosO
cot<
sine/
The value
of
<
tanfl
t
.
.
tan a sin
- cot0
(8.10)
will then give the direction of the strike with full
dip at 90 to this.
The
inclination of full dip (8) is
AB
Let
then B,
required.
= cot a
= cot 5
as before therefore cot 8 = cot a sin

i.e.
now
Eq.(8.7)
Example 8.5
cotS = cotacosA.
A roadway
sects another dipping

full dip.
Fig. 8.11
(8.11)
4>
(A = 90 -
<)
dips 1 in 4 in a direction 085 30'
1 in 6,
354 30'.
inter-
Find the rate and direction of
420
Graphically
Full dip 051 00'
1 in 3*3
Trigonometrically
-D
C
tan
6 - 4
6+4
tan
tan 89 00'
2^
C 'D
7z
"10
= I
180 - (360 - 354 30' + 085 30'
tan 44 30'
11 07' 10"
n
C+D
Mom'nn"
30' 00"
= 44
2
C = 55 37'
A = 34
Bearing of
10"
22' 50"
full
= 085 30' - (90 - 55
dip
37' 10")
= 051 07' 10"

(AB) = 4 sin 55 37' 10"
= 4x0-825 31
= 3-30124
Gradient of
full dip
1 in 3*3
Gradient 1 in 4 = 14 02' 10"

Gradient
From Eq.
1 in
6 =
9 27' 40"
(8.6),
w
tan927'40
_ cot91 o 00 *
tanAx _
" tanl402'10"sin9100"
*
t^
0-166 64
+ nni
- 1746
0-25000 x 0-99985
= 0-666 66 + 0-017 46
= 0-68413
A = 34
Bearing of
full dip
22' 40"
= 085 30' 00" - 34
22' 40"
= 051 07' 20"
Rate of
full dip
x = cot 8 = cot 14 02' 10" cos 34 22' 40"

= 4 x 0-825 33
FAULT PROBLEMS
DIP AND
8.25
= 3-301
(Gradient
= 16 51'
10"
Given the rate of
421
1 in 3*3)
and the rate and direction of an appar-
full dip
ent dip, to find the direction of full dip (Fig. 8.12)
Fig. 8.12
There are two possible solutions.

Graphical solution
Draw apparent dip AC in direction and of y units.

Bisect AC and draw arcs of radius l/2 y.
Through A draw arcs of length x to cut circle
This gives the two possible solutions /IS, and
at B, and
B2
ABZ
In triangle
AB
AB, = x
AO
= OB, = l/2 y
1 = /(s-x)(s-y2 v) =
2
where s = y2 [ x + y2 y + l/2 y]
s(s-y2 y)
= l/2 (x + y)
Bearing of
full dip
= 6
{x + y)
(8.12)
422
Example 8.6
A roadway
known to be 1
Full dip is
seam of coal dips
in a
in 3.
Find
at 1 in 8,
125
30',
its direction.
Fig. 8.13
ByEq.(8.12),
tan
2
(8-3)
5_
11
aJ (8
3)
= 0-674 20
Bearing of
= 33 59' 20"
= 67 58' 40"
full dip
= 125
=
or
8.26
30' 00"
67
58' 40"
57 31' 20"
= 125 30' 00" + 67 58' 40"

= 193 28' 40"
Given the levels and relative positions of three points in a plane

(bed or seam) to find the direction and rate of full dip
,
to
To
This type of problem is similar to 8.24 but the apparent dips have
be obtained from the information given.
illustrate the
Draw an
Example 8.7
methods
equilateral triangle
If
the levels of A,
ABC
pf sides 600
B and C
ft
each.
are 200, 300 and 275
respectively, find the rate and direction of full dip.
ft
423
DIP AND FAULT PROBLEMS
Fig. 8.14
Select the highest point,
i.e.
gradients will then dip
away from B.
Semi-graphic method
As B
is the highest point
and
is the lowest the level of
must be between them.

Difference in level
Difference in level
AB =
CB =
.*.
Level of C must be
.'.
Gradient of
full dip
300 - 200 = 100
ft
300 - 275 =
ft
25
-r^r- of
25
distance
= 25 ft in 144
= 1 in 5-76
ft
AB
from B.
(scaled value)
Direction scaled from plan 14 E of line AB.

Strike or contour lines in the plane may be drawn parallel as
N.B.
shown.
Alternative method
Gradient
B-A =
=
i.e.
Gradient
B-C
(300 - 200)
ft
in
600
ft
ft
in 600
ft
1 in 6
= (300 - 275)
= 1 in 24.
and 24 as in previous method to give x and y,

now the strike line and BZ perpendicular to
Fig. 8. 15. Line
of full dip. Length BZ represents the
direction
the
XY produced is
Lay
off units of 6
XY
is
relative full dip gradient value.
424
S*i
/
c
^-14
"
24
"""x
*
5-8
units A
units
units
fl
Fig. 8.15
By
calculation:
In triangle
tan
XYB,
= 24 + 6 tan60
18x^732
Y ~X
Y
. ,.0392
= 43 54'
6000'
Y = 103 54'
In triangle
YZB,
ZB
Angle
YZB
= 6 sin 103 54'

= 6 x 0-970 72
=
Example 8.8
103 54'- 90
5-82 (Gradient of
= 13 54'
of line
full dip).
AB.
From the following information, as proved by boreholes,

full dip of a seam, assuming it to be
calculate the direction and rate of

regular.
Borehole
Level of surface
above Ordnance Datum
(ft)
Depth from surface

floor of seam (ft)
370
1050
225
405
255
185
Borehole
is
1414 yards from
in the direction
Borehole
is 1750 yards from
in the direction 264
340
to
425
Fig. 8.16
+ 370
- 1050
- 680
At A, Surface
Depth
Seam level
At B, Surface
ft
Depth
+
-
405
Seam level
180
+
-
225
Depth
Seam level
70
x 1750
ft
i.e.
1 in 7.
3 x 1414
ft
i.e.
1 in
At C, Surface
225
ft
185
ft
Gradient
CA =
.-.
(680 +
70)
ft
in 3
BA = (680 - 180)
ft
in
Let C,4 = 7 units and BÂ = 8*484 units.
In triangle
AB
C,
Angle A
= 340 - 264 = 76
8-484 - 7
180 - 76
tan
8-484 + 7
2
tan
2
1-484 tan 52
15-484
Cl
gl
= 7
00',
Cl
+ Bl
2
= 0-12267
C, = 59 00'
= 52 00'
8-484
426
In triangle
AC^X, XA
is full dip perpendicular to C, B,
XA = C,A
sinC,
= 7 sin59 =
full dip is
1 in 6.
Bearing AC,
AX
Bearing
Bearing of
= 264
= 264 + (90 - 59) = 295 c
XA
full dip is
= 115
Three boreholes A, B and C are put down to prove a

The depths from a level surface are 735 ft, 1050 ft, and
respectively. The line AB is N 10 E a distance of 1200 ft,
Example 8.9
coal seam.
900
ft
AC
whilst
is
N55W, 900
ft.
Calculate the amount and direction of
is the lowest and
6 =
55 + 10
1200
1050 - 735
a =
COt
full dip.
is the highest.
= 65
1200
315
= 3-809 52
14 42' 30"
r
P
900
_
~ 900 - 735
jS
= 10
_
~
900
165
= 5-45454
23' 20"
4-735
Fig. 8.17
Then by Eq.(8.10)
cot< =
tanjS
- cot0
tana sin0
0-18333
"' 46631
=
0-26250 x 0-906 31
= 0-770 62-0-466 31 =0-304 31
= 73 04' 30"
<f>
Bearing of
full
dip =
010 - (90 - 73 04' 30")

= 353 04' 30" = N655'30"W
427
Amount
= cot a sin ^
= 3-809 52 x 0-95669
of full dip cot 8
= 3-644 53
i.e.
Gradient 1 in 3*64
Inclination (8) =
Problems in which the Inclinations are Expressed

as Angles and a Graphical Solution is Required
8.3
To
15 20' 40"
illustrate the
processes graphical solutions of the previous
examples are given.

8.31
Given the inclination and direction of
full dip, to find the rate
of apparent dip in a given direction
Example 8.10
Full dip
30
Apparent dip
1 in
(a)
4 (14 02')
Due N,
(b)
N 75 E.
Apparent dips
(a)
12*15'
(b)
10*00'
10*00'
Fig. 8.18
Draw
Through
AB
(full dip)
A and B draw
is 1 unit vertically
30
of convenient length say 3 in.
AX and BY and assume that AX

B set off the inclination of full dip
AB^B may now be considered as a
strike lines
above BY.
At
vertical section with
AX at B,.
AB of length
radius AB^ (1 unit).
Now
(i.e.
14 02') to cut
AC
and
AD
1 unit.
Draw a
circle of centre A,
draw the direction of apparent dips
BY at C
strike BY at D.
(due N) to cut strike
(N 75 E) to cut
428

Also draw AC, and AD, perpendicular to
AC
and
AD
respectfully,
cutting the circle at C, and D,.
AB, = AC,
N.B.
Then
ACC,
=1
= AD,
unit.
AC
-^
represents the gradient of
AC
(1 in 4*6).
The angle
is the angle of dip 12 15'.
AD
Similarly -^j- represents the gradient of
AD
(1 in 5-7).
ADD,
is the
8.32
Given the inclination and direction of full dip,
angle of dip 1000'
The angle
to find the direc-
tion of a given apparent dip
Example 8.11
Full dip 1 in 5 (1118') 20800'.
Apparent dip
1 in
8 (707').
90*Direction of
apparent dip
259 30' and 156*30'
Fig. 8.19
Draw
AB
as before of say 3 in. At A and B draw the

and BY. At B set off the angle of full dip 1118'
to cut AX produced at A,
Draw a circle of centre A and radius AA^
Produce BA to cut the circle at Q and set off the angle (90 707 ) to cut AX at P this represents a section of the apparent dip,
AP being the length of the section proportional to the vertical fall of
1 unit G4Q). With centre A and radius AP draw an arc to cut BY at
i.e. AC, = ACZ = AP. These represent the direction of
C, and C2
strike lines
in direction
AX
the apparent dips required.
DIP AND
429
FAULT PROBLEMS
Given the inclination and direction of two apparent dips to find

the inclination and direction of full dip
8.33
Example 8.12
Direction of
Amount
full
"
"
1 in
4 (14)
1 in
6 (930')
085 30'
354 30'
dip 051* 00"!

"
17'
Fig. 8.20
AC
Draw
and
AD
in the direction of the apparent dips.
With
A as
centre draw a circle of unit radius. Draw AC^ and AD^ perpendicular
to AC and AD respectively. Set off at C, (90 - 14) and at D
(90 - 930'). This will give 14 at C and 930' at D. Join CD, the
Draw AB perpendicular to CD through A and AB^ perpenAB. Join B, B and measure the direction of AB and the
angle of inclination B^BA.
strike line.
dicular to
Graphical solution:
Full dip
17
05100'.
Exercises 8(a)
1.
The
full dip of
seam
angle included between
full
is 4 inches in the yard.
Calculate the
dip and an apparent dip of 3 inches in the
yard.
(Ans.
41 24')
2.
The angle included between the directions of full dip and apparent
dip is 60. If the apparent dip is 910', calculate the full dip, expres-
sing the answer in angular measure, and also as a gradient.

(Ans.
3.
On a
hill
line of greatest slope.

its length, if
17 50'; 1 in 3*1)
sloping at 18 runs a track at an angle of 50 with the
Calculate the inclination of the track and also
the height of the hill is 1500
ft.
(Ans.
11
48';
7335
ft)
430
4.
The
way
10.
be driven in the seam in a southerly direction dipping at 1 in

Calculate the quadrant and azimuth bearings of the roadway.
(Ans.
S 2214'W; 202 14')
5.
The
full dip of
seam
is
N 85 14'
in 3 in a direction
W.
road-
is to
full dip of
a seam is 1 in 5,
A roadway
4 W.
is to
be set
off rising at 1 in 8. Calculate the alternative quadrant bearings of the
roadway.
S 47 19' W; S 5519' E.)
(Ans.
The
6.
following are the particulars of 3 boreholes.
Borehole Surface Level A.O.D. Depth of Borehole
If
600
ft
500
ft
B
C
400
ft
600
ft
1000
ft
600
ft
the distance from
to
1200
is
AB
calculate the gradiants of the lines
and from
ft
to
C 1800
ft,
and BC.
(Ans.
1 in 4;
1 in 3)
A and B are two boreholes which have been put down to prove a
seam. They are on the line of full dip of the seam, the direction of
line BA being N 50E and its plan length 1000 ft.
7.
Borehole Surface Level Depth
A
B
A
1000
600
ft
750
ft
800
ft
700
ft
shaft is to be sunk at a point C, the surface level of
ft,
the length
BC
800
ft,
Calculate (a) the dip of the seam from

(b) the
8.
A seam
dips at 1 in 12-75, S 17
W and
(Ans.
The
tively, in
(a)
1 in 5- 23;
being
1053
(b)
at 1 in 12*41,
ft)
S 2015'
full dip.
1 in
co-ordinates and level values of points A,
11-64; S 646' E).
B and C
respec-
a mine, are as follows:
Departure
A
B
C
due East.
to C,
depth of the shaft at C.

(Ans.
(a)
Calculate the magnitude and direction of
9.
BC
and the direction of
(ft)
Latitude
(ft)
Levels in
10000
ft
ft
above a datum
below O.D.
+119-0
74-0
9872
-250-0
+ 787-5
9703
+812-0
+1011-0
9805
Plot the positions of the points to a convenient scale and graphicand amount of full dip.
ally determine the direction
DIP AND
(b)
FAULT PROBLEMS
Calculate the direction and amount of
431
full dip.
(Ans.
(a)
(b)
N
N
38 W; 1 in 4-66.
3756' W; 1 in 4-672)
In a steep seam a roadway AB has an azimuth of 190 dipping at

10.
22 and a roadway AC has an azimuth of 351 rising at 16.
Calculate the direction and rate of full dip of the seam.
225 54' 50", 26 31')
(Ans.
A cross-measures drift, driven due South and dipping at 16,

11.
passes through a bed of shale dipping due North at 27. The distance
between the roof and floor of the bed of shale measured on the floor of
the drift is 56 ft.
Calculate the true and vertical thickness of the bed.
(Ans.
12.
38-19
ft;
42-86
ft)
was proved by 3 bores. The surface

each bore and the depth to the seam were as follows:
small colliery leasehold
level at
Bore
Bore
S 60 E.
Surface Level
Depth
30
ft
above O.D.
190
ft
B
C
20
ft
above O.D.
220
ft
10
ft
above O.D.
240
ft
is 560 yds from A N 30 E and bore C is 420 yd from B

Find graphically, or otherwise, the direction of strike and the
rate of full dip in inches per yard.
a shaft is sunk 800 yd from
If
depth below datum will
13.
it
in a direction S
reach the seam ?

(Ans.
N 15 W; 1%
in.
45
at
what
per yd; 200-4
ft)-
An underground roadway driven on the strike of the seam has a

The seam has a full dip of 8 in to the yd in a
bearing S 30 E.
northerly direction. At a point
A on
the roadway another road is to be
set off rising at 1 in 5*8.
Calculate the alternative bearings on which this second road may
be set
off.
(Ans.
80 54' W; S 20 54' E)
Three bores A, B and C have been put down to a coal seam. B

due north from A, 1000 ft, and C is N 76 W, 850 ft from A. The
surface levels of the boreholes are the same. The depth of A is 700ft,
of B 1250 ft and of C 950 ft.
Calculate the direction and rate of full dip and the slope area in the
triangle formed by the boreholes.
(Ans.
N 16 49' W; 1 in 1-74; 475610 sq ft)
14.
is
432
The Rate of Approach Method
8.4
In Fig. 8.21, let
AC
AD
AB
rise from
dip from
A
A
at 1 in
Convergent Lines
for
K.
at 1 in M.
be the horizontal line through A.
Fig. 8-21
AF
then
GF
and
FE
-T-.
'
and
CD
BA
{\
and AEG,
1_
h)
CD
BA =
K
if
units
KM
I
Thus
units
GE
FA
CD
BA
ADC
Comparing similar triangles
unit
1
M
CA and DA are CD
CD
BA when they meet _
2 convergent lines
the horizontal distance
W/zen
tfie
fines both dip from
it
M-K\
\
"ril
(Fig. 8.22)
\/
vertically apart,
S^
^ê
Fig. 8
(8
'
13>
DIP AND
AC
AD
Let
As
dip from
dip from
A
A
FAULT PROBLEMS
at 1 in
at 1 in
M.
433
before,
_1_
CD
BA
CD
BA
K
1
BA
and
G
FA
\M
CD
_
Therefore,
if
K)
CA and DA are CD
BA when they meet
the two convergent lines
cally apart, the horizontal distance
verti-
CD
(8.14)
1
M~
Thus
if
a rise is considered
+ve and
dip -ve, then the general
expression applies.
Yggical distance apart

Horizontal distance =
(8.15)
1_^ j_
M" K
Example 8.13
1 in 6.
Two seams
(a) at a rise of 1 in
1 in 2
of coal, 100
ft
vertically apart, dip at
roadway driven between the seams

4 from the lower to the upper and (b) at a fall of
Find the length of a
(drift)
from upper to lower.
JlPPer
searn
>
ft
^.--"~~~~
100'
s eorrj
Li2_e
c,
Fig. 8.23
(a) In triangle
"
"^-^
"
ADB,
AD
BD
AB
falls at 1 in 6.
rises at 1 in 4.
100
ft
434
D,D =
AB
100
-(4)
12 x 100
3+2
i.e.
plan length of
= 240
drift
ft
240 x V4 + l
inclined length of drift
4
240 x yl7
4
= 247*2
(b) Similarly,
C.
ft
by Eq.(8.15),
AB
C
6
100
2)
plan length
C^C =
inclined length
AC
^
3 X
= 300
^5
ft
= 336'0
ft
Example 8.14
Two parallel levels, 200 ft apart, run due East and
West in a seam which dips due North at 3 in. to the yard. At a point
A in the lower level a cross-measures drift rising at 6 in. to the yard
and bearing N 30 E is driven to intersect another seam, situated 200
ft vertically above the seam first mentioned, at a point C. From a point
in the upper level
435
due South from A another cross-measures
rising at 12 in. to the yard and bearing
30
drift
is also driven to inter-
sect the upper seam at a point D.

Calculate the length and azimuth of CD.
(M.Q.B.)
(418-70, 725-20)
21
227-13)
(0,-200)
Fig. 8.25
Apparent dip of seam
ByEq(84 >
in direction of drift (Fig, 8.25)
.,._,
cot full dip
cosine angled between

X*
cos 30
To
= 13-856.
find length of drift AC, Fig. 8.26(a),
Plan length
200
AC
1
1
'
200 x 83-136
19-856
13-856
= 837-39
ft
436
To find length of
drift
Plan length
BD, Fig. 8.26(b),
200 x 41-568
16-856
200
BD =
1
13-856
= 493-21
UP
ft
13-856
837-39
200'
(a)
'^-?--'"
Fig. 8.26
Assuming the two levels are 200 ft apart in plan, the relative
C and D can now be found from the co-ordinates
positions of A, B,
(see chapter
AC N
3).
30
E 837-39
ft
sin 30 = 0-50000
.-.
P.D. = +418-70
cos 30 = 0-86603
.'.
P.L. = +725-20
Total departure of C = + 418-70
(relative to A)
Total latitude of
AB
due South 200
ft
Total departure of
Total latitude of
BD N
30 E 493-21
= +725-20
B =
0*0
= -200-0
ft
sin 30 = 0-50000
.-.
P.D.
= +246-21
cos 30= 0-86603
.-.
P.L.
= +427-13
Total departure of
= +246-21
DIP AND
FAULT PROBLEMS
Total latitude of
line rn
CD =
Beanng ofn
tan
-i
437
= +427-13 - 200
= +227-13
246-21 - 418-70
22y 13 _
.
^.^
-172-49
-i
" tan
-498-07
-1
= tan
0-346 32
= S 19 06' 10" W
498-07
CD
Length of line
= 527-10
If
498-07
cosl9 o 06 l0
ft
q-94493
(horizontal length)
the inclined length is required,
AC
rises at 1 in 6
the difference in level
'
A - C = +
^-
= +139-56
ft
BD
rises at 1 in 3
B - D =
.-.
level of
AB
493-21
+^\^
relative to
rises at 1 in 12
A-B
D
/.
Level of
.-.
Inclined length
= +164-40
ft
B = +164*40.
*.
= +
relative to
= +16-67
C = +164-40 + 16*67 - 139-56

= +41-51
CD =
ft
./(527-10
ft.
+ 41-51
2
)
= V( 277 834 + 1723)

= 528-7 ft
8.5
8.51
Fault Problems
Definitions
A geological fault is a fracture in the strata due to strains and

stresses within the earth's crust, accompanied by dislocation of strata.
The
direction of
movement decides the nature of the
fault.
With simple displacement either the corresponding strata are forced

apart giving a normal fault or movement in the opposite direction causes
an overlap known as a reverse fault. Many variations are possible with
these basic forms.
438
MAM////////.
Normal
Reverse
fault
fault
Fig. 8.27
Fig. 8.27 only illustrates the end view and no indication is given
of
movement
in
any other direction.

are used (see Fig. 8.27):
The following terms
FF
is
known as the
is
the upthrow side of the fault,
is the
is the angle of
fault plane,
downthrow side of the
hade
fault,
of the fault
(measured from the ver-
tical),
BE
EC
is the vertical
displacement or throw of the
fault,
is the horizontal displacement, lateral shift or heave,
causing an area of want or barren ground in the normal

fault.
Faults which strike parallel to the strike of the bed are known as
strike faults.
Faults which strike parallel to the dip of the beds are known as
dip faults.
Faults which strike parallel to neither dip nor strike are known as
common form, frequently with
oblique faults and are probably the most

rotation along the fault plane, Fig. 8.28
ab strike
=
ac =
bd =
be
slip
dip slip
net or resultant slip

vertical throw
Fig. 8.28 Diagonal or oblique fault
DIP AND
FAULT PROBLEMS
439
Where the direction and amount of full dip remain the same on both
sides of the fault, the fault is of the simple type and the lines of conon both sides of the fault are parallel.
Where the direction and/or the amount of dip changes, rotation of
the strata has taken place and the lines of contact will converge and
diverge. The vertical throw diminishes towards the convergence until
there is a change in the direction of the throw which then increases,
tact between
seam and
fault
Fig. 8.29.
Down throw
Down throw
Fig. 8.29
N.B.
The
strike or level line of a fault is its true bearing, which
will differ from the bearing of the line of contact
between seam and
fault plane.
Example
8-
15
diameter of 23
A
ft
vertical shaft, which is being sunk with an excavated

6 in. passes through a well-defined fault of uniform
direction and hade.
Depths to the fault plane below a convenient horizontal plane are

taken vertically at the extremities of two diameters AB and CD, which
bear north-south and east-west, respectively. The undernoted depths
were measured:
at
at
at
at
A
B
C
D
(north point) 10' 1"

(south point) 26' 3"
(east point)
4'
0"
(west point) 32' 4"
Calculate the direction of the throw of the fault and the amount of
hade. Express the latter to the nearest degree of inclination from the
(M.Q.B./S)
vertical.
N (10-1")
(-32'-4")W
Fig. 8.30
S(-26 -3
(4'-0")
440
Fig. 8.31
Gradient NS line
6"
(26'3"-10'l") in 23'
i.e.
16'2"in23'6"
.-.
Gradient
EW
1-453 57
= 3431'40"
line
(32'4"-4'-0")
in
28'-4"in 23'6"
i.e.
j3
1 in
23'-6"
*
=1
in
0-82951
a = 50 19' 30"
From Eq.
(8.6),
but 6 = 90
tan A =
tan
tan A =
tan cot a
/3
cosec 6 cot a - cot 6

(by Eq. 8.9)
= tan 3431'40" x 0-829 51

= 0-570 70
8
*.
Bearing of
= 2942'50"
full dip
= 270 - 2942'50"
= 24 0
17' 10"
From Eq.(8.7),
cot 8 =
cot a cos A
= 0-829 51 cos2942'50"
= 0-720 44
8 = 54 13' 50"
/.
Angle of hade
Example
8-
16
= 90 - 8
= 3546' 10" (36 to nearest degree)
A roadway advancing due West
seam encounhade of 30, which
in a level
ters a normal fault running North and South, with a
DIP AND
FAULT PROBLEMS
441
throws the seam up by a vertical displacement of 25
drift rising at
way meets
1 in 3*6 is
ft.
driven from the point where the road-
the fault on the East side to intersect the seam on the West
side of the fault.

Find, by drawing to scale, the inclined length of the drift and
check your answer by calculation.
Fig. 8.32
Length of
drift
Length of
drift
scaled from drawing = 93*5
but
AB
cot(9
BC
sin
ft.
25
id
(7
3*6
= 1531'
25
AB
Length of
drift
= 93-42
ft.
sinl531
= 93-4
ft.
Example 8.17 A roadway dipping 1 in 8

seam strikes an upthrow fault, bearing
in the direction of full dip of

at right-angles thereto.
Following the fault plane a distance of 45 ft the seam is again located

and the hade of the fault proved to be 30.
Calculate the length of a cross-measures drift to win the seam,
commencing at the lower side of the fault and rising at 1 in 6 in the
same
direction as the roadway.
Fig. 8.33
Vertical throw of fault
Lateral displacement
FB =
FC =
45 cos 30 = 38*97
45 sin 30
22' 50
ft
ft
442

In triangle
EFC
EF
.-.
To
EC
22-50
EB = FB
EF
= 2-81
ft
= 38-97 + 2-81 = 41-78
ft.
find the plan length of the drift by the rate of approach method,
BG
41-78
1
143-24
Inclined length of drift
41-78 x 48
14
ft
BD
143-24 x
145-22
ft
A roadway, advancing due East in the direction of

of 1 in 8, meets a downthrow fault bearing S 35 E, with a
throw of 60 ft and a hade of 30.
Example 8.18
full dip
At a distance 150
ft along the roadway, back from the fault, a

be driven in the same direction as the roadway in such a way
meets the point of contact of seam and fault on the downthrow
drift is to
that
it
side.
Calculate the inclined length and gradient of the

the seam is constant on both sides of the fault.
Section
on fault
60'
Fig. 8.34
drift,
assuming
FAULT PROBLEMS
DIP AND
443
In plan
BX =
BC
Width of barren ground =
On
60 tan 30 = 34-64
= 34-64 sec 35 =
the line of the roadway
As X
is 60
vertically below B,
ft
it
is
ft.
42- 29
(= QC).
ft
necessary to obtain the
relative level of C.
XY
As the
XC
sin 35 =
dip of
XY
XC
BC
BC
sin
sin 35
35 = 42- 29 sin 2 35 =
is 1 in 8, the level of
relative to
13-91
ft
is
But
YC
is the line of strike
Level of Y = level of C = 1-74 ft below X

= 60 + 1-74 ft below A
= 61-74 ft below A
(i.e.
BQ = MP).
.'.
In section
Gradient of roadway
AB
1 in 8.
cot0 = 8
.-.
= 708'
AM
MB
Thus
and
= 150sin708' = 18-63
ft
= 150 cos708' = 148-84
ft
(= PC).
Difference in level
A - C = AP = AM + MP
= 18-63 + 61-74 = 80-37
Plan length of
drift
Gradient of
drift
AC
= 80-37
<f>
8.52
To
in 191-13
2-378
1 in
ft
ft
191-13
~WW
cot< =
drift
ft
= ,luk
.
Length of
ft
= PC = PQ + QC
= 148-84 + 42-29 = 191-13
2-378
= 2249'
= 19 1- 13 sec 2249
= 207-36 ft
between the true and apparent bearings
of a fault
The
The
true bearing of a fault is the bearing of its strike or level line.
apparent bearing of a fault is the bearing of the line of con-
444
tact
between the seam and the fault.

The following conditions may exist:
(1) If the
seam
is level, the contact line is the true bearing of the
fault.
the
(2) The apparent bearings are alike, i.e. parallel, if the full dip of
seam is constant in direction and amount. N.B. The throw of the
fault will also

(3)
be constant throughout
The apparent bearings
amount of
full
differ,
its
length this is unusual.
due to variation
in direction or
The barren ground
dip on either side of the fault.
will
N.B. The throw of the fault will vary

and ultimately reduce to zero and then change from upthrow to downthrow. This is generally the result of rotation of the beds.
thus diminish in one direction.
Two
(1)
(2)
general cases will therefore be considered:
When the throw

When the throw
of the fault opposes the dip of the seam.

of the fault is in the
same general
direction as
the dip of the seam.
Let the
full dip
on the downthrow side be
1 in
x,
the full dip on the upthrow side be 1 in y,

the angle between the full dip and the line of contact be a,
the angle between the line of contact and the true bearing of
the fault be
/3,
the angle of hade be 6 from the vertical,

the throw of the fault be
ft
the angle between the full dip
the fault be
To
8.53
down
1 in
in the direction
NW,
y and the true bearing of
<f>.
when
the throw of the fault
opposes the dip of the seam (Fig. 8.35)

If the throw of the fault is t ft, then D will be + 1 ft above A,
and for the true bearing of the fault DC, C must be at the same level
as D. Angle ADC = 90 with DC tangential to the arc of radius t tan Q.
.
The
full dip 1 in x requires a horizontal length
AB
tx
ft.
The same applies on the other side of the fault. E must be at the
same level as A, and EA, the true bearing of the fault, must be parallel to DC; also for FE to be the strike in the seam DF must equal
ty
ft.
Referring to Fig. 8.35,

In triangle
ABC,
AC
tX
cos a
DIP
In triangle
AND FAULT PROBLEMS
445
ACD,
tan0
t
sinjS,
= tan0 cos a,
(8.16)
tx
cos a,
In triangles
ADE
and EDF,
.
smfl,
tan0 coscl,
-
(8.17)
a2
but
j8 2
cos(<+/8
tan0
sin P 2
<
(8.18)
2)
tan0
(cos
i.e.
y cot# = cos
cotj8 2
Hence the
<f>
y cot
tfi
cos /3 2 - sin
cot /32 - sin
sin
/32 )
<f>
+ sin <f>
(8.19)
COS0
true bearing of the fault
= bearing of contact line
AC
/3,
(8.20)
Bearing of contact line
ED
= true bearing of
= bearing of
AC
fault
ft,
/3 2
ft 2
Fig. 8.35
(8.21)
446
Given the angle 8 between the
8.54
of the seam and the true
full dip
bearing of the fault, to find the bearing of the line of contact

(Fig. 8.35)
a,
8+P,
From Eq.(8.16),
tanO cos a,
x
sin
=
x cot#
tan0
/o.
o \
cos (5 + ft,)
cos g cos ft, - sin 8 sinft,
sinp^
= cos 5 cot ft, - sin 8

cot
Example 8.19
1 in
ft,
x cot d + sin 8
(8.22)
cos 8
plan of workings in a seam dipping at a gradient of
E shows a fault bearing

measures down to the North-West.
3 in a direction S 30
which throws the

of the fault is 30
45
Fig. 8.36
From Eq.(8.16),
cos a tanfl _ cos 75 tan 30
ft
0-149430
= 0-049 810
ft
/.
True bearing
in the seam
The hade
to the vertical. Calculate the true bearing of the
fault.
sin
251'20"
= 04500'00" - 251'20"
An"
08' 40
= 042o r\Q>
DIP AND
447
FAULT PROBLEMS
A seam dipping 1 in 5, S 60 E, is intersected by a

Example 8.20
fault the hade of which is 30 to the vertical and the bearing N 35 W.
The fault is a downthrow to the South- West. Calculate the bearing of
the fault as exposed by the seam.
Fig. 8.37
As
full dip
and hade oppose each other, by Eq. (8.22)

cot/3
x cot 6 + sin 8
cos 5
o
+ sin25
cos 25
5 cot30
10-02181
= 542'
Bearing of fault exposed in seam
= 325- 5 42'
= 319 18'
= N4042
seam at A and B have made contact

with a previously unlocated fault which throws the measures up 100 ft
to the south-east with a true hade of 40 from the vertical.
Full dip is known to be constant in direction, namely 202 30'
but the amount of dip changes from 1 in 5 on the north side to 1 in 3
on the south side of the fault.
Given the co-ordinates of A and B as follows:
Example 8.21
A
B
Headings
in a
5873-59 ft N.
3672-46 ft E.
7274*38 ft N.
4965-24 ft E.
Calculate (a) the true bearing of the fault, (b) the bearings of
the lines of contact between fault and seam.
448
/a
4oV
Section
on
fault
Fig. 8.38
Co-ordinates
A
B
3672-46
5873*59
4965-24
7274-38
dE + 1292-78
dN + 1400-79
tan bearing
AB
f|f
= 0-92289
AB
= 042 42'
bearing of contact line
Then a, = 180 + 04242' - 20230'
By
= 2012'
Eq.(8.16),
Q
sm/3,
.
j8,
cos2012' tan 40
=
= 904'
Bearing of line of strike of

i.e.
= 0-157 50
true bearing of fault
fault,
04242' - 904'
= 03338'
Now
<fi
= a,-/3,
= 20 o 12'-9 o 04
= 1108'
By Eq.(8.19)
cotjS 2
o
3 cot40 + sinll 08'
cosll08'
= 3-840 62
j8 2
= 1434'
Bearing of line of contact on upthrow side of fault
= 03338' + 1434' = 04812'
DIP AND
8.55
To
FAULT PROBLEMS
449
when the downthrow of the

same general direction as the dip of the seam
fault is in the
(Fig. 8.39)
Fig. 8.39
a
smjS,
sin j6 2
and
tan 6 cos a,
before
(8.23)
tan# cosa.j
(8.24)
but
a* =
<f>~Pz
sin)8 2 =
y cotd
.
cotj8 2
tan0
(cos
cos
cf>
+ sin
cf>
sin
2)
= cos< cot/S 2 + sin<
y cot
- sin cb
^
(8.25)
COS0
(8.26)
Hence
true bearing of fault = bearing of contact line
bearing of contact line
DE
= true bearing of fault -
= bearing of
8.56
CA +
CA +
Given the angle 5 between the
ff,
/3 2
full dip of the
j8,
j8 2
(8.27)
seam and
the true
bearing of the fault, to find the bearing of the line of contact
Here
= a 1+
i.e.
a,
= 5,-0,
j8,
450
then, from Eq.(8.23),

sin/3,
giving
cot/3,
-j- cos(5-,)
x cot0 - sinS,
(8.28)
A fault is known to be an upthrow in a NW direction

Example 8-22
with a full hade of 30 to the vertical.
The bearing of the fault as exposed in the seam is N 40 E, and
the full dip of the seam is 1 in 5 S 35 W. Find the true bearing of the
fault.
Fig. 8.40
As the downthrow
dip,
of the fault is in general direction as the full
by Eq. (8.23),
.
tan0 cos a
sin0 =
tan 30 cos 5
5
= 0-11503
B =
.-.
Bearing of fault
636'
= N 40 + 636' E
= N 46 36 E
y
8.6
To Find
the Bearing and Inclination of the line
of Intersection (AB) of
Let
Two
Inclined Planes
angle between the lines of full dip of the

two planes inclined at a and j8 respectively be S,
(1) the horizontal
(2) the horizontal
angle between the line of
the intersection line
AB
of inclination
full
<f>
dip
be
0.
a and
451
Fig. 8.41
From Eq. (8.5),

tan <f> = tan a cos 6
= tanjS cos(S-0)
also
= tan B (cos 8 cos 6 + sin 5 sin 0)
tan a cos
tan a cot j8 = cos 8 + sin 5 tan 6
i.e.
tan0
If
tan a cot B - cos 8

1
t -^
sin 3
(8.29)
plane (a) is a plane in the form of a seam and plane (b) is a

hade (90 - B)
fault plane of
it
tan0
then
Example 8.23
planes.
The
tan a tan
B - cos 8
-=:
(8.30)
sino
on the line of intersection of two inclined

one plane is 1 in 8 in a direction 222 15' and
is a point
full dip of
the full dip of the other is 1 in 4 in a direction 14525'

If B is a point to the south of A on the line of intersection of the
two planes, calculate the bearing and the inclination of the line AB.
Let the angle of the
full
a =
dip of plane (1) be
cot
_1
= 1402'
of plane (2) be B.
Then the horizontal angle 8 between them = 222
15'
= 7650'
From Eq.(8.29),
a =
tan0
tana cot B - cos 8

f
=-
sin 5
i.e.
8 tanl402'-cos7650'
tan0 =
sin7650'
1-99960 -0-22778
0-97371
= 1-81966
- 145 25'
452
6 = 6112'30"
.'.
Bearing of
AB
= 14525'+ 6112'30"
,
= 20637 30"
Angle of inclination AB(<f))
tan
= tan a cos 6
= 0-120 38
<f>
= 652'
cf>
1 in
i.e.
8*3
Exercises 8(b) (Faults)
heading in a certain seam advancing due East and rising at

the yd met a fault with a displacement up to the East and the
seam has been recovered by a cross-measures drift rising at 18 in. to
15.
in. to
direction as the heading. The floor of the seam

where the gradient is unchanged was met by the roof
of the drift when it had advanced 345 ft, and the roof of the seam when
it had advanced 365 ft
Calculate the thickness of the coal seam.
(M.Q.B./M Ans.
5 ft 10^ in.)
16.
Two parallel seams 60 ft vertically apart dip due W at 1 in 6.
the yd in the
beyond the
drift
same
fault
with a falling gradient of
1 in
12 is driven from the upper to
the lower seam in a direction due E.
Calculate the length of the
drift.
(Ans.
17.
A roadway
fault with a
in a level
Hor. 240
ft;
Incl.
240-82
ft).
seam advancing due N meets a normal
hade of 30 from the vertical and bearing
at right-angles
to the roadway.
An exploring drift is set off due N and rising 1 in 1. At a distance of 41 ft, as measured on the slope of the drift, the seam on the
north side of the fault is again intersected.
(a)
Calculate the throw of the fault and the width of the barren ground.
had been driven at 1 in 4 (in place of 1 in 1) what
(b) If the drift
would be the throw of the fault and the width of barren ground ?
(Ans.
(a)
29
ft;
16-7
(b) 9-9 ft; 5-7
18.
A roadway AB,
ft
ft)
driven on the full rise of a seam at a gradient of
B by
an upthrow
1 in 10, is
intersected at
is parallel
with the direction of the level course of the seam, with a
hade of 30 from the vertical.

From B a cross-measures
drift
fault, the
bearing of which
has been driven in the line of AB

ft above the level of B
produced, to intersect the seam at a point 190
453
and 386 ft from the upper side of the fault as measured in the seam.
Calculate the amount of vertical displacement of the fault and the
length and gradient of the cross-measures drift. Assume that the direction and rate of dip of the seam is the same on each side of the fault.
151-6
(Ans.
A roadway advancing due East
19.
in a level
ft;
507-78
ft;
seam meets a
1 in 2-5)
fault bear-
ing North and South, which hades at 30. A drift, driven up the fault
plane in the same direction as the roadway, meets the seam again at a
distance of 120
ft.
drift rising from a point on

which intersects the seam 100
Calculate the length and gradient of a

the road 400
ft
ft
East of the
to the
West
of the fault
fault.
570
(Ans.
The
20.
seams 60 yd vertically
direction and rate of full dip of two
apart from floor to floor are
12
E and
4l/2
1 in 5-4)
ft;
in. to
the yd respectively.
Calculate the length of a cross-measures drift driven from the

lower seam to intersect the upper, and bearing N 18 W. (a) if the
drift is level; (b) if it rises at
a gradient of 4
in. to
(M.Q.B./M
Ans.
the yd.
(a)
(b)
21.
level roadway
AB
bearing due West, in a seam 8
strikes a normal fault at B, the point
seam at
The hade of the
cuts off the
1662-7 ft;
825-2 ft)
ft
thick,
being where the fault plane
floor level.
as measured in the roadway is 35 from the

is driven on the same bearing as the roadway
fault,
A proving drift
and dipping from the point
vertical.
at 1 in 3.
The
floor of the drift intersects
C and
measured on the slope. At C the seam is found to be
rising at 1 in 10 due East towards the fault.
Draw a section to a scale of 1 in. = 20 ft on the line ABC show-
the floor of the seam, on the lower side of the fault at a point
BC
is
80
ft
ing the seam on both sides of the fault, the drift BC and the fault plane
and mark on your drawing the throw of the fault and the distance in the
seam from C
to the fault plane.
(M.Q.B./M
The
22.
Ans.
19
ft;
63
ft)
direction of full dip is due North with a gradient of 1 in 6

1 in 9 on the downthrow side. Workings show
on the upthrow side and
the line of contact of the seam and fault on the upthrow side as
with a fault hade of 30 and throw of 30 ft.

Calculate (a) the true bearing of the fault, (b) the bearing of the
45
line of contact on the
downthrow side.
(Ans.
04106'; 04345')
454
Exercises 8(c) (General)

In a seam a roadway AB on a bearing 02400' dipping at 1 in 9
meets a second roadway AC bearing 32300' dipping at 1 in 5 x/2.
Calculate the rate and direction of full dip of the seam.
23.
33113'; 1 in 5-44)
(Ans.
Two seams
24.
60
ft
vertically apart, dip at 1 in 8 due N.
quired to drive a cross-measures drift in a direction
30
It is re-
and
rising at 1 in 5 from the lower to the upper seam.
Calculate the length of the drivage.

(Ans.
A roadway
25.
a 240
ft
198-5
ft)
driven to the full dip of 1 in 12 in a coal seam meets
downthrow
A cross-measures
fault.
drift is
set off in the di-
rection of the roadway at a gradient of 6 in. to the yd.

In
side
what distance will it strike the seam again on the downthrow

the hade is 8 from the vertical, (b) the hade is vertical ?
if (a)
(Ans.
(a)
2885-7
ft;
2919-8
(b)
ft)
26.
Three boreholes A, B and C intersect a seam at depths of
540 ft, 624 ft and 990 ft respectively. A is 1800 ft North of C and
2400 East of B.
Calculate the rate and direction of full dip.
(Ans.
27.
The
seam
rate of full dip of a
is
4^
in. to
1 in 3-96;
S 758' W)
the yd and the direc-
tion is S 45 E.
Find, by calculation or by drawing to a suitable scale, the inclinations of two roadways driven in the
seam of which the azimuths are
195 and 345 respectively.

(Ans.
28.
Two
strike of a
parallel
roadways
AB
and
CD
1 in 16;
1 in 9-24)
advancing due North on the

in the seam, on a bearing
seam are connected by a road BD
60 E.
The plan length
BD
is 150 yd and the rate of dip of the seam

BD.
Another roadway is to be driven on the bearing N 45 E to connect
the two roadways commencing at a point 200 yd out by B on the road
AB, the first 20 yd to be level.
Calculate the total length of the new roadway and the gradient of
of
is 1 in 5 in the direction
the inclined portion.
(Ans.
29.
A roadway AB,
700
ft
coal on an azimuth of 17354'.

drift
from a point
at a point
in another
D, the road
AB
186-44 yd; 1 in 5*46)
has been driven in a seam of

required to drive a cross-measures
in length,
It is
seam
at a uniform gradient to intersect
produced in direction and gradient. The
455
B and C in feet below Ordnance Datum and

A and C in feet are respectively as follows:
levels of A,
ates of
A
B
C
sed
Levels
Latitude
Departure
-1378
-1360
-1307
+9209
+18041
+6180
+17513
the co-ordin-
Calculate the length AD, and the length and gradient of the propo03227'.
drift CD, assuming that the latter is to have an azimuth of
1892-9 ft; 1359-0 ft; 1 in 3-27)
(Ans.
driven direct to the rise in a certain seam at a

gradient of 6 in. to the yd and in the direction due N is intersected
at B by an upthrow fault, bearing at right-angles thereto with a hade
of 30 from the vertical. From the point B a cross-measures drift has
A heading AB
30.
been driven in the direction of AB produced, and intersects the seam

at a point 420 ft from the upper side of the fault. The levels at the
beginning and end of the cross-measures drift are 100 ft and 365 ft
respectively above datum.
Calculate (a) the vertical displacement of the fault, (b) the
length and gradient of the
Assume the
each side of the
drift.
direction and rate of dip of the
seam
to be uniform on
fault.
(M.Q.B./M
Ans.
(a) 195-9 ft (b) 590-2; 1 in 2)
A roadway in a seam dipping 1 in 7 on the line of the roadway

meets a downthrow fault of 30 ft with a hade of 2 vertical to 1 horizon-
31
tal.
Calculate the length of the drift, dipping at 1 in 4 in the line of

the roadway, to win the seam, a plan distance of 50 ft from the dip
side of the fault; also the plan distance from the rise side of the fault
from which the drift must be set
Assume the
gradient of the
off.
seam to be uniform and the
line of the
fault at right- angles to the roadway.
(Ans.
267-97
ft;
194-97
ft)
A roadway, bearing due East in a seam which dips due South at

32.
1 in 11, has struck a fault at a point A. The fault which, on this side,
runs in the seam at N 10 W is found to hade at 20 from the vertical
and to throw the seam down 30 ft at the point A. The dip of the seam
on the lower side of the fault
is in the
same
direction as the upper side
but the dip is 1 in 6.
From a point B in the roadway 140 yd West of A a slant road is

driven in the seam on a bearing N 50 E and is continued in the same
direction and at the same gradient until the seam on the East side of
the fault is intersected at a point C.
456
Draw to a scale of 1 in. to 100 ft a plan of the roads and

mark the point C. State the length of the slant road BC.
fault
(M.Q.B./S Ans.
and
264 yd)
The sketch shows a seam of coal which has been subjected to

33.
displacement by a trough fault.
Calculate the length and gradient of a cross-measures drift to connect the seam between
A and B
from the details shown.
(Ans.
X
587-2
ft;
1 in 2-74)
700'
Ex. 8.33
A seam
34.
dips 1 in 4, 20830'. Headings at A and

AB to be 07500*.
B have
proved
the bearing of the contact line

If
if (a)
the hade of the fault is 30, what is the true bearing of the fault
it
is a
downthrow to the South;
(b) it is a
35.
(a)
Define the true and apparent azimuth of a
(b)
exposed
fault
and a hade of 33.

the
downthrow to the
seam
08042'; 06918')
(Ans.
North.
It
in a certain
throws down to
236 15'.
fault.
seam has an azimuth of 08610',

the North West. The full dip of
is 1 in 6- 5 at
Calculate the true azimuth of the fault. Check by plotting,

Two seams, separated by 86 yd of strata, dip at 1 in 13 in a
direction S 36 W. They are to be connected by a drift falling at 1 in 5,
(c)
7430'E.
Calculate the plan and slope length of the drift.
(N.R.C.T. Ans.
(b) 08112' (c) 330-51 yd 337-07 yd)
36.
A mine plan shows an area of 3*6 acres in the form of a square.
Measured on the line of full dip underground the length is 632*4 links.
Calculate the rate of
full dip.
F
,.
(Ans.
1 in 3
-
or
..owv
1824
Bibliography
HADDOCK, The Location of Mineral Fields (Crosby Lockwood).

McADAM, Colliery Surveying (Oliver & Boyd).
FORREST, S.N. Mining Mathematics (Senior Course) (Edward Arnold).
M.H.
R.
METCALFE,
M.H.
HADDOCK,
A Mining
Engineer's Survey Manual (Electrical

Press, London).
The Basis of Mine Surveying (Chapman & Hall).
J.E.,
9 AREAS
Areas of Regular Figures
9.1
The following
summary of the most important formulae.
is a
Areas bounded by straight lines
9.11
Triangle (Fig. 9.1)
Triangle
Fig. 9.1
(Area)
(a)
i.e.
(b)
A =
A =
half the base x the perpendicular height
A =
half the product of any two sides x the sine of
1/2
(9.1)
Mi
the included angle
A = 1/2 ab sin C = 1/2 ac sin B =

A = yfs(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
i.e.
(c)
s=
where
1/2
be sin
(9.2)
(9.3)
Wz(a + b+c).
Quadrilateral
(a) Square,
(b) Rectangle,
(c)
A =
A =
side or
1/2
(diagonal
(9.4)
length x breadth
Parallelogram (Fig. 9.2),
(9.5)
A = axh
A = absina
(i)
(ii)
(9.6)
(9-7)
\'
f
Fig. 9.2
(d)
.
Fig. 9.3
Parallelogram
Trapezium
Trapezium (Fig. 9.3)
A =
half the
sum of the
pendicular height
parallel sides x the per-
458
A =
i.e.
(a
1/z
+ b)h
(9.8)
(e) Irregular quadrilateral (Fig. 9.4)
The
(i)
figure is subdivided into 2 triangles,
A =
=
1/2
{AC x Bb) + uz(AC x Dd)
VzAC(Bb + Dd)
Fig. 9.4
(ii)
(9.9)
Fig. 9.5
Irregular quadrilateral
A =
This formula
i/ 2
(/lCxBD)sin0
(9.10)
as follows, Fig. 9.5:
is obtained
A = uzAX.BX sind + uzBX.CX sin(180 - 0)

+ 1/2 CX.DX sin 6 + 1/2 DX.AX sin (180 - 0)
As
sin 6 = sin (180-0),
A =
1/2
sin 6
1/2
sin 6
A =
i/zsind
[AX(BX + DX) + CX(BX + DX)]

[
(AX + CX) (BX + DX)]
AC xBD
Regular polygon (Fig. 9.6)
A = s/zarxn
(i)
(9.11)
/J
(ii)
As
a =
Area A =
2r tan-^-
i/2rnx2rtan
= nr^tan
2
360
2
= nr tan^
2n
(iii)
A =
1/2 fl
= 2
(9.12)
360
~n~
Regular polygon
(n sides)
sin 6 x n
Sin
Fig. 9.6
(913)
459
AREAS
Areas involving circular corves
9.12
Circle
A = nr
A = i/4 nd 2
(i)
(ii)
where
it
3-1416, 1/477
(9.14)
(9.15)
0-7854.
Sector of a circle. (Fig. 9.7)
Fig. 9.7
N.B.
of
A =
(ii)
A = f*
(i)
(ii) is
Sector of a circle
(9.16)
rrr
360
(9.17)
generally the better formula to use as the radian value
is readily available in maths, tables or
may be derived from
principles (see Section 2.22).
Segment of a circle (Fig. 9.8)
Fig. 9.8
Segment of
a circle
first
460
A =
(i)
A =
i.e.
A =
or
area of sector area of triangle

i/2r
1/2 r
-nr
^d
(0
i/2r
- sin
sin0
0)
(9.18)
2
i/2r sin(9
360
"ll60d
,/2Sin
(9.19)
chord AC = c and height of arc = h are known, the

approximation formulae are:
(ii) If
(a)
Irfffl
h
2c
(9.20)
(b)
A ^
or
W+
(9.21)
z
4c h
(9.22)
6c
Annulus
(flat ring) (Fig. 9.9)
A =
7rR -7Tr
= n(R 2 -r 2 )
=
or
A =
where
7r(/2-r)(/?
1/4
+ r)
(9.23)
Tr(D-d)(D+d) (9.24)
= 2R, d =
2r.
Fig. 9.9
9.13
Areas involving non-circular curves
Ei/ipse (Fig. 9.10)
77"
A = -ab
(9.25)
Fig. 9.10
where a and
ft
are major and minor axes.
Ellipse
Annulus
461
AREAS
Parabola (Fig. 9.11)
A = -bh
(9.26)
Fig. 9.11
Parabola
Surface areas
9.14
Curved surface of a cylinder (Fig. 9.12)
Fig. 9. 12
If
length
Curved surface area of a cylinder
the curved surface is laid out flat it will form a rectangle of

2-77-r = rrD and of height h = height of cylinder.
Surface area (S.A.) = lirrh

S.A.
vDh
Curved surface of a cone (Fig. 9.13)
Fig. 9.13
Curved surface area of a cone
(9.27)
(9.28)
462

If
the curved surface is laid out flat
circle of radius
By Eq.
/,
i.e.
it
(9.17),
Area of sector =
1/2 r
6Tad =
1/2
1/2
rxr0
i/2r
which here =
1/2/
S.A.
i.e.
will form the sector of a
the slant height of the cone.
1/2
x arc
x ttD
nlD
(9.29)
x circumference of the base of the cone x slant height.
Surface area of a sphere (Fig. 9. 14)

This is equal to the surface area of a cylinder of diameter
diameter of the sphere and also of height D.
Fig. 9. 14
D =
Surface areas of a sphere
A = TTDxD
= ttD
(9.30)
A = 277Tx2r =
or
Airr
(9.31)
Surface area of a segment of a sphere

In Fig. 9.14, if parallel planes are drawn perpendicular to the axis
of the cylinder, the surface area of the segment bounded by these
planes will be equal to the surface area of the cylinder bounded by

these planes.
i.e.
S.A.
nDh
(9.32)
S.A.
2-rrrh
(9.33)
where h = the height of the segment.
AREAS
N.B.
463
The areas of similar figures are proportional
to the
the corresponding sides
squares of
(9.34)
In Fig. 9. 15,
A 4BC
AB 2
A AB,C,
AB\2
Area
Area
BC''
AC
B,C 2
~ACf
C,
Fig. 9. 15 Areas of similar figures
Similarly, in Fig. 9.16,
Area of circle
Area of circle 2 =
Area
i/4 7rd,
2
7rr2
viirtg
irr
as before
(9.35)
Area 2
rl
(9.36)
dl
Fig. 9.16
Comparison of areas
of circles
Example 9.1. The three sides of a triangular field are 663*75 links,
632*2 links and 654*05 links. Calculate its area in acres.
-a
a =
663*75
b =
632*20
s - b = 342*80
c =
654*05
s-c
2U950-00
s =
975*00
= 311*25
= 320*95
= 975*00

464
By Eq.
(11.3),
Area =
V s(s -
a)(s - b)(s - c)
= V975-00 x 311-25 x 342-80 x 320-95

2
= 182724 link
= 1-827 acres
Example 9.2 A parallelogram has sides 147-2 and 135-7 ft. If the
acute angle between the sides is 3432' calculate its area in square
yards.
By Eq.
(11.7),
Area = ab sin a
= 147-2 x 135-7 sin 3432'
= 11323 ft2
= 1258 yd 2
The area
Example 9.3
of a trapezium is 900
distance between the two parallel sides is 38

parallel sides if their difference is 5
ft
ft
If
the perpendicular
find the length of the
ft.
ByEq.(9.8),
A =
x + (x - 5)
3g
= 900
1800
2x - 5 =
.-.
x =
38
47-368 + 5
52-368
= 26-184
Lengths of the parallel sides are 26-184 and 21-184.
Example 9.4
ABC is a triangular plot of ground in which AB measures 600 ft, (182-88 m). If angle C = 73 and angle B = 68 find the
area in acres.
In triangle
ABC,
BC =
AB
sin
sin
600 sin {180 - (73 + 68)}

sin 73
600 sin 39
sin 73
= 394-85 ft
(120-345 m)
465
AREAS
ByEq.(9.2),
^BCABsinB
2
Area of triangle
394-85x600
-x
2
109829 ft
sin 68
2
(10 203 m
109829
acres
9 x 4840
2*521 acres.
Example 9.5 Calculate the area of the underground roadway from the
measurements given. Assume the arch to be circular.
In the
segment (Fig.
h = 7'c =
10"-
9.
5'
/^ ^X
18)
2'-
10"
12'- 0"
1
"
%
o
"-tf*
"Ks
U)
"
- 2rh + h + -c z
+ c
2-833 +
12-0"
"
^
n
Fig. 9. 17
2 x 2-833
2h
= 7-769 ft
Sin- =
2
yr^^^^'^
2r
^"
^^
^r
12
,n
2 x 7-769
c
2
X.
>v
a
rX.
~ 5033'40"
r-/>
6 = 10107'20'
Fig. 9.18
Area of segment = - r\6 - sin

7-769
0)
(1-76492-0-98122)
= 30-179 x 0-78370
= 23 651
'
Area of rectangle =
Total area
N.
Z'''
= 0-77 230
e
"
5x12
= 83-651
ft2
= 60 ft 2
2
ft
>^
466
Check
By Eq.(9.20),
4
- fx
Area of segment
^
~
~
//5x2-833\
2-833
VV~I
+6
j
.
'
3-776 V3-135 + 36
3-776 x 6-294
23-77
2
ft
ByEq.(9.22),
3
3 x 2-833 + 4 x 144 x 2-833
Area of segment
6x12
~
Example 9.6
23-6 lft
square of 6
ft
sides is to be subdivided into three
equal parts by two straight lines parallel to the diagonal. Calculate

the perpendicular distance between the parallel lines.
Triangle
ABC
Triangle
BEF
= - area of square
- area of square
Length of diagonal
Length
AC
= 6yf2
BJ = 3/2
= 4-242
Area of
Area of
A BFE
A ABC
2
3
BK 2
BJ
3
4-242'
BK* =
1-5
Fig. 9.19
BK
4-242 x y/VS
VS
= 3-464 ft
KJ =
BJ-BK
= 4-242-3-464
0-778
Width apart of parallel lines
1-556
ft
467
AREAS
Example 9.7 The side of a square paddock is 65 yd (59*44 m). At

a point in one side 19V2yd (17*83 m) from one corner a horse is tethered by a rope 39 yd (35*66 m) long.
What area of grazing does the horse occupy?
Fig. 9.20
The area occupied consists

EFG.
of a right-angled triangle
AEG
+ ^
sector
In triangle
AEG
cos
19y2
= 60
=0*5
ByEq.(9.2),
Area of triangle
AEG
= \ x 19x/2 x 39 sin 60
= 329*31 yd
(275*34 m
ByEq.(9.17),
Area of sector
2
1 x 39 x 120
'red
= 760*5x2*094
Total area
= 1592*49 yd
= 1921*80 yd
(1331*52
2
)
(1606*86 m
of grazing
Example 9.8 In order to reduce the amount of subsidence from the

workings of a seam the amount of extraction is limited to 25% by driving 12ft wide roadways. What must be the size of the square pillars
left to fulfil this condition?
468
JJI
TF
6'^Pillar
-fir
ii
Fig. 9.21
The areas
N.B.
of similar figures are proportional to the squares of
the relative dimensions,

(* + 12)'
100
i.e.
75
i.e.
100x
2
= 75(x + 24* + 144)
= 75x + 1800*+ 10800

2
25x - 1800* - 10800 =
2
72x-
x -
By the formula
432 =
for solving quadratic equations.
-by/b 2 - 4ac
2a
72 c = -432, a =
,
1,
72 +V5184 + 1728
A."
72 V6912
2
= 36 41-57 = 77-57 ft
Alternative Solution
Size of square representing 100%

Size of square representing
75%
10
(Am
= 8-66
(EF)
Vioo =
V75
Difference in size
= 1-34
Actual difference in size
= 12 ft
AREAS
If
is
469
the size of the pillar, 1'34
8-66
12
12 x 8-66
1-34
77-57
Example 9.9
ft
circular shaft is found to be 4
the bottom. If the diameter of the shaft is 20
ft,
ft
out of vertical at
find the area of the
crescent-shaped portion at the bottom of the shaft which is outside the

circumference from the true centre at the surface.
Fig. 9.22
Area of crescent-shaped portion = Area of circle - 2 (area of segment AXB).

Area of circle
Area of sector
TTr
= 3-1416x100 = 314-16
2
ft
A XBQ = -r z 6
1
6/2 = cos
-i
oy
OA
= cos
-i
10
7832'
2
Area of sector
AX BO,
Area of triangle
OAB
Area of segment
AXB
Area of crescent
15704'
1100x2-74133
Il00sinl5704'
137-07
19-48
= 117-59
314-16 -
2x117-59=
78-98
ft
470
Example 9.10 In a quadrilateral ABCD.A = 5510', B = 7830'

C = 13620' (A and C are diagonally opposite each other) AB =
620 links, DC = 284 links.
.
and from scaled values obtain the area
(a) Plot the figure to scale
in acres.
(b)
Calculate the area in acres.

ISO-^' K 78*30')= 46*20'
Construction
Draw a
(N.B.
line parallel
D = 360 - (55 10' + 7830' + 13620')

to AD 284 links away. This will cut AE
AC
From scaling,
= 90)
at C.
= 637 links
Dd = 256
links
Bb = 296
links
552
Area =
\ (637
x 552) = 175810 sq links
= 1*758
acres
Calculation
In triangle
AEB,
AE
AB
sin
620 sin7830'
= 839-89 Iks
sinfi
Area of triangle
In triangle
AEB
DEC, DE
sin4620'
ÂE.AB
1839-89 x 620 sin 5510'
DC
sin
= 213713 sq Iks
cot 4620'
= 284cot4620'
= 271-08 Iks
AREAS
Area of triangle
DEC
471
= + DE.DC
1 271-08
x 284
38 493 sq Iks
Area of triangle
ABCD
= 213713 - 38493
= 175 220 sq Iks

= 1-7522 acres
9.2
Areas of Irregular Figures
In many cases an irregular figure can conveniently be divided into

a series of regular geometrical figures, the total area being the sum of
the separate parts.

If
the boundary of the figure is very irregular the following methods
may be employed.
9.21
Equalisation of the boundary to give straight lines (Fig. 9.24)
Fig. 9.24
Equalisation of an irregular boundary
472
The
irregular boundary
from a point on
YY
A BCDEF
is to
be equalised by a line
to F.
Construction
(1)
Join A to C; draw a line Bb parallel to AC cutting

b. Triangle AbC is then equal to triangle ABC.
YY
at
same base and between the same
(triangles standing on the
parallels are equal in area).

(2)
Repeat this procedure.

Join bD, the parallel through
to give c
on YY.
(3) This process is now repeated as shown until the final line
equalises the boundary so that area eABX = area XFEDC
N.B.
(a)
eF
This process may be used to reduce a polygon to a triangle

of equal area,
(b) With practice there is little
need to draw the construction
lines but merely to record the position of the points b,c,d,

e,
on line YY.
etc.
Reduction of a polygon (Fig. 9.25)
Fig. 9.25
Ed
Reduction of a polygon
to a triangle of
Area of triangle bCd = Area of polygon
ABCDE.
Where the boundary strips are more tortuous the following

methods may be adopted.
(4)
9.22
equal area
The mean
The
ordinate rule (Fig. 9.26)
figure is divided into a
number of strips of equal width and
the lengths of the ordinates o,, o 2 o3 etc. measured.

,
(N.B.
If
the beginning or end of the figure is a point the ordinate is
included as q = zero.)
AREAS
The mean ordinate
Fig. 9.26
The area
is
473
rule
then calculated as
f\
(Ol+0 2 +03 + 4 + ...On )

= -^^-^^^ x(n-l)w
(9.37)
where n = number of ordinates
A =
or
where
2 ordinates
W
(9.38)
W = 2 w.
This method
is not very
accurate as
implies that the average
it
ordinate is multiplied by the total width W.
9.23
The mid-ordinate
Here the figure
rule (Fig. 9.27)
is similarly divided
into equal strips but these are then
sub-divided, each strip having a

mid-ordinate, aa, bb, cc etc.
The average value
of these mid-
ordinates is then multiplied by the
d
.
total width W.
i.e.
where
od
Area =
mW
a^.
= the mean of the mean

ordinates.
(9.39)
The only advantage of
this meth-
is that the
'
w
Fig- 9.27
number of scaled
The trapezoidal
01
rule (Fig. 9.28)
03
02
Fig. 9.28
The trapezoidal
The mid-ordinate
values is reduced.
9.24
Sî1
6"
rule
rule
474
This is a mote accurate method which assumes that the boundary

between the extremities of the ordinates are straight lines.
The area
of the first trapezium
<m
(o,
+ o2 )
"<o2
+ o3)
w,
If
second trapezium A 2
The area
of the
The area
of the last trapezium
w,
=w
w3 = wn =
then the total area =
4-i
~7T~ (n-i
n)
w;
[o,
+ 2o 2 + 2o3 +...2on_, +
(9.40)
<^]
Simpsorfs rule (Fig. 9.29)
9.25
This assumes that the boundaries

are curved lines and are considered
as portions of parabolic arcs of the
2
y = ax + bx +
form
c.
The area of the figure Aab cCB

is made up of two parts, the trapezium AabcC + the curved portion
t
above the line abc.
Fig. 9.29
The area of ab.cb = -O of the parallelogram
Simpsorfs rule
111
aa. b. c. cb.
4vv
[<*>
- {(y +
+ 3
)J
~
4\V
-I
[12(i
3>]
[2
~ 2<i +
3)J
W,
=
N.B.
This
is of the
3"ti
+ 4oz + 3 1
(9.41)
same form as the prismoidal formula with the
linear values of the ordinates replacing the cross-sectional areas.
AREAS
If
475
the figure is divided into an even number of parts giving an odd

total area of the figure is given as
number of ordinates, the
A =
.-.
The
w
[(o,
+ 4o 2 + o3 ) +
(03
+ 4o4 + 05)+... on_2 + 4on_, + qj
[q + 4o2 +
2q,
+ 4o4 + 2o 5 +... 2on_ 2 + 4on_, + qj
(9.42)
rule therefore states that:

a
if
the figure is divided into an even number of divisions, the tot-
al area is equal to
iplied by the
sum
one third of the width between the ordinates mult-
of the first and last ordinate + twice the
sum of the
remaining odd ordinates + four times the sum of the even ordinates"
This rule is more accurate than the others for most irregular areas and
volumes met with in surveying.
Example 9.11 A plot of land has two straight boundaries AB and

BC and the third boundary is irregular. The dimensions in feet are
AB 720, BC = 650 and the straight line CA = 828. Offsets from CA
on the side away from B are 0, 16, 25, 9,
feet at chainages 0, 186,
402, 652, and 828 respectively from A.
(a)
Describe briefly three methods of obtaining the area of such a

plot.
(b) Obtain, by
any method, the area of the above plot in acres, ex-
pressing the result to two places of decimals.

(R.I.C.S.)
The
area of the figure can be found by

(1) the
use of a planimeter;
(2) the equalisation of the irregular
boundary to form a straight
line and thus a triangle of equal area

(3) the solution of the triangle
ABC
+ the area of the
irregular
boundary above the line by one of the ordinate solutions.
Fig. 9.30
476
By
(2),
Area = 1(754 x 625) = 235 625 ft
By
(3),
Area of triangle
where
= -(a + b +
i.e.
ABC
= y/s(s - a)(s - b)(s -
c)
(Eq. 9.3)
c)
a =
650
b =
828
c =
720
s-a =
s-b =
s-c =
449
s =
1099
2)2198
s =
Area
= 5-41 acres
271
379
Check
1099
V 109 ^
x 449 x 271 x 379
= 225126
2
ft
Area of the irregular boundary

(a)
By
mean ordinate
the
Area =
rule, Eq. (9.38),
+ 16 + 25 + 9 +
= 8280
(b)
By
2
ft
233406
Total Area
x 828
2
ft
5*35 acres
the trapezoidal rule, Eq. (9.40),
Area = 1[186(0 + 16) + (402 - 186) (16 + 25)

+ (652 - 402) (25 + 9) + (828 - 652) (9 + 0)]
=
=
1[186 x 16 + 216 x 41 + 250 x 34 + 176 x 9]
[2976 + 8856 + 8500 + 1584]
= 10958 ft
Total Area
236 084
2
ft
= 5*43 acres
As the distance apart of the offsets is irregular neither the

N.B.
full Trapezoidal Rule nor Simpson's Rule are applicable.
AREAS
477
The planimeter
9.26
This is a mechanical integrator used
for
measuring the area of
ir-
regular figures.
OA and AB, with

fixed as
forming a freely moving joint between the bars. Thus
is allowed to rotate along the circumference of a circle of radius
consists essentially of two bars
It
a fulcrum and
OA
whilst
can move in any direction with a limiting circle OB.
Theory of the Planimeter (Fig. 9.31)

Let the joint at A move to A
and the tracing point B move first
y
and then through a small
to B,
angle 5a to
If
B2
the whole motion is very small,
the area traced out by the tracing

bar AB is ABB.B^
i.e.
ABx
8h +
or
8A =
I8h
AB z 8a
2
+ jl 8a
(9.43)
where 8A = the small increment of

area,
/
= the length of the tracing

bar AB,
8h = the perpendicular height
between the parallel

AB and j4,B
lines
5a = the small angle of
rot-
Fig. 9.31
ation.
Theory of the planimeter
now introduced at W on the tracing bar which

when moved at right-angles to the bar AB, and slide when
small wheel is
will rotate,
moved
in a direction parallel to its axis, i.e. the bar
Let the length
AB.
AW
= k.AB.
Then the recorded value on the wheel will be
i-e.
8W = 8h + kAB8a
8h = 8w _ kAB8a = 8w - kl8a
which when substituted
in Eq. (9.43) gives
54 =
l(8w-U8a)
= I8w+
2
Z
(i
-k)8a
8a
(9.44)
478
To
obtain the total area with respect to the recorded value on the
wheel and the
total rotation of the arm,
where
A =
lw +
A =
w =
the total displacement recorded on the wheel,
a =
Two cases
are
(2)
Commencing
(9.45)
the total angle of rotation of the bar.
now considered:
When the fulcrum
(1)
f(i-kja
the area traced by the bar,
When the fulcrum (0)

When the fulcrum (0)
(1)
by integrating,
is
is
outside the figure being traced.
is inside the figure being traced.
outside the figure (Fig. 9.32)
at a the joint is at
A.
Moving
is traced
to the right, the line abed

by the pointer whilst the
bar traces out the positive area
abcdDCBA.
04,)
Moving
to the left, the line defa
is traced out by the pointer whilst
the negative area (4 2)
defaAFED
by the bar.
The difference between these
two areas is the area of the figure
is traced out
abedefa,
i.e.
Fig. 9.32
Planimeter fulcrum outside

the figure
but
The
N.B.
along
4, -
a =
A =
lw
joint
DEFA
In
A =
Az =
lw +
(i-*)a
has moved along the arc
(Eq. 9.45)
(9.46)
BCD
to the right, then
to the left.
measuring such an area the following procedure should be follow-
ed:
(1) With the pole
and tracing arms approximately at right-angles,
place the tracing point in the centre of the area to be measured.

(2)
Approximately circumscribe the area, to judge the size of the

area compared with the capacity of the instrument. If not possible the pole should be placed elsewhere, or if the area is too
479
AREAS
large
can be divided into sections, each being measured sep-
it
arately.
(3)
(4)
(5)
Note the position on the figure where the drum does not record
- this is a good starting point (A).
Record the reading of the vernier whilst the pointer is at A.
Circumscribe the area carefully in a clockwise direction and
again read the vernier on returning to A.
(6)
difference between the first and second reading will be

the required area. (This process should be repeated for ac-
The
curate results).
(7)
(2)
a variable scale on the tracing arm to

give conversion for scale factors.
Some instruments have
When the fulcrum
is inside the figure (Fig. 9.33)
Fig. 9.33
Planimeter fulcrum inside the figure
In this
case the bar traces out the figure (A T) abcdefgha - the area
(4) A BCDEFGHA; it has rotated through a full circle,
of the circle
i.e.
a = 2 77.
A T -AC =
.:
AT =
=
W +
Iw +
= Iw +
2
l
(l- k\2TT
f (j- k\2n+ A c
2
l
(l-
}S
2n
-nb
n{b 2 +fa-2k)]
(where b = 04)
(9.47)
480
This is explained as follows Fig. 9.34:

If
the pointer
without the wheel
angle
OWP
were to rotate
moving, the
would be 90
The figure thus described is

known as the zero circle of radius
r;
Fig. 9.34
or
2
r
Theory of the zero circle
= b2 -(klf
=
OW z +(l-klf
= bz - (ktf +
2
= b +
2
I
(1
2
I
- 2kl + (klf
-2k)
(9.48)
In Eq. (9.47),
An
= lw + nr
= Iw + the area of the zero circle
The value
N.B.
(1)
(9.49)
of the zero circle is quoted by the manufacturer.
A T - Ac =
lw.
If
Ac > A T
then
lw will be negative,
the second reading will be less than the
first,
i.e.
the wheel
having a resultant negative recording.

(2)
The area
of the zero circle is converted by the manufactur-
measuring wheel and this constant is normally added to the recorded number of revolu-
er into revolutions on the
Example 9.12
/irp ^>
-o
1st reading
3-597
2nd reading
12-642
Difference
Arp
< Aq
9-045
Constant
23-515
Total value
32-560
1st reading
6-424
2nd reading
3-165
Difference
-3-259
Constant
23-515
Total value
20-256
481
AREAS
Plan Areas
9.3
9.31
Units of area
lsq
foot
(ft )
= 144 sq inches
lsqyard(yd 2 ) =
1
acre
ft
4 roods
= 100 000 sq links
10 sq chains
= 4840 yd
1
(in )
43 560 ft
= 640 acres
sq mile
Conversion factors
lin
lft
lyd
6-4516 cm 2
0-092 903
m2
0-836 127
sq chain =
cm
km2 = 247-105
m2
m2
m2
0-155000
1-19599 yd
rood
= 1011-71
acre
= 4046-86
0-404686 hectare (ha)

2-58999 km
=
N.B.
404-686
lsq mile
in
acres
ha = 2-47105 acres
258-999 ha
The hectare
is not
an
S.I. unit.
The British units of land measurement are the Imperial Acre and the
Rood (the pole or perch is no longer valid).
The fractional part of an acre is generally expressed as a decimal
although the rood is still valid.
Thus 56-342 acres becomes
56-342 acres
_4_
1-368 roods
56 acres
The use of the Gunter chain has been perpetuated largely because
of the relationship between the acre and the square chain.
Thus 240362 sq
links
= 24-036 2 sq chains
=
The basic
2-40362 acres
unit of area in the proposed International System is the
square metre (m
2
).
482
9.32
Conversion of planimetric area in square inches into acres
Let the scale of the plan be
lin.
i.e.
xin.
2
lsqin. = x sqin.
v-2
acres
12 x 12 x 9 x 4840
Example 9.13
(b)
Find the conversion factors for the following scales,

in. to 1 mile, (c) 2 chains to 1 inch.
(a)
1/2500
-
2500
2
lin
(a)
= 0-995 acres
12 x 12 x 9 x 4840
(4026-6
Q^
6in.tol.nile
(b)
1760x36
lin. =
i.e.
m2
= 0-4026 ha)
^n
= 1Ar
10 560
in.
10560
144x43560
= 17-778 acres
(71945
Alternatively, 6 in. =
1 in
7-1945 ha)
mile
=1 mile
36 in
m2 =
= 640 acres
640
17-778 acres
36
2 chains to 1 inch.
(c)
lin.
1 in
= 200 links
= 40 000 sq links
= 0-4 acres
(1618-7
m2 =
0-16187 ha)
Alternatively, 2 chains to 1 inch (1/1584)

lin.
1
1 in*
=
=
2x66 ft
1584
132x12 =
1584ft
= 0-4 acre
144x43560
9.33
Method
Calculation of area from co-ordinates

1.
By
the use of an enclosing rectangle (Fig. 9.35)
AREAS
483
B(x&)W
Ofx*J
Fig. 9.35
E(xB *)
Calculation of area by enclosing rectangle
The area of the figure
ABCDE
= the area of the rectangle
VWXYZ
-{MVB + BWXC ACXD + ADYE + MEZ

This is the easiest method to understand and remember but is
laborious in its application.
2.
By formulae using the total co-ordinates
Applying the co-ordinates to the above system we have:
Method
Area of rectangle
VWXYZ
= (xA -xJ(y2 -yg )
AVB
= l(x2 -x,)(y2 -y
of triangle
of trapezium
of triangle
i.e.
A =
BWXC
= - (y2 - y 3) { (x4 - x-j) + (x4 - x3 )
I(*-y4 )(*-*)
CXD
DYE
= l(y4 -*)<*,-*)
AEZ
= <*-*)(*-*,)
(x4 )2 - x y - x,^ + x,y5 ) - i[

4 8
x^ - x^,
- x,)*, + x,y, + 2x4y2
- 2x4 y - x y + x y
3
z 2
2 3
-xa y2 + x3y3
+ x4 y3 - x4 yA -x3y3 + x3 y4 + ^ y4
- *4 y5 " x5 y4 + xs y5 + Xgy, - x^ 6
-*iy,+*,yj
*
4 =
i[y,(x2
-x6 ) + y2 (x3-x ) + y3 (x4 -x2 ) + y4 (x B -x3 ) + y5 (x -x4 )]

)
484
This may be summarised as
A = 2&<*f
(9.50)
^-i)
Area = half the sum of the product of the total latitude of each
station x the difference between the total departures
of the preceding and following stations.
This calculation is best carried out by a tabular system.
i.e.
Example 9.14
The co-ordinates of the corners of a polygonal area
taken in order, as
A
E
(0, 0);
of ground are
follows, in feet:
(200, -160);
(720, 400);
(310, 540);
(630, -205);
G (-95,
(1000, 70);
135), returning to A.

Calculate also the co-ordinates of the far end of a straight fence
from
A which
To
cuts the area in half.
calculate the area of the figure
ABCDEFG
the co-ordinates
are tabulated as follows:

(a)
(d)
(c)
(b)
(c)-(d)
Station T.Lat. T.Dep. Preceding Following
A
B
C
-160
-205
Dep.
Dep.
200
-95
295
1000
630
100800
630
630
200
(a)x{(c)-(d)}
200
800
D
E
F
70
1000
720
630
90
400
720
310
1000
540
310
-95
720
135
-95
-690
-815
-310
310
164000
6300
276 000
440 100
41850
6300 1022750
6 300
2 ) 1016 450
2
508 225 ft
.-.
Total Area = 508225
figures.
(47 215-63
11-667 acres
From a visual inspection it

area AX will cut the line ED.
The
ft
area of the figure
is
BCD
m 2)
(4-72156 ha)
apparent that the bisector of the
can be found by using the above
AREAS
A
B
C
200
200
630
205
630
1000
70
1000
160
1000
485
-800
630
100800
200
800
630
-630
164000
44100
2)308900
2
154450 ft
J^310,540)
/
6 <f
<-95,135)\
^^^f(720,4OO)
,'''''
* {1O00,70)
A
(0,0)
<S
(200,-160)
(630,-205)
Fig. 9.36
The area
of the triangle
AXD
must equal
2
^(508 225) - 154 450 = 99 662-5 ft
Also area
DX
To find length
= ÂD.DX sin
2x99662-5
AD
AD
Length
DA =
DA =
Bearing
DE
Bearing
Angle
sin
and angle D.
-1
-1000/ -70 = S 8559'50" W = 26559'50"
tan
1000/sin8559'50" = 1002-45 ft
1
= tan" - 280/330
= N 4018'50" W = 31941'10"
5341'20'
2x99662-5
DX
= 246-76
ft
1002-45 sin 534l'20
To
find the co-ordinates of X.
ED
sin bearing 0*64697
cos bearing 0*762 51
AE
AN
(N 4018'50"
= 1000*00
246*76
ft).
= -159*65
Ex
= 840-35 ft
= +188*16
70-00
Nn =
N,
258 -16
ft
486
Ch eck on Area
A
B -160
C -205
D
X
70
840-35
200
200
630
630
1000
258-16
630
200
840-35
1000
-640-35
840-35
100800
164000
800
630
210-35
14724-5
- 1000
1000
258 160
522960
14724-5
508 235-5 ft
Method
3.
By areas
related to one of the co-ordinate axes
Area
ABCDE
(Fig. 9.37)
Areas related to one axis
Fig. 9.37
= (bBCc + cCDd + dDEe) - (bBAa + aAEe)
Using the co-ordinates designated, trapeziums
bBCc = |(x2+ x3)(y2 -y3 )'
cCDd = ^(x 3 +xA )(y3 -yA)

dDEe = ^(* 4 +*5)(y 4 -y5 )
i-
e.
bBAa =
aAEe = Ux,
-{
'-(x 2+ x,)(y2
+*,)(y,
-y,)
-y5 )
(9.51)
j[ (*2M> - x2y3 + x3 y2 - x^) +
(x^
- x3yA + xAy3 - x+yA )
+ (xA yA - xjs + %yA - a^y3 ) - (x,y2 - x,y, + x,^ - x,y,
-O^-^ys+^y,-*.^)]
Uyi(x2 -xJ + y2 (Xa -x
3a
(xA
-x2 ) +
y^-xj + ^(x, -xA )]
487
AREAS
as before
^yn (x
Area
Method
4.
n+1
(Eq.9.50)
-^_,)
Area by 'Latitudes* and 'Longitudes* (Fig. 9.38)
Here Latitude is defined as the partial latitude of a line

Longitude is defined as the distance from the y axis to the
centre of the line.
Fig. 9.38
From Eq.
Calculation of area by latitudes and longitudes
(9.51),
A = \l\{x2 + x3 )iyz -y3 )^{x3 + xA ){y3 -yA ) +

- {(^ + x,)(y2 -y
= l[(x, +xz )(y, -y2 ) +
+ (*4 +
-;s(xn +
5)
(y4
+
(x2
(x,
+ x5 )(y -y5 )}]
N.B.
yn+i)
+ x3 )(y2 -y3 ) + (x3 + xA )(y3 -y4 )
- y5 ) + (*5 + *i> (y 8 " ?f > 1
v ,)(yn-yn
+ ,)
where ^(xn + xn+1 ) = the longitude of a
Ok -
{xA +x^(yA -yz )\
952 >
line.
= the partial latitude
of a line, i.e. the latitude.
use double longitudes and thus produce

double areas, the total sum being finally divided by 2
(1) It is preferable to
(2)
This method is adaptable for tabulation using total departures and partial latitudes or vice versa.
488
Example 9.15
From the previous Example 9.14 the following table
T. Dep.
Stn.
Sum
P. Lat.
is
compiled.
Double Area
-
of
Adj. T. Dep.
A
B
200
630
1000
720
310
-95
-160
200
32000
-45
830
37 350
+ 275
1630
448 250
+ 330
1720
567600
+ 140
1030
144 200
-405
215
-135
-95
87075
12825
A
1172875
156425
156 425
2)1016 450
508 225
Machine calculations with checks
9.34
Using Eq.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
2
ft
(9.52),
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
dy
Ix
-160
-205
70
400
540
135
200
630
1000
720
310
-95
+ 1145
-365
+ 2860
+ 780
+ 2765
(X2)
(X2)
1560
5530
-95
-160
- 45
+ 275
+ 330
+ 140
-405
-135
200
830
1630
1720
1030
215
+ 745
-745
+ 5625
-95
(5)
= (3)x(4)
- 32 000
- 37 350
448 250
567 600
144 200
-87 075
+ 12825
-95
+ 1172875
-156 425
+ 5530
+ 1 016 450
508 225
fl
(6)
(7)
dx
Sy
(8)
= (6)x(7)
200
430
370
-160
-365
-135
-280
-410
-405
470
940
675
95
135
- 32 000
-156 950
-49 950
-131600
- 385 400
-273 375
+ 12 825
+ 1095
-1095
+ 2220
-660
+ 12 825
- 1 029 275
1560
1016 450
508 225ft 2
489
AREAS
N.B.
e.g.
(1)
From the total co-ordinates in columns 1 and 2, the sum

and difference between adjacent stations are derived.
= -160
dyAB = (-160-0)
(-205+160) = - 45
dyBc=
(2) All the arithmetical
ZyAB = -160+0
Sysc = -160-205
= -160
= -365
checks should be carried out
to
prove
the insertion of the correct values.

(a) 2
x the sum of the total latitudes =
(b) 2
x the sum of the total departures =
(c)
(3)
Sy (col. 7).
Sx (col. 4).
The Algebraic sum of columns 3 and 6 should equal
The product
zero.
of columns 3 and 4 gives column 5, i.e. the
double area:
Also the product of columns 6 and 7 gives column

the double area:
Columns 5 and 8 when totalled should check.
8, i.e.
Alternative method
From the previous work it is seen that the area is equal to onesum of the products obtained by multiplying the ordinate
(latitude) of each point by the difference between the abscissae
(departure) of the following and preceding points.
half of the
i-
A =
îW
~ *>y, + x3y2 - x,
+ xA y3 - x2^3
z y,
+ x5yA - x&A + x, yg - x4 y5 )
(9.
53)
This may be written as,
A = L
^r*2
(9.54)
:i
This is interpreted as 'the area equals one half of the sum of the products of the co-ordinates joined by solid lines minus one half of the
sum of the products of the co-ordinates joined by dotted lines,
This method has more multiplications but only one subtraction.

Using the previous example;
TO.^
A =
a
2
630^
200^
>
U^-160'
1000^
>
>-205' ^
70
720
016 450
= 508 225
ft
_ 95"]
""400^^540^^135 J
= ^[-182700 -833750]
= -[
310^
(negative sign neglected)
490

Subdivision of Areas*
9.4
9.41
The subdivision of an area
into specified parts from a point
on
the boundary (Fig. 9.39)
Fig. 9.39
Subdivision of an area from a point on the boundary
ABCDE
Consider the area

X on the line ED.
to
be equally divided by a line
start-
ing from
(1) Plot the co-ordinates to scale.

(2)
By inspection
or trial and error decide on the approximate line
of subdivision
XY.
(3) Select a station nearest to the line

(4) Calculate the total area
(5) Calculate the area
XY,
i.e.
AXE.
AXY
\ABCDE
(8)
- AXE.
Calculate the length and bearing of AX.
Calculate the bearing of line ED.
(9)
Calculate the length
(6)
(7)
N.B.
Calculate the area
Area of triangle
As
the area,
or B.
ABCDE.
=
AY
in triangle
AYX.
AYX
AX
AY
= -AX.XY sin X.
and X are known, AY
Area of triangle
-AX
sin
is calculated:
AYX
,g
(10) Calculate the co-ordinates of Y.

*
For a complete analysis of this the reader is advised to consult

of Mine Surveying by M.H. Haddock.
The Basis
AREAS
9.42
The subdivision
491
of an area by a line of
known bearing
(Fig. 9.40)
Subdivision of an area by a line of known bearing
Fig. 9.40
Construction
ABCDE
Given the area

and the bearing of the line of sub-division
XY, then EF on the given bearing and XY will be parallel to this, a
perpendicular distance d away.
Draw
FG
perpendicular to XY.
HX
perpendicular to EF.
The area
AYXE
= ârea
=
(1)
ABCDE
AAFE + AFYG+FGXH
AHXE.
From the co-ordinates the length and bearing of
AE
can be
calculated.
(2) In the triangle
for the length
(3)
The area
of d,
AFE
the area can be obtained by first solving
EF.
of the figure
FY GX EH
can thus be obtained in terms
i.e.
triangle
rectangle
FYG
FGXH
triangle
HXE
-d
cot a
= d(EF - HE)
=
d(EF- dcotB)
^d 2 cot)8
492
.'.
dEF
2
+ irf (cota-cot)3)
Area of
AYXE
- Area of
AAFE.
(9.56)
This
is a quadratic in
d as the angles a and B are found from
the bearings.
From the value of d the co-ordinates of F and

9.43
The subdivision
of an area by a line through a
can be obtained.
known point
inside the figure (Fig. 9.41)
Subdivision of an area by a line through a known

point inside the figure
Fig. 9.41
Construction
Given the area ABC D E and the co-ordinates of the fixed point
EH and produce to cut AB in G. Assume the dividing line
H, join
XY
is rotated
<x
about H.
From the co-ordinates:

(1) Calculate the length
(2) In the triangle
length
(3)
To
and bearing EH.
AGE
AG) and
calculate the length
EG
(this gives the
the area.
The required area
AYXE
=
=
A AGE - A YGff + AE//X

A 4GE- area (A)
find the missing area,
A = \EH.HX
!
= |E// x
2
sin
EH
a +GH.HY
sin
,
<t>
sin
x
sin(a+0)
sin
+ ^Gtf
x
z
GH
sin 6 sin
sin(a+0)
AREAS
EHZ
cot
24 =
a+
493
GH'
cot
cot
<f>
a+
cot 6.]
GH'
EH'
cot a + cot
(9.57)
+
cot
<fi
a+
cot
As the lengths EH and GH
are obtainare known, and <f> and

a,
from which
cot
in
equation
quadratic
a
this
is
bearings,
able from the
X
and
Y.
of
co-ordinates
the
and
thus
found,
a may be
These problems are best treated from
first
principles based on the
foregoing basic ideas.
Example 9.16.
A BCD,
In a quadrilateral
the co-ordinates of the
points, in metres, are as follows:
Point
A
B
C
D
-893-8
+634-8
-728-8
+1068-4
+699-3
Find the area of the figure by calculation.

If
is the mid-point of
AB,
find, graphically or
by calculation,
the co-ordinates of a point F, on the line CD, such that the area
AEFD
N.B.
i.e.
equals the area EBCF.

Co-ordinates of
0,
E = -(A + B)
^x -893-8 =
0,
446-9
'(1068-4, 699-3)
26 06'
[892-5,119-8]
(634-8,-728-8)
Fig. 9.42
"
494
x
iy
dx
A
B
-8938
634-8-1622-6-1030 026-48
165-0
-12 791-20 1428-1
-29-5
433-6
- 1068-4
699-3 -747 132-12 -699-3
-893-8
-728-8
+699-3
104 742-00
2432339-92
634-8
1703-2
1068-4
-747 132-12
-699-3
1593-1 3406-4
-1622-6 -1068-4 -2545-9 -1789 949-80 -1593-1
-747 132-12
634-8
1068-4
1703-2
ix
dy
-893-8
699-3
2537081-92
1068-4
1703-2 -923-3
3406-4-1846-6
1846-6
- 1 789 949-80
Area
= 894 974-9
+1789 949-80
3406-4
2
it
Bearing
&
Length
ED
ED
= tan"
.
1
1068-4 -- =
446-9
699-3
= 1566-9
sin 4259'20"
i x 446-9 x 1566-9 sin4259'20"
= 238735-4
--
Bearing
DP
= Bearing
=
Angle
ADF
tan"'
DC
634-8 - 1068-4
= tan
0-30362 = S
Area
=
,728-8 -699-3
le^Ô" W
= 26 o 06
= 4259'20" - 1653'20"
A EDF _
=
2x208752
1566 9 sin 26 06
'
^-ED sin
2
EDF
= 208752 m 2
ft
(9.55),
DF
To obtain
m2
= 894 974'9 _ 238 735-4 sq
EDF
Area triangle
Using Eq.
N 4259'20"E
0-93212 =
= 1068-4 sin 4259'20"
ADE, Area = -AE.ED
In triangle
-1
tan
'
the co-ordinates of F,
Line
DF
S 1653'20"
Length 605-66
P. Dep.
605-66 sin 1653'20"
P. Lat.
605-66 cos 1653'20" = -579-5
= -175-9
T. Dep. of
1068-4 - 175-9
892-5
Lat of
699-3-579-5
119-8
T.
Example 9.17
With the previous co-ordinate values let the bearing of the divid-
ing line be
5735'10" E.
AREAS
495
Construction
Draw
and
EF
AG
line
on this bearing
parallel to this a perpend-
icular distance d away.
1068-4
Bearing
AD
= tan
599.3
= tan"
=
Length
AD
1-52781
5647'40"
= 1068-4 cosec5647 '40
= 1276-9
m
Fig. 9.43
ADG,
In triangle
5735'10" -5647'40"
047'30"
= 5647'40" - 1653'20"
3954'20"
A =
G =
180 -(57
o 35'10"
- 1653'20") = 13918'10"
18000 00"
,
AD
AG
sin
sin
Area triangle
ADG
1276-9 sin 3954'20"
sin 13918'10"
6*
ÂD.AG
jx
AGFE
m2
Area ABCD -A ADG

2
= 447487-5-11084-8 = 436402-7
In figure
AGFE, Area = AA7E + AHFJ +

1
J2z
cot
= 1256-3 d +
where
a =
j8
/.
5735'10" - 1653'20"
AFHG
j2
d( AG -d cot a) + -d* cot

'
\ d\cot
j8
- cot a)
= 4041'50"
= 5735'10"
436 402-7
1276-9 x 1256-3 sin047'30"
= 11084-8
Area
sin
= 1256-3
= 1256-3 d- 0*263 88 d 2
496
This is a quadratic equation in d

z
0-263 88 d - 1256-3
d+
436402-7 =
d =
1256-3 N/(1256-3 - 4 x 0-26388 x 436 402-7)
2x0-26388
1256-3
^(1578 289-7 - 460631-8)

2x0-26388
1256-3
1117657-9
2x0-26388
199-1
2313-5
1256-3 + 1057-2
or
The
first
answer
is not in
accordance with the data given.

d = 377-26
.-.
/.
Co-ordinates of
E =
2x0-26388
2x0-26388
2x0-26388
0,
and -377-26 cosec 5735'10"
= Total Pep.
Total Lat. -446-9
Length
EF
AG - HG + EJ
= 1256*3- 377*26 cot a +377*26 cot j8

= 1256-3 + 377-26 (cot )8- cot a)
= 1256-3 - 199-1 = 1057-2
Co-ordinates of F:
P. Dep.
1057-2 sin 5735'10"
= +892-5
P. Lat.
1057-2 cos 5735'10"
= +566*7
Total Dep. of
F =
Total Lat. of
F = -446*9
+ 892*5
m
m
+892-5 m
+ 566-7 = +119-8
Example 9.18
Given the previous co-ordinate values let the dividing line pass
through a point whose co-ordinates are (703*8, 0).
From previous information,
AD
DC
In triangle
ADG,
AG
AD
is
5647'40" E, 1276*9
is S 1653'20"
D
^- =
sin
sinG
1276*9 sin 3954'20"

-
sinl0653'20"
ocr _
= 855-9
497
AREAS
39 54' 20"
<J>=106
, 53'20"
Fig. 9.44
AH
HG
= 703-8
(due E)
= 855-9 - 703-8 = 152-1
Area
-AD. AG
sin
A
= 299 268
m2
= \ x 1276-9 x 855-9 sin 3312'20"
Now Area ADFE = ~ Area ABCD
&AHE-AHFG
= 447488-299 268
= 148 220 m'
HG
AH'
i.e.
by Eq.9.57,
148 220 =
2(cot
As 6 =
a+
cot 6 )
2(cot
a+
cot
<f>
90,
AH 2 (cota+ cot0) - HG 2 cota

2
2
2
2
296440cot a+cota[296 440cot<-AH +HG ]-4tf cot< =
296440 cot a(cot a + cot <f>) =

i.e.
296440 cot
thus
a-
562 200 cot a + 150 388 =
Solving the quadratic gives
The co-ordinates
i.e.
(0,
of
a =
3225'
are thus 0, and 703-8 tan3225'
-446-9 m)
Exercises 9
1.
AADF+ AAHE- AHFG
=
:
447 488
In the course of a chain survey, three survey lines forming the
sides of a triangle were measured as follows:
498

Line
Length (links)
AB
570
level
BC
CA
310
1 in 10
On checking
was 101
Inclination
495
the chain after the survey,
it
was found
that its length
links.
Calculate the correct plan area of the triangle.
(E.M.E.U. Ans. 0-77249 acres)
2.
piece of ground has been surveyed with a Gunter's chain with
the following results in chains:
CE
12-47,
BC
12-20,
CD
9-38,
AB 11*50, CA 8-26, DB 10-30,

DE 6-63. Calculate the area in acres.
Subsequently it was found that the chain was 0-01 chain too long. Find
the discrepancy in the previous calculation and indicate its sign.
(L.U. Ans. 12-320 acres; -0*248 acres)
3.
Undernoted are data relating to three sides of an enclosure, AB,

respectively, and a line joining the points D and A.
BC and CD
of
Line
Azimuth
AB
BC
01000'
08855'
346-9
CD
DA
159 19'
601*8
27201'
654*0
Length
(ft)
541-6
The fourth side of the enclosure is an arc of a circle to the south

DA, and the perpendicular distance from the point of bisection of
the chord
DA
to the curve is 132*6
ft.
Calculate the area of the en-
closure in acres.
(Ans. 7*66 acres)
4.
Plot to a scale of 40 inches to 1 mile, a square representing 2H

By construction, draw an equilateral triangle of the same area
acres.
and check the plotting by calculation.

(Ans. Side of square 2*5 in.
Side of triangle 3-8 in.)
5.
to
The following offsets 15 ft apart were measured from a chain
line
an irregular boundary:
23-8, 18-6, 14-2, 16-0, 21*4, 30*4, 29*6, 24*2
ft.

(Ans. 0*0531 acres)
6.
Find the area in square yards enclosed by the straight line bound-
aries joining the points
ABCDEFA
whose co-ordinates
are:
AREAS
Eastings
A
B
C
D
E
F
499
Northings
(ft)
250
75
550
175
700
425
675
675
450
675
150
425
(ft)
(R.I.C.S. Ans. 24791-6

7.
The following
yd
2
)
table gives the co-ordinates in feet of points on the
A BCDEF. Calculate the area of the

land enclosed therein. Give your answer in statute acres and roods.
perimeter of an enclosed area
Point
Departure
Latitude
A
B
C
74-7
D
E
F
+
105-2
63-7
261-4
305-0
74-5
132-4
140-4
54-5
192-4
571-9
108-3
(R.I.C.S. Ans. 4 acres 0-5 roods)
8.
Using the data given
in the traverse table below,
in acres contained in the figure
Side
AB
BC
Latitude
compute the area
BCD EA.
(ft)
Departure
(ft)
-758
CD
+ 1327
+ 766
-952
DE
-1949
+ 537
EA
+808
-1572
+ 805
+987
(I.C.E. Ans. 73-3 acres)

9.
State in square inches and decimals thereof what an area of 10
acres would be represented by, on each of three plans drawn to scale

of (a) 1 inch = 2 chains (b) 1/2500 and (c) 6 in. = 1 mile.
(Ans. (a) 25 in 2 ; (b) 10-04 in 2; (c) 0-562 in2
State what is meant by the term 'zero circle'
nection with the planimeter.
10.
when used
in con-
A planimeter reading tens of square inches is handed to you to

enable you to measure certain areas on plans drawn to scales of (a)
1/360 (b) 2 chains to 1 inch (c) 1/2500 (d) 6 in. to 1 mile and (e)
40 in.
to 1 mile.
State the multiplying factor you would use in each
).
500
instance to convert the instrumental readings into acres.

(Ans. (a) 0-2066 (b) 4-0 (c) 9-96
(d)
11.
The following data
relate to a closed traverse:
Length (m)
Azimuth
Line
AB
BC
24130'00"
14927'00"
145-2
CD
DE
03420'30"
415-7
07918'00"
800-9
Calculate
177-78 (e) 4-0)
301-5
1 ength and beari tig of the line

est 30",
(a) the
A BCDEA,
(b) the area of the figure
(c) the length
and bearing of the line
BX
which will
divide the area into two equal parts,

(d) the length of a line
XY
of bearing 06850' which
will divide the area into
(Ans. (a) 30754'
two equal parts.

2
89 290 m
(c) 526-4
(b)
09113'48";
(d) 407-7
m
m)
Bibliography
M.H., The Basis of Mine Surveying (Chapman & Hall).
CLENDINNING, J., The Principles of Surveying (Blackie).
McADAM, R., Colliery Surveying (Oliver and Boyd).
MIDDLETON, R.E. and CHADWICK, o., A Treatise on Surveying (Spon).
THOMAS, W.N., Surveying (Edward Arnold).
SALMON, V.G., Practical Surveying and Fieldwork (Griffin).
PARRY, R. and JENKINS, W.R., Land Surveying (Estates Gazette).
DA VIES, R.E., FOOTE, F.s. and KELLY, J.W., Surveying: Theory and
HADDOCK,
Practice (McGraw-Hill).
MINISTRY OF TECHNOLOGY, Changing to the Metric System (H.M.S.O.).

SMIRNOFF, M.V., Measurements for Engineering and Other Surveys
(Prentice-Hall).

10 VOLUMES
Volumes of Regular Solids
10.1
The following
summary of the most important formulae.
is a
Prism (Fig. 10.1)
V =
i.e.
cross-sectional area x perpendicular height
V = Ah = A
h,
(10.1)
a
Hi
Fig. 10.1
(a)
(b)
Cylinder (Fig. 10.2)

This is a special case of the prism.
V = Ah =
7Tr 2 h
(10.2)
1/4
rrab
(a)
Fig. 10.2
In Fig. 10.2 (b) the cylinder is cut obliquely
becomes an
ellipse, i.e.
and thus the end area
V = Ah.
V = rrabh
(10.3)
=
=
-^ Troth
v4,/i,
(as b = 2r)
= nr z h
(10.4)
(10.5)
502
Pyramid (Fig. 10.3)
V = base area x perpendicular height
Ah
area
(10.6)
of rectangle
area
of triangle
Fig. 10.3
Cone
(Fig. 10.4)
This
is
a special case of the pyramid.
V = \-Ah = \iTT z h
3
JT/-2
(circle)
(10.7)
= 'A rrao( ellipse)
Fig. 10.4
In Fig. 10.4(b) the
base
V =
=
is in the form of
an ellipse.
nabh
-T-rrarh
(10.8)
(as
fe
2r)
(10.9)
Frustum of Pyramid (Fig. 10.5)
V = ^(A + B + y/M)
where h = perpendicular height
A and B =
areas of larger and smaller ends respectively.
(10.10)
VOLUMES
503
Fig. 10.5
Frustum of Cone (Fig. 10.6)

This is a special case of the
frustum of the pyramid in which
A = ttR 2 B = TTr*.
,
'
V = ^bTR Z +Trr 2 +y/7TR Z 7Tr Z ]

=
y[K 2 +r 2 +/?r]
Wedge (Fig. 10.7)
Fig. 10.7
(10.11)
f^
504
V = Sum
of parallel edges x width of base x
height.
-?
perpendicular
wh
(x + y + z)
i.e.
The above formulae
(10.12)
relating to the pyramid are proved as follows
(Fig. 10.8).
Area 6
Area of
midsection
Area
Fig. 10.8
Let
A =
the base area
hA = the perpendicular height
= the area of any section parallel to the base and
at a perpen-
dicular distance h a from the vertex.
8V = B8h
Then
A
h
= A
B
h%
but
.'.
V =
A
A
#A
In the
case
of the frustum (h
A~
Ah%
nA
hA
J
=
.-.
h% dhB
hi
3
hB =
" 3 AhA
h),
(Eq. 10.6)
VOLUMES
-J*
A
= TJT
3/z
h
iK
A +
505
dhi
~ h B^(- hA + hA h B + hB )
Ah\
Ah,
(10.13)
But
hi
'
If
Ahl
y/B
and
y/A
V = -[A + y/AB + B]
(Eq. 10.10)
is the area of the mid-section of the pyramid, then
__V27
A
.'.
^_
4h%
hA
A = 4C
..
V =
AhA
-~
(A + 4C)hA
-^
o
Similarly,
if
is the
area of the mid-section between
_ ii(h A + h B )\
4M =
hA
-r-
A(h*+2hA h B
24^
(10.14)
_ (hA + h B f
+ h%)
Ha
A +
1(4M- 4 -
B)
A and
B, then
506
Substituting this value in Eq. (10.13),
V = -[A + 4M+B]
(10.15)
The Prismoidal Formula

From Eq. 10.15 it is seen that the volumes of regular solids can be
expressed by the same formula, viz. the volume is equal to the sum of
the two parallel end areas + four times the area of the mid-section x
1/6 the perpendicular height,
=
This formula
is
i.e.
^6 [A
+ AM + B]
(Eq. 10.15)
normally associated with the prismoid which is
A and B, which may

be of any shape, provided that the surfaces joining their perimeters are
capable of being generated by straight lines.'
defined as 'a solid having two parallel end areas
N.B.
The mean area is derived from the average of the corresponding
dimensions of the two end areas but not by taking the average of A
*?** *
and B.
Area
Fig. 10.9
Area B
507
VOLUMES
Newton's proof of this formula is to take any point X on the midsection and join it to all twelve vertices of the three sections, Fig. 10.9.
The total volume then becomes the sum of the ten pyramids so formed.
This formula is similarly applicable to the cone and sphere.
The cone (Fig. 10.10)
Area 6
=
2irr
"-/?
Area
2
= -7rr h
(Eq.10.7)
Area
A*trr'
Fig. 10.10
The sphere
(Fig. 10.11)
Area B m
V = ^[0 +
477r
+0]
rr
(10.16)
Area
M+
rrr z
Area A0
Fig. 10.11
N.B.
The
relative
same diameter and
Cone =
volumes of a cone, sphere and cylinder,
2r
x rrr 2
= -nr'
(10.17)
Sphere = -ttt* (Eq. 10.16)

Cylinder = 2r x nr z
all of
the
height, are respectively 1, 2 and 3, Fig. 10.12.
2rrrf
(10.18)
Fig. 10.12
508
Applying the prismoidal formula to the frustum of a cone,
-![-*w + *,(*-f]
h
= [R +r +R +2Rr+r
6
77"
rrh
[R 2
+r 2 +Rr]
(Eq. 10.11)
Applying the prismoidal formula to the wedge,
-6l2
TL2
6
It
* +y) + 4
wh[ x
the
(-r + r)4
+
2
+
2
+0
J
*J
2j
ix + y + z\
(Eq. 10.12)
thus becomes very apparent that of all the mensuration formulae

is the most important.
PRISMOIDAL
If in any solid having an x axis the areas (A) normal to this axis
can be expressed in the form
A =
bx + ex + d
then the prismoidal formula applies precisely.
The sphere may be regarded as made up
of an infinite number of
small pyramids whose apexes meet at the centre of the sphere.
The
heights of these pyramids are then equal to the radius of the sphere.
Volume
of each pyramid
Volume
of sphere
= area
of
base x -
= surface area
Surface area of sphere =
volume of sphere
l/3r
Sector of a sphere (Fig. 10.13)

This is a cone OAC with a spherical cap. ABC.
The volume can be derived
from
the above arguments:
Volume
of sector = (curved surface
area of segment) x r/3
of sphere x
= 4nr 2
(10.19)
VOLUMES
(by Eq.9.33)
509
Irrrxhx^
nr z h
(10.20)
J
Segment of sphere
This is the sector less the cone
OAC
V = 7rr 2 h - r^Tw 2 (r -
wz =
But
2
r
-(r-/i)
h)
-r z +2rh-h z
V = -7rr z h- -7T(2rh-h z )(r-h)

=
-7Tr 2 h +
^-7Tr h
irrh
nh
1
= -7Th z (3r-h)
10.2
(10.21)
Mineral Quantities
Flat seams
The general formula

Tonnage -
for calculating
plan area
(ft )
tonnage
x thickness
(ft)
is:
x 62'5 x S.G.
tons
ZZW
(10.22)
Here 62-5
the weight of 1
3
ft
of water in pounds
= the specific gravity of the mineral.
S.G.
This gives the tonnage in a seam before working and takes no

account of losses.
Taking coal as a typical mineral, alternative calculations may be

made.
Tonnage = plan area (acres) x thickness
(in.)
x 101 S.G.
(10.23)
Here
1 acre of
water 1 inch thick weighs approximately 101 tons.
When the specific gravity

(a)
(b)
of coal is not known, either
Assume S.G. of 1-25 - 1*3.

Assume 125 tons per inch/ acre
1250 - 1500 tons per foot/ acre.
(c)
(d)
Assume
Assume
yd
1 ft
of coal weighs 0*9
of coal weighs 80
1*0 ton, or
lb.
For loss of tonnage compared with the 'solid' estimate assume
15-20%.
510
Based on the International System
(S.I.) units,
the following con-
version factors are required:

1 ft
1 ft
1 acre
1
The weight
/.
lton = 1016-05 kg
= 0-092 903 m 2
= 4046-86 m
= 0-764 555
of water is 1
Coal weighs
1
= 0-453 592 37 kg
m3
g/cm 3
4C
at
litres
1000 kg/m
(i.e.
1250 - 1300 kg/m
= 4-546 09
gallon
cwt = 50-802 3 kg
1 lb
= 0-028 316 m
ft
lyd
= 0-3048 m
3
)
1000 kg/yd
= 0-004 546m
3
)
Inclined seams
The tonnage may be obtained by using
either (a) the inclined area
or (b) the vertical thickness, i.e.
V = A.fseca
where
V = plan
t
= thickness
a = angle
Example 10.1
(10.24)
area
of inclination of full dip of
seam
In a pillar and stall, or stoop and room workings, the
stalls or rooms are 12
ft
in
width and the pillars are 40 yd square.
Calculate the approximate tonnage of coal extracted from the stalls or

rooms, in a seam 7 ft 9 in. in thickness, dipping 19 from the horizontal,
under a surface area
V/2
acres in extent. Assume a yield of 125

3%% for loss in working.
tons per inch-acre, and deduct
(M.Q.B./M
Stall
120'
Pillar
120'
1
Fig. 10.14
VOLUMES
Total Area = (120 + 12)
In Fig. 10.14,
Pillar Area =
120
511
2
/120\
.'.
extraction = 10-[7^j x 10
'(-(i
-inr
= 17-36%
= 1*5 x 17*36/100 acres
Plan area of extraction
Inclined area of extraction = 1*5 x (17*36/100) x sec 19
Volume of coal extracted = 1*5 x (17*36/100) sec 19 x 7*75 x 12 x 125

= 3201*5 tons
Loss
of
volume =
3201*5 x 15
--rrr
fti
= 120
tons
Approximate tonnage extracted = 3200 - 120

= 3080 tons
Exercises 10(a) (Regular solids)
1.
18
in.
circular shaft is being lined with concrete, of average thickness
The
finished inside diameter is 22
being walled. In addition 23 yd
ft
and a length of 60
of concrete will
be required
ft
is
for a
walling curb.
each yd 3 of finished concrete requires (a) 700 lb cement (b)

1600 lb sand and (c) 2 500 lb aggregate, find, to the nearest ton, the
quantity of each material required to carry out the operation.
(Ans.
84 tons cement; 192 tons sand; 300 tons aggregate)
If
2.
colliery reservoir, circular in shape, with sides sloping at a
uniform gradient and lined with concrete is to be constructed on level
ground to the undernoted inside dimensions:
Top diameter 40 m
Bottom diameter 36 m
Depth
The excavation
is to
be circular, 42 m
m
in diameter, with vertical
sides 10*5 m deep.

Calculate the volume of concrete required.
(Ans.
3.
Two
shafts one circular of 20
ft diameter, and the other rectanby 10 ft -are to be sunk to a depth of 710 yd. The mateexcavated is to be deposited in the form of a truncated cone with-
gular 20
rial
122*63 m 3 )
ft
in an area of level ground 100 yd square. If the top of the heap is to
512
be level and the angle of repose of the material 35, what will be the
ultimate height of the heap with the diameter at its maximum ? Assume
the proportion of broken to unbroken strata to be 5 to 3 by volume
(take 77= (22/7)).
(Ans.
38-9
ft)
An auxiliary water tank in the form of a cylinder with hemispherical ends is placed with its long axis horizontal. The internal dimen4.
sions of the tank are (i) length of cylindrical portion 24

meter 5 m (iii) overall length 29 m.
(ii) dia-
Calculate (a) the volume of the tank and

(b)
the amount of water

litres
when
(Ans.
Two
5.
it
filled to a
(a)
contains to the nearest 100

depth of 1 *07 m
536-69
(b)
11400
horizontal drifts of circular cross-section and 16
ft
litres)
excava-
ted diameter cross each other at right-angles and on the
Calculate the volume of excavation in

drifts
'
sides 200
ft
is
Ans.
2731
3
ft )
of a certain building on level ground is a square with
which mineral support is about to be acquiside of the building is parallel to the line of strike of
in length for
The south
red.
which
(M.Q.B./S
The plan
6.
3
ft
same level.
common to both
the seam, the full dip of which is due South at the rate of 12 in. to the
yard. The floor of the seam is 360 yd under the surface at the centre
of the building.
Draw a plan of the building and protecting block
to a scale of 1 in
allowing a lateral margin equal to one third of the depth of
the seam at the edge of the protecting block opposite the nearest point
= 200
ft,
of the protected area. Thereafter calculate the tonnage of coal contained in the protecting block, the seam thickness being 70 in. and the
sp. gr. 1*26.
(M.Q.B./S Ans.
182860 tons)
7.
solid pier is to have a level top surface 20 ft wide. The sides

have a batter of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal and the seaward end
be vertical and perpendicular to the pier axis. It is to be built on
are to
is to
a rock stratum with a uniform slope of 1 in 24, the direction of this

maximum slope making an angle whose tangent is 0*75 with the direction of the pier. If the maximum height of the pier is to be 20 ft above
the rock, diminishing to zero at the landward end, calculate the volume
of material required.
(L.U.
8.
Ans.
160000
3
ft )
piece of ground has a uniform slope North and South of 1 verti-
cal to 20 horizontal. A flat area 200 ft by 80

ting and filling, the two volumes being equal.
ft is to be made by cutCompare the volumes of
VOLUMES
excavation
if
the 200
The side slopes
ft
513
runs (a) North and South (b) East and West.
are to be 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Ans.
(L.U.
(a)
24 300
ft
3
;
(b)
4453
3
ft )
Earthwork Calculations
10.3
There are three general methods of calculating volumes, which use

(1) cross-sectional areas, (2) contours, (3) spot heights.
Calculation of volumes from cross-sectional areas
10.31
In this
method cross-sections are taken
at right-angles to
some
convenient base line which generally runs longitudinally through the

earthworks.
The method
is specifically applicable to transport cons-
tructions such as roads, railways and canals but
may be applied
to any
irregular volume.
The cross-sectional areas may be irregular and thus demand the

use of one of the previously discussed methods, but in many transport
constructions the areas conform to various typical shapes, viz. sections
(a) without crossfall, (b) with crossfall, (c) with part cut
fill,
(a)
(d)
and part
with variable crossfall.
Sections without crossfall,
i.e.
surface level (Fig. 10.15)
Formation peg
(b)
Embankment
Fig. 10.15 Sections without crossfall
The sections may be
cuttings or embankments but in either case

the following terms are used:
Formation width (w)
Formation height Qi
),
measured on centre line
(<L)
514
Side width (W)
for the fixing of formation pegs,
measured from
centre line.
Side slopes or batter 1 in m,
i.e.
1 vertical to
Cross-sectional area =
^ (w
A =
A
(10.25)
+ 2W)
= -yCw +
Example 10.2
horizontal
w
W = + mh
Thus
tion width of 40
+ 2mh
vv
(w + mh Q )
(10.26)
cutting formed in level ground is to have a forma-
ft
m) with the sides battering
(12- 19
formation height is 10
ft
at 1 in 3.
If
the
(3*05 m) find (a) the side width, (b) the
cross- sectional area.
3x10'
S*
10'
Fig. 10.16
20'
Here
W =
h
40
ft
(12*19 m)
= 10
ft
(3-05 m)
= 3
W = - + mh
= 20 + 3 x 10 = 50_ft (15*24 m)
Area A = h (w + mh )
= 10(40 + 30) = 700
The metric values

(b)
are
shown
Sections with crossfall of 1
ft
(65-03 m 2 )
in brackets.
in
k (often referred to as a two-
level section)
In both the cutting
and embankment the total area is made up of
three parts, Fig. 10.17.
AHB
Trapezium BHFD
Triangle DFE
&M,
(1) Triangle
Area =
(2)
Area = h
(3)
Area = l/2h 2 d2
VOLUMES
515
-\
(a) Cutting
(b)
Embankment
Fig. 10.17 Sections with cross fall
In both figures,
h.
~ hQ _
(10.27)
2k
h,
By
= ho +
(10.28)
2fc
the rate of approach method(see p. 432)
h^mk
ft,
<*i
=
1
k +
(10.29)
516
j
and
d2
"2
h mk
-i
2
(10.30)
H\
^2
-
(10.31)
+ d'
2
fc
k -
(10.32)
W2 =
Total area
The area
~Mi + K w
hzdz
(10.33)
of the cross-section is best solved by working from first
principles, but
if
the work is extensive a complete formula
may be
re-
quired.
Given the
initial information
as w, h
and
k, substitution of
these values into the various steps gives, from Eq. (10.33),
( ~lk)
A =j
2(Jk
mk
t*L
h +
+ m)
2(fc
mk
2r)
f~
-
+ wh
ro)
u
2(k
mk[2H 2 k + 2(-) +
2(*-
" [*'*'
--J+
fc
- m 2)
- m
+ wh n
Who
- m2 )
Q ^
2
\+ W^
(10 .34)
Example 10.3
The ground slopes at 1 in 20 at right-angles to the
centre line of a proposed embankment which is to be 40 ft (12* 19 m)
wide at a formation level of 10 ft (3*05 m) above the ground. If the
batter of the sides is 1 in 2, calculate (a) the side width, (b) the
area of the cross-section.

In Fig. 10.18,
w =
h
40
ft
(12-19 m)
= 10
ft
(3-05 m)
517
VOLUMES
= 2
k = 20
771
Then
d,
W,
360
9 x 2 x 20
*i
= 16-36
ft
22
20 + 2
11 x 2 x 20
440
20-2
18
= 24-44
ft
= 20 + 16-36 = 36-36
ft
(11-08 m)
20 + 24-44 = 44-44
ft
(13*55 m)
W2 =
Area = Vilh^ +
fe
d^]
+ wh
= l/2 [9 x 16-36 + 11 x 24-44] + 40 x 10

= V2 [147-28 + 268-88] + 400
= 608-08
(56-49
ft
m2 )
By Eq. (10.34),
^4
2[100 x 400 + 400 + 40 x 10 x 2]
+ 40 x 10
400 - 4
40000 + 400 + 800
+ 400
198
= 608-08
2
ft
or converted into S.I. units,

2
2[3-05 2 x 400 + 6-095 + 12-19 x 3-05 x 2]
A =
396
[3721 + 37-15 + 74-36]
+ 37>18
198
= 19-36 + 37-18
56-54 m
+ 12-19 x 3-05
518
(c)
Sections with part cut and part
fill
(Fig. 10.19)
Fig. 10. 19 Section part cut/part
As
fill
BD = w
height FG = h
the formation width
before,
the formation
the ground slope

but here the batter on the cut and the
batter of
fill
fill
1 in
may
differ,
so
is 1 in n
batter of cut is 1 in m.
The
(1)
total area is
Triangle
(2) Triangle
made up of only 2
ABC
CED
Area = /2 h,d,
Area = yi hz dz
w
<*,
d2
By
parts:
=-w
~ X = 2 "
**
(10.35)
+kh
+ x =
the rate of approach method and noting that
(10.36)
/i,
and
h z are
now
be seen that to conform to the basic figure of the

method the gradients must be transformed into n in 1, m in 1 and
required,
k in
it
will
1.
and
Side width
=
}
W.
<*,
k - n
k -
(10.37)
(10.38)
w
- + HB
2
'
+ nh,
(10.39)
VOLUMES
519
w
W2 = - + DJ
+ mh 2
Area of
fill
Vih,d
(10.40)
*,'
n)
2(fc
2(k
Area of cut =
(10.41)
n)
yih 2 dz
k-
%k -
2(fc
In the
cut. If
it
above
is
ft
m)
(10.42)
- m)
has been treated as -ve, occurring in the

the centre line is in fill, then
+ve and
(?
K
Area of
fill
+ **)'
2(/c
/w
(10.43)
n)
\
Area of cut =
(10.44)
2(fc
N.B.
If
and
m =
- m)
,
2
Area of cut = Area of
fill
w- m)
(10.45)
&(k
Example 10.4
proposed road
is to
have a formation width of 40 feet
with side slopes of 1 in 1 in cut and 1 in 2 in
fill.
The ground
of 260*3
ft.
If
late (a) the side width, (b) the area of cut,(c) the area of
falls
which has a reduced level

the reduced level of the road is to be 262*8 ft, calcu-
at 1 in 3 at right-angles to the centre line
= 2 -
<-M)
= 2 +
ok
= 20 + 2*5 x 3 = 27*5
ft
fill.
520
+ 262-8
+260-3
W,
= 75-0"
W52 = 26-5'
*.
Fig. 10.20
= 20 - 7-5 = 12-5
d2
27-5
*i
h.
k - n
ft
12-5
6-25
ft
W,
+ nh, = 20 + 2 x 27*5 = 75-0
ft
W2
+ mh 2 = 20 +
ft
Area of cut = l/2 d2 h 2

Area of
= 27-5
"3-2
dz
1u
ft
fill
= 1/2
d,ft,
x 6-5
= 26'5
x 12*5 x 6*25 = 39-06
Vi
x 27*5 x 27-5 = 378*13
ft
2
2
ft
By Eqs. 10.43/10.44,
.2
Area of cut =
G-
tt
)
2(k-m)
(=.)'
Area of
Example 10.5
fill
(20
=
2(k - n)
An access road
to a small
2(3
7-5)
= 39-06
(20 + 7-5)'
2(3
ft
1)
= 378-13
2
ft
2)
mine
to rise at 1 in 20 across a hillside having a
The road
is to be constructed
maximum slope of 1 in 10.
is to have a formation width of 15 ft, and the volumes of cut

and fill are to be equalised. Find the width of cutting, and the volume
of excavation in 100 ft of road. Side slopes are to batter at 1 in 1 in
cut and 1 in 2 in fill.
(N.R.C.T.)
To find the transverse slope (see page 413)
VOLUMES
521
Fig. 10.21
Let
AB
AC
AD
be the proposed road dipping
at 1 in
20 (20 units)
the full dip 1 in 10 (10 units)
the transverse slope 1 in
In triangle
(t units).
ABC,
10
COS0 =
In triangle
ADC,
= 11*55 (gradient value)
Fig. 10.22
If
area of cut = area of
h +ve,
from Eqs. (10.43) and (10.44) for
fill,
d+4
(}-k)
2(k
(7-5
- m)
2{k
- ll'SShf
(7-5
n)
+ ll-SShf
i.e.
11-55
7-5
11-55 - 2
55
ll-55/i
9.
9-55
(7-5 + ll-55/i)
= 1-051(7-5 + ll-55fc)
0*383
= kh = 11-55 x 0-01617
13^89
= -0-187
' 1617
<**"*>
ft
Width of cutting = 7-5 + 0-187 = 7-687 say 7*69
ft
522
+ 0-187)
(7-5
Area of cutting
2(11-55
1)
7-69 2
21-10
2-80
2
ft
Volume of cutting = 2-80 x 100

= 10-37 yd 3
ft
Sections with variable crossfall (three-level section)
(d)
the cross-section is very variable, it may be necessary to determine the area either (a) by an ordinate method or (b) by plotting the
section and obtaining the area by scaling or by planimeter.
If
If
the section changes ground slope at the centre line the follow-
ing analysis can be applied, Fig. 10.23.
Fig. 10.23 Section with variable crossfall
The
total area is
(1) Triangle
made up
AHB
of four parts:
Area =
i-h d,
}
(2)
Trapezium
BHGC
Area = ^{h
(3)
Trapezium
CGFD
Area = j(h
+ h2 )
(4)
Triangle
Total Area =
DFE
Area = !fc 2 d2
\[h,d,+ h2 a\ + |(2fc +
Here
fc,
fc,
= h
<*,
w
w
hx
mk
27
k +
/i,
+ h2
)]
(10.46)
VOLUMES
,
_
=
523
hzinl
7^w
Side width
- 2 +
and / have both been assumed +ve, and the appropriate

fc
N.B.
change in sign will be required if GA and GE are different from that
shown.
known, relative to the formation level,

edges of the cutting or embankment (Fig. 10.24)
// the level of the surface is
at the
Fig. 10.24 Section with levels at formation pegs
Area
ABCDHA
= Area
= J
Area
DEFGH
(f
= Area
XBDH +
Area
+ h
<*,)(#,
DFYH -
Area
XBA
)
-H,d]
FYG
Total Area
,)
- m(fi* +
H22 )j.
(10.47)
Exercises 10(b) (Cross-sectional areas)
on the surface of ground dipping uniformly due South

commence to form a short cutting for a
branch railway bearing N 30 E and rising at 1 in 60 from A The
9.
At a point
1 in 3, excavation is about to
524
width at formation level is 20
ft
and the sides batter
at 1 vertical to
1 horizontal.
Plot two cross-sections at points B and C 100 ft and 150

A and calculate the cross-sectional area at B.
ft
respec-
tively from
(N.R.C.T. Ans. 1323* 3 ft2
Calculate the side widths and cross-sectional area of an embankment to a road with a formation width of 40 ft. The sides slope
1 in 2 when the centre height is 10 ft and the existing ground has a
10.
crossfall of 1 in 12 at right-angles to the centre line of the embankment.
(N.R.C.T. Ans. 34*28
ft;
48'01
ft;
622*8
2
ft
11.
fall
road is to be constructed on the side of a hill having a crossof 1 vertically to 8 horizontally at right-angles to the centre line
of the road; the side slopes are to be similarly 1 to 2 in cut and 1 to

3 in fill; the formation is 50 ft wide and level. Find the distance of
the centre line of the road from the point of intersection of the forma-
tion with the natural ground to give equality of cut and
fill,
ignoring
any consideration of 'bulking'.

(L.U. Ans.
1*14
ft
on the
fill
side)
road is to be constructed on the side of a hill having a crossfall of 1 vertically to 10 horizontally at right-angles to the centre line
of the road; the side slopes are to be similarly 1 to 2 in cut and 1 to
12.
3 in fill; the formation is 80ft wide and level. Find the position of
the centre line of the road with respect to the point of intersection of
the formation and the natural ground, (a) to give equality of cut and
(b)
fill,
so that the area of cut shall be 0*8 of the area of
fill
in order
to allow for bulking.
(L.U.
40
Ans.
The
13.
ft
(a)
earth
1-34
ft
on the
embankment
and side slopes of
for a
fill
side; (b) 0*90
new road
1 vertically to
is to
ft
on the cut side)
have a top width of
2 horizontally, the reduced
level of the top surface being 100*0 O.D.
At a certain cross-section, the chainages and reduced levels of

the natural ground are as follows, the chainage of the centre line being
zero, those on the left and right being treated as negative and positive
respectively:
Chainage
(ft)
Reduced level
-50 -30 -15 -0 +10 +44

(ft)
86*6
88*6 89*2 90*0 90*7 92*4
Find the area of the cross- section of the

square foot, by calculation.
filling to the nearest
(L.U.
Ans.
567
2
ft )
14.
A 100 ft length of earthwork volume for a proposed road has a
constant cross-section of cut and fill, in which the cut area equals the
VOLUMES
525
fill area. The level formation is 30 ft wide, the transverse ground

slope is 20 and the side slopes in cut and fill are respectively
^(horizontal) to 1 (vertical) and 1 (horizontal) to 1 (vertical).
Calculate the volume of excavation in 100 ft length.
(L.U.
10.32
Ans.
209-2 yd 3 )
Alternative formulae for the calculation of volumes from the

derived cross-sectional areas
Having computed the areas of the cross-sections, the volumes involved in the construction can be computed by using one of the ordinate
formulae but substituting the area of the cross-section for the ordinate.
(1)
Mean Area Rule
W
v = -04,
+A 2+
Aa +
...
+AJ
i.e.
(10.48)
where
W =
total length
between end sections measured along centre
line.
n = no. of sectional areas.

2-4
N.B.
(2)
= sum of the sectional areas.

This
is not a very accurate
Trapezoidal (or
End Area) Rule
<
-
r^
>.'
*3
*2
(Fig. 10.25)
"3
A2
method.
W*
w*
- "*
w ~ iw
Fig. 10.25 Trapezoidal rule
yz =
T (a
a3 )
V3
^(A 3+
A4 )
&4n-l +
K)
**
526
If W,
Wn
V =
(V,
= W2
then
+ V2 + V3 +
- U,
2
...
+Vn _,)
+ 2A 2 + 2A 3 + 2A A +
...
+2A n _, + 4J
(10.49)
(3) Prismoidal
Rule
(Fig. 10.26)
As the cross-sections are all parallel and the distance apart can
be made equal, the alternate sections can be considered as the midsection.
The formula assumes
that the mid-section is derived from the
mean
of all the linear dimensions of the end areas. This is difficult to apply
above application is considered justified particularly

the distance apart of the sections is kept small.
in practice but the

if
^4
"3
*3
'1
- .
*4
Fig. 10.26 Prismoidal rale
Thus
.%
+ V2
^04,
(V,
+ V4
|(^ 3 + 4A 4 + A s )
(V8 + V6
= |o4 5 + 4A 6 + A 7 )
Total volume =
If
is
-U,
+ 4A 2 +
A3 )
+ 4A 2 + 2A 3 + 4A A + 2A S + 4A 6 + A 7 ]
the number of sections is odd, then
V =
which
(V,
w
-3
[4,
+ 41 even areas + 22 odd areas +
4J
(10.50)
Simpson's rule applied to volumes.
Prismoidal Corrections
If having applied the end areas rule it is then required to find a
closer approximation, a correction can be applied to change the derived value into the amount that would have been derived had the pris-
moidal rule been applied. For areas
By
the end areas formula,
/I,
and A 2 s units apart,

V^,
(,4,
A2 )
VOLUMES
By
The
527
s,
VP = t(î + 4A m + A 2 )
the prismoidal formula,
difference will be the value of the correction, i.e.

c
= |[3A, + 3A 2 - A, - AA m -
= ve - VP
A 2 ) - 4A m ]
= H204, +
A2 ]
(10.51)
For sections without crossfall

Let the two end sections A and A 2 be s
w ft and formation heights h r and h 2
it
width of
apart with formation
Then, by Eq. (10.26),
(w + mh
A^
A2
= h 2 (w + mh 2 )
A,
Putting these values into Eq. (10.51),

c = IÎwCft, + h 2 ) + m(h* + h 2
- 2\wQi, + h2 ) +
=
c =
2hl - h
[2h? +
)\
f (/if + hi + 2h,h
- hi - 2h<h 2 ]
~?U, -
fc
2 )\]
(10.52)
2)
For sections with crossfall

From Eq. (10.34),
z
m\hLJ
+ w z
2
(fc
4,2
^4
m =
m\h
^
+
(k
m[i(/i
2
fc
+ wh.mlJ
___
2)
-m
!_ + w/i,
2
)
-w 2
1
2
2
- m
+
w/i,/m|
J
^w 2 + >(ft,
-ro
5
(fc
wfc 2
r2
+ h 2 )]
Substituting these values in Eq. (10.51),
Prismoidal Correction
c = ^[2C4, +
+-w(h.+h
9)
2
2
'
A 2 ) - 4A m ]
528
ar^
oC/c - mzP
c =
* fc
+ nt
+ I w 2 + wm(h, + h z )
2
+ wm(k - m z )(h + h 2 )
-4{k 2 (ht + h 2 ) 2 + {w*
\
wm(k 2 -m 2 )(h +h2 )}]
c =
m2)
6( fe/
sm/c
(ft,
C
6(fc
[2Jc (ftf
fc
2
/c
(/i,
2
fc
2)
2
/i
2)
(10.53)
- m2)
For sections with cut and
From Eq.
fill
(^ + kh\
(10.42),
A.
- m)
2(fc
(I
K
-rim
+ kh
*)
2(k - m)
2(k - m)
Substituting these values in Eq. (10.51),
Prismoidal correction =
for cut
2 l( + kh \
12(k-m)L \\2
-{H.
Prismoidal correction
for fill
= 12(fc
s/c
[?
/*
-n)[ l\2
(l +kh \
V 2
2
)
*.>)']
kh
/
+ (- - kh
\2
2
ft
2)
12 (k - n)
Example 10.6 An embankment is to be formed with its centre line on

the surface (in the form of a plane) on full dip of 1 in 20. If the
ft and formation height are 10, 15, and 20 ft
100 feet, with the side slopes 1 in 2, calculate the
formation width is 40
at intervals of
volume between the end sections.
VOLUMES
529
Fig. 10.27 Longitudinal section
40'
|1<
j^
ho'
Ay
20'
A,
Fig. 10.28 Cross-sections
Area
(1)
= h
(yv
+ mh
= 10(40 + 2 x 10)
= 600 ft 2
Area
(2)
- 15(40 + 2 x 15)
= 1050 ft 2
Area
(3)
= 20(40 + 2 x 20)
= 1600 ft 2
Volume
(1)
By Mean Areas
V = <2i4)
200
(600 + 1050 + 1600)
= 216 666-7
ft
530
(2)
By End Areas (Trapezoidal)

V = ^[A + 2A 2 + A 3 ]
t
^[600
= 215000
(3)
By the prismoidal
V =
=
+ 2100 + 1600]
3
ft
rule (treating the
|U,
+ 4A 2 + A 3 ]
[600 + 4200 + 1600]
= 213 333-3
(4)
By Prismoidal
(By end Areas

in
3
ft
End Areas
Correction to
_ 100
each section)
82m
1500) =
V2 = ^(1050 +
By
whole as one prismoid)
V = -^(600 +
outer Areas
1600)
ft3
132500
ft
= 215000
ft
= 220000
ft
Applying Prismoidal Correction to adjacent areas,
<yE - vp\
-fc.)
^pOh
10 x 2
(i 5
__
(VE - VP
)2
10)
10 X 2
2
(20 - 15)
6
Total Correction
.".
Volume Vp
=215000 -
= 833-33
ft
= 833-33
ft
= + 1666-66
ft
1666-67 = 213 333-33
ft
Applying Prismoidal Correction to outer areas,
Ve ~ Vp
VP =
2 X 2
6
(20
10)
= 6666-67
220000-6666-67 = 213 333-33
ft
VOLUMES
N.B.
(1)
The
531
correct value is only obtained by applying the prismoidal
correction to volumes obtained by adjacent areas unless, as here, the
whole figure
is symmetrical.
prismoidal correction has little to commend it in preference to the application of the prismoidal formula if all the information
(2)
The
is readily available.
Example 10.7 Given the previous example but with the centre line
turned through 90
40'
Fig. 10.29 Cross-sections
From Eq. (10.34),

z
m[h2 k +
A =
kr
-w 2
- m
+ whm]
+ wh
Cross-sectional Areas
2
A.
=
- 20^72^
198
[1
x 40 2 + 40 x 10 x
J-
2]
= 608*08
[40000 + 400 + 800] + 400
J.
+
^[90000
198'
198
x 20
+ 40 x 10
ft
400 + 1200] + 600 = 1062-62
ft
2
[160000 + 400 + 1600] + 800 = 1618- 18 ft
Volume
(1)
By Mean Areas
(Eq. 10.48)
V = ^[608-08 + 1062-62 +
(2)
By End Areas
(taking all
sections)
(taking outer
sections)
2W [60g
2
= 219258-7
ft
(Eq. 10.49)
= 100 [60g . 08
2
y _
1618-18]
106 2-62 + 1618-18] - 217575
08 +
.,
_ 222626
ft
ft
532
(3)
By
the prismoidal rule (Eq. 10.50) (treating the whole as one
prismoid)
V =
[608-08 + 4 x 1062-62 + 1618-18]
= 215891-5
ft
By applying Prismoidal Correction to End Areas

Applying prismoidal correction to each section (Eq. 10.53),
(4)
Smk 2
x
2
2^
6(/r - to )
100 x 2 x 20
6 x 396
c2
100 x 2 x 20
(ft,
- h2 )
2
2
x (15 - 10) = 841-75
ft*
396
x (20 - 15)
= 841-75 iV
= 1683-50
.-.
VP = 217 575 - 1683-5
= 215 891-5
ft
Applying prismoidal correction to outer areas,

c
**.*
202
.?.
6 x 396
VP = 222626 - 6734
N.B.
Where the figure
is
gives the same value, but
x (20 - 10)
. 6734
ft-
= 215892
ft
symmetrical the prismoidal correction again
would be unwise to apply the latter method

where the prismoids are long and the cross-sectional areas very variable, unless it is applied to each section in turn, as shown above.
it
Example 10.8
A road has a formation width of 40 ft, and the side
slopes are 1 in 1 in cut and 1 in 2 in fill. The ground slopes at 1 in
3 at right-angles to the centre line. Sections at 100 ft centres are
found to have formation heights of + 1 ft, 0, and -2 ft respectively.
Calculate the volumes of cut and fill over this length.
Fig. 10.30
VOLUMES
533
Areas of cut
From Eq. (10.44),
(f
'
A2 =
_ ve)
Areas o/
7f71
2(/c
Y
^
- m)
1)
72 25
'
<
(ft
- 3_x
- kh
(!
x-
Area of Cut =
(h + ve)
1)
(2
ft2
- 0)'
^(20
4
2(3
3 X
= 100
ft
- 169
ft'
.2
2y
/i/Z
From Eq. (10.43),
Area of
(h + ve)
fill
2(fc
A'z
= (20 +
2(3
3)
= 264-5
--n)
ft
2)
(20 + 0)
2
2
= 200
ft
98
ft
(/z-ve)
(20 - 6)
Volume of Cut
(1)
By Mean
i4 reas
V =
(2)
25[ 72 -25 + 100 + 169] = 22750
ft
By End Areas
(taking all sections)
V =
l-P-[72-25
+ 2 x 100 + 169] = 22062-5
ft
(taking outer sections)
V = ^[72-25 +
(3)
By
= 24 125
169]
ft
the prismoidal rule (treating the whole as a prismoid)
V = ^[72-25 + 4 x 100 +
169]
= 21375
ft
534
(4)
By applying Prismoidal Correction
to End Areas
Applying prismoidal correction to each section of cut,
- h2 ) 2
= Sk\h,
12(k - m)
2
= 100 x 3 (1 -
...
12(3
0)
1)
900 x (2 -
Of
",
ft3
= 187-5
ft
24
cT
VP = 22062-5-
.-.
_ 37
~ 6/ 5
*
187-5
= 21875-0
ft

2
c =
900 (1 + 2)'
L
n r
= 337.5
_
3
ft
24
VP = 24125 - 337*5
.-.
Volumes of
(1)
ft
Fill
By Mean Areas
V
(2)
= 23787-5
= -^[264-5 + 200 + 98] = 37500
ft
By End Areas
(taking all sections)
V = ^[264-5 +
2 x 200 + 98]
= 38 125
ft
= 36250
ft
(taking outer sections)
V = ^[264-5 +
(3)
By
the prismoidal rule (treating the whole as a prismoid)
V =
(4)
98]
y^264-5 +
4 x 200 + 98] = 38750
By applying Prismoidal Correction
to
C
12(3
'
=
>
900 x 2
75
ft
= 300
ft
= 375
ft
2)
2
3
12
cT
VP
= 38 125 - 375
End Areas
Applying prismoidal correction to each section of

100 x 3
ft
= 37750
fta
fill,
VOLUMES
535

c
Vp
=
= 36250 - 675
= 35 575
ft
The prismoidal correction applied to each section gives a much

closer approximation to the value derived by the prismoidal formula,
although the latter in this case is not strictly correct as the middle
height is not the mean of the two end heights.
N.B.
Example 10.9
way
cutting.
Calculate the volume between three sections of a railformation width is 20 ft; the sections are 100 ft
The
apart; the side slopes are 1 in 2 and the heights of the surface
above
the formation level are as follows:
Section
Left
Centre
Right
17-6
16-4
17-0
21-2
20-0
18-8
19-3
17-9
16-3
From Eq. (10.47),

Area = 1
|f +
nitty (H,
+ h
+ (| + mfty(H2 + h
- m(H? +
Section
1,
A,
Uy +
2x
17-o)(17-0 + 16-4)
- 2(17-6 2 +17-0 2 )
2,
A2 = I
A3 =
= 904-4
ft
[(10+ 42-4) (41*2) + (10 + 37-6) (38-8)
- 2(21-2 2 +
Section 3,
)j
2 x 17-e) (17-6 + 16*4)
+fy
Section
H2
18-8
2
)]
= 1200-0
ft
j[(10 + 38-6)(37-2) + (10 + 32-6)(34-2)
+ 2(19-3 2 +16-3 2 )] = 994-2
2
ft
Using the prismoidal formula,
V = 3^7t904-4 + 4x 1200 +
994-2]
= 8270 yd 3
Total Volume = 8 270 yd 3
10.33
Curvature Correction (Fig. 10.31)
When the centre line of the construction is curved, the crosssectional areas will be no longer parallel but radial to the curve.
536
Volume of such form is obtained by using the Theorem of Pappus

which states that 'a volume swept out by a constant area revolving
about a fixed axis is given by the product of the area and the length of
the path of the centroid of the area*.
The volume of earthworks involved in cuttings and embankments

as part of transport systems following circular curves may thus be
determined by considering cross-sectional areas revolving about the
centre of such circular curves.
Area A,
Centroid
Section at X
Centre line
formation
of
&
Centre of
curvature
Centroid
Section at Y
Fig. 10.31 Curvature correction
the cross-sectional area is constant, then the volume will equal

the product of this area and the length of the arc traced by the centroid.
If
If
the sections are not uniform, an approximate volume can be de-
rived by considering a
mean eccentric distance
(e)
= e +
*
ez
relative
to the centre line of the formation.
This will give a mean radius for the path of the centroid (/? e),
the negative sign being taken as on the same side as the centre of
curvature.
Length of path of centroid
but
&ra.d
"o
XY
= (R +
e)
rad
where S = length of arc on the centre

line
.-.
XY = |(K
e)
= s(l
|)
VOLUMES
Volume
is
537
given approximately as
v = |(A +
Alternatively each area
(10.56)
4,)(if)
may be corrected
for the eccentricity of
its centroid.
then the
If e, be the eccentricity of the centroid of an area A,
volume swept out through a small arc 8d is SV = A^(R e,)50.
If the eccentricity had been neglected then
,
8V = A.R80
with a resulting error
= Aê^bd
_
Vi
per unit length
(10.57)
R
Thus,
if
each area
is corrected
Ae
by an amount ~H"> these new
equivalent areas can be used in the volume formula adopted.

Derivation of the eccentricity e of the centroid
10.34
Centroids of simple shapes
Parallelogram (Fig. 10.32)

G lies on the intersection of the diagonals or the intersection of
lines joining the midpoints of their opposite sides.
(10.58)
Fig. 10.32
Triangle (Fig. 10.33)
lies at the
intersection of the
t
from each apex
medians and is
-=-
of their length
(10.59)
538
Trapezium (Fig. 10.34)

(10.60)
Fig. 10.35
Fig. 10.34
A Compound Body
If
(Fig. 10.35)
the areas of the separate parts are
troids G,
and
Gz
or
their cen
G2 G =
A2 xG,G 2
A, + A z
A, x
î +
Thus
A and A z and
with the compounded centroid G,

(10.61)
G,G 2
(10.62)
Az
met with in earthwork calbe divided into triangles and the centre of
gravity derived from the compounding of the separate centroids of the
for typical cross-sectional areas
culations, the figures can
triangles or trapezium, Fig. 10.36.
Fig. 10.36
Alternatively,
Fig. 10.37
Fig. 10.37,
Let the diagonals of
then
ABCD intersect
BO = OD on
AE = FC on
2.0G = GF
at E.
line
line
BD
AC
(10.63)
VOLUMES
539
To find the eccentricity e of the centroid G

Case 1. Where the surface has no crossfall, the area
and the centroid lies on the centre
Case
Where the surface has a crossfall
2.
is
symmetrical
e - 0.
line, i.e.
1 in
k (Fig. 10.38)
ABDE = A T
AEF
Let Total Area of

Area of triangle
= \AF(H 2 -H,)
_*W+
*-,
W2 )
(10.64)
7F
wlz
I
Fig. 10.38 Section with crossfall
Let G, and
Length
G2 be
AQ
the centroids of areas
= horizontal projection
m I
pi? + AFl =
AEF and AFDB

of AG
y
i^
= iUW, +
Distance of
respectively.
+2R;]
WJ
W,
+ -^
from centre line,

i.e.
XQ, = G 2 g, -
HJ
W,
+J18--
Hf,
(10.65)
Distance of centroid
for the
whole figure (from the centre
line, i.e.
e),
e =
Area A
4EF
XQ
fy
Total Area A,
Conversion Area
WZ (W, + W2 )
3k. A,
Ac -
Ar e
R
(10.66)
540
i.e.
A T [H\W2 (W, + W2
= +
W,W2
)]
+ W2 )
(W,
3k R
AT
Corrected Area =
Case
3.
W,W2
+ W2 )
(W,
(10.67)
ZkR
Sections with part cut and part
fill
(Fig. 10.39)
^7
<
e2
>
'
^2
Fig. 10.39 Section part cut/part
For section
in cut, i.e. triangle
JQ =
e2
Similarly for
fill
e,
CED, G
(f
lies on the
~ x =I
+ *)
fill
("f
median EQ.
- *)
JQ + i(W2 - JQ) = I(^ +
-*(W2
= j
(W,
2JQ)
j-
*ft
&O
(10.68)
(10.69)
Example 10.10 Using the information in Example 10.6, viz. embankment with a surface crossfall of 1 in 20, side slopes 1 in 2, formation
width 40 ft and formation heights of 10, 15 and 20 ft at 100 ft centres, if this formation lies with its centre line
radius 500
ft,
on the arc of a circle of
calculate
(a) the side widths of
each section,
(b) the eccentricity of their centroids,
(c) the
volume of the embankment over this length
of curvature (i) uphill (ii) downhill.
for the centre
VOLUMES
541
Fig. 10.40
(a) Side
widths
Section
From Eq.
(10.31),
W,
(*
I)
"
k +
mk
and from Eq. (10.32),

W
(*
i.e.
40
= -V +
2
- fk) mk
k - m
D
20+2
2 x 20
"
'
20 +
W,
= 20 +
9 x 40
= 36-36
ft
44-44
ft
45-45
ft
55-56
ft
54-55
ft
_ 66-67
ft
22
11 x 40
18
Section 2
w.
= 20 +
14 x 40
22
w
= 20 +
16 x 40
18
Section 3
w.
= 20 +
= 20 +
19 x 40
22
21 x 40
18
(b) Eccentricity (e)
From Eq. (10.66),
3k A
542
?1
_ 36-36 x 44-44 (36-36 + 44-44)

3 x 20 x 608-08
= 3-58 ft (Area 608*08 ft 2 from previous calculations)
&z
45-45 x 55-56 (45-45 + 55-56)

3 x 20 x 1062-62
= 4-00
63
ft
54-55 x 66-67 (54-55 x 66-67)

3 x 20 x 1618-18
= 4-54
ft
Volumes
Using the above values of eccentricity
the volume correction
(c)
M[608
-08
in the prismoidal formula,
4 (1062-62 ,
|f
^) + 1618-18 x|]
= ^[608-08 x 3-58 + 16 x 1062-62 + 1618-18 x 4-54]
= 1768-4
The
ft
correction is + ve
if
the centre of the curve lies on the uphill
side.
.*.
Corrected volume = 215891-5 1768*4
= 217 660
ft
214 123
ft
or
3
ft
3
3
A more convenient calculation of volume, without separately calculating the eccentricity, is to correct the areas using Eq. (10.67).
A =
Area Correction
2V
11.
Z.k.R
36 36 x 44 44 (36 ' 36 + 44 ' 44)
3 x 20 x 500
'
'
'
- +
" "
= 4-35
ft
45 45 x 55 56 ( 45 45 + 55 56)
=
3 x 20 x 500
= 8-50 ft 2
'
= +
'
'
'
54-55 x 66-67 (54-55 + 66-67)

3 x 20 x 500
= 14-70
ft
VOLUMES
543
Corrected Areas are:
A,
608-08 4-35
612-43
603-73
or
A 2 = 1062-62
8-50
1071-12
or
A3 =
ft
1618-18 14-70 =
1054-12
ft
1632-88
or
1603-48
ft
Corrected volumes:
With centre of curve on uphill side,
(i)
V - ^[612-43 +
- 217657
(ii)
4 x 1071-12 + 1632-88]
3
ft
With centre of curve on downhill side,
V = ^[603-73 + 4 x 1054-12 +
= 214122
10.4
1603-48]
ft
Calculation of Volumes from Contour Maps
Here the volume
is derived from the areas
contained in the plane
of the contour. For accurate determinations the contour interval must
be kept to a minimum and this value will be the width (w) in the formulae previously discussed.
The areas
will generally be obtained
by means of a planimeter,
the latter tracing out the enclosing line of the contour.
For most practical purposes the Prismoidal formula

with alternate areas as 'mid-areas'
or, if
is satisfactory,
the contour interval is large,
on interpolated mid-contour giving the required 'mid-area' may be used.
10.5
Calculation of Volumes from Spot-heights
This method uses grid levels from which the depth
of construction
is derived.
The volume is computed from the mean depth of construction in

each section forming a truncated prism, the end area of which may be
rectangular but preferably triangular, Fig. 10.41.
V =
If
plan area x mean height
(10.70)
a grid is used, the triangular prisms are formed by drawing
diagonals, and then each prism is considered in turn.
544
t 2
/>,
\
t
"4
,'th
\
N
"7
Fig. 10.41
Volume from spot-heights
Fig. 10.42
The total volume is then derived (each triangle is of the same

area) as one third of the area of the triangle multiplied by the sum of
each height
in turn multiplied
by the number of applications of
that
height,
V = ^[Inh]
i.e.
e.g.
V =
-[2/i,
2hz
(10.71)
+ 2h 3 + 2h4 + 8h 5 + 2h 6 + 2hy + 2h e + 2h 9 ]
(Fig. 10.42)
10.6
These are used
in planning the
work
for construction
10.61
Definitions
Bulking
An
Shrinkage
Mass-haul Diagrams
works
haulage of large volumes of earthand trunk road projects.
in railway
increase in volume of earthwork after excavation.
decrease in volume of earthwork after deposition and
compaction.
Haul Distance
(d)
The distance
from the working face of the excava-
tion to the tipping point.
Average Haul Distance (D)
The distance
from the centre of gravity
of the cutting to that of the filling.
Free Haul Distance
The distance, given
in the Bill of Quantities,
included in the price of excavation per cubic yard.
Overhaul Distance
The extra distance of transport of earthwork
volumes beyond the Free Haul Distance.
Haul The sum of the product of each load by its haul distance. This
must equal the total volume of excavation multiplied by the average
haul distance, i.e. S.v.d = V.D.
VOLUMES
545
The products of volumes by their respective overhaul

Excess payment will depend upon overhaul.
Station Yard
A unit of overhaul, viz. 1 yd 3 x 100 ft.
Borrow The volume of material brought into a section due to a
Overhaul
dis-
tance.
deficiency.
Waste
The volume
of material taken from a section due to excess.
In S.I. units the haul will
be
in
and the new 'station' unit probably
10.62
(1)
m 3 the haul distances

3
1 m
moved 100 m.
,
in metres
Construction of the mass-haul diagram (Fig. 10.43)
Calculate the cross- sectional areas at given intervals along

the project.
(2)
Calculate the volumes of cut and
fill
between the given areas
relative to the proposed formation.
N.B.
(a)
(b)
Volumes of cut are considered positive,

Volumes of fill are considered negative.
(3)
Calculate the aggregated algebraic volume for each section.
(4)
Plot the profile of the existing ground and the formation.
(5)
Using the same scale
for the horizontal
base
line, plot the
mass haul curve with the aggregated volumes as

M
Max. haulage
point
Mass
haul
diagram
Fig. 10.43 Mass-haul curves
ordinates.
546
10.63
Characteristics of the mass-haul diagram
(1) A rising curve indicates cutting as the aggregate volume is increasing (a/ is seen to agree with AF on the profile).
(2)
i.e.
A maximum
point on the curve agrees with the end of the cut,
f-F.
(3) A falling curve indicates filling as the aggregate volume is

decreasing (f-k is seen to agree with F-K on the profile).
(4) The vertical difference between a maximum point and the next
minimum point represents the volume of the embankment, i.e. //, + k,k
(the vertical difference between any two points not having a minimum
or maximum between them represents the volume of earthwork between
them.)
any horizontal line is drawn cutting the mass-haul curve (e.g.

fill between these points.
In each case the algebraic sum of the quantities must equal zero.
(5) If
aqp), the volume of cut equals the volume of
(6) When the horizontal balancing line cuts the curve, the area
above the line indicates that the earthwork volume must be moved forward. When the area cut off lies below the balancing line, then the
earthwork must be moved backwards.
(7)
The
length of the balancing line between intersection points,
maximum haul distance in that section (q

maximum haulage point both forward, aq, and backwards, pq).
(8) The area cut off by the balancing line represents the haul in
that section. N.B. As the vertical and horizontal scales are different,
e.g.
aq, qp, represents the
is the
i.e. 1 in.
= s
ft
horizontally and 1
sents a haul of avs yd 3
10.64
ft
^r-r
in.
= v yd
3
,
an area of a in2 repre-
station yards.
Free-haul and overhaul (Fig. 10.44)
The Mass-haul diagram
used
is
for finding the overhaul
charge as
follows:
Free-haul distance is marked off parallel to the balance line on

any haul area, e.g. bd. The ordinate cc2 represents the volume dealt
with as illustrated in the profile.
Any cut within the section ABB^ 4, has to be transported through

the free- haul length to be deposited in the section DÊÊD. This represents the 'overhaul' of volume (ordinate bb,) which is moved from the
centroid G, of the cut to the centroid G2 of the fill.
The overhaul distance
is given as the distance
troids less the free-haul distance.
i.e.
(G
G2 ) -
bd
between the cen-
VOLUMES
547
Balance
line
(b) Profile
Fig. 10.44 Free-haul and overhaul
The amount of overhaul

x the overhaul distance.
as the volume (ordinate bb = dd,)
is given
Where long haulage distances are involved, it may be more economical to waste material from the excavation and to borrow from a
location within the free-haul limit.
If / is the overhaul distance, c the cost of overhaul and e the
cost of excavation, then to move 1 yd 3 from cut to fill the cost is
given as
e + Ic
whereas the cost
to cut,
waste the material, borrow and
tip
without
overhaul will equal 2e.
Economically
e + Ic
I
= 2e
=
(assuming no cost
for wasting)
the cost of excavation is 2/6 per yd 3 and the cost of overhaul is 2d per station yard, then the total economic overhaul distance
Thus
if
= -y = 1500
If
ft
the free-haul is given as 500
= 1500 + 500 = 2000
ft
the
maximum economic haul
ft.
The overhaul distance is found from the mass-haul diagram by determining the distance from the centroid of the mass of the excavation
to the centroid of the mass of the embankment.
The centroid of the excavation and of the embankment can be
548
determined
by taking moments,
(1) graphically, (2)
These methods are

Example 10.11
(3) planimetrically.
illustrated in the following example.
Volumes of cut and
fill
along a length of proposed
road are as follows:

3
Volume
Chainage
(ft )
Cut
Fill
290
760
1680
620
100
200
300
400
480
500
120
20
110
600
700
800
900
350
600
780
690
400
120
1000
1100
1200
Draw a mass diagram, and excluding the surplus excavated mati
erial along this length

is
300
determine the overhaul
if
the free-haul distance

(I.C.E.)
ft.
Answer
Chainage
100
JL\J\J
200
300
400
7UW
480
500
600
700
/ \J\J
Volume
Cut
1680
620
120
20
110
350
600
780
3470
3070
Check
Fill
290
760
800
900
1000
1100
1200
400
(ft )
690
400
120
3070
A
Aggregate
volume
,
+ 290
+ 1050
+ 2730
+ 3350
+ 3470
+ 3450
+ 3340
+ 2990
+ 2390
+ 1610
+ 920
+ 520
+ 400
(ft )
VOLUMES
3
(ft )
549
4 OCX)
3000
2000
1000
100
200f
300 400 500 600 700 800 |900 1000 1100 1200ft
240'
880'
Fig. 10.45 Mass-haul diagram
(1) Graphical
As
Method
the surplus of 400
is to be neglected, the balancing

drawn from the end of the mass-haul curve, parallel to the base
(i)
line is
line, to form a
As
(ii)
new balancing
ft
line ab.
the free-haul distance is 300
ft,
this is
drawn as a balanc-
ing line cd.
From c and
(iii)
(iv)
To
(a)
d,
draw ordinates cutting the new base line
at
find the overhaul:
Bisect
to give c 2 and draw a line through c parall2

base line and cutting the curve at e and /, which
now represent the centroids of the masses acc and dbd,
cc,
el to the
(b)
The average haul distance from

up the embankment dbd
(c)
=
x
The overhaul distance =

distance,
acc^
in excavation to
make
ef.
the haul distance-the free-haul
i.e.
ef - cd
i.e.
(d)
Scaled value = 640 - 300 = 340
The overhaul
= volume
of material at acc
ft.
(cc,) x overhaul distance (ef
cd)
= 2750 ft 3 x 340 ft
= 346' 3 station yards
(2)
By
taking
moments
With reference to the mass-haul curve and the tabulated volumes,

moments are taken at a to find the centroid of the area acc^
.
At a the chainage
is
scaled as 120
ft.
550
120 - 200
(a)
200
3
(ft )
Volume
Chainage
Distance
1050-400 = 650
- 300
Product
(ft)
(VxD)
= 40
26000
2730- 1050 = 1680 ^(300-200) + 80 = 130
218400
300 - 350 (c) 3150-2730=
|(200-120)
| (350 -300)+ 180 = 205
420
Iv = 2750
Thus the distance from a
86100
330 500
to the centroid
330500
= 120-2
ft
2750
/.
Chainage of the centroid
Taking moments
at d,
Volume
Chainage
= 120 + 120-2 = 240*2
chainage 650
3
(ft )
650 - 700
3350-2990 = 160
700- 800
ft.
ft:
Distance
Product (VxD)
(ft)
700- 650)
= 25
4000
2990-2390 = 600
|(800-700)+ 50 = 100
60 000
800- 900
2390-1610= 780
l(900-800) + 150 = 200
156 000
900-1000
1610- 920 = 690
|(1000 -900) + 250 = 300
207 000
1000-1100
920- 520 = 400
|(1 100 - 1000)
+ 350 =400
160000
520- 400 = 120
^(1200- 1100) + 450 = 500
60 000
(d)
1100-1200
J(
SP 647000
2v =2750
Thus the
distsMice from
d to the :entroid
<
647000
235* 3
ft
2750
Chainage of the centroid =
Average haul distance
650 + 235*3 = 885*3
Length of overhaul = 645*1 - 300

.
rt
f
=
Overhaul
2750 x-345*1
= 345*1
..
oc1 c station
= 351*5
.
2700
(3) Planimetric
ft
= 885*3 - 240*2 = 645*1
yards.
Method
Distance to centroid = Haul/volume
_ Area x horizontal scale x vertical scale

volume ordinate
From area acc^

Area scaled from mass-haul curve = 0*9375 in 2
Horizontal scale = 200 ft to 1
in.
VOLUMES
Vertical scale =
.-.
1600
551
to 1 in.
ft
Haul = 0-9375 x 200 x 1600 = 300000
Volume (ordinate
cc,)
Distance to centroid
2750
= 300000/2750
= 109-1 ft
Chainage of centroid = 350 - 109*1

= 240-9 ft
For area dbd,
Area scaled = 1-9688 in 2
Haul = 1-9688 x 320000 = 630016
.-.
Volume = (ordinate
dd,)
= 2750
Distance to centroid = 229-1
ft
Chainage of centroid = 650 + 229-1

= 879-1 ft
Average haul distance = 879-1 - 240-9
= 638-2 ft
Overhaul distance = 638-2 - 300
= 338-2
ft
Overhaul = 338*2 x 2750
.-.
= 344-5 station yards.

N.B.
Instead of the above calculation the overhaul can be obtained
direct as the
sum of the two mass-haul curve areas acc and dbd,
Area acq
a
aua
Area
aba^
300000
.
630016
jjnn
'
station yd
4
station
yd
Total area = overhaul =
= 344*5 station yards
.
ftft
Fig. 10.46
Proof
Take any area
cut off by a balancing line, Fig. 10.46.

Let a small increment of area 8 A = (say) 1 yd 3 and length of
552
haul be
/.
8A =
A =
yd
n x
x Z/100 station yd
yd
= Total volume x average haul distance,

Area = Total Haul
*.
Exercises 10(c) (Earthwork volumes)

15. Calculate the cubic contents, using the prismoidal formula of the
length of embankment of which the cross-sectional areas at 50

tervals are as follows:
Distance
Area
(ft)
110
(ft )
50
100
150
200
250
300
425
640
726
1590
1790
2600
Make a similar calculation using the

plain why the results differ.
The
in-
trapezoidal method and ex-
(I.C.E. Ans.
16.
ft
11688 yd 3
12085 yd 3 )
following notes were taken from the page of a level book:
Reduced level
Remarks
45-85
46-35
At peg 10
30 ft to right at peg 10
30 ft to left at peg 10
At peg 11
42-85
30
ft
to right at
48-35
30
ft
to left at
46-85
At peg 12
44-10
44-75
Draw cross-sections
11, which are 100
ft
to a
scale of
1 in.
peg 11
peg 11
= 10
ft
at
pegs 10 and
apart on the centre line of a proposed branch rail-
way, and thereafter calculate the volume of material excavated between

The width at formation
level is 15 ft, and the sides of the cutting slope at V/2 horizontal to
the two pegs in forming the railway cutting.
1 vertical.
The formation
level of each
peg
is 30*5
ft.
(M.Q.B./M Ans. 2116 yd 3 )

17.
1 in 8.
level cutting is
The
made on ground having a uniform cross-slope
formation width is 32
of
and the sides slope at 1 vertical

to 1% horizontal. At 3 sections, spaced 66 ft apart, the depths to the
centre line are 34, 28 and 20 ft.
Calculate (a) the side widths of each section (b) the volume of
ft
the cutting.
(N.R.C.T.
Ans.
62-0; 96*6
ft;
53-3; 83-2
ft;
41*8, 65'2
ft;
11600 yd 3 )
VOLUMES
553
18. Calculate the volume in cubic feet contained between three successive sections of a railway cutting, 50 ft apart. The width of formation is 10 ft, the sides slope 1 vertical to 2 horizontal and the heights
at the top of the slopes in feet above formation level are as follows:
Left
Centre
Right
1st Cross-section
13-6
12-0
14-0
2nd Cross-section
16-0
15-5
17-8
3rd Cross-section
18-3
16-0
16-0
(N.R.C.T.
Ans.
63 670
ft )
19. The formation of a straight road was to be 40 ft wide with side

slopes 1 vertically to 2^ horizontally in cutting. At a certain crosssection, the depth of excavation on the centre line was 10 ft and the
cross-fall of the natural ground at right angles to the centre line
was
At the next cross-section, 100 ft away,

the depth on the centre line was 20 ft and the cross-fall similarly
1 vertically to 8 horizontally.
1 in 10.
Assuming
that the top
edge of each slope was a straight
line, find
the volume of excavation between the two sections by the prismoidal
formula and find the percentage error that would be made by using the
trapezoidal formula.
(L.U.
20.
straight
slope of
12*5 %)
ft
is made on ground having a uniform crossThe formation width of the embankment is 30 ft and
the side slopes are 1 vertical to

ft
11853
embankment
1 in 8.
spaced 50
Ans.
V/z horizontal.
apart the heights of the
level are 10, 15 and 18
ft.
and tabulate data required
bank
At three sections
at the centre of the formation
Calculate the volume of the embankment
in the field for setting out
(L.U.
21. Cross-sections at 100
ft
purposes.
Ans.
2980 yd
ft
to
-60
-40
-20
+20
+40
4-0
1-0
0-0
0-0
0-0
1-0
2-8
12-9
8-6
5-0
3-0
2-0
3*0
6-0
200
17-5
14-1
10-9
8-0
6-0
6-0
9-6
300
21-8
17-7
14-4
11-3
9'7
9*7
11-0
400
25-0
21-2
18-0
15*2
12*8
12-0
13*2
100
(ft)
intervals along the centre line of a pro-
posed straight cutting are levelled at 20 ft intervals from -60

+ 60 ft and the following information obtained:
Distances
+60
(Tabulated figures are levels in feet relative to local datum). The
for-
mation level is zero feet, its breadth 20 ft, and the side slopes 1 vertical to 2 horizontal. Find the volume of excavation in cubic yards
over the section given.
(L
Ans
510 o y d 3 )
554
22.
minor road with a formation width of 15
plane slope of
cut or
fill
1 in
10 so that
on the centre
line,
it
ft
be made up a
is to
rises at 1 in 40. There is to be no
and the side slopes are to be
1 vertical
to 2 horizontal. Calculate the volume of excavation per 100
ft
of road.
Derive formulae for calculating the side-widths and heights and the
cross-sectional area of a 'two-level' section.
(N.R.C.T.
Ans.
25 yd /100
ft)
The uniform slope of a hillside (which may be treated as a plane

was 1 vertically to 4 horizontally. On this surface a straight
centre line AB was laid out with a uniform slope of 1 vertically to
23.
surface)
AB
9 horizontally. With
width of 10
2 horizontally.
or
fill
as the centre line a path with a formation
was constructed with side slopes of 1 vertically to

If the path was 500 ft in length and there was no cut
ft
on the centre
line, calculate the quantity of cutting in
Ans.
(I.C.E
24.
The
100
ft
cubic feet.
2530
ft )
central heights of the ground above formation at three sections
apart are 10, 12 and 15
ft and the cross-falls at these sections

20 (vertically to horizontally). If the formation width is 40 ft and the side slopes 1 vertically in 2 horizontally,
calculate the volume of excavation in the 200 ft length
1 in 30,
1 in
40 and
1 in
(a) if the centre line is straight,

(b) if the centre line is
an arc of 400 ft radius.

3
Ans.
158 270 ft ; 158 270 1068
3
ft )
(L.U.
25. The centre line of a highway cutting is on a curve of 400 ft radius,

the original surface of the ground being approximately level. The cut-
ting is to be widened
by increasing the formation width from 20 to 30 ft,

the excavation to be entirely on the inside of the curve and to retain
the existing side slopes of 1V2 horizontal to 1 vertical. If the depth of
formation increases uniformly from 8 ft at ch. 600 to 17 ft at ch. 900,
calculate the volume of earth to be removed in this 300
(L.U.
26.
The contoured plan
ft
length.
Ans.
1302 yd
3
)
of a lake is planimetered and the following
values obtained for the areas enclosed by the given underwater contours:
Contour
Area
(ft
O.D.)
(ft )
The surface area
305
300
295
38500
34700
26 200
285
290
7800
of the water in the lake is 40 200
4900
2
ft
The
top
water level and the lowest point in the lake are at 308-6 and 280*3 ft
O.D. respectively. Find the quantity of water in the lake in millions of
gallons.
(L.U.
Ans.
3-73 m. gal)
VOLUMES
27.
The areas
555
of ground within contour lines at the site of a reservoir
are as follows:
Contour in
ft
above datum
Area
400
505602
395
442 104
390
301 635
385
375
232203
94056
56821
380
Taking 360
2
(ft )
370
34 107
365
15834
360
472
O.D. as the level of the bottom of the reservoir and

400 ft O.D. as the water level, estimate the quantity of water in gallons
contained in the reservoir (assume 6*24 gal per ft 3 ).
ft
(Ans.
28. Describe three
methods of carrying out the
field
45 276500 gal)
work
for obtaining
the volumes of earthworks.
Explain the conditions under which the 'end area' and 'prismoidal
methods of calculating volumes are accurate, and explain also the
rule'
use of the 'prismoidal correction'.
The areas within the contour
lines at the site of a reservoir are as
follows:
Contour
(ft)
Area
(ft )
400
5 120 000
395
390
385
380
4642000
4060000
3184000
2356000
375
370
365
360
765 000
900000
106000
11000
The level of the bottom of the reservoir is 360 ft. Calculate (a) the
volume of water in the reservoir when the water level is 400 ft using
the end area method, (b) the volume of water in the reservoir using the
prismoidal formula (every second area may be taken as a mid- area), and
(c) the water level
(L.U.
when the reservoir contains 300000000 gallons.

Ans.
(a)
97-8925 m.
3
ft
(b) 97-585 m.
3
ft
388
ft)
square level area ABCD (in clockwise order) of 100 ft side is

to be formed in a hillside which is considered to have a plane surface
with a maximum gradient of 3 (horizontally) to 1 (vertically).
29.
556
is a point which bisects the side AD, and the area ABE is to
be formed by excavation into the hillside, whilst the area BCDE is to
be formed on fill. The side slopes in both excavation and fill are to be
1 to 1, and adjacent side slopes meet in a straight line.
By means of contours at 2 ft intervals, plot the plan of the earthworks on graph paper to a scale of 50 ft to 1 inch. Hence compute the
volume of excavation.
V ~ 880 yd 3 )
(I.C.E. Ans.
30.
is to
road having a formation width of 40
ft
with side slopes of 1 in 1
be constructed. Details of two cross- sections of a cutting are as
follows:
Chainage
(it)
Depth of Cutting
on Centre Line (ft)
500
600
Side Slope Limits
(ft)
Right
Left
10-2
25-2
33-7
6-0
22-0
28-5
Assuming that these cross-sections are bounded by straight lines

and that the undisturbed ground varies uniformly between them, compute the volume of excavation allowing for prismoidal excess.
If instead of being straight, the plan of the centre line had been a
R with the centre of curvature on the right,

have been taken into account in the foregoing calculaQuote any formula that would have been used.
3
1370 yd )
(I.C.E. Ans.
circular curve of radius
how would
tions?
this
A section of a proposed road is to run through a cutting from chainage 500 to 900, the formation level falling at 1 in 200 from chainage
500. The formation width is to be 30 ft and the side slopes are to be
1 vertical to 2 horizontal. The original ground surface is inclined
31.
uniformly at right-angles to the centre line at an inclination of 1 in 10.
With the information given below, calculate the volume of excavation in cubic yards, using the prismoidal formula.
->,
Chainage
500
..
^
Formation TLevel
,
44-25
ft
Ground Level at
^ T
Centre Line
51-11
600
50-82
700
50-93
800
51-09
50-77
900
(I.C.E.
Ans.
5474 yd
3
)
be constructed with side

32. A road of 40 ft
slopes of 1 (vertical) to V-/i (horizontal) in excavation and 1 (vertical)
to 2 (horizontal) in fill. Further details of two cross-sections are given
formation width is to
VOLUMES
below where the cross
r
fall of
557
the undisturbed ground is 1 (vertical) to
(horizontal).
Chainage
Ground level on
(ft above datum)
(ft)
Formation Level
(ft above datum)
Centre-line
400
171-6
166-6
500
170-2
168-0
Assuming the road
is straight
the volumes of excavation and

dal excess.
between these two sections, compute

in 100
fill
(I.C.E.
On
33.
a 1000
ft
length neglecting prismoi-
ft
819 yd 3 cut, 11 yd
Ans.
3
fill)
new road the earthwork volumes between
length of
sections at 100
ft intervals are as follows, the excavation being taken

as positive and filling as negative:
01234
No
Section
Vol. (1000 yd
56
Draw the mass- haul curve and find

the volume to be moved under the terms of the
(i)
of 300
(iii)
10
-18-9-5-6
free-haul limit
ft,
the volume to be
(ii)
3-7 9-1 15-0 13-9 6-4 1-4 -5-6 -19-4
moved
in addition to (i),
the number of station-yards under
equals
cubic yard moved 100
(ii)
where
station-yard
ft,
average length of haul under (ii).

3
3
Ans.
7500 yd
42 000 yd
23500 station yds; 560
(iv) the
(L.U.
ft)
34. The following figures show the excavation (+) and filling (-) in
cubic yards between successive stations 100 ft apart in a proposed
road.
+ 1500
7
+ 500
-2500
-1600
+ 100
- 100
10
11
-2200
+ 1100
-400 +1800
-1000
12
+ 2800
State which of the following tenders is the lower and calculate the
mass haul in the 1200 ft length:
total
(a)
Excavate, cart and
fill
at
9/6 per yd
3
.
Excavate, cart and fill at 9/- per yd

with a free-haul limit of
400 ft, plus 1/- per station yard for hauling in excess of 400 ft.
3
(1 station yard = 100 ft x 1 yd ).
(b)
Ans.
(L.U.
28 500 station yards; (a) 3700,
(b)
3750)
35. Volumes in yd
of excavation (positive) and fill (negative) between
successive sections 100 ft apart on a 1300 ft length of a proposed
railway are given in the following table:
558
Section
-500
+200
10
11
-2200
9
+ 2100
-1600
-1000
Volume
+1800
+300-400
+1100
12
-1200
+1300
13
-1900
for this length. If earth may be borrowed

which alternative would give the least haul ? Show on
the diagram the forward and backward free-hauls if the free-haul limit
is 500 ft, and give these volumes.
3
3
end, 1150 ft; 2900 yd ; 2400 yd )
Borrow at
(L.U. Ans.
Draw a mass haul curve
at either end,
36.
The volumes
a 900
ft
shown positive and

Section
Volume
yd between successive sections 100 ft apart on

length of a proposed road are given below; excavation is
in
fill
012
negative
3
56 78
+1700 -100 -3200 -3400 -1400 +100 +2600 +4600+1100
Determine the maximum haul distance when earth may be wasted

ft chainage end.
Show and evaluate on your diagram the overhaul if the free-haul
limit is 300 ft.
only at the 900
(L.U.
Ans.
510
ft;
4950 station yards)
Bibliography
bannister, a. and RAYMOND, s., Surveying (Pitman)

DAVIES, R.E. FOOTE, F.S., and KELLY, J.W., Surveying Theory and
Practice (McGraw Hill)
Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vol.1 (Constable)
THOMAS, W.N., Surveying (Edward Arnold)
CURTIN, w. and LANE, R.F., Concise Practical Surveying (English
CLARK,
D.,
Universities Press)
RITTER-PAQUETTE, Highway Engineering, 2nd Ed. (Ronald Press)

SHARMA, R.c. and SHARMA, S.K. Principles and Practice of Highway
Engineering
(Asia Publishing House)

to the Metric System (H.M.S.O.)
MINISTRY OF TECHNOLOGY, Changing
11 CIRCULAR CURVES
11.1
Definition
(a) the radius R or (b) the degree of

can be expressed as the angle at the centre of the
curve subtended by (i) a chord of 100 ft or (ii) an arc of 100 ft (the
The curve can be defined by
the curve D.
former is more generally adopted).

In Fig. 11.1,
.
Sm
r
i x 100
2
^
,
"
R-
50
50
"
R
(11.1)
sin^D
is small,
sin |
D = %D
radians
100'
K =
206265x50
\D x3600
5730
(11.2)
D
Fig. 11.1
11.2
Through Chainage
Through chainage represents the length of road or rail from some

(it does not necessarily imply Gunter's chain it may be the
engineer's chain). Pegs are placed at 'stations' (frequently at 100 ft
intervals) and a point on the construction can be defined by reference
terminus
to the
station'.
When a curve
is introduced, Fig. 11.2, the
tangent point
T,
is said
4625 ft from the origin. If the length of

the curve was 400 ft, the chainage of Tz would be expressed as
(46 + 25) + (4 + 00), i.e. 50 + 25.
to be of chainage 46
Origin of
25, i.e.
system
12
T,
46+25
42 43 44 45 46/47
Chainage of 7i
Length of arc
Chainage of T,
46+25
400ft
50+25
Fig. 11.2 Through chainage
559
560
Length of Curve (L)
11.3
L =
Example 11.1
(11.4)
is better.
and R = 100 ft,
6 = 30 26
If
(11 3)
* fo
L = R.6Tad
or
The second formula
27TR
26
2 x 3-142 x 100 x
Length of arc
or
L =
30^
60
T,
= 53-12
ft
Geometry of the Curve
11.4
In Fig. 11.3,
ft
100 x 3026; ad
- 100 x 0*53116
points,
= 53 '12
and T2 are tangent
is the intersection point,
is the deflection angle at inter-
section point,
/T,
= IT2 - tangent
length = Rtan<j>.
T,
T2 = Long chord =
TX
= 2Ksin^c
T,A
(11.5)
= chord c = 2R sin a (11.6)
R/20 and a
(if
c <
arc
~ chord,
i.e.
sin
Fig. 11.3 Geometry of the curve

is small,
a = a rad )
c =
Deflection angle
arad
a sec=
a
2Ra Tad
(11.7)
S-
(11.8)
206 265 c
2
(119)
206265c
2^60"
l-Z^
(U
10)
(ii.iD
CIRCULAR CURVES
10
561
sec \ <f>
(11.12)
IP = 10 -
PO
= R sec<f> - R = R(sec\cf> - 1)
(11.13)
PX
XO
= R - flcosl0
(11.14)
PO
= /?(1=
11.5
11.51
To pass
cos^)
R versine^0.
(11.15)
Special Problems
a curve tangential to three given straights (Fig. 11.4)
i.e
(1)
(2)
R = T Xcotj>
y
= (^ + z)cot|0 =
= {{(x +
z-y)
= ^(x + y +
R = 5cot^0
z)
(*2
+ y)cot^<
+ y)cot^<
cot^<
where s = \ perimeter of A
XYZ
(11.16)
562
Alternative solutions:
Area
(a)
XOY
\Rz
XOZ
Ry
YOZ
Rx
XYZ
areas
\R(y+z-x)
(XOY + XOZ - YOZ)
= R(x +
y+z)- \R(x+
x)
Rx
= Rs -
= R(s - x)
:.
(b)
If
and
YP
PZ
YZ
angles
.-.
known
tan
a/2
tan
0/2
YP
PZ
or
computed,
= K(tan a/2 + tan /S/2)
R =
Example 11.2
(11.17)
S - X
are
/3
R
= R
A XYZ
area
The co-ordinates
YZ
(1118)
tana/2 + tan /S/2
of three stations A,
and C are as
follows :-
B
C
E 1263-13 m N1573'12m
E 923*47 m N 587'45m
E 1639-28 m N 722-87 m.
and AC are to be produced and a curve set out so

that the curve will be tangential to AB, BC and AC. Calculate the
The
lines
AB
radius of the curve.

In Fig. 11.5,
Bearing
AB
= tan"
= ,tan
,923-47- 1263-13
587-45 - 1573-12
-,
-339-66
'
- 985-67
= S1900' 50" W
Fig. 11.5
= 199 00' 50".
CIRCULAR CURVES
563
Length
AB
= 985*67 sec 19 00' 50" = 1042-55
nQ
Bearing
An
AC
= .tan
_,1639-28- 1263*13
376*15
= tan _,
- 850-25
722-87 - 1573-12
'
'
= S2351'52"E = 15608'08".
Length
AC
= 850*25 sec 23 51' 52" = 929*74
Bearing
EC
- tan -,
1639*28 - 923*47
= ^-,715*81
722-87 - 587-45
135-42
= N7917'14"E = 079 17' 14"
BC
Length
= 135*42 sec 79 17' 14" = 728*51

= 180 - (19 00' 50" + 23 51' 52") = 13707'18"
To find the radius

Using Eq. (11.16),
{(AB+BC+
AC) cot \4>
= ^(1042*55 + 728*51 + 929*74) cot 68 33' 39"

= 1350*40 cot 68 33' 39" = 530*2 m.
Alternatively, by Eq. (11.17),
fc( 5 R = V
/
a >(s - b
s
Hs - c
>i
1350*40(1350*40 - 728*51)(1350*40 - 929*74) (1350*40 - 1042*54)}

= Vl
1350*40
728*51
530*2 m.
a = 079
)8
17' 14" - 019 00' 50" =
60 16' 24"
= 336 08' 08" - 259 17' 14" =
76 50' 54"
check
= 137 07' 18"
728*51
o =
tan 30 08'
11.52
<f>
To pass
12"+ tan3825'27" "
^LB^
a curve through three points (Fig. 11.6)
In Fig. 11.6,
angle
angle
COA
XOC
XC
= 20
= 180 =
AC
= R sin (180-0)
564
AC
sin
= 2R,
\AC
R =
i.e.
(11.19)
sin 6
Similarly, the full sine rule is
written
AC
BC
AB
sinC
sin
sin
= 2R
(11.20)
Example 11.3
to
The co-ordinates
of
two points B and C with respect
are
mN
692-34 mN
B
C
449*95
536*23
m E
1336'28mE.
Calculate the radius of the circular curve passing through the

three points.
AB
Bearing
449*95
N40E
= tan^ fff'ff =
156*11
N80E
= tan"
boo'Zo
BC
Bearing
.-.
angle
ABC
= 6 = 180 + 40 - 80 = 140.
AC
Length
= V(692*34 2 + 1336-28 2 ) = 1505

1505
752*5
2 sin 140 " sin 40
Example 11 .4
_
" tI}LL
In order to find the radius of
three suitable points A, B, and
C were
an existing road curve,
selected on the centre line.
set up at B and the following tacheometrical readand C, the telescope being horizontal and the staff
The instrument was

ings taken on
held vertical in each case.

Staff at
A
C
Collimation
Stadia
000'
4*03
5*39/2*67
195 34'
6*42
8*04/4*80.
Horizontal angle
CIRCULAR CURVES
565
If the instrument had a constant multiplier of 100 and an additive

constant of zero, calculate the radius of a circular arc ABC.
If
the trunnion axis
gradients of
AB
was 5*12 ft above
and BC.
the road at B, find the
(L.U.)
In Fig. 11.7,
AB
BC
= 100(5-39-2-67) = 272
ft
= 100(8-04-4-80) = 324
ft.
In triangle
.
tan
A-B
-
2
ABC,
324- 272
19534'-180
tan
324 + 272
52 tan747'
596
Fig. 11.7
A-B
V
tJ.
A+ B
7 47'
8 28'
A =
= 7 06'
BC
sin
324
R =
2 sin 8 28'
A-B,
Gradient BC,
If
1 1 fifi3 ff
" 11003ft
5*12 - 4*03
Gradient AB, 1*09 in 272 =

2R
1 in
= 1*09 ft.
240.
- C, 6'42 - 5*12 =
-30 in 324
1 in
1*30 ft.
249.
the gradients are along the arc,
= 2 sin
324
-1
16 56'
2 x 1100-3
Length of arc
AB
6>
Length of arc
BC
'
= 1100'3 x 16 56 rad
- 272 '7 ft
= (2x15 34')- 16 56' = 14 12'

= 1100-3 x 14 12; ad
Gradients along the arc are
1 in
= 352'2
251;
1 in
ft.
250.
566
Exercises 11
(a)
range a simple curve which will be tangential to

YX, PQ, and XZ, where PQ is a straight, joining
the two intersecting lines YX and XZ. Angles YPQ = 134 50'
1.
It
is required to
three straight lines
= 117 40" and the distance XP = 5'75 chains.

Compute the tangent distance from X along the straight YX and
YXZ
= 72 30'
PQZ
the radius of curvature.

(I.C.E..
2.
Ans. 8*273 chains; 6*066 chains)
circular road has to be laid out so that
it
shall be tangent to
each of the lines DA, AB, and BC.

Given the co-ordinates and bearings as follows, calculate the
radius of the circle.
Latitude
A - 29*34 m
B - 177-97 m
DA
CB
Bearing
Departure
- 128*76 m
- 58-39 m
114 58' 10"
054 24' 10"

(Ans. 137-48 m)
AB, BC, and

CD, the whole circle bearings of which are 38, 72 and 114 respectively. The length of BC is 630 ft. Find the radius and length of the
curve and the distances required to locate the tangent points.
Also tabulate the data necessary for setting out the curve from the
3.
circular curve is tangential to three straight lines
tangent point on
BC
with 100 ft chords and a theodolite reading to 30"
with clockwise graduations.
(L.U. Ans.
The co-ordinates
4.
of
K=
913-6ft; 1211'9ft; 279-3 and 350'7ft)
two stations Y and
in relation to a station
are as follows:
E(m)
Y
Z
N(m)
215
576
800
-750
Find by construction the radius of a circular curve passing through

each of the stations X, Y, and Z
(Ans. 790 m)
C lie on the centre line of an existing

mine roadway A theodolite is set up at B and the following observations were taken on to a vertical staff.
Three points A, B, and
5.
Staff at
Horizontal circle
Vertical circle
c
Stadia
Collimation
A
C
002 10' 20"

135 24' 40"
+2 10'
-124'
6*83/4-43
5*63
7-46/4-12
5'79
,.
...
CIRCULAR CURVES
If
567
the multiplying constant is 100 and the additive constant zero,
calculate:
(a) the radius of the circular curve
which will pass through A,
and C,
(b) the gradient of the track laid from
height is 5-16
(a)
if
the instrument
Ans. 362-2
(R.I.C.S./M
To pass a curve
11.53
to
ft.
relative to
1 in
33-93)
through a given point
Given the co-ordinates of
ft;
i.e.
I,
A and AP
(Fig. 11.8)
I.
/ 2)VL
0*
N Jfl)
\r
JT^^^Sv
N:
/
/
Fig. 11.8
In Fig. 11.8,
Assume BC passing through P
is parallel to
AB
AP cot
BP
AP cosec
BX
PX
BQ
(AB + AI) cos
BX
BX
7,
Tz
\<f>
\<f>
QC
\<f>
BP
PX
(intersecting tangent and
T,B = y/(BP x BQ)
secant)
T,/
T,B
= BI
R = T
cot
<f>
(i.e.
or
T,
^ =
T, /
= (AB + AI T,B) cot
cot
\<f>
T,
B)
\<f>
(11.21)
568
(b)
In
Given polar co-ordinates of point
from intersection
(Fig. 11. 9)
Fig. 11. 9,
a =
01 =
01
90-(f +0)
R sec|<
_ Rsec\cf>
OP
'
also by sine rule

sin (a +
sin
sin (a +
/3)
= sin a sec
= sinl80-(a +
Thus there
jS)
a
^<f>
(11.22)
8)]
are 2 values for
/3.
Fig. 11.9
R
sin
IP
sin
= IP sin
/3
a cosec j8
Fig. 11.10
(2 values)
(11.23)
CIRCULAR CURVES
If
a=
0, in Fig. 11.9, i.e.
lies on line 10,
R sec 10 = IP R
1
01 =
R(sec\c/>
+1)= IP
IP
R =
(11.24)
secl<
If
0=90,
569
in Fig. 11.10,
T,0 =
QP =!,/
/?
sinS - R tan^c
sin 8
7,(3
= tan^<
R - RcosS
= K(l -cosS)
= IP =
(11.25)
verso
As 5 has
2 values there are two values of
Example 11.5
circular railway curve
has
to
be set out to pass
through a point which is 40 m from the intersection of the straights and
equidistant from the tangent points.
The straights are deflected

through 46 40
Calculate the radius
' .
of the curve and the tangent length.
Taking the maximum radius only,

in Fig. 11.11,
01 =
=
R(l -
.*.
i.e.,
OP
+ PI
R +
x =
R sec^<
sec|0)= -
Eq. (11.24),
40
secl< -
1-089
07-
Fig. 11.11
449-1 m.
TJ = T2
tan-^0
= 449-1 tan 23 20'

193-7 m.
570
Example 11.6 The bearings of two lines AB and BC are 036 36'
and 080 00' respectively.
At a distance of 276 metres from B towards A and 88 metres at
right-angles to the line AB, a station P has been located.
Find the radius of the curve to pass through the point P and also
touch the two lines.
(R.I.C.S./M)
Taking the maximum

radius only
Fig. 11.12
In Fig. 11.12,
= 080 00' - 036 36' = 43 24'
cf>
In triangle
LG
LP
GLP,
cot
= 88cot2142' = 221*13
\<$>
GP = LPcosec(f> = 88cosec2142' =
238*00 m
GX
= (LG + LB) cos^< = (221*13 + 276*00) cos 21 42' = 461*90m
PX
GQ
GX - GP
GX + PX
T,G= y/(GP
T,B =
GB
= 461*90 - 238*00 = 223*90 m

= 461*90 + 223*90 = 685*80 m
x GQ) = V(238*00 x 685*80) = 404*01
+ T,G =
BL
LG
+ GT,
= 276*0 + 221*13 + 404*01 = 901*14
R =
T,B
cot|0
= 901*14 cot 21 42'
= 2264*5 m.
CIRCULAR CURVES
571
6 = tan"' 88/276 = 17 41'
a = 90 -
(<f>
+ 6) = 90 - (21 42' + 17 41')
= 50 37'
x = 276 sec0 = 289*69 m
Then, from Eq. (11.22),
sin(a+/8) =
sinasec^0
= sin 50 37 'sec 21 42'
a+/3 = 56
17' 30"
a = 50
37' 00"
B =
.-.
Therefore radius
R = x
sin
5 40 '30"
a cosec
j8
= 289-69 sin 50 37' cosec 5 40' 30"

= 2264*5 m
(Curves passing through a given point)
Exercises
11. (b)
(N.B.
each case only the maximum radius
6.
In
In setting out a circular railway
curve
is
it is
used)
found that the curve
must pass through a point 50 ft from the intersection point and equidistant from the tangents. The chainage of the intersection point is
280 + 80 and the intersection angle (i.e. deflection angle) is 28.
Calculate the radius of the curve, the chainage at the beginning
and end of the curve, and the degree of curvature
(I.C.E. Ans. 1633 ft; 276 + 73; 284 + 73; 3 30')
7.
Two straights intersecting at a point B have the following bearBA 270; BC 110. They are to be joined by a circular curve,
the curve must pass through a point D which is 150 ft from B and
bearing of BD is 260. Find the required radius, the tangent
ings:
but
the
distances, the length of the curve and the deflection angle for a 100 ft
chord.
(L.U. Ans. 3127*4
ft;
551*4
ft;
1091*7
ft;
055')
of the intersection point / of two railway

AI and IB, are 0,0. The bearing of AI is 90 and that of
IB is 57 14'. If a circular curve is to connect these straights and if
this curve must pass through the point whose co-ordinates are
- 303*1 ft E and + 20*4 ft N, find the radius of the curve.
8.
The co-ordinates
straights,
572
Calculate also the co-ordinates of the tangent point on Al and the

deflection angles necessary for setting out 100
ft chords from this

tangent point. What would be the deflection angle to the other tangent
point and what would be the final chord length?
(L.U. Ans. 2000ft;
9.
straight
BC
deflects 24 right from a straight
588*0 ft
AB. These
Oft N)
are
be joined by a circular curve which passes through a point D 200 ft from

from B and 50 ft from AB.
Calculate the tangent length, the length of the curve, and the deflection angle for a 100 ft chord.
(L.U. Ans. 818-6; 806*5; 0 45')
to
A right-hand circular curve is to connect two straights Al and IB,

the bearings of which are 70 42' and 130 54' respectively. The curve
10.
pass through a point X such that IX is 132*4 ft and the angle

Determine the radius of the curve.
If the chainage of the intersection point is 5261 ft, determine the
is to
AIX
is 34 36'.
tangential angles required to set out the first two pegs on the curve at
through chainages of 50 ft.
(L.U. Ans. 754*1

11.
ft;
0 59' 40"; 2 53' 40")
The following readings were taken by a theodolite stationed
point of intersection / of a circular curve of which
A and B
at the
are re-
spectively the first and second tangent points
A
It
14 52';
224 52';
C 344
52'
is required that the
is near the
(a)
curve shall pass through the point C, which

middle of the curve, at a distance of 60 ft from /.
Determine the radius of the curve.
(b) Calculate the running distances of the tangent points
and the point C, the distance at

100 ft units.
(c)
Show
A and
being 200 + 72, in
in tabular form the running
angles
for setting out the
distances and tangential

curve between A and C.
(L.U. Ans. 1181ft; 197 + 56; 203 + 74; 200 + 22)
11.54
Given a curve joining two tangents,

assumed change
in the radius for an
to find the
change required
in the tangent length
(Fig. 11.13)
In Fig. 11.13,
R 2 -R, = (*a-',)cotJL0
o,o2 = (R 2 -
/?,)
secj0
(11.26)
(11.27)
CIRCULAR CURVES
A, A,
573
IX 2 - IX,
(/02 -
R2 ) -
(R2 sec
{$
(70,
/?,)
R2 ) -
(K, sec
\<f>
/?,)
/?2(sec|0 - 1) - R,(sec\cf> - 1)
(/? 2
R, =
-/?,)(secl0-l)
X,X
sec-i0-
(11.28)
(11.29)
+ i
1
Fig. 11.13
A circular curve of 2000 ft radius joins two points

on the two straights AB and BC. If the running
chainage values of A and C are 1091ft and 2895 ft respectively,
calculate the distance of the midpoint of the curve from B.
(b) If the minimum clearance value of the curve from B is to be
Example 11.7
A and C which
(a)
lie
200ft, what radius would be required for the curve and what would be
the chainage value for the new tangent points?
(R.I.C.S.)
(a) In Fig. 11.14,
Length of curve - 2895 - 1091
= 1804
ft
= R<krad
0.rad
arc
~R
574
- 1804
" 2ooo
<f>
In triangle
= 51 41'
8/51*41'
T^BO u
BO, = R sec^0
= 2000sec2550'30"
= 2222-22
ft
1187-86
r,
BX, = 2222-22 - 2000

= 222-22
In triangle
By Eq.
T 3 BO z
ft
(11.29),
Fig. 11.14
/?,
X,X 2
s
sec
- 2000
-^
<f>
222-22 - 200
1-1111-1
- 2000 - 200
= 1800
(b)
By Eq.
ft
(11.27),
0,0 2 = (R z -
/?,)
sec
cf>
= (2000 - 1800) sec 25 50' 30"

= 222-22
TJ
2 P
ft
= 0,0 2 sin\c/>
= 222*22 sin 25 50 '30"

= 96*86
ft
e2 -
',)
Rz "
*,) tan I
<f>
= 200 tan 25 50' 30"

= 96-86 ft
Chainage
T3 =
T,
(t
_
2
^)
= 1091 + 96*86
= 1187*86
ft
2811-46
CIRCULAR CURVES
Length of arc = 1800 x
575
<f>
= 1800 x 0*902
= 1623-60
TA = 1187-86 + 1623*60
Chainage
.'.
= 281 1-46
ft
Location of Tangents and Curve
11.6
no part of the curve or straights exists, setting out is related to

a development plan controlled by traverse and/or topographical detail
//
// straights exist
(1)
Locate intersection point
/.
(2)
Measure deflection angle
<.
(3)
Compute tangent length
(4) Set off tangent points

// the intersection point is
Select stations
Measure
a and
/3;
if
T,
radius
and
Tz
is
known
inaccessible
A and B
on the straights, Fig. 11.15.
AB.
Solve triangle AIB.
AI =
BI =
AB sin /8 cosec
AB sin a cosec
TJ = T2 I
/.
<f>
<f>
= R tan|0
T,A = T,/ - AI
T2 B =
T,/ - Bl
Fig. 11.15
For through chainage
Chainage of A known
Chainage of / = Chainage A + AI
Chainage of T, = Chainage / - T,/
Chainage of Tz = Chainage
T,
+ arc
T,
T2
576
// the tangent point is

If
T,
is not
inaccessible
accessible set out where possible from T2 Fig. 11.16.

station B on the curve and checking
,
A check is possible by selecting

offset AB.
Fig. 11.16
To
N.B.
may be required joining

permanent stations as reference
locate the curve elements a traverse
the straights.
It
is essential to leave
points for ultimate setting out.
11
11 .71
By
linear equipment only
(a) Offsets
If,
Setting out of Curves
.7
pom
the long chord (Fig. 11.17)
in Fig. 11.17, the
equal parts, the offsets
sub divided into an even number of

etc. can be set out. Each side of the mid-
chord
\h z
is
point will be symmetrical.
Generally,
(R -
.-.
N.B.
If
<f>
is
z
z
yf = R - x
2
z
y = R - y/(R - x )
z
y 2 = R - y/(R -xl)
- y - y2
known, y = R(l - cosi<),
(11.30)
(11.31)
(11.32)
i.e.
y =
R versine^.
Example 11.8 A kerb is part of a 100ft radius curve. If the chord

joining the tangent points is 60ft long, calculate the offsets from the
chord at 10ft intervals, Fig. 11.18.
CIRCULAR CURVES
577
Fig. 11.18
As above
(Eq. 11.30),
h3
= y = R -y/(R
-x 2 )
2
= 100 - V(100 -30 )

= 100 - V(100 - 30) (100 + 30)
= 4-61
By Eqs.11.31/11.32, h 2 = h 3 - y2
2
yz
= 100 - V(100 - 10
2
)
= 0-50
h 2 = 4*61 - 0*50 ft,
y,
ft,
= h3 - y
4J1
= 100 - V(100
= 2-02
-20 2 )
= 4-61 - 2-02 = 2-59
(b) Offsets from the straight (Fig. 11.19)
Fig. 11.20
Fig. 11.19
(R - xf =
As above,
i.e.,
by Eq. (11.30),
x =
R -
R -
y/(R
-y 2 )
Alternatively,
sin
a =
2R
2R
If
is small,
(11.33)
(11.34)
c ~2y.
2R
(11.35)
578
(c) Offsets
from the bisection of the chord (Fig. 11.20).
From Eq. (11.30),
AA<
_^[Rl _(c^
Alternatively,
(d) Offsets
-cos-^)
AA,
= R(l
BB,
= K(l -cos{<)
CC,
= RQ.
-cos^)
from the bisection of successive chords; centre of curve
fixed (Fig. 11.21).
As above,
sin
2R
Fig. 11.21
Assuming equal chords,
Aa = Bb = Dd
Tt =
= K(l - cos a) =
Tt =
Alternatively,
Lay
off T,x
Lay
off
etc.
R -**'-()"
=
vers
c
2
xA = Tt
Aa =
T,
Tt along line
B on
line
Ta produced
Bb = Tt along
(e) Offsets from
(i)
AO
line
BO
chords produced.
Equal chords (Fig. 11.22)

AZ A = c sin a
=
C X
2R
2R
(Eq. 11.34)
CIRCULAR CURVES
If
is small,
can be controlled
A 2A ^ A
if
A.
579
This
the length of
chord is limited,
C<
i.e.
B,B = 2A A
X
if
R
20
is small.
2
B,B =
(ii)
(11.36)
Unequal chords (through chainage)
Fig. 11.23
In Fig. 11.23,
Offset from sub-chord
Offset from 1st full chord
= A A =
X
= B,B =
(Eq. 11.34)
B B2 + B2 B
X
C C2
1
2/2
f|_"
2/2
C2 ( C 1 + C 2 )
2/2
(11.37)
580
Offset from 2nd full chord =
D,
D D 2 + DJ)
= 2D,D = 2B.B
(11.38)
By Eq.
(11.37),
Q,
c3 ( c2 + c 3)
but
2K
c 3 = c2
2/?
Generally,
11.72
(a)
linear and angular equipment
sin a
(11.33),
a is small
c <
sin a
.-.
(11.39)
2i?
Tangential deflection angles (Fig. 11.24)
By Eq.
If
By
Cn(Cn + Cn-,)
asec ~
2R
R/20)
~ a rad
206 265 c
(11.40)
2R
Fig. 11.24
206 265 c
1718-8 c
2R x 60
R
(11.41)
For equal chords 2 a =
4>
(11.42)
where n =
no. of chords required,
For sub-chords,
a.
sub- chord
ax
(11.43)
standard chord
(b) Deflection
is
Fig. 11.25
angles from chord produced (Fig. 11.25)
The theodolite is successively moved round the curve. This method

applicable where sights from T, are restricted. It is the method
applied underground.
11.73
By angular equipment only
(Fig. 11.26)
Deflection angles are set out from each tangent point, e.g.,
the intersection of
from
T,
with 3
from
T2
is
CIRCULAR CURVES
N.B.
na
Generally,
=
if
581
(11.44)
<f>
the deflection angle from
the deflection angle
jS
T.
from
is a.
T2 = 360 -
l<f>
a,
(11.45)
Fig. 11.26
Example 11.9
town planning scheme, a road 30 ft wide is to inft wide at 60, both being straight. The kerbs
forming the acute angle are to be joined by a circular curve of 100 ft
radius and those forming the obtuse angle by one of 400 ft radius.
In a
tersect another road 40
Calculate the distances required for setting out the four tangent
points.
Describe how to set out the larger curve by the deflection angle
method and tabulate the angles for 50 ft chords.
(L.U.)
\
1'
Fig. 11.27
X = TZ X
T3 Z = I4 Z
7,
In triangle
XY
= 400 tan 30 = 230-94
ft
= 100 tan 60 = 173-21
ft
XYb,
20
sin 60
Xb =
YZ
20 tan 30 =
= 23-09
Yc = 11-55
582
In triangle
BYa,
15
BY =
= 17-33
sin 60
aY = Bd
= 15 tan 30 =
8-66
Distances to tangent points measured along centre lines:
AB
BC
BD
BE
X+XY -
= TA Z +
= TZ X
XY
23-09 -
8-66 = 245-37
ft
+ aY 173-21 + 23-09+
8-66 = 204-96
ft
aY = 230-94 +
-Xb +BY
= 230-94 - 11-55 + 17-33 = 236-72 ft
BY
= 173-21 + 11-55 + 17-33 = 202-09 ft
= T3 Z + Xb +
Deflection angles, 50
chords
ft
50
sina =
i
1
7^
2 x 400
a, = 335'
By approximation,
a_
206 265x50
-
2x400
__
= 12892 sec
= 334'52"
a, =
335'
a2 =
a3 =
710'
1045'
a4 =
a8 =
a6 =
2130'
a7 =
2505'
a8 =
2840'
a9 =
3000'
1420'
1755'
(sub-chord = 2^sinl20'
= 2x400sinl20'
= 18-62ft)
Example 11.10 A curve of radius 1000 ft is to be set out connecting

shown in Fig. 11.28.
Point X is inaccessible and BC is set out and the data shown
obtained. Assuming the chainage at B is 46 + 47*3 ft, calculate
2 straights as
sufficient data to set out the curve by deflection angles from the tan-
gent by chords of 50
ft
based on through chainage.
CIRCULAR CURVES
0902-69}
7i
583
950)
(599709)
T,
Fig. 11.28
(derived values in brackets)
In triangle
BXC,
BX
XC
In triangle
(Fig. 11.28)
= 1050-4 sin 5430' cosec60 =
987-44 ft
= 1050-4 sin 6530' cosec60 =
1103-69ft
OT^X,
Tangent length
T,X = 1000 tan 60

= 1732-05 ft
.*.
BT,
T,X- BX
= 1732-05 - 987-44
= 744-61
Similarly
CT2
= 1732-05 - 1103-69
= 628-36
Chainage
r,
ft
ft
= 4647-30 - 744-61
= 3902-69
Length of curve
R < =
ft
1000 x 2-094
= 2094-40 ft
Chainage
Tz = 3902-69 + 2094-40
= 5997-09 ft

584
Length of chords,
= 3950-3902-69 = 47-31
C,
C 2 = Cn_,
= 50-0
ft
ft
Cn = 5997-09-5950 = 47-09
ft
Deflection angles (Eq. 11.40)

for
C, = 50 ft,
a2 =
x 50
206-2x265L000
= 5156-62" = 125'57
(say 126'00")
for
C, = 47-3
ft,
a, =
5156-6 x47-3
"
"
= 121 19"
= 4879'
50
(say 121'20")
for
Cn =
47-1
ft,
an =
5156-6 x47-l
= 120 56"
,
= 4856"
50
(say 121'00")
Check
4879 + 40 x 5156-62 + 4856 = 216 000"

,
= 6000 00"
Example 11.11
Assuming
that
Example 11.21
is to
be set out using

T,
and 72
angular values only, calculate the deflection angle from

suitable for use with a 20" theodolite, Fig. 11.29.
Angles at T
may be calculated as follows from
the previous
calculations.
Fig. 11.29
Accumulative deflection angle

a, =
121'19"
say
121'20"
+ <x 2 = 125'57"
247'20"
+ a3
= 125'57"
413'20"
+ a 4 = 125'57"
539'20"
+ a s = 125'57"
705'00"
etc.
CIRCULAR CURVES
Angle at T2
j8,
by Eq. (11.44):
= 360
B 2 = 300
585
= 300
30121'20"
=
-60 + a,
=
+a,+ a 2
+ a, + a 2 + a 3 =
30247'20"
30413'20"
etc.
Example 11.12 Fig. 11.30 shows the centre lines of existing and
proposed roadways in an underground shaft siding. It is proposed to
and no. 1 shaft - C respectively by curves
connect roadways
BD and CD, each 100 ft radius, and to drive a haulage road from D
in the direction DE on a line tangential to both curves. B and C are
tangent points of the respective curves and D is a tangent point com-
A-B
mon
to both curves.
N!1 shaft
SKetch-not to scale
Fig. 11.30
Co-ordinates of A
Co-ordinates of no.
2311-16
1 shaft
ft,
2745-98
2710-47
ft,
ft.
3052-71
ft.
- C 18630'00".
Distance of no. 1 shaft C 355 ft.
Bearing of roadway A B 8723 50
Bearing of no.
1 shaft
Calculate the distance from
BD, the co-ordinates of B

DE.
to the tangent point
of the curve
and the bearing of the proposed roadway
(M.Q.B./S)
586
>
N!
shaft
Bearing
096#
30'
100ft
nB7* 23' 50"
Bearing 17723'50"
100ft
Fig. 11.31
Construction (Fig. 11.31) Draw
X02 0,02
;
AX
100
ft
perpendicular to
Co-ordinates of
C
3052-71
AE^SSSsineÔ'
-40-19
3012-52
11
N
no.
2710-47
AN,_ c 355cos630'
-352-72
2357-75
Co-ordinates of 0,
Ec
3012-52
AE^lOO
sin8530'
+99-36
3111-88
Nc
AN ^100
Na
2357-75
cos 8530'
- 11-32
2346-43
AB
Join
CIRCULAR CURVES
Co-ordinates of
X
EA
2745-98
AE4^100sin2
o 36'10"
+ 4*54
Ex
2750-52
N^
2311-16
N^ 100 cos 236
'
10"
-99-90
Nv
2211-26
_.
Bearing
&
XO. = tan
'
3111-88 - 2750-52
_, 361-36
tztt~Z7 = tan
T^rTZ
Af%
MAt
135-17
2346-43 - 2211-26
.
6929'29"
XO, = 361-36 cosec6929'29"
Length
= 385-81
In triangle
587
X0,02
ft
XO, sin
0,
XO. =
sinO 2
Bearing
X0 2
XO
t
'r/\
= 8723'50'
= 6929'29"
XjgX
0,
sin02
/.
Angle
1754'21"
385-81 sin 1754'2l"
sin
= (3622'33") or 180 - 3622'33"
= 14338'27"
385-81 sin (180 - 14338'27" - 1754'21")
Thus
XO,2 =
sinl4338'27"
385-81 sin 1827'12"
= 205-91
ft
sin3622'33'
Co-ordinates of
B
EA
A EAB 205-91
EB
2745-98
sin 8723'50"
Nfl
2951-68
2311-16
N4
MiAB
+205-70
205-91 cos8723'50"
+ 9-35
2320-51
AB
588
X02
X02 0,
Bearing
Angle
AB
08723'50"
14338'27"
23102'17"
- 180
Bearing
05102'17"
0,
+ 90
DE
Bearing
Ans.
AB
205-91
14102'17"
ft.
Co-ordinates of B, E 2951-68
Bearing of DE, 14102'17".
2320-51.
Exercises 11(c)
AB
and CD are straight portions of two converging railways

to be connected by a curve of 1500 ft radius. The point of
intersection of AB and CD produced is inaccessible. X and Y are
points on AB and CD respectively which are not intervisible and the
notes of a theodolite traverse from one to the other are as follows:
12.
which are
Line
Horizontal
Angle
Xa
AXa
260 10'
160
ab
Xab
16900'
240
be
abc
21030'
300
cY
bcY
8000'
180
YC
cYC
26840'
Distance
(ft)
Calculate the apex angle and the position of the start and finish
of the curve relative to
(M.Q.B./S
13.
To locate
X and Y
Ans. 9140';
T2 Y 780-09 ft)
T,X 1234-42 ft;
the exact position of the tangent point
T2
of an exist-
ing 500 ft radius circular curve in a built-up area, points a and d were
selected on the straights close to the estimated positions of the two

tangent points
T,
and T2 respectively, and a traverse abed was run
between them.
Station
Length
(ft)
954'
a
b
ab 178
1936'
be 231
cd 203
3012'
The angles
T2 d.
Deflection Angle
at a
and d were relative
5 18'
to the straights.
R
R
R
R
Find the distance
(L.U. Ans. 34- lft)
CIRCULAR CURVES
Two
14.
589
straights AI and BI meet at / on the far side of a river.
E was selected on the straight

on the straight BI, and the distance from to F
measured and found to be 3*40 chains.
The angle, AEF, was found to be 16536' and the angle BFE
On
the near side of the river, a point
AI, and a point
16844'
If
the radius of a circular curve joining the straights is 20
chains, calculate the distance along the straights from
and
to the
tangent points.
(I.C.E. Ans. 3-005 ch;
2-604 ch)
15.
The centre line of a proposed railway consists of two straights
joined by a 3 curve. The angle of deflection between the straights is
26 and the chainage (increasing from

is
7367
left to right) of their intersection
ft.
Calculate the deflection angles from the tangent for setting out the
circular curve from the first tangent point by pegs at every 100
ft
chain-
age and check on to the second tangent point.

(I.C.E.
Ans.
peg
7073 -
l06-6'
5 36-6'
76 - 10 06-6'
71-
2 36-6'
72 -
4 06-6'
74 77 -
7 06-6'
75 -
8 36-6'
l36-6'
T.P.
13 00')
Outline three different methods for setting out a circular curve of
16.
several hundred feet radius using a chain and tape and without using a
theodolite. Sketch a diagram for each
used
in the calculations
method and quote any formulae
associated with each method.
The centre line of a certain length of a proposed road consists of

two straights with a deflection angle of 3000' and joined by a circular
curve of 1000 ft radius; the chainage of the tangent point on the first
straight is 3630 ft. The curve is to set out by deflection angles from
this tangent point using a theodolite which reads to 20", and pegs are
required at every 100 ft of through chainage and at the second tangent
point.
Calculate these deflection angles and any other data that could be
used
in the field for
17.
The tangent length
checking the position of the second tangent point.

(I.C.E. Ans. 200'20"; 452'20"; 744'00"
1036'00"; 1328'00"; 1500'00")
flection angle for a 100
ft
of a simple curve
was 663-14 ft and
the de-
chord 2 18'
Calculate the radius, the total deflection angle, the length of the
curve and the final deflection angle.

(L.U. Ans. 1245-5 ft; 5603'50"; 1218-7
18.
(a)
2801'55")
What is meant by the term 'degree of curve' (D)?
State the advantages,
if
any, of defining a circular curve in this
way. Show how the degree of curve

(R).
ft;
is related to the radius of the
curve
590
(b)
Two
EF
straights
The bearings
point F.
EF
FG
and
FG
of a proposed road intersect at
of the straights are:
7612'
13926'
The chainage of E is 11376-0 (113 + 76-0) and the distance EF

2837-6(28 + 37-6).
Calculate the chainages of the tangent points and prepare a table
of the deflection angles from the tangent point on GF for pegs at whole
100 ft chainages for a 5 curve connecting the two straights.
Explain with the aid of a diagram how you would set out this curve.
(R.I.C.S./L Ans. R = 1146 ft; 10670-3; 11935-4)
is
A circular curve XT of 1000 ft radius joins two straights AB and

which have bearings of 195 10' and 22540' respectively. At what
chainage from X measured along the curve, will the curve be nearest
19.
BC
B?
to point
If
this point of nearest approach to
bearing of
be point W what
(R.I.C.S./G
20.
(a)
is the
WB?
The
of radius 3000
lines
ft.
AB
The
and
point
BC
B
Ans. 266-2 ft; 12025')
are to be joined by a circular curve
of intersection of the lines is inaccess-
ible.
The following values have been measured on
AMN
angle
= 14605'
MNC
angle
the ground:
= 14912'
MN
= 2761ft;
M is 25342ft (measurement from A).

Calculate the length of the curve and the chainage of the beginn-
and the chainage of
ing and end of the curve.

(b) Deduce formulae for setting out intermediate points on the
curve by using steel band, linen tape, optical square and ranging rods
only.
(R.I.C.S./L
21.
It
BC D
Ans. 3388-6; 25004-7; 28393-3)
being part of a block.

by a circular curve tangential
and C. What is the radius of the curve to the
is a plot of land,
is required to round off the corner
to the boundaries at
nearest tenth of a foot?
Angle
Angle
BAD
ADC
= 90
= 5238'
AB
AD
= 100 ft
= 140
(R.I.C.S./L
ft
Ans.
= 28-2 ft)
A railway boundary CD in the form of a circular arc is intersect22.

ed by a farm boundary BA in E. Calculate this point of intersection
E.
The radius
of the curve is 500
ft
and the co-ordinates in feet are:
CIRCULAR CURVES
A E 7525-7,
B E 7813-4
C E 8009-3
D E 7101-2
591
N 21951-7
N 20 163-3
N 21 179-6
N 21074-3
(Ans.
A 750 ft
23.
E 7610-5
21424-7)
length of straight connects two circular curves which
both deflect right. The first is of radius 1000 ft, the second is of
radius 800 ft and deflection angle 27 35'
The combined curve is
.
to
be replaced by a single circular curve between the same tangent
points.
Find the radius of this curve and the deflection angle of the
first
curve.
R =
(L.U. Ans.
1666-5
ft;
3133')
24.
In a level seam two roadways AB and DC are connected by
roadways AD and BC. Point B is 820 ft due East of A, D is 122
due North of A, and C is 264 ft due North of B. It is proposed to
ft
BA and DC and tangential to BA,

and DC. Calculate the radius of the curve and the distances from
and D to the tangent point of the curve on the lines AB and DC
drive a circular curve connecting
AD
A
respectively.
(M.Q.B./S
The
25.
Ans.
co-ordinates of two points
66'24
A and B
A
B
ft;
66'24
ft;
55'76
ft)
are:
0-0
399-60
998-40
201-40
A straight line AC bears 11030' and intersects at C a straight

line BC bearing 275 50'. The chainage of A is 2671-62 ft. Calculate
the lengths of
The two
AC
and CB.
straights are to be joined by a curve of 500
ft
culate the chainage of the tangent points and of B.

(L.U. Ans. 377-97ft; 647'71ft; 2985'24ft; 3113'23ft;
radius. Cal-
3696'59ft)
Compound Curves
11.8
Compound curves consist of two or more consecutive circular arcs

of different radii, having their centres on the same side of the curve.
There are seven components in a compound curve made up of two
arcs:
Two
Two
radii, /?,
and R.
tangent lengths,
and
t
x
An angle subtended by each
arc,
a and a 2
1
592
deviation angle at the intersection point
= a,+ a.
/,
At least 4 values must be known.
Fig. 11.32
In Fig. 11.32,
A/ =
AB
sin
sin
TJ
^'
tan
a + R*
T,A + AI =
/?
tan
sin
<f>
a^
sin
a2
f,
-=
i? 2
tan-2<x2 ) sin a.
a +
,
sin
t,
sin<
<f>
(#, tan 2 a,
*
tan
'
= R tan -1 a, sin
y
<
tan
tf,
-^
<fi
a, sin
a2 + R2
tan
-1
sin 2 o^ 2 sin ^
= R tan
-_-
a, (sin
<f>
+ sin a2 ) +
a2 sin a 2
a2 cos ^ a 2
/?,
cos - a 2
sini(<- a2 )2sin^(0+ a2 ) cos -!(<- a2 )

cos
/?,( c s
a2 - cos 0) +
4(0- a2 )
(l-cosa 2 )
/? 2
= fl,{(l - COS<)-(l - COSOj)
= (R 2 - R, )(1 - cos o^) + R,

^sincft =
Similarly,
f
it
(/? 2
+ 2&, sin \ a
= R,
/?,)
Rz )
/?
(1
- COSCL,)
- cos 0)
versinea 2 + /^versineqS
may be shown
sin< = (/?,-
(1
(11.46)
that
versinea, +
/?
versine<
(11.47)
CIRCULAR CURVES
An
593
shown involving more construction
alternative solution is
but
less trigonometry, Fig. 11.33.
Fig. 11.33
Construction
Produce arc T,T3 of radius R, to
Draw 0,3
parallel to
BC
BD
parallel to
IT2
parallel to
T3
(b)
T3 BT2
T3 0,0 2
(c)
BD
T,E
N.B. (a)
is
is
T,
A perpendicular
T,
B
T21 (produced)
to 0,
perpendicular to
a straight line.
a straight line.
DT 2
= 0,0 2 =
AB
2 T2
R 2 -R,.
CT2
= (0,8-0,4) + (DT2
-DC)
i.e.
*,
f,
By
sin<
sin<
/?,-, cos(a, + a 2 ) +
#,(1 - cos
R, versinec6 + (R z
96)
\(R 2 - #i) -
(K 2 -
#i) cos
a2
+ (R 2 - #i)(l - cosa 2 )
-R
versine
a2
(11.48)
similar construction, Fig. 11.34,
FT2 = GH
- HJ
= (02 H t
2 sincf>
R2
vers
2 G)
(f>
- (HK - JK)
+ (/?,_ R 2 ) versa,
(11.49)
594
Fig. 11.34
Given K, = 20 m, R 2 = 40 m,
Example 11.13.
= 80 30', it is required to find length T2 l.
From Eq. (11.48),
T,/
= 20-5 m,
<f>
versine a, =
T,/ sin<
versine^
/?,
R2 - R
20-5 sin 80 30' - 20 vers 80 30'
40 - 20
3-520
20
a 2 = 34 31'
then
From Eq.
a,
45 59'
i.e.
R2
- (R 2 - R
<f>
- az
(11.49),
vers<ft
vers
sin <p
40 vers8030' - 20 vers 45 59'

sin 80 30'
27-67
Alternative solution from first principles (Fig. 11.35)
Construction
Join 0,/
Draw 0,P
parallel to
0,Q
parallel to
IT 2
T2
CIRCULAR CURVES
In triangle
595
TJO,,
= tan-'Â = *tan -t 20
'
20-5
7,/
= 44
j8
18'
= 180 - (0 +
In triangle IPO,
= 55
<f>)
12'
IP = 0,1 cos j8
= R, cosec
cos/3
= 20 cosec 44
cos 55 12'
18'
Fig. 11.35
= 16-35
0,P
= 0,1 sinj8
=
20 cosec 44 18' sin 55 12'
Q =
= 23-52
T2 - QT2 = R 2 - 0,P
= 40 - 23-52
=
In triangle
16-48
0,02 Q,
=cos-M
a2
0,Q
IT2
cos-1^48
3^
20
0,0,
a,
45 59'
0,0 2 sina 2 = 20sin343l' = 11-32
= IP +
Example 11.14.
PT2
AB
and
DC
IP + 0,Q
16-35 + 11-32,
27-67
two
means
are the centre lines of
portions of a railway which are to be connected by
straight
of a comone circular curve and EC the other. The

radius of the circular curve BE is 400 ft.
Given the co-ordinates in ft
B N400 E200, C N593 E 536, and
pound curve BEC,
BE
is
the directions of
AB
and
DC NE2530'
and NW7630' respectively,
Calculate (a) the co-ordinates of E, (b) the radius of the circular curve
EC.
(R.I.C.S./M
Formulae are not very suitable and the method below shows an
alternative from first principles.
Bearing
536 ~ 200 = 6007'

593 - 400
BC
tan"'
BC
193 sec 60 07'
180 - 76 30' - 25 30'
<f>
78 00'
596
E 53i_
---s*^
Fig. 11.36
In triangle S/,C,
B
C
8/,
C/,
34 37'
78 00' - 34 37' =
43 23'
BC
193 sec 60 07' sin 43 23' cosec 78
272-0
ft
BC
225-0
ft
sine cosecc6
sin
B cosec ^
400 tan Z
/2
G =
323-9
ft
/,/ 2
323-9 - 272
51-9
ft
I,J
51-9 cos 78
10-8
ft
IgJ
51-9 sin 78
50-8
ft
CH =
In triangle
60 07' - 25 30' =
Bh2
FG
/2
G +
/,./- /,C
323-9 + 10-8 - 225-0
109-7
CGH,
a2
22.
a2 =
a,
tan-
GH/CH
2 tan"' I2 J/CH
2 x 24 50'
49 40'
78- 49 40' =
2 tan"'
50-8
109-7
28 20'
CIRCULAR CURVES
n triangle
597
0^0 2 L,
=
0^02
R2
.*.
L coseca 2
109-7 cosec4940'
143-9
400 - 143-9
256-1
to find the co-ordinates of E,
Bearing
BE
BE
25 30' + 14 10' =
2 x 400 sin 14 10'
BE
Partial Lat.
cos 39 40'
Total Lat.
BE
Partial Dep.
sin 39 40'
Total Dep.
39 40'
150-71
N 550-7
124-98
E 325-0
Iheck
From Eq.
(11.48),
sin<
272 sin 78 =
R, versine^
400(1 - cos 75)
/,
(R 2 - R,) versinea 2 =
.*.
/?,
versc6 + (R 2 -
266-06
ft
316-83
ft
(256-1 - 400) (1 - cos4940')
-50-76
ft
a 2 = 316-83 -
266-07
ft
/?,)
vers
50-76
Example 11.15.
Undernoted are the co-ordinates in ft of points on the
espective centre lines of two railway tracks ABC and DE
Co-ordinates
A
B
C
D
E
E 525-32
E 827-75
E 10-89
E 733-23
N
N
52-82
247-29
S 108-28
35-65
AB and DE are straight and B and C are tangent

by circular curve. It is proposed to connect the two
racks at C by a circular curve starting at X on the line DE, C being
tangent point common to both curves. Calculate the radius in chains
>f each curve, the distance DX and the co-ordinates of X.
The
lines
>oints joined
(M.Q.B./S)
In Fig. 11.37,
Bearing
AB
tan"
+ 525-32/+ 52*82
84 15' 30"
598
Bearing
DE
= tan
_,
733-23 - 10-89
-35-65+ 108-28
N 84
15' 30"
As bearings
must
are alike, C, B and X

on the same straight line.
lie
Bearing
BC
XC
= bearing
= tan-1 827 75 - 525-32

247-29 - 52-82
'
N 57
Length
BC
15' 29"
AN
sec bearing
Fig. 11.37
= (247-29 -52-82) sec 5715'29"

=
359-56
Angle (a) subtended
Radius
at centre
BC cosecia
I x
BXE
2 x angle
2 x (84 15' 30" - 57 15' 29")
5400'02'
359-56 cosec2700'01"
396
ft
6 chains
10-89
525 32
52-82 + 108-28
'
Bearing
DB
DB
Length
Bearing
In triangle
DX
DE
DB
BC
tan-'
084 15' 30"
072 36' 41"
.-.
Angle
15' 29"
/.
Angle
057
BD sing
sinX
BD
sin
_
~
sinX
Corordinates of
Line
BOX
DBX
539-06
1138'49"
15 21' 12"
AE
539-06 sin 15 21' 12"

=
sin 27 00' 01"
314-38
ft
539-06 sin 11 38' 49"

=
sin 27 00 '01"
239-71
ft
DX N 84 15' 30"
.'.
DBX,
=
BX
161-10 sec 72 36' 41"
72 36' 41"
314-38
ft
314-38 sin 84 15' 30"
ED
E^
AN =
Nn
314-38 cos 84 15' 30"
+312-80
10-89
323-69
+ 31-45
-108-28
CIRCULAR CURVES
Nx
CX
Ans.
BX + BC
239-71 + 359-56
|CXcosec2700'0l"
659-986
a*
660-0
6 chains radius
O^C =
10 chains radius
314-38
ft
x 599-27 cosec2700'0l"
ft
ft
10 chains
ft
X E 323-69,
Co-ordinates of
= 599-27
Oz C =
DX
-76-83
=
Radius 0,C
599
S 76-83
Exercises 11(d) (Compound curves)
A main haulage road AD bearing due north and a branch road DB

N87E are to be connected by a compound curve formed by
26.
bearing
two circular curves of different

first
curve of 200
ft
radii in
immediate succession. The
radius starts from a tangent point A, 160
ft due
succeeded by a curve of 100 ft radius which terminates at a tangent point on the branch road DB.
Draw a plan of the roadways and the connecting curve to the scale
1/500 and show clearly all construction lines.
South of
and
is
Thereafter calculate the distance along the branch road from D to

the tangent point of the second curve and the distance from A along
the line of the first curve to the tangent point common to both curves.
(M.Q.B./S
27.
The
intersection point
Ans. 120-2
ft;
145-4
ft)
between two railway straights T'XI and

IYT is inaccessible. Accordingly, two arbitrary points X and Y are
selected in the straights and the following information is obtained:
/
Line
Whole circle bearing
T'XI
49 25'
IYT"
108 40'
XY
76 31'
Length
XY
1684-0
ft
ChainageofX = 8562-3 ft
The
straights are to be connected by a compound circular curve

such that the arc T'C, of radius 3000 ft, is equal in length to the arc
CT", of radius 2000 ft, C being the point of compound curvature. Make
the necessary calculations to enable the points
pegged
sketch.
initially,
T', C and T" to be

and show this information on a carefully dimensional
600
Determine also the through chainages of these points.

8115*9
(L.U. T'l = 1489-1 ft chainage T
T'l = 1235-5 ft chainage T" 10 597-7
C 9356-8
Reverse Curves
11.9
There are four cases to consider:

(1)
Tangents parallel
(2)
Tangents not parallel
(a)
Radii equal (b) Radii unequal.

(a)
Radii equal (b) Radii unequal.
Tangents parallel (Cross-overs) (Fig. 11.38)

T, T2
/2
0, 2 and
common tangent point,
/,
are all straight lines intersecting at E, the
Fig. 11.38
In Fig. 11.38,
T EI
T O
\bIJ2
= a
icy,
= a
Triangle T,/,fi is similar to triangle
ET2 / 2
E02 T2
Angle
and
T, /,
Angle BTÊ
CT2
0,
Triangle 1,^0, is similar to triangle
Tangents not parallel (Fig. 11.39)

N.B.
T,
T2 does not
cut
0^0 2
at E.
Fig. 11.39
ft
ft
ft)
^
CIRCULAR CURVES
These solutions
N.B.
601
are intended only as a guide to possible
methods of approach.
Tangents parallel (Fig. 11.40)
Bisect T, and T2 E. Draw perpendiculars PO^ and
QQ 2
*i
Fig. 11.40
\-
NX
T,E = 2T,P = 2K, sina
T2 E
= 2T2 Q = 2K 2 sina = T,T2 - T,
2R Z
sin
a=
XT,
R, =
R,
= Rz
Two
ft
- *,
(11.50)
T T
(11.51)
4 sina
parallel railway lines are to be connected by a
reverse curve, each section having the

are 30
R =
Example 11.16
sin
sina
2
If
T2 - 2K,
I,
apart and the distance
same
radius.
the centre lines
If
between the tangent points
is
120
ft,
what will be the radius of cross-over?

In Fig. 11.41,
T,A =
30
ft
T T = 120
ft
T TZ A,
In triangle
sina =
T.A
In triangle
120
T PO
x
30
i, i
,
x
R =
Tangents not parallel,
Fig. 11.41
T,
0,
T,
sina
T,
T2
4 sina
120
4x30/120
= 120
radii equal (Fig. 11.42)
Construction
Draw
0,
S parallel
pendicular to
T,
T2
to T,
T2 PO perpendicular
,
to
T,
T2
per-
ft
602
PO
In triangle T,
x ,
P = R sin a,
PO, = R cos a, = QS
I,
In triangle
T2 Q,
T2 Q = R sina 2
2
2S
= R cosa 2
=
2 Q + QS
= R cosa2 + R cos a,
= i?(cosa, + cosa 2 )
2
' sin
= sin
Fig. 11.42
0^
cosa 2)
/?(cosa, +
l
2R
0,S
= 2R cos jS
= T,T2 -(T,P +
QT2 )
= T T2 - K(sina, + sina 2)
y
T T
2 cos|3 + sina,
+ sina 2
(11.52)
Example 11.17
Two underground roadways AB and CD are to be
connected by a reverse curve of common radii with tangent points at
B and C. If the bearings of the roadways are AB S 83 15' E and CD
CD S 74 30' E and the co-ordinates of B E 1125*66 ft N 1491-28 ft,
C E
2401-37
ft
650*84
ft,
calculate the radius of the curve.
(M.Q.B./S)
Fig. 11.43
of the tangents are different and thus the line BC

does not intersect with 002 at the common tangent point although at
The bearings
this scale the plotting might suggest this.

In Fig. 11.43,
CIRCULAR CURVES
n
Qn =
Bearing BC
.
tan
603
-.2401-37-1125-66
'
T^zrz AM nn
650-84-1491-28
1275-71
-840-44
= S 56 37' 23" E
BC
Bearing BC
AB
CD
tan"
= 840-44 sec 56 37' 23"
Length
S 83 15' 00"
E
E
S 74 30' 00"
S 56 37' 23"
.-.
= sin" I (cos 26
= 67 20' 39"
1
/8
0,S = 2R cos 67
BP
.-.
= R sin a,
= R sin 26
a,
= 26
37' 37"
ctj,
= 17
52' 37"
37' 37"
ft
+ cos 17 52' 37")
20' 39"
37' 37"
QC
= R sina 2
= R sin 17 52' 37"
BC
BP + 0,S + QC
= R sin 26
1527-67
= 1527-67
37' 37"
+ 2R cos 67
20' 39"
+ R sin 17 52' 37"
By Eq. (11. 50),

R ~
1527-67
sin 26 37' 37" + 2 cos 67 20' 39" + sin 17 52' 37"
= 1001-31
Tangents not parallel,
ft
radii not equal (Fig. 11.44)
Fig. 11.44
Construction
Join 0, T2
Draw
0,
T,
perpendicular to
O^P =
/?,
sin a,
#, cos a,
T,
T2
604
PT2
= T T2 - T,P
= T,T2 -
= tan '-^=-
= tan
Pi 2
'
n t
In triangle 0,
I2
+ R2
/<!
(11.53)
sin a,
sin0
,
0,01
(fl,
T2 -
7,
R cosa
_
~
sintf
sina,
/?,
+ 0,T2 2 - 20 2 T2
OJl
R*
K 22 +
cos
0J
cos 0,f2
<x,
sin 2
cos a, cos {90 - (a 2 - 0)1
2/?2 K,
sin0
2
/v.
22
+ 2R.R? + Rf =
/?,(*, + 2K 2 ) =
2R 2
sin
{sin
/v.,
#,
cos a,- 2#,i? 2 cosa, sin(a 2-0)sin0
R,(R,
~i^
~:
2
cos a, - 2R2 cos a, sin(a 2 - 0) sin 0)
+ cos a, sin(a 2 /?
R2 =
2 sin
Two
= R,(cos 2 a, -sin
0)}
cular reverse curve with an
AB
0)
a - sin 0)
+ cosa,sin(a> -
(cos
{sin
straights
-rr
sin u
Example 11.18
sin 6
and
CD
initial radius of
0)}
ate to be joined by a cir-
200
ft,
commencing
at B.
From the co-ordinates given below, calculate the radius of the

second curve which joins the first and terminates at C.
Co-ordinates
A
B
C
D
(ft)
103-61
204-82
248-86
422-62
866-34
406-61
801-63
141-88
(R.I.C.S./M)
103-61 El
204-82 N
Fig. 11.45
CIRCULAR CURVES
605
In Fig. 11.45,
Bearing
E = 033 42*00'
AB
= tan-
g^*|^j|^
= N
DC
= tan-'
^'^-^l'S
(406*61 -141-88)
r\r\H
- N 1344'00" E = 01344'00
BC
= tan"'
(866 34 ~ 248 86)

'
3 342'00"
'
= S 8830'50" E = 091
29' 10"
(406-61-422-62)
BC
Length
= 617-48/cos8830'50" = 617-69
Angle a, = 91
a2
By Eq.
29' 10"
- 033
42' 00"
R,cosa,
TJ
" tan
=
s
- R,
sina,
= 13
10"
200 cos 57 47' 10"

nnn ... fw0 A n> m
617-48 - 200 sin 57 47'
10
-.,
22' 20"
Eq. (11.54),
2
(11.53),
v = tan '-srs
By
=77 45'
= 91 29'10"-01344'00"
T2
57 47' 10"
(T,
ft
200 (cos 57 47' 10" - sin 13 22' 20")

~ 2 sin 13 22' 20" {sin 13 22' 20" + cos 57 47' 10" sin(7745'10" - 13 22' 20
= 140-0
ft
Exercises 11(e) (Reverse curves)

28.
A reverse curve is to start at a point A and end at C with a
change of curvature at B. The chord lengths AB and BC are respectively 661-54 ft and 725*76 ft and the radius likewise 1200 and
1500
ft.
Due
to irregular ground the curves are to
be set out using two
theodolites and no tape and chain.
Calculate the data for setting out and describe the procedure in
the field.
(L.U.
Ans.
Total deflection angles, 16; 14;

Setting out by 1 11' 37" deflections)
29.
Two roadways AB and CD are to be connected by a reverse
curve of common radius, commencing at B and C.
The co-ordinates of the stations are as follows:
A
B
C
21 672*84
m E
m E
21 951*63
mE
21642-87
the bearing of the roadway

radius of the curve.
If
CD
m N
m N
37350*44 m N
37 160*36
37 241*62
is
20
14'
41" E, calculate the

(Ans.
100*0 m)
606
30.
AC
CD
CD
is a straight connecting
AM
touches the lines

and BN.
two curves
and CD; the curve
MA =
BN =
AC =
DB =
Bearing
Given:
Radius of curve
B0
E +
Co-ordinates
AC
DB
1262*5
and DB. The curve

touches the lines
165
13'
135
20'
750 m
1200 m
N - 1200-0
C and D.
C E + 1562-54 m N - 1358*58 m; D E + 57-32 m N - 53-09 m)
Two parallel lines which are 780 m apart are to be joined by a

(Ans.
31.
reverse curve
ABC
which deflects to the
by an angle of 20
right
from the first straight.
is
B
32.
If the radius of the first arc AB is 1400 m and the chainage of A

2340 m, calculate the radius of the second arc and the chainages of
1934 m; 2828 m; 3503*8 m)
(Ans.
and C.
Two
straight railway tracks 300
and bearing
12
apart between centre lines
ft
are to be connected by a reverse or 'S* curve,
starting from the tangent point
A on
the centre line of the westerly
track and turning in a north-easterly direction to join the easterly track

at the tangent point C.
the second
BC
The
first
AB
curve
has a radius of 270
has a radius of 400
The tangent
ft.
point
ft
common
and
to
both curves is at B.
Calculate (a) the co-ordinates of

origin at
(b) the lengths of the
curves
(M.Q.B./S Ans.
and
relative to the zero
AB
and BC.
(a) B E 244-53 N 288*99
C E 409*58 N 484*05
394*30 ft; 266*15
(b)
ft
ft
ft)
Bibliography
THOMAS, W.N., Surveying (Edward Arnold)

CLARK, D., Plane and Geodetic Surveying (Constable)
DAVIES R.E., FOOTE F.S., and KELLY, j.w., Surveying Theory and
Practice (McGraw-Hill)
SANDOVER,
J. A.,
Plane Surveying (Edward Arnold)
BANNISTER, A., and RAYMOND, S., Surveying (Pitman)

SALMON, V.G., Practical Surveying and Fieldwork (Griffin)
JENKINS, R.B.M., Curve Surveying (Macmillan)
KISSAM, P., Surveying for Civil Engineers (McGraw-Hill)
SEARLES, W.H. and IVES, H.C., rev. by P. KISSAM, Field Engineering,
22nd Ed. (John Wiley)
HIGGINS, A.L., Higher Surveying (Macmillan)
12

12.1
Where
it
Vertical Curves
smooth out a change of gradient some form

two general forms, (a) convex or
concave, i.e. sag or valley curves.
is required to
of parabolic curve is used. There are
summit curves,
(b)
The properties required

(a)
Good
are:
riding qualities, i.e. a constant
change of gradient and a
uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force.

(b)
Adequate sighting over summits
or in
underpasses.
The simple parabola
is normally used because of its simplicity

and constant change of gradient, but recently the cubic parabola has
come
into use, particularly for valley intersections. It has the advantage of a uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force and less filling is
required.
Gradients are generally expressed as
1 in x,
horizontal. For vertical curve calculations
e.g.
linx
m%
x
1 in 5
20%
i.e.
vertical to x
gradients are used
Gradients rising left to right are considered +ve.

Gradients falling left to right are considered - ve.
The grade angle is usually considered to be the deflection angle =
difference in % grade. By the convention used later, the value is given
as q%-p%, Fig. 12.1.
-Q -p
q-(-p)**(q+p)l.
-(q+p)v.
608
Properties of the Simple Parabola
12.2
ax 2 + bx + c
&
dx
lax + b
2a
dJz =
,
2a,
for
i.e.
max
(12.1)
mm
or
(12.2)
constantrateofchangeofgradient
If
a is +ve, a valley curve is produced.
If
a is -ve, a summit curve is produced.
The value
of b determines the
maximum
or
(12.3)
minimum position along the
x axis.
The value
of c determines
where the curve cuts the y axis.
The
to
it
is
difference in elevation between a vertical curve and a tangent

equal to half the rate of change of the gradient x the square of
the horizontal distance from the point of tangency, Fig. 12.2.
Fig. 12.2
If
ax 2 + bx +
--
2 ax + b
c,
(grade of tangent)
dx
When x =
0,
grade of tangent =
+b
value of y = + c
In Fig. 12.2, if the grade of the tangent at x
is b,
QR =
as
b x x
+ bx
+c
RS
PQ
PQ
The horizontal lengths
i.e.
609
ax 2
ax
of any
QR
+ RS
+ bx + c
two tangents from a point to a
verti-
cal curve are equal, Fig. 12.3.
. .
PB
= ax? = ax\
xz
i.e.
(1)
the point of intersection
way between
the tangent points
of two gradients is horizontally mid-
A and
C.
chord to a vertical curve has a rate of grade equal to the tangent

at a point horizontally midway between the points of intercept, Fig. 12.3.
From
AA
(1),
X
AA,
ACCÂ
AC
CC =
X
ax
is parallel to
is a
CC,
parallelogram
c,
P^
*i
is parallel to i4,C,.
B
*i
*a
Fig. 12.3
12.3
From the equation
Properties of the Vertical Curve

of the curve,
2
y = ax + bx + c as seen previ-
ously.
Fig. 12.4
610
In Fig. 12.4,
AB
BC
ax 2
bx
(N.B. For summit curves, a is negative)
A = ax 2 + bx
the level on the curve at
.'.
DT 2
al
ED
ETZ
JL
- JpL =
Kg-p)
200
200
200
Half the rate of change of gradient

(N.B. a will be negative when p > q)
g-P
(12.4)
200/
Length of curve
It is
.'.
common
2a as a
( 12 -
200 a
5)
practice to express the rate of change of gradient
per 100
ft.
may be expressed as
the horizontal length of curve

/
4^
'
100 x grade angle

rate of change of grade per 100
100 (q - p)
2a%per 100
ft
(12.6)
Distance from the intersection point
IF = KT,
curve
to the
FG
JT2
"
L. x q ~ p =
Maximum
or
ax
(12.7)
800
(q-p)x 2
+ p_
100
or min
dH
(q
p) x
100/
dx
then
q ~ p)
+ bx
200
max
minimum height on the curve
for
200/
~ p/
<?-P
100
pl
P-
(12.8)
611
A parabolic vertical curve of length 300 ft is formed at

Example 12. 1
a summit between grades of 0*7 per cent up and 0*8 per cent down.
The length of the curve is to be increased to 400 ft, retaining as much
as possible of the original curve and adjusting the gradients on both
(L.U.)
sides to be equal. Determine the gradient.
iwiw
m.
y..*..-ry,
<-'v.
q - p
200/
-0-8
"
If
the gradients are to be
P + Q
2p
--
0-7
1-5
60000
200 x 300
made
= 200
e qual,
p =
q.
a/
1-5
= 200 x 400
60000
=
1%
Sight Distances (s)
12.4
Sight distances for summits
12.41
(1) s
>
In Fig. 12.5,
Let
/
I
s
A,
<*,
horizontal length of vertical curve

sight distance
AC
height of eye above road at
OL
height of object above road at
distance of vehicle from tangent point T,
distance of object from tangent point
TJ
2
JP- + 12200
200
-L
200
(n
KP
T2
+
qJ
q)
(1)s><
Fig. 12.5
Principles of sight distances
612
T2 J
tana
==-
p + q
nnn
200
T,J
AB
d,tana =
100
'
d 'P
*<? +
100
200
>
d
(2p
200
J(p-q)
p--9)
'
200
Similarly,
MO
MU
hi
tan a d 2 tana
dz ^P + g)
200
A. {pn + q.
_
~
100
200
~ 2q)
2 /rt
200
ft,
AB
Jl-(p-q) + a(i)
BC
2
200
Êi
a =
but a is negative, i.e.
V2/
200/
*'
200
tP
*'
A.
rD ~ lOO tP
a)
200/
/(P~^
^00
P ~ g
8O0T
T4rf
L
/IJ
'
Similarly,
h2
OM
_
_
d}
BC
= J=LjLi[4d a+
__
+h 2 )
2(p -
If
-21 = 400
Up-q)
q)
,
4
2s - 00(î +^2)
P - q
2/
400(ft
<
+ *a) _
P - q
/,
(2) s
__
800ft, - /(p-g)
800ft 2 - /(p-g)
+ dz =
+
400(6,
2s
Z]
- 4 00(î + *fc)
P - 9
+ ^)
P - 9
(1210)
In Fig. 12.6,
ft,
ad]
(12.9)
.-.
d.
= )!h
613

=
h,
adt
dp
*.
yjh 2
y/a
(2)
S<1
V"
BRSiSTO!
But
p - a
=
200/
200/
p - q
2
S (p
Fig.12.6
tVî +\f h z]'
q)
(12.11)
N.B.
If
(i)
s >
= h2 =
h:
I
s =
(iii)
<
2ft
p - q
=
(ii)
400 x
2s -
800 ft
2s p - q
(12.12)
800/2
(12.13)
p - q
/
s\p -
q)
200.[2(V/i)]
2
s (p
g)
(12.14)
800 h
12.42
Underpasses
Given: clearance height H,
height of driver's eye above road
height of object above road h 2
/i,,
sight length s,
gradients
p% and q%.
s > I
Let the depth of the curve below the centre of the chord AD (the
distance between the observer and the object) be M, Fig. 12.7.
(1)
tana
GL _ DE
s
is
GL
By
Eq. (12.4),
GJ +
JI
+ IL
_
=
q - P
200/
200
614
itiie&ft
Fig. 12.7
and from above,
DE
2GL
-^- + -21 = -*200
200
GL = M +
Then
/(<
?-P> + ^P
4 x 200
s(p +
400
200
q)
(p
q)
s <P + g)
200
400
JW _ M ] ^
200
<7
- P
800
'
2sp + 2sq - 4sp ~ 800 M

q - P
2s(q-p) - 800JW
q - p
800
2s -
q-p
If
AL
= LE, then
and
(2) s
h,
2s -
+ h2
800
Iff
fc
i+M
In Fig. 12.8, let the depth of the curve
the chord
(12.15)
T,
T2
M
u
ml
/.
~ p) s
800/
fo
s2 ( q ~ P^
800 M
below the centre of

'<q-p)
615
(12.16)
800 (H-hlhlj
If
S =
/,
(12.17)
q - p
(2)
Fig. 12.8
12.43
Sight distance related to the length of the
beam of a
vehicle's
headlamp
(1) s
>
In Fig. 12.9,
beam = h is at A,
T2
the beam is $ above the horizontal
the height of the

the
beam
hits the road at
the angle of
axis of the vehicle.

S>1
HB, s, Is
assumed equal to
Fig. 12.9
the
In triangle
Sight distance related to

of a headlamp
beam
BT2 0,
T2 Q = sO
i.e.
al
- h
s6
616
But
q ~ P
200/
(<
/2
?-P>
sd + h
200(s^)
200/
/
Practice suggests that
Then
(2)
= 200(0-0175 s+
9 - P
1
2-5
ft
2' 5)
3'5s + 500
<7 - P
(12.19)
sZ
As
before,
as 2 - h = sd
~ s6 + h
200/
I
s2 (g ~ P)
200(s<9
1
0=1
If
(12.20)
a;
+ h)
and
h =
2-5
ft
s (g-~-P)
J
(12
K
3-5 s + 500
21)'
Example 12.2.
The sag vertical curve between gradients of 3 in 100

downhill and 2 in 100 uphill is to be designed on the basis that the
headlamp sight distance of a car travelling along the curve equals the
minimum safe stopping distance at the maximum permitted car speed.
The headlamps are 2'5ft above the road surface and their beams tilt
upwards at an angle of 1 above the longitudinal axis of the car. The
minimum safe stopping distance is 500 ft.
Calculate the length of the curve, given that
it
is greater than the
sight distance.
By Eq.
(L.U.)
-3%
+2%
= 500
ft
(12.21),
/
s 2 (q- P)
3*5 s + 500
= 2500
4-5
555- 5
12.5
500 2 x (2+3)
500 x 3*5 + 500
500 x 5
3-5
ft
Setting-out Data
Gradients are generally obtained by levelling at chainage points,

e.g. A,B,C and D, Fig. 12.10.

617
+p<y ~~^~^^qVo ^(
'^^7'
r,
d-x
d
1/2/
'/2/
St.C
St.S
Si. A
st.o
Levels taken at stations A,B,C and
Setting out data
Fig. 12. 10
Chainage and levels of

Level of
level of
and T2
T,
I,
B +
100
= level of c +
(12.22)
\Za
Solving the equation gives the value of
Chainage of
Chainage of
T,
T,
= level of
Level of T
= level of
(12.23)
- -
(12.24)
of /
+ ^
(12.25)
= chainage of
Chainage of T2 = chainage
Level of
= chainage of
x.
+ x
lp
(12.26)
200
(12.27)
200
Levels on the curve (Fig. 12.11)
A/
.
r^~
jp<^
r
vî
r~ter~~
-<7%
!c
Summit
BC = tox-ax 2
(a)
(b)
Valley
BiCy
Fig. 12.11
Levels on the curve
=-bx*ax 2
618
Levels on the tangent
A =
at
level of T, + bx
(12.28)
where b = p/100.
Difference in level between tangent and curve
Levels on the curve
at
B =
ax 2 (12.29)
level of tangent + difference

in level
T,
between curve and tangent
AC
AB
(12.30)
Check on computation
(a)
Tangent level
obtained by successive addition of the dif-
is
ference in level per station.

(b)
Successive curve levels should check back to the level obtain-
ed by the spot level derived from y = + ax 2 bx

(c) The final value of the check on T will prove that the tangent
2
levels have been correctly computed, though the curve levels may not
necessarily be correct.
shape of the curve, the values of a and b

must be in some way obtained,
p and q will always be known.
In order to define the
in the formula
p/100
Either l,s or a must be given, and
if
the value of s is required,
the height of the
vehicle (h) must be known. For general purposes

this is taken as 3*75 ft, and Ministry of Transport Memoranda on recom-
mended
visibility distances are periodically published.
Example
12.3.
line of levels
If
rate of
As
part of a dual
were taken
at
highway reconstruction scheme, a
given points on the existing surface.
Reduced level
Chainage
104-63
109-13
20 + 75
22 + 25
C
D
107-29
25 + 50
103-79
27 + 25
the curve, based on a simple parabola, is designed to give a

change of gradient of 0-6% per 100 ft, calculate:
(a) the length of the
(b)
curve
/,
the chainage and level of the intersection point,
(c) the
chainage and level of the tangent points,
(d) the level of the first three
stations 100
(e)
driver 3
ft
chainage points on the curve
(i.e.
apart based on through chainage),
the length of the line of sight s to a similar vehicle of a

ft 9 in. above the road surface.
(N.B. s < /)
619
104-63
109-13
107-29
2075
2225
2550
103-79 levels
2725 chainage
Fig. 12. 12
Gradient
(a)
AB
= (109-13 - 104-63)
in (2225
- 2075)
= 4-50 ft in 150 ft
i.e.
CD =
+3%
(107-29 - 103-79) in (1725 - 2550)
= 3-50 ft in 175 ft
i.e.
By
(b)
Eq. (12.6),
-2%
Length of curve = 100(3 +
2)
= 333.33 ft
0-6
By Eqs. (12.22/23),
Level of
109-13 +
100
325 ~*)
107-29 + 2 (
100
Solving for x,
325 - x
= 93-20 ft
=
231 -80
ft
3 x 93 2
'
Level of
109-13 +
111-93
100
also
107-29 +
2_*-?31 = 111-93
{check)
100
Chainage of
B+
Chainage of
(22 + 25) + 93-20
23 + 18-20
(c)By Eqs. (12.24/25),

Chainage of
T,
Chainage of T2
"
2318-20 - 1/2
2318-20 - 416-67
1901-53
ft
2318-20 + 416-67
2734-87
ft
620
By Eqs.
(12.26/27),
Level of
99-43
ft
103-60
ft
200
Level of T 2
(d) Setting-out
3 x 833 ' 33
111-93 -
T,
111-93 -
2 x * 33 ' 33
200
data
ax
u
Point Chainage Length (x) Tangent Level
Formation
(0-3xlO-V)
T,
2-955
+
2000-0
102-385
98-5
105-385
198-5
(e)
108-385
298-5
102-09
-1-181
104-20
-2-675
105-71
3-000
+
2200-0
-0-291
3-000
+
2100-0
Level
99-43
99-43
1901-5
Line of sight (s)
,._o/>i
Fig. 12 13
In Fig. 12.13,
h2
but
adf
a dz
d2
d,
h,
hz
IEL
Va
M
V
V7 +
+ d2
a
'V
0-3 x 10"
IK = 200 A /S?
'V
^0-3
707
ft
Example 12.4.
A 6% downgrade on a proposed road is followed by a
1% upgrade. The chainage and reduced level of the intersection point
of the grades is 2010
ft
and 58-62
curve, not less than 250
ft
ft
respectively.
vertical parabolic
long, is to be designed to connect the
two
grades. Its actual length is to be determined by the fact that at chain-
age 2180
ft, the reduced level on the curve is to be 61-61

adequate headroom under the bridge at that point.
ft
to provide
621
Calculate the required length of the curve and also the chainage
and reduced level of
its
(R.I.C.S.)
lowest point.
Fig. 12.14
In Fig. 12.14,
let
-I
170ft
2
level at
tangent level at
= 58*62
Y = 58*62 -
(170 x 0*06)
= 58-62 - 10*20 = 48-42 ft
X
XY
curve level at
.-.
Thus,
ax
i.e.
Also,
200/
ft
13* 19
ft
13*19
13* 19
a =
al
a = P +
= 61*61
= -EL + JL =
200
200
JL(p +q)
200^ Hf
-J
200/
13-19
Thus
200/
7x'<
200 x 13*19
x -
Thus
7x'
7x z
2638
170
5276
7x2 - 5276 x
i.e.
Solving for
170 x 5276
x,
+ 5276 V15276
- 4 x 7 x 170 x 5276
14
5276 1649*9
14
494 7
.
or
259 Q
.
ft
622
i.e.
324-7
or
89-0
ft
2
/
650
(length must not b
ft
250
To
find the
ft)
minimum height on the curve,
z
aX - bX
(p
dH _
dX
2(p + q)
pX
100
p
_iL
100
200/
pi
.-.
+ q) X
200/
p + q
6 x 650
Chainage of minimum height
Level
557-1
2010 + 557-1 -
2242-1
ft
ft
minimum height:
at
Level at
7,
= 58- 62 + 0-06 x (325) = 78- 12 ft
Level of tangent = 78*12 - 0-06 x (557- 1) = 44*70
aX 2 =
Level on curve
Example
12.5.
On
L*
200
i2
55
!'i =
x 650
16-71
44-70 + 16-71
61-41
ft
ft
the application of the cubic parabola for valley
curves.
valley curve of length 400
ft is to be introduced into a road to

descending gradient of 1 in 30 and an ascending gradient of 1 in
25. It is composed of two cubic parabolas, symmetrical about the bisector of the angle of intersection of the two straights produced.
The chainage of the P.I. of the straights is 265 + 87 ft, and its re-
link a
duced level 115-36
ft.
Calculate:
(i)
The reduced levels
of the beginning, the mid-point and the
of the curve.
(ii)
The chainage and reduced level
of the lowest point of the
curve.
(iii)
The reduced
level at chainage 267 + 00
ft.
end
623
length
for the cubic parabola relating to the curve of total
(The formula
and terminal radius R
is
_*_]
6RL/
y =
(N.U.)
263+87
Fig. 12. 15
From the gradients, Fig.
12.15,
0,
= cot
0, =
<f>
From the equation,
and
if
L =
x =
I,
(i)
As
.*.
(ii)
y =
dy
il
dx
6RL
400/2, then
40000
6R
_1
cot
154'33"
30 =
25 = 215'27"
= |[180-
(0,
= 8755'00"
6KL
cot<
K =
100 tan<
=
At
_,
100 x 27-49 =
2749 ft
- 2-43
6 x 2749
the gradients are small, the values of y are
Level of curve at the mid point = 115*36 +
assumed vertical.
= 117*79 ft
2* 43
Level at
T,
115*36 +
115-36 + 6*67 =
122*03
ft
Level
T2 = 115*36 +
115*36 + 8-00 -
123*36
ft
at
Level
at the
lowest point
(relative to T,)
dL = -_L + _*_ =
30
dx
30
191
30
ft
2 x 2749 x 200
30
from I,
6RL
(for
2/?L
2RL
x
min value)
624

The chainage
of the lowest point
Level of
chainage of
(263 + 87) + (1 + 91)
At chainage 267 +00,
Level
.'.
at
265 + 78
-+
122-03
i.e.
ft
6 x 2749 x 200
87ft from T2
87
2i
6 x 2749 x 200
+ x
-6-37 + 2-11 + 122-03 =
T,
30
(iii)
267 + 00
117-77
ft
0-199
123-36 - -^ + 0-20
25
120-08
ft,
i.e.
0-20
ft
ft
Exercises 12(a)
An
1.
uphill gradient of 1 in 100 meets a downhill gradient of 0*45

where the chainage is 61+00 and the reduced level
in 100 at a point
126 ft. If the rate of change of gradient is to be 0*18 % per 100

prepare a table for setting out a vertical curve at intervals of 100
is
(I.C.E.
Ans.
121-97,
ft,
ft.
122-88,
123-61,
124-16, 124-53,
124-72,
124-73,
124-56,
124-19)
2. (a) A rising gradient of 1 vertically to 200 horizontally, is to be

joined by a rising gradient of 1 in 400 by a 400 ft long parabolic curve.
If the two gradients meet at a level of 365-00 ft A.O.D., tabulate the
levels on the curve at 50
ft
intervals.
Recalculate on the basis that the
(b)
first gradient is falling and

the second likewise falling in the same direction.
(L.U.
Ans. 364-00, 364-24, 364-47, 364-68, 364-87,

366-00,
3.
365-05,
365-22,
365-37,
365-76,
365-53,
365-32,
365-13,
364-95,
364-78, 364-63,
364-50)
365-50;
rising gradient, g,, is followed by another rising gradient

g2
These gradients are connected by a vertical curve
(g2 less than g,).
having a constant rate of change of gradient. Show that

on the curve, the height y above the first tangent point
y
from
g\X -
^ gl
and
?f
at
any point
is given
by
where x is the horizontal distance of the point
is the horizontal distance
between the tangent points.
g,
Draw up a table of heights above A for 100 ft pegs from A, when

= +5%, g2 = +2% and L = 1000 ft. At what horizontal distance from
is the gradient
+3%?
625

Ans. 4-85, 9-40, 13-65,
(I.C.E.
4.
17-60, 21-25, 24-60, 27-65,

30-40, 32-85, 35-00, 667 ft)
rising gradient of 1 in 100 meets a falling gradient of 1 in 150
at a level of 210*00.
Allowing for headroom and working thickness,
the vertical parabolic curve joining the two straights is to be at a level

of 208-00 at its midpoint.
Determine the length of the curve and the levels at 100
ft
intervals
from the first tangent point.
(L.U. Ans. 960 ft;

208-00, 208-03,
5.
On
200-40,
208-07,
a straight portion of a
new
206-11,
206-85,
207-42,
207-81,
207-94,
207-63,
207-15,
206-80)
road, an upward gradient of 1 in 100
by a vertical parabolic summit

ft on the first
curve of length 500 ft.
45-12
ft,
and at point Q,
of
reduced
level
have
found
to
a
gradient, was
at chainage 60000 ft on the second gradient, of 44*95 ft.
(a) Find the chainages and reduced levels of the tangent points
was connected
to a gradient of 1 in 150
point P, at chainage 59 100
to the curve.
(b)
Tabulate the reduced levels of the points on the curve at inter-
vals of 100
from
ft
at its
highest point.
Find the minimum sighting distance to the road surface for each of
the following cases:
(c) the driver of
a car whose eye is 4
ft
above the surface of the
road.
(d) the driver of
a lorry for
whom
the similar distance is 6
ft.
(Take the sighting distance as the length of the tangent from the
driver's eye to the road surface.)
Ans. (a) 59 200,
(L.U.
(b) 46-12,
(c)
6.
46-12,
46-95,
47-45,
46-94.
605
(d)
ft
845
59 700, 46*94
47-62 (highest point)
47-45,
ft
rising gradient of 1 in 500 meets another rising gradient of 1 in
and a second gradient 600 ft long then meets

a falling gradient of 1 in 600. The gradients are to be joined by two
transition curves, each 400 ft long.
Calculate the levels on the curves at 100 ft intervals.
400
at a level of
(L.U.
264-40
ft,
Ans. 264-00, 264-21, 264*42, 264-65, 264-90,
265-15,
265*69,
265-58)
265-40,
265*61,
265-70,
4% meets a rising gradient of 5% at chainage

and level 216-42 ft.
At chainage 2350, the underside of a bridge has a level of 235-54
The two gradients are to be joined by a vertical parabolic curve
ft.
giving 14 ft clearance under the bridge. List the levels at 50 ft inter-
7.
2450-0
falling gradient of
ft
vals along the curve.
626
(L.U.
The surface
8.
222-70,
Ans. 224-42,
221-54,
220-95,
220-92,
221-45,
222-54,
224-20,
226-42)
of a length of a propsed road of a rising gradient of
by a falling gradient of 4% with the two gradients joined

by a vertical parabolic summit curve 400 ft long. The two gradients
produced meet at a reduced level of 95*00 ft O.D.
2%
is followed
Compute the reduced level of the curve
at the ends, at
100
inter-
ft
vals, and at the highest point.
What
is the
minimum distance
at
which a driver whose eye
is 3 ft
9 in. above the road surface would be unable to see an obstruction 4
inches high
(I.C.E.
Ans. 91-00,
90*25, 87*00 ft A.O.D.

highest point 92-33 ft AOD
92-00,
92*25,
sight distance 290
An
9.
existing length of road consists of a rising gradient of 1 in 20,
followed by a vertical parabolic summit curve 300

falling gradient of 1 in 40.
ially
ft)
The curve
ft
long, and then a
joins both gradients tangent-
and the reduced level of the highest point on the curve
is
173*07 ft above datum.

Visibility is to be improved over the stretch of road by replacing
600 ft long.
Find the depth of excavation required at the midpoint of the curve.
Tabulate the reduced levels of points at 100 ft intervals on the new
this curve with another parabolic curve
curve.
What will be the minimum visibility on the new curve for a driver
are 4*0 ft above the road surface?
(I.C.E. Ans. 2*81 ft; 160-57, 164-95, 168-08, 169-95, 170-61,
169-99, 168*07 ft A.O.D.
minimum visibility 253 ft)
whose eyes
10
vertical curve 400
ft
long of the parabolic type is to join a fall1 in 300. If the level of
ing gradient of 1 in 200 to a rising gradient of
the intersection of the two gradients is 101*20

ft
ft,
give the levels at 50
intervals along the curve.
If the headlamp of a car was 1*25 ft above the road surface, at what
distance will the beam strike the road surface when the car is at the
start of the curve ? Assume that the beam is horizontal when the car is
on a level surface.
(L.U. Ans. 102-20, 101-98, 101-80, 101-68, 101-62, 101-60,
101-64,
vertical parabolic curve 500
101*72,
101*86;
347ft)
long connects an upward gradient

of 1 in 100 to a downward gradient of 1 in 50. If the tangent point T,
between the first gradient and the curve is taken as datum, calculate
11.
ft
the levels of points at intervals of 100
ft
along the curve, until
it
meets
627
the second gradient at Tz

Calculate also the level of the summit giving the horizontal dis.
tance of this point from T,.

T, and T2 at
If an object 3 in. high is lying on the road between
of T,, calcudirection
the
from
approaching
car
is
and
a
from
T
10 ft
2
object, if his
the
first
sees
driver
the
when
car
of
the
position
the
late
ft above the road surface.
(L.U. Ans. 0-70, 0-80, 0*30,
eyes are 4
-0*80, -2-50, 0'84, 166-67 ft

33-6 ft from T,)
parabolic vertical curve of length L is formed at a summit

between an uphill gradient of a% and a downhill gradient of b%.
As part of a road improvement, the uphill gradient is reduced to c %
12.
and the downhill gradient increased to d%, but as much as possible of

the original curve is retained.
Show that the length of the new vertical curve is
L x
+ d)
+ b)
(c
(a
13.
L ft
are
(L.U.)
The algebraic difference in the gradient of a sag vertical curve

The headlamps of a car travelling along this curve
2*5 ft above the road surface and their beams tilt upwards at an
long is a ft/ ft.
angle of 1 above the longitudinal axis of the car.

Show that if s, the sight distance in feet, is less than L, then,
L =
(L.U.)
5 + 0-035 s
12.6
12.61
Superelevation
Transition Curves
(0)
vehicle of weight W (lbf) or (kgf) on a curve of radius r (ft) or

(m), is travelling at a velocity v (ft/s) or (m/s) or V (mile/h). Fig.
2
12.16 shows the centrifugal force Wv /gr which must be resisted by
either (a) the rails in the case of a railway train, or (b) adhesion be-
tween the road and the vehicle's tyres, unless superelevation
is applied,
when the forces along the plane are equalised.
Then
Wv 2 cosfl
Wsind
(12.31)
gr
i.e.
If
tan0
= Z_
(12.32)
gr
6 is small,
rad
Z_ (known
8r
as the centripetal
ratio)
(12.33)
628
W sin
an
cos 6
Fig. 12.16
12.62
Cant
If
(c)
is the
width of the track, then the cant c is given as

c
dsind
(12.34)
dv2 COS0
(12.35)
gr
~ ^l!
(if
e is small)
(12.36)
gr
N.B. c
oc
v2
oc
1/r
On railways c
On roads tantf
12.63
is usually limited to 6 in. with a 4 ft 8y2in. gauge.

is usually limited to O'l.
Minimum curvature
for standard velocity
Without superelevation on roads, side slip will occur if the side

thrust is greater than the adhesion, i.e. if Wv z/gr > /j,W, where jjl ~
the coefficient of adhesion, usually taken as 0'25.
Thus the
If
limiting radius
the velocity
Z_
(12.37)
is given in mile/h,
ft
15
(12.38)
629

12.64
Length of transition
Various criteria are suggested:

(1)
(2)
An arbitrary length
The total length of
of say 200
ft.
the curve divided into 3 equal parts, 1/3
each transition; 1/3 circular.

(3)
An
arbitrary gradient of 1 in. in sft, e.g.
lin. in 25
ft
-the
steepest gradient recommended for railways.

(4)
At a limited rate of change of radial acceleration (W.H. Short,

3
1 ft/s as a suitable value for passenger comfort.)
1908, fixed
(5)
At an arbitrary time rate
N.B. (4)
12.65
The
is the
to 2 in per second.
i.e. 1
most widely adopted.
Radial acceleration
radial acceleration increases from zero at the start of the
transition to v 2/r at the join with the circular curve.
The time taken

.".
where
= the length of
transition.
the rate of gain of radial acceleration
'
r
,3
- 1- ft/s 3
(12.39)
rl
Thus the length
of the curve
is given as
21.
(12.40)
ar
If
a is limited to
1 ft/s 3
then
ll
(12.41)
(ft)
3-155 V
On sharp
(ft)
(12.42)
radius curves, the value of a would be too great, so the
superelevation
From Eq.
is limited
and the speed must be reduced.
(12.32),
_
z
tan
gr
then
but
v
1
= y/(g.r
=
1ar
tan<9)
(12.43)
630
(stan<9)
3/2
(12.44)
i.e.
when c
is limited,
oc \Jr.
For railways with a maximum superelevation of 6

6
Acft
sinfl
5 47'
tan#
0-1013.
a = Ift/s 3
be:
VC 32 ^ x 0-1013
1-806 Vr
2y/r
ft/s
(2V/ r)
=
and
(12.47)
Sy/r
are given in Guntei chains,

r
8V(66r)
66/
/
chains
(12.48)
The Ideal Transition Curve
12.7
If
(12.45)
(12.46)
r)
ft/s
If
0-1008
=
SVi in.
Thus the maximum speed should
If
''
in.,
F = Wv 2 /gr is to increase at a constant

must vary with time and therefore, if the speed is constant,
the centrifugal force
rate, it
with distance.
i.e.
oc
oc
gr
I
oc
i.e.
rl
= constant '=
where R = the radius of the circular curves
L =
the total length of the transition.
In Fig. 12.17,
81
rS<
d<f>
-dl
r
but
rl
RL
dcf>
-j-dl
k
Integrating,
2
,
2k
constant k
RL
The ideal
Fig. 12. 17
but
</>
where
631
transition curve
when
r
2RL
WV0
(12.49)
(12.50)
= y/2RL
This is the intrinsic equation of the clothoid, to which the cubic

parabola and lemniscate are approximations often adopted when the
deviation angle is small, Fig. 12.18.
(a) Clothoid
(b)
(c)
Lemniscate
Cubic parabola
"o
Fig. 12. 18
(a) Clothoid
My/</>
c 2 = a 2 sin 20
(b)
Lemniscate
(c)
Cubic parabola
y =
x3
6RX
(y =
6RL
cubic spiral
I
632
The Clothoid
12.8
= V(2/?L)V0
- l z/2RL
where R = the minimum radius
As
the variable angle
(i.e. the radius of the circular curve).
cannot be measured from one position,
<f>
it
is difficult to set out in this form.
Clothoid
Fig. 12. 19
12.81
To
find Cartesian co-ordinates
dx
cos
(12.51)
2!
dl
'
2!
Integrating,
4!
(2RL)
_
Y 5x2!(2
*'
+
4!
i
For <max
(2RL)
^
5x2!
(12.52)
(2KL)
9x4!(2RL) 4
'
+__
(12.53)
(12.54)
9x4!
= L
then
40K
(12.55)
Similarly,
=.
sin
$ - -$- +
<f>
dl
(12.56)
5!
3!
,0
2RL
3!(2KL)
5!(2KL)
(12.57)
Integrating,
,0
7x3!(2RL) 3
3(2RL)
llx5\(2RLf
(12.58)
iTi _
1.3
_*!_
<f>
7x3!
+ _5^!
11x5!
1
J
(12.59)

For
< ma3t ,
6R
The
12.82
= X. =
+ _! +
105
a = tana -
but
(12.60)
56R 2
tangential angle
Tana
-|tan
(12.61)
a + Itan 5a
(12.62)
By
633
substitution,
- Ml
a =
i.e.
&
a =
(12.63)
2835
- k
(a rapidly decreasing
(12.64)
quantity)
Thus,
if < 6, no correction is required; and

< 20 no correction > 20" is required.
12.83
The
Amount of
shift (s)
shift is the
tangent, i.e.
if
displacement of the circular curve from the
DF, Fig. 12.20.
F G
ByEq.(12.59),
PH
BF
Amount of
Fig. 12. 20
= y =
shift
l\^-
+
3
7x3!
L
DF
BF
BD
...1
= y - fl(l- cos<)
(12.66)
Expanding cos^ and putting
max =
DF
24R
*
R. B.M.Jenkins, Curve Surveying (Macmillan).
(12.67)
(12.68)
634
The
12.9
Bernouilli Lemniscate
Polar equation c 2 = a 2 sin 2a

Identical to clothoid for deviation angles up to 60 (radius de-
creases up to 135), Fig. 12.21,

c is maximum = a when
a = 45
*1
*\\r=r
>l
L
31
J^^y
e
^gs^ 0-V
A.
\135
r,
Principles of the Bernouilli lemniscate
Fig. 12.21
2c
2
2c gives
If
$ = angle T
PQ
c2
a 2 sin 2a
2a 2 cos 2a
da
(12.69)
2
2a cos 2a
2
2a sin 2a
1
- dc
c da
and P, and
P2
cot0
cot 2a
are 2 neighbouring points,
P2 lw
(P2 MP, =90)
5c
c8a
i.e.
Iff
c
cot0
da
= 2a
:.
<f>
+ a = 3a
as shown in the clothoid and the cubic parabola.
(12.70)

p,p2 -
P2 M
635
c8a
sin 6
sin
6*
cSa
sin 2a
.
dl
da
sin 2a
c 2 /a 2
Now
d/
^^\^r
c^-
See
^s^
= 3rda
rd<
da
>^*
Fig. 12.22
Thus
i.e.,
\Sr^
^jjz^r^
\
c
from Eq. (12.69)
a2
==
3rc
c2
==
3Rc sin 2a
(12.71)
if
the lemniscate
approximates to the
circle radius
BF
3/? sin
2a
R
(12.72)
In Fig. 12.21
OF
OB
cos
cos0 +
+ c sin a
<f>
3r sin
sin 2a
= r[cos3a + 3 sin a sin 2a]
T,F =
12.91
T,N -
(12.73)
FN
c cos
a -
3r sin
2a cos a -
r[3 sin
sin
2a cos a -
sin 3a
sin 3a]
(12.74)
Setting out using the lemniscate
Using Eq. (12.72),
Shift
sin 2a
3R
DF
OF
R [cos 3a +
/?[cos3a + 3 sin a sin 2a -
Equal values of
OD
3 sin a sin 2a] -
R
1]
where a =
(12.75)
enable values of c to be computed, or equal chords
c, 2c, 3c, etc.
sin 2a
JL
3R
(12.76)
636
If
a"
206265c
6R
(12.77)
<W
^f^
(12.78)
is small,
(The same value as with the cubic spiral)

For offset values,
If
c sin
(12.79)
c cos
(12.80)
the chord lengths are required between adjacent points on the
curve, the length of the chord
This
is
+y 2 )
(12.81)
The cubic parabola
12.10
simplicity.
y/{x 2
probably the most widely used in practice because of its

is almost identical with the clothoid and lemniscate for
It
The radius of curvature reaches a miniangles of 24 06' and then increases. It is therefore
deviation angles up to 12.
mum
for deviation
not acceptable beyond this point.

.3
Let
= A_
(12.82)
dy
3x 2
dx
d y
dx 2
By
(12.83)
6x
k
(12.84)
the calculus the curvature (p) is given as
d y/dx
il
(12.85)
3/2
+
\dx)
If
<f>
is small,
dy/dx
is
jl_
small and (dy/dx)
d y
dx 2
_ 6x
~ ~k~
6rx
7
k
6RX
is neglected.
(12.86)
at the end of
Equation of the cubic parabola

y
If
the deviation angle
<f>
(12.87)
e curve
-^-
(12.88)
6RX
is small,
/,
o-
L.
Equation of the cubic spiral

y
<
(1289)

N.B. This
term in the clothoid series.
is the first
cf>
637
dy
tan<
3x
a ^ tana _ y _
as in the
first
(12.90)
2RX
(12.91)
6RX
6RX
dx
.\
(12.92)
3^
term of the clothoid series.
In Fig. 12.21,
PB
i.e.
/?
sin <
/?<
X/2
(12.93)
the shift bisects the length.
DB
DF
Shift
R(l-cos<f>)
y-/?(l-cos<)
(12.94)
(12.95)
X - 2R
on
6RX
_:_,
sin*
'
2R<f>
6/?
6/?
8/?
24R
(12.96)
24/?
the first term in the Clothoid series
As E
is
on transition and
TF
FH
%'
EF
6RX
2
X
= kx,
X3
48/?X
\DF
(12.97)
48/?
i.e.
the transition bisects the shift.
12.11
The
The
Insertion of Transition Curves
insertion of transition curves into the existing alignment of
straights is done by one of the following alternatives.

(1)
The radius
amount of
'shift',
of the existing circular curve is reduced by the
Fig. 12.23.
/?,
The centre
- R2 =
shift (5)
is retained.
= -L_
24/?
T'T
1 *
1
a>
if
21-,
638
Fig. 12.23
are retained and the tangents

(2) The radius and centre
moved outwards to allow transition, Fig. 12.24.
(N.B. Part of the original curve is retained.)

/,/ 2
=
=
0I2 - 0/,
R+S
cos
2
COS
cos
Fig. 12.24
are
639

radius of the curve is retained, but the centre
from the intersection point, Fig. 12.25.
(3)
away
The
o,o2
is
moved
shift
cos
Fig. 12.25
(4) Tangent, radius and part of the existing curve are retained, but
a compound circular curve is introduced to allow shift, Fig. 12.26.
Fig. 12.26
(5)
A combination
of any of these forms.
640

Setting-out Processes
12.12
Location of tangent points (Fig. 12.27)
TyP,
Transition curve
PiPa
Circular curve
%Ti
Transition curve
Fig. 12.27 Setting-out processes
By Eq. (12.96),
FD
shift (s)
L
24R
FI
= (R +
FT ^
Tangent length I,/
s) tan
iA
H
T2 I =
^L +
(/?
s) tan
5A
(12.98)
Setting out (Fig. 12.27)
Produce straights (if possible) to meet at /. Measure A.

Measure
tangent lengths /T, = IT2 to locate T, and T 2
(2)
Two methods are possible, (a) by
(3) Set out transition from T,
offsets from the tangent, (b) by tangential angles. For either method,
(1)
accuracy is reduced when

/
Method
(b) is
> 0-4R
i.e.
<f>
> 12
more accurate, even assuming chord = arc.

(4) Offsets
From Eq.
641
from the tangent (Fig. 12.28)
(12.88),
~3
IX
y,
X2
6RL
X
<
then y 2
2 y,
y3
3 y,
Xg
ox
8y,
27y,
Fig. 12.28 Offsets from the tangent
(5)
Tangential angles
(Fig. 12.29)
Fig. 12.29 Deflection angles from the tangent
From Eq. (12.89)
tana
6RL
If
is small,
then
2
a = 206 265 x
(12.99)
6RL
if
206 265 c 2
6RL
For a"max
a'
OL_
= 206 265 c
573 c 2 /RL
(12.100)
(12.101)
c^
L
6R
a'
= 573 c/R
(12.102)
642
0m* = 3a m = 206 265c/2K
(12.103)
m = 1719 c/R
(12.104)
<f>'
Check on
(6)
P, (Join of transition to circular curve)
Move theodolite
(7)
N2 P2
N,P,
(12.105)
to P,.
Set out circular curve by offsets or deflection angles from the tan-
gent
N.B.
QPZ.
Angle T,P,Q, = 6 = 2a =
ZP,P2 =
Checfc
= |
/8
P,P2 = 2R
Check
N2 P2
(8)
Move theodolite
P2
as in
(12.106)
(12.107)
<
sinjS
= N,P,
to
A -
0 m
T2 and
(12.108)
Eq. (12.105)
set out the transition backwards towards
(3).
N.B. The use of metric units does not make any difference to the solution, providing
these are compatible,
i.e.
v - m/s
and
R - m
a - ft/s 3 converted to m/s 3

(e.g. lft/s 3
= 0-305 m/s 3 )
Example 12.6.
circular curve of 2000 ft radius deflects through an

This curve is to be replaced by one of smaller radius
so as to admit transitions 350 ft long at each end. The deviation of the
new curve from the old at their midpoint is 1*5 ft towards the intersect
angle of 40
30'.
tion point.
Determine the amended radius assuming the shift can be calculated

with sufficient accuracy on the old radius. Calculate the length of the
track to be lifted and the new track to be laid.
(L.U.)
By
(12.94)
Shift ,,
JL . ^|5l_..
Tangent length of circular curve

In triangle 0,/T,
new value
(7J
/)
2 . 55
ft .
= 2000 tan4030^- = 737*84
ftl .
-JSSJL-,
X,/ =
2131*8 - 2000 = 131 -8
XJ
. 2131 8ft
131*8 - 1*5 =
130*3
ft
ft
ft.
643
Not to scale
A - 40* 30'
In triangle
OJF
i.e.
R+
130-3
K+
2-55
By
(12.103)
= (R + 130-3)0-93819
Trim5
R =
*-
= 0*93 819
= cos 20 15'
= 3a =
i2*Lift
206265x350 = 1fi ,, Q
18639
2 x 1936-5
= 5 10' 39"
By
(12.107)
iA
< max
= 20 15' - 5 10' 39"
To
find length of track to be lifted (T,
= 15
04' 21"
T2 )
Length of circular curve = 2000 x 4030'rad = 1413-72 ft
T3
Tangent length
new
shift
(R + s)tany
2000
' S * 1936-5
'
T3
42 +
2-SSx,^
1936*5
= 2-64
= 175*0 + (1936-5 + 2*64) tan 20 15'

= 175-0 + 715-39 = 890-39 ft
but
.-.
= 737-84
7;/
TJ
ft
= 152-55 ft
therefore total length of track to be lifted
= length of arc + 2 x
T,
T3
= 1413-72 + 305-10 = 1718-8
ft
644
To find
the length of track to be laid
= 2 x transition curve (T
3
fj )
+ circular arc
(f|
Pz )
= 2 x 350 + 2 x 1936-5/3
= 700 + 3873-0 x 0*26306
= 700 + 1018-83
= 1718-8
12.13 Transition Curves Applied to

In this case, the transition would
(i.e. at T, and T (Fig. 12.31)
ft.
Compound Curves
be applied at the entry and exit
The amount of superelevation cannot be designed to

conform to
both circular arcs and the design speed must
relate to the smaller radius.
Fig. 12.31
Transition curves applied to compound curves
If the two curves are to be connected by a transition curve of
length
/,
the shortest distance c
(Fig. 12.32)
lar
between the two circu-
curves is given by Glover* as

c
'^(w,~w)
The
L,
^--
(12109 >
length of the transition
bisected at Q by this shift

c and the shift is bisected by the
is
transition.
Transition curves
Fig. 12.32
for railways, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Vol. 140.

If
duced
transitions are applied to reverse curves, the radii must be reto
allow the transition curves to be introduced, Fig. 12.33.
Fig. 12.33
/,/ 2
If
/,T2 +
(R, +s,)
L =
Transitions applied to reverse curves
TZ I2
tanA, + L, + \L 2 + (R 2 +
A 2
(12.110)
chains
(12.111)
s2 ) tan
yJR (based on Gunter chains),
Shift s,
'
645
A/2
(*?,
^)
s2
L2
24R
24/?
tan |A, +
yR,
24
+ \y/R 2 + (R2 +
^)
tan \
A2
(12.112)
If
R, =
R2
then
Uh
(/?
+ 2^)(tan|A,+tan|A 2 ) + y/R
This may be solved as a quadratic in
(12.113)
^R
Two railway lines have straights which are deflected

Example 12.7.
through 70. The circular radius is to be 1500 feet with a maximum
superelevation of 5 in. The gradient of the line is to be 1 in. in 1 chain
(Gunter)
Calculate the distance from the beginning of the transition to the

intersection point (i.e. tangent length), the lengths of the separate
portions of the curve and sufficient data for setting out the curve by
646
offsets from the tangent and by the method of tangential angles.
Fig. 12.34
Gradient is
1 in. in
66
therefore for the total superelevation
ft,
66
ft
Shift
24R
is 5in.
ft
24 x 1500
3-03
T.I
330
330
it
ft
1503-03 tan 35 +
M
2
=
tan"
<*.
1217-43
A-
ft
tan"
2R
j8
= 35- 6
Length of circular curve
Offsets from tangents
-^
6 16' 37"
3000
16' 37" .=
28 43' 23"
1500 x 5726'46;'ad =
ft
6RL
Let the curve be subdivided into 5 equal parts.

66
1503*93
(1
0-096 8
0-77
ft
0-0968 x 3
2-61
ft
0-0968 x 4
6-19
ft
y^
y2
0-0968 x 2
y3
y4
6 x 1500 x 330
ft
chain each.)
647

= 0-0968 x 5
y_
12*10
ft
Tangential angles, based on 1 chain chords.

a,
2
206 265 c
206 265 x 66'
6x1500x330
6RL
3025"
(05' 03")
a2 =
4a,
1210"
20' 10"
a,
9a,
2722-5"
45' 23"
16a,
4840"
80' 40"
25a,
7562-5
= 126 '03"
3^
2 05' 32"
= 125' 32"
a.
31"
error
An existing circular curve of 1500 ft radius is to be

Example 12.8.
improved by sharpening the ends to 1300 ft radius and inserting a transition curve 400 ft long at each straight.
Using the cubic parabola type, calculate:
(a) the length of curve to be
(b) the
movement
taken up,
of the tangent points,
(c) the offsets for the quarter points of the transition curves.
(L.U.)
y\2od
"^ -^^
02
*^\\
\l300'
^w
-_
>*
~--
Fig. 12.35
This
is
Case
(4) in Section 12.11.
In Fig. 12.35,
PN
= y
6R
400'
1300
20-51
ft
648
m = tan-'i^
cf>
2R
400
Z^y
tan-'
Lelll
'
848'
2 x 1300
:
In triangle
BP,
B = 1300cos848' = 1284-66 ft
BP = FN = 1300 sin 8 48' = 198*90 ft
2
0,V
In triangle
-WV=
- WT,
OJi - PN -
0,7,
1500 - 20-51 - 1284-66
194-83
ft
0,0 2 V
194 83
200-0
'
cos"
13 05'
V0 2 - 200sinl305' =45-28
ft
(a)
Length of curve taken up = 1500 x 1305; ad = 342-5
(b)
Movement
of the tangent points, i.e. distance
FN
T2 F = 198-90 ft
T F = V0 2 = 45-28
T T2
y
ft.
ft
T,T 2
i.e.
along straight from
T2 F - T F = 153-62 ft
X
T,
(c) Offsets to transition:

3
v
i
y2
y3
y4
Example 12.9.
I
r
6RL
100
0-320 5
ft
0-32
ft
6 x 1300 x 400
3
2 y,
8y,
2-56
ft
27y,
= 8-66
ft
64y,
= 20*51
ft
3 y,
3
4 y,
AB,
BC
and
CD
BC
is
left
from BC. Find the radius
40 Gunter chains.
BC
are three straights.

deflects 60 right from
r
for
with transition curves of length y/r
check
The length
AB
and
of
CD
45
two equal circular curves, each

at both ends to connect AB and
CD. BC is to be the common tangent without intermediate

Find also the total length of curve.
straight.
(L.U.)
649
By Eq. (12.112),
40-0
+2^) (tan 30 +
tan 22 30') +
(r
(r+ 2^-)(0-5774+ 0-414 2) +

0-991 6r +
i.e.
- 39-96
y/r
Solving this quadratic equation in yV,
1=1V
5-864 chains
34-39 chains
/8,
i.e. let
r,
2 x 0-9916
206
2R
yjr
-1 V(l + 4 x 0-9916x39-96)
206 265 L
9max
265^
103132 x 5-864
68-78
2r
30 - 2 26' 33"
8793"
2 26' 33"
27 33' 27"
"
Length of circular
ft,
arc,
22 30' - 2 26 33"
'
2 x 34-39 x 27 33' 27r ad
68-78 x 0-48096
19 33' 27"
A2 =
=
Total length
33-08 ch
2 x 34-39 x 19 33' 27"
68-78 x 0-34133
23-48 ch
A z + 2L
A, +
33-08 + 23-48 + 11*73
68-29 chains
Exercises 12(b)
14.
road curve of 2000
ft
radius is to be connected to two straights
curves of the cubic parabola type at each end.

The maximum speed on this part of the road is to be 70 mile/h and the
3
The angle of intersecrate of change of radial acceleration is 1 ft/s
by means
of transition
two straights
5872-84 ft.
tion of the
point is
is
50 and the chainage of the intersection
Calculate:
(a) the length of
each transition curve,
(b) the shift of the circular arc,

(c) the
chainage
at the
beginning and the end of the composite
curve,
(d) the
value of the
first
two deflection angles
for setting out the
650
two pegs of the transition curve from the
first
suming that the pegs are set out at 50

(I.C.E.
ft
first
tangent point as-
intervals.
Ans. (a) 542-1 ft (b) 6-10 ft

(c) 4666-33 ft; 6955-93
(d) 44", 3' 39")
ft
15.
Two tangents which intersect at an angle of 41 40' are to be
connected by a circular curve of 3000 ft radius with a transition curve
at each end. The chainage of the intersection point is 2784 + 26. The
transition curves are to be of the cubic parabolic type, designed for a
maximum speed of 60 mile/h and a rate of change of radial acceleration
is
not to exceed 1 ft/s 3
Find the chainage of the beginning and end of the first transition
curve and draw up a table of deflection angles for setting out the curve
in 50 ft chord lengths, chainage running continuously through the tangent point
(I.C.E. Ans. 2771 + 70-5; 2773 + 97-7;
40"; 5'08"; 13' 54"; 26' 42"; 43' 18" )
The
16.
limiting speed around a circular curve of 2000
ft
radius calls
superelevation of 1/24 across the 30 ft carriageway. Adopting the

Ministry of Transport's recommendation of a rate of 1 in 200 for the
for a
application of superelevation along the transition curve leading from

the straight to the circular curve, calculate the tangential angles for
setting out of the transition curve with pegs at 50
ft
intervals from the
tangent with the straight.

(I.C.E.
17.
Two
Ans. 02' 52"; 11' 28"; 25' 48"; 45' 52";
111'40")
straights of a proposed length of railway track are to be
joined by a circular curve of 2200
ft
radius with cubic parabolic transi-
long at entry, and exit. The deflection angle between the

two straights is 22 38' and the chainage of the intersection point on
tions 220
ft
the first straight produced is 2553-0
ft. Determine the chainages at the

ends of both transitions and the information required in the field for
setting out the midpoint and end of the first transition curve.
If the transition curve is designed to give a rate of change of
radial acceleration of 1 ft/s 3 what will be the superelevation of the
outer rail at the midpoint of the transition, if the distance between the
,
centres of the rails is 4

(I.C.E.
ft
11 in. ?
Ans. 2002-6
ft;
2222-6
ft;
Offsets 0-46
ft
2871-6 ft; 3091-6 ft;

and 3-67 ft; 2-2 in.)
18.
A transition curve of the cubic parabola type is to be set out from
a straight centre line. It must pass through a point which is 20 ft away
from the straight, measured at right-angles from a point on the straight

produced, 200 ft from the start of the curve.
Tabulate the data for setting out a 400

intervals.
ft
length of curve at 50
ft
651
Calculate the rate of change of radial acceleration for a speed of

30 mile/h.
(L.U. Ans. 020'20", 126'00", 3 13' 20", 5 42' 40", 852'50",
12 40' 50", 17 01' 40", 21 48' 05"; 1-28 ft/s 3 )
straight portions of a railway line, intersecting at an angle
of 155, are to be connected by two cubic parabolic transition curves,
each 250 ft long and a circular arc of 1000 ft radius.
Two
19.
Calculate the necessary data for setting out the curve using chords
long.
50
(R.I.C.S./M
ft
Ans.
tangent length 4647-9 ft; 005'40",

023'00", 051'30", 131'40", 2 23' 10")
shift 2-61
ft;
Two straights of a railway with 4' SVi gauge, intersect at an

angle of 135. They are to be connected by a curve of 12 chains radius
with cubic parabolic transitions at either end.
The curve is to be designed for a maximum speed of 35 mile/h with
20.
3
a rate of gain of radial acceleration of 1 ft/s
Calculate (a) the required length of transition,
(b) the maximum super elevation of the outer rail,
(c) the amount of shift required for the transition, and
.
(d) the lengths of the tangent points from the intersec-
tion of the straights.
(R.I.C.S./M
Ans. 170-7
ft,
5-8 in.,
1-53
ft,
2001-1
ft)
Two railway straights, having an intersection (deviation) angle

02' 40", are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 2000
14
of
21.
ft
with spiral transitions at each end.

(a) Calculate the superelevation for equilibrium on the circular
2
arc, if the design speed is 45 mile/h, g = 32-2 ft/s and the effective
gauge between rails = 5 ft and thence,

(b) if this super elevation is introduced with a gradient of
what is the length of each transition and of the circular curve.
1 in 600,
Hence, given the point of intersection of the straights, compute

data required for setting out one of the spirals by means of deflec(c)
all
tion angles
and 50 ft chords.
Ans. 4 in., 200ft,
(R.I.C.S./L
3' 35",
14' 19",
32' 13",
57' 17")
500
(a) Calculate the setting out data for a circular curve, radius
joining two straights with a deviation angle of 3000'00".
(b) Show that a curve having a polar deflection angle equal to
22.
ft
one third of its tangent deflection angle is a lemniscate.

For the lemniscate, the ideal transition curve relationship between
length of curve and radius of curvature does not hold. Show why this is
not usually important.
(N.U.)
652
The curve connecting two straights is to be wholly transitional

23.
without intermediate circular arc, and the junction of the two transitions is to be 16 ft from the intersection point of the straights which
deflects through an angle of 18.
Calculate the tangent distances and the minimum radius of curvasuperelevation is limited to 1 vertical to 16 horizontal,
ture. If the
determine the correct velocity for the curve and the rate of gain of
radial acceleration.
(L.U.
304-2
Ans.
958-3
ft;
The superelevation on a road 50
24.
ft
30mile/h; 0-292 ft/s 3 )
ft;
wide
is to
be 3
ft.
Calculate
the radius for a design speed of 40 mile/h and then give the data for
setting out the curve

30.
the two straights have a deflection angle of
if
Transition curves 300
long will be applied at each end, but
ft
the data for setting out of these is not required.
Ans.
(L.U.
Rad 1781*5 ft; tangent

shift 2-10
Two
25.
ft;
length 627'9
ft;
Circular arc 632-8
ft)
straights of a road 20
age of 8765-9
ft,
ft wide intersect at a through chainthe deflection angle being 44 24'. The straights are
be connected by a circular arc of radius 900 ft with cubic parabolic

The curve is to be designed for a speed
of 45 mile/h, with a rate of gain of radial acceleration of 2 ft/s 3
Deto
transitions at entry and exit.
termine the required length of the transition and the maximum superelevation of the outer kerb. Tabulate all the necessary data for setting
out the first transition with pegs at every 50
(L.U.
Ans.
L =
159-7
ft;
c = 3-0
ft;
ft
of through chainage.
Chainage
Offsets 0-04, 0-63,

26.
Assuming an equation A =
/(<)
where A and
T,
- 8318-3
ft;
4-72
ft)
2-65,
are the intrinsic

2
co-ordinates of any point on a transition spiral, prove that A = 2RL<t>,

where R = minimum radius of curvature; L = length of spiral, <p
the spiral angle.
-.=
curve on a trunk road is to be transitional throughout with a total

deviation of 52 24'. The design speed is to be 60 mile/h, the maximum
centripetal ratio 0-25, and the rate of change of radial acceleration
1 ft/s 3
Calculate (1) the length of each spiral,

(2) the
minimum radius
of curvature,
(3) the tangent distance.
(L.U.
27.
Ans.
suburban road 30
L = 879-8 ft; R = 962 ft;
T,/ = 926-6
ft)
wide, designed for a maximum speed of 40

mile/h is to deflect through 38 14' with a radius of 1600 ft. A cubic
parabola transition is required, with a rate of gain of radial acceleraft
tion of 1 ft/s 3 .
Calculate (a) the maximum superelevation of the outer kerb,
653

(b) the length of the transition,
chainage of the tangent points if the forward chainage of

the intersection point is 5829*60 ft,
circular
(d) the chainages of the junctions of the transition and
126-22 ft
2-0ft
(b)
(a)
arcs.
(N.R.C.T. Ans.
(c) 5211-77; 6405-69 ft
(d) 5337-99; 6279-47 ft)
(c) the
28.
The co-ordinates
of three points,
North
Point
K,L
and
East
(ft)
are as follows:
(ft)
700
867
700
1856
1672
2031
These points define the direction of two railway straights JK(M)

and LM, which are to be connected by a reverse curve formed by circuequal radius.
circular arcs are to be linked together and to the straights by
lar arcs of
The
easement curves of length
(in Gunter's chains) equal to y/R
is the radius of the circular
circular arcs.
where R
arcs in chains. Calculate the radius of the

(L.U. Ans. 9-87 chains)
wide is to turn through an angle of 26 24' with a

centre line radius of 600 ft, the forward chainage of the intersection
point being 3640-6 ft. A transition curve is to be used at each end of
29.
road 30
ft
the circular curve of such a length that the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 1 ft/s 3 when the speed is 30 mile/h. Find the length of
the transition curve, the banking of the road for this speed, the chain-
age of the beginning of the combined curve, and the angle to turn off
these for the peg at 3500
ft.
(L.U.
Ans.
142
ft;
2'99ft;
3428-6
ft;
034'20")
A road curve of 2000 ft radius is to be connected by two straights

30.
by means of transition curves of the cubic parabola type at each end.
The maximum speed on this part of the road is to be 70 mile/h and the
rate of change of radial acceleration is 1 ft/s 3 The angle of intersection of the two straights is 50 and the chainage at the intersection
point is 5872-84 ft.
.
Calculate:
(a) the length of
each transition curve,
(b) the shift of the circular arc,
chainage at the beginning and end of the composite curve,

value of the first two deflection angles for setting out the
first two pegs of the transition curve from the first tangent point, assuming that the pegs are set out at 50 ft intervals.
(c) the
(d) the
(I.C.E.
Ans. (a) 541ft, (b) 6-10
ft
(c)
4666-95
ft;
(d) 35";
6953-25
40")
3'
ft
654
31.
A circular curve of radius 700 ft and length 410*70 ft connects
two straights of railway track. In order that the track may be modernised to allow for the passage of faster traffic and induce less track
wear, the whole curve and certain lengths of the connecting straights
are to be removed and replaced by a new circular curve of radius 2500
ft, with transitions of the cubic parabola type at entry and exit.
Given that the maximum speed of the traffic on the new curve is to
be 60 mile/h, and the rate of change of radial acceleration is not to
exceed 0'90 ft/s 3 determine:
(a) the length of the new composite curve,
(b) the length of the straight track to be removed
(c) the necessary superelevation of the track on the circular curve,
the gauge of the track being 4 ft 8^ in.
(I.C.E. Ans. (a) 1769-7 ft; (b) 2 -695-7 ft; (c) 5-42in)
,
Bibliography

BANISTER, A. and Raymond, s., Surveying (Pitman)
JENKINS, R.B.M., Curve Surveying (Macmillan)
searles, w.H. and IVES, H.C., ed. by p. KIRSAM, Field Engineering,
22nd Ed. (John Wiley)
Higher Surveying (Macmillan)
SHORTT, W.H., A Practical Method for Improvement of Existing
Railway Curves, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Vol. 176
ROYAL-DAWSON, F.G., Elements of Curve Design for Road, Railway
and Racing Track (Spon,1932)
ROYAL-DAWSON, F.G., Road Curves for Safe Modern Traffic (Spon, 1936)
PERROTT, S.W. and BADGER, F.E.G., The Practice of Railway Surveying and Permanent Way Work (Edward Arnold, 1920)
SHARMA, R.C. and SHARMA, S.K., Principles and Practice of Highway
Engineering (Asia Publishing House)
HIGGINS, A.L.,
problems &
Solutions
$8
Snenherd
SBN: 7131 3198 5
ARNOLD

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Problems

Thfs new book gives a presentation

Summaries of basic theory are followed

and Transition Curves

in both imperial and metric (S.

Edward Arnold (Publishers)

Printed in Great Britain

Senior Lecturer in Surveying

Nottingham Regional College of Technology

London. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.

F.A. Shepherd 1968

First published 1968

Boards edition SBN:

Printed in Great Britain by Bookprint Ltd., Crawley, Sussex

mining engineering projects, and to give guidance on practical methods

The general approach adopted is to give a theoretical analysis of

and mining engineer, and all workers in the construction industry is

Co-ordinates as a graphical and mathematical tool.

Fundamental surveying techniques

Linear measurement in the vertical plane,

Traversing as a control system,

Tacheometry as a detail and control system.

facilitate a real grasp of the sub-

elsewhere, its effect on all aspects of surveying is pin-pointed and

Mining Engineering, as well as for professional qualification for the

I am greatly indebted to the Mining Qualifications Board (Ministry

for the reproduction of

examination questions. My thanks

are also due to the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the

London and Nottingham,

East Midlands Educational Union and

the Nottingham Regional College of Technology, all of

allowed their examination questions to be used.

D.B. Shaw, B.Sc, and

B.Sc, C.Eng., A.M.I.C.E.,

offered advice and help in checking the text

The ultimate responsibility

for the accuracy is, of course, my own.

to be expected that every mistake

has been eliminated, and

they will kindly bring any errors to

System, H.M.S.O., 1967)

Force (weight) /unit length

0-000 145 038 lbf/in 2

0-453 592 x 9-80665 = 4-448 22

1 newton (N) unit of force = that force which applied to a

The basic principles

General theory of measurement

Significant figures in measurement and computation

Corrections to ground measurements

The maximum length

Setting out a right angle by chain

of offsets from chain lines

find the point on the chain line

a perpendicular from a point outside the line

1.45 Obstacles in chain surveying

Corrections to be applied to measured lengths

Correction for slope

Correction for temperature

Correction for tension

1.55 Correction for sag

Reduction to mean sea level

effect of errors in linear