Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
School of Architecture and Built Environment, Deakin University, 1 Gheringhap Street, Geelong 3220, Australia
School of Regional Urban Planning, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran 13145-1384, Iran
c
School of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, University Technology Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
d
Faculty of Social Science, Department of Social Planning, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran 1511315449, Iran
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 June 2014
Received in revised form 7 September 2014
Accepted 2 October 2014
Available online 22 October 2014
Keywords:
Air temperature variation
Heat island effect
Built-up ratio
a b s t r a c t
Urbanization in tropics has altered the microclimate of cities over the past decades. Malacca is a historical
city in Malaysia that has been under immense urban growth since 2008 when the city was listed as a world
heritage site by UNESCO. This study aimed to examine the effects of urbanization on the microclimate of
Malacca by quantifying the ratio of built-up areas in two prominent areas of the city, namely, old (heritage
site) and new city quarter (contemporary urban environment). This study focused on the variation of air
temperature. The intensity of heat island effect in the two selected areas was calculated by conducting a
comparative analysis. Mobile traverses, xed-station measurements, GIS, and satelite images were used
to monitor the variation of air temperature. Results indicated that the heritage site, which exhibited
higher ratios of built-up area, was cooler than the contemporary urban area during the day. However,
the heritage site had warmer air temperatures at night than the contemporary urban area. The built-up
ratio alone could not predict the possible consequences of planning decisions on air temperature. The
ndings of this study are expected to help urban planners to integrate local climate knowledge into urban
planning and design practices.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Malaysia is experiencing unprecedented urban growth as the
percentage of people living in urban areas has increased from 27% in
1970 to 62% in 2000 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2000). The
rst urban heat island (UHI) study in Malaysia was conducted by
Sham in 1972 (Sani, 1972). He found that the core of the city centers
has higher air and suface temperatures than the rural surrounding
areas. This nding is also supported by numerous researchers in
Malaysia (Ahmed et al., 2014; Jamaluddin & Sham, 1987; Kubota &
Ossen, 2009).
Malacca is one of the fastest growing cities in Malaysia and
is the capital of Malacca state. Evidence of town planning in the
Malay Peninsula started in Malacca in the 15th century. During
this century, Malacca was a thriving port for international trade.
2. Literature review
Rapid urbanization has signicantly altered the local microclimate of cities worlwide over the past few decades. The magnitude
of this alteration is highly inuenced by urban design and future
urban development strategies (Taha, 1997). Therefore, creating
cities that are responsive to local climate and contribute to a sustainable environment is a challenging task for urban planners.
The signicant effect of urban design strategies on microclimate
has been extensively investigated in different geographical areas
of the planet (Ahmed et al., 2014; Ahmed, 2003; Bourbia & Awbi,
2004; Katzschner, 2010). The preliminary ndings of these studies highlight the fundamental role of urban planning guidelines
and urban design implications on increased urban air temperature in cities. Numerous studies have been conducted to examine
the adverse effects of dense urban development on urban ventilation (Rajagopalan, Lim, & Jamei, 2014), daylighting (Cheung &
Chung, 2005), acoustics (Kang & Zhang, 2010), and thermal comfort
(Givoni, 2009) because of migration from rural areas to cities.
A major consequence of high-density urban development on
microclimate is the so-called heat island phenomenon, which
contributes to higher air and surface temperatures in cities than in
surrounding rural areas and has roots in the positive urban thermal
balance (Santamouris, 2007). Numerous studies have been conducted to understand the characteristics, signicance, causes, and
effects of UHI and to document the intensity of the phenomenon
worldwide (Arneld, 2003; Mirzaei & Haghighat, 2012; Oke, 1982).
In many cities, the intensity of heat island effect exceeds 10 K,
depending on the urban properties and the local climatic conditions (Oke, 1973), and its temporal and regional variabilities are
observed worldwide (Giannopoulou et al., 2011). The behavior of
diurnal and nocturnal heat island effects differs through one specic hour of the day as it is inuenced by all contributing heat uxes,
including radiation, sensible, latent, anthropogenic, advection, and
storage (Mirzaei et al., 2012). Increased urban air temperature has
281
282
3. Methodology
Malacca city is the capital of Malacca state and is located in the
south-west part of Peninsula Malaysia (2.29 C N 102.30 E). The city
lies approximately 147 km from Kuala Lumpur, facing the Straits of
283
the contemporary urban area. The xed stations were located at the
center of the distance that the vehicle moves in 1 min during the
mobile traverse. Fig. 7 depicts the route for mobile traverse, locations of xed stations, and the spatial distribution of land use in the
study area. Mobile traverses were conducted three times during
the day and three times during the night. Table 1 lists the starting
time and duration of each traverse during day and night. A vehicle
equipped with cylindrical observation tubes was used to conduct
the mobile survey. The observation tube was 30 cm in length and
7.5 cm in diameter. The data logger used for the mobile traverse was
protected against the sun and precipitation with a cylindrical PVC
284
tube. Data logger was installed on the upper section of PVC tube and
there was a slight gap between the tube and the vehicle, to avoid
the thermal effect of the vehicle on the recorded air temperature by
the data logger. Additionally, inside the PVC tube was covered with
an insulator material which means that, the surface temperature of
the car, did not have any effect on the recorded air temperature and
the device was only measurd the air temperature. Fig. 8 depicts the
data logger installed on the roof of a vehicle. The Hobo data logger,
which automatically records ambient temperature and humidity,
was xed at the center of the tube and measured the air temperature and humidity at 1 min interval. The openings of the tube were
not facing the moving direction to avoid the strong wind that may
Fig. 5. Locations of rural, with regard to the central city (heritage site and contemporary urban area).
Fig. 6. Hobo data logger installed on the exterior of a museum in the rural area.
Fixed station
Fig. 8. Hobo data logger in a cylindrical insulated PVC tube on the roof of a vehicle.
285
286
Table 1
Duration of day time and nighttime mobile traverse on 10 July 2011.
Time
Traverse no
Duration of traverse
Traverse 1
Traverse 2
Traverse 3
Traverse 4
Traverse 5
Traverse 6
8:00 am8:10 am
11:30 am11:40 am
15:00 pm15:10 pm
20:20 pm20.30 pm
00:20 am00.30 am
3:00 am3:10 am
Nighttime traverses
interfere with the readings during the traverse period. The vehicle
was driven along the heritage site and contemporary urban area at
a speed of approximately 40 km/h.
The path for the mobile traverse were divided into nine sections
to understand the relationship between built-up ratio and air temperature variation. The nine sections were (a), (b), (c), and (d), which
were situated in the heritage site, and (e), (f), (j), (h), and (i), which
were located in the contemporary urban area. Table 2 shows different sections in the path for mobile traverse. The table aslo indicates
the location of xed stations on the route and lists the detailed characteristics of the surrounding area of each xed station, as well as
H/W ratio at each xed station. Aspect ratio was calculated at each
xed station for heritage and contemporary urban areas. The H/W
ratio in the heritage area varied from 1 to 1.5, whereas the H/W
ratio in the contemporary urban area varied from 0.7 to 0.9.
In this study, built-up ratio refers to the percentage of the constructed building to the entire area or the area of the building
footprint to the total plot area. The route of mobile traverse was
divided into 25 m 25 m cells, and the percentage of built-up area
was calculated for each cell. The preferred size for the grids was
25 m because this size was the closest value to the maximum building within the entire study area. Few studies used this method to
understand the relationship between the built-up areas and spatial development of the mean maximum UHI effect and diurnal air
temperature (Bottyn, Kircsi, Szegedi, & Unger, 2005; Svensson &
Eliasson, 2002).
GIS software, Google Earth images, and digital maps were used
to calculate the built-up ratio. After calculating the percentage of
the buildings in each cell, the cells were categorized into 025%,
2550%, 5075%, and 75100%. Fig. 9 illustrates four different cell
types in (a) reference rural area, (b) different sections in heritage
site, and (c) different sections in contemporary urban area. the
percentage of built-up ratio in different sections are presented
in Table 2. The overall given percentage was from 100, and the
remaining percentage in each section referred to the vacant land
with soil, as well as vegetation. Each cell type was counted for each
section to identify the percentage of built-up area in each section.
Fig. 9. Study area was divided into 25 m 25 m grid networks in (a) rural, (b) heritage, and (c) contemporary urban areas (scale: 1/10 mm).
287
288
Fig. 10. Daytime air temperature distribution in the heritage site and contemporary urban center.
the built-up ratio was observed in section (f), which was located in
the contemporary urban area, as 63 cells were in green color, showing that only 20% of this section has been built. Table 3 also shows
the lowest percentages of built-up area in the sections situated in
the contemporary urban areas [(e), (f), (j), (h), and (i)] with more
cells in green (025% built) and less cells in black (75100% built)
and blue (5075% built). Field measurements in the study areas also
revealed that the recorded aspect ratio (H/W) in the heritage site
was higher than that in the contemporary urban area.
The daytime and nighttime air temperatures were monitored
across different sections of the mobile traverse to understand the
relationship between air temperature variation in relation to the
built-up percentage in each section. Monitoring started in the heritage site and ended in the contemporary urban area. Figs. 10 and 11
show the variation of air temperature measured both by xed and
mobile traverses during daytime and nighttime, respectively.
Figs. 10 and 11 demonstrate the temperature regime in the city
area. The city area had lower cooling rate than the surrounding
rural area (heritage and contemporary urban areas), but slightly
different than that in the suburb rural area. During daytime, the
rural reference point showed higher values of air temperature, with
a maximum of 38.9 C at 3:00 pm traverse, whereas urban areas
were warmer than the rural reference point at nighttime. Daytime
air temperature was high in the rural area because of the vast open
area around the xed station. By contrast, the shade from the buildings in the heritage and contemporary urban areas resulted in low
Table 3
Number of black, pink, green, and blue cells in each section in the route.
Study area
Section
025%
2550%
5075%
75100%
Heritage site
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
0
20
7
46
53
63
46
22
28
60
2
18
10
21
15
9
19
14
23
0
19
18
23
11
18
0
11
20
13
0
52
7
29
6
12
1
8
4
1
0
Overall
Rural area
96
45
75
43
41
20
41
39
38
15
289
Fig. 11. Nighttime air temperature distribution in heritage site and contemporary urban center.
area. The rst 4 min of the traverses occured in the heritage site
and the rest occurred in contemporary urban area. In regards to the
air temperature, the heritage site was cooler than the contemporary urban area during most hours of the day because of the shade
from the buildings caused by high aspect ratios in the heritage site.
Table 2 shows that the aspect ratios in sections (a), (b), (c), and
(d) were 1, 1.2, 1.5, and 1.3, respectively, which were less than the
aspect ratios found in sections (e), (f), (g), (h), and (i) with aspect
ratios of 0.7, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, and 0.9. High built-up ratios in the heritage
site were associated with warmer nights.
Figs. 10 and 11 show a clear relationship between the builtup ratio in each section and the related daytime air temperature.
By increasing the percentage of built-up area in each section, the
daytime air temperature tended to decrease. The only exception
occurred in the afternoon traverse, when the maximum air temperature in the heritage site was 1.6 C warmer than the minimum
air temperature in the contemporary urban area. This result is
attributed to the trapped heat in the deep canyons of the heritage site during the day, resulting in more shades. For nighttime
traverses, a direct relationship existed between the percentage of
built-up areas and air temperature, implying that dense built-up
areas indicated warmer air temperature. Fig. 10 shows section (a)
with 96% built-up ratio, indicating the highest nighttime air temperatures were recorded at 20:00 pm (30.5 C), midnight (28.9 C),
and 3:00 am traverses (26.9 C). Section (c) with 75% built-up area
was the second warmest section during nighttime. The lowest
nighttime air temperature was recorded in section (f) with 20%
built-up area in the contemporary urban area. Therefore, the heritage site (sections with higher built-up ratios) had warmer nights
than the contemporary urban area (sections with lower built-up
ratios). Figs. 10 and 11 also show that the highest values of nighttime air temperatures were recorded at 7:00 pm traverse with an
average temperature of 30 C. Midnight traverse with an average
temperature of 28.4 C and 3:00 am traverse with an average temperature of 26.2 C indicated low values of air temperatures.
4.2. Intensity of daytime and nighttime heat island effect in
relation to built-up ratio
The intensity of UHI is explained as the difference in the air temperature between the urban and rural areas and commonly used to
evaluate the effect of city growth on the local microclimate (Oke,
1981). As discussed in the methodology, a rural reference point was
located in the suburb of Malacca to quantify the air temperature
290
Fig. 12. Daytime UHI of heritage and contemporary urban areas with regard to built-up ratio.
Fig. 13. Nighttime UHI of heritage and contemporary urban areas with regard to built-up ratio.
UHI of 1.5 C. The intensity of heat island effect reached its maximum at 20:00 pm traverse with an average temperature of 2.1 C.
A direct relationship between the built-up ratio in each section and
the nighttime heat island effect intensity was also found. Fig. 13
illustrates that the high values of built-up ratios were associated
with high nighttime heat island effect intensity.
5. Conclusion
This paper reports the results of an empirical study on air temperature variation and heat island intensity pattern in two different
urban environments in Malacca, namely, heritage and contemporary urban areas. Measurements of day time and nighttime air
temperatures were obtained by xed station and mobile traverses
in July 2011. The relationship between temperature variation and
built-up areas was investigated.
The heritage site with high percentage of built-up ratio showed
low daytime temperature, whereas the contemporary urban area
with low percentage of built-up area has cool nights. Lower daytime
and higher nighttime air temperatures recorded in the heritage site
compared with contemporary urban area exhibited a clear relationship with the percentage of built-up area and aspect ratios.
The deep canyon in the heritage site helped cool down the daytime air temperature by providing more shades. This study was
limited to the effect of built-up ratio as a representative of urban
development on air temperature variation throughout the city. The
intra-urban air temperature difference may not be the sole effect
of built-up ratio alone because other parameters inuence air temperature variation in urban canyons, such as vegetation coverage
and albedo of the surfaces. In addition, the air temperature at any
given point was strongly affected by the local climatic conditions
and its immediate surrounding environment.
This study conrmed the existence of heat island effect intensity in Malacca by quantifying the temperature difference between
a rural reference and urban areas. Therefore, this paper highlighted
the necessity of appropriate level of environmental consideration
in future urban planning strategies and city developments, which
in turn will greatly inuence the physical and cultural values of
the UNESCO world heritage site. Warmer air temperature will
adversely affect the social life of different communities who live
or work in traditional urban sites by changing the way people live,
work, worship, and socialize.
Finally, the relationship between heat island effect intensity and
built-up ratio in selected areas enhances the need to further apply
urban climate knowledge in planning and design practices. This
nding is more important in the context of heritage sites, in which
increased urban air temperature may result in uncomfortable thermal condition, less number of visitors, and irreplacable negative
effecs on the economic circumstances of the city.
References
Ahmed, A. Q., Ossen, D. R., Jamei, E., Manaf, N. A., Said, I., & Ahmad, M. H. (2014). Urban
surface temperature behaviour and heat island effect in a tropical planned city.
Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 115(3-4), 122.
Ahmed, K. S. (2003). Comfort in urban spaces: Dening the boundaries of outdoor
thermal comfort for the tropical urban environments. Energy and Buildings, 35,
103110.
Akbari, H. (2009). Cooling our communities. A guidebook on tree planting and lightcolored surfacing. California: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Arneld, A. J. (2003). Two decades of urban climate research: A review of turbulence,
exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. International Journal
of Climatology, 23(1), 126.
Bottyn, Z., Kircsi, A., Szegedi, S., & Unger, J. (2005). The relationship between
built-up areas and the spatial development of the mean maximum urban
heat island in Debrecen. Hungary. International Journal of Climatology, 25(3),
405418.
Bottyan, Z., & Unger, J. (2003). A multiple linear statistical model for estimating the
mean maximum urban heat island. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 75(34),
233243.
Bourbia, F., & Awbi, H. B. (2004). Building cluster and shading in urban canyon for
hot dry climate: Part 1: Air and surface temperature measurements. Renewable
Energy, 29(2), 249262, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-1481(03)00170-8.
Chang, C. H., & Goh, K. C. (1999). The relationship between height to width ratios
and the heat island intensity at 22:00 h for Singapore. International Journal of
Climatology, 19(9), 10111023.
Che-Ani, A., Shahmohamadi, P., Sairi, A., Mohd-Nor, M., Zain, M., & Surat, M. (2009).
Mitigating the urban heat island effect: some points without altering existing
city planning. European Journal of Scientic Research, 35, 204216.
Cheung, H., & Chung, T. (2005). Calculation of the vertical daylight factor on window facades in a dense urban environment. Architectural Science Review, 48(1),
8191.
Chow, W. T., & Roth, M. (2006). Temporal dynamics of the urban heat island of
Singapore. International Journal of Climatology, 26(15), 22432260.
Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2000). Population and Housing Census of Malaysia
2000: Author Putrajaya. Malaysia: Department of Statistics Malaysia.
El-Shakhs, S. (1972). Development, primacy, and systems of cities. The Journal of
Developing Areas, 7(1), 1136.
Eliasson, I. (1996). Urban nocturnal temperatures, street geometry and land use.
Atmospheric Environment, 30(3), 379392.
Eliasson, I. (2000). The use of climate knowledge in urban planning. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 48(1), 3144.
Emmanuel, R., & Johansson, E. (2006). Inuence of urban morphology and sea breeze
on hot humid microclimate: The case of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Climate Research,
30(3), 189200.
Erell, E., & Williamson, T. (2007). Intra-urban differences in canopy layer air temperature at a mid-latitude city. International Journal of Climatology, 27(9), 12431255.
Giannopoulou, K., Livada, I., Santamouris, M., Saliari, M., Assimakopoulos, M., &
Caouris, Y. (2011). On the characteristics of the summer urban heat island in
Athens, Greece. Sustainable Cities and Society, 1, 1628.
Givoni, B. (1998). Climate considerations in building and urban design. New York,
United States of America: John Wiley & Sons.
Givoni, B. (2009). Thermal comfort issues and implications in high-density cities. In
Designing high-density cities: For social and environmental sustainability. London;
Sterling, VA: Earthscan.
291
Grimmond, C., Cleugh, H., & Oke, T. (1991). An objective urban heat storage model
and its comparison with other schemes. Atmospheric Environment., B. Urban
Atmosphere, 25(3), 311326.
Grimmond, C. S. B., & Oke, T. R. (1991). An evapotranspiration-interception model
for urban areas. Water Resources Research, 27(7), 17391755.
Hart, M. A., & Sailor, D. J. (2009). Quantifying the inuence of land-use and surface
characteristics on spatial variability in the urban heat island. Theoretical and
Applied Climatology, 95(34), 397406.
Ismail, W. H. W. (2012). Sustainable Urbanisation on the Western Side of the Historic City of Malacca. ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences, 36(0), 632639,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.069.
Jamaluddin, J., & Sham, S. (1987). Development process, soil erosion and ash
oods in the Kelang Valley Region, Peninsular Malaysia: A general consideration.
Archives Hydrobiology BeihefteV 28, 399405.
Johnson, D. (1985). Urban modication of diurnal temperature cycles in Birmingham, UK. Journal of Climatology, 5(2), 221225.
Kang, J., & Zhang, M. (2010). Semantic differential analysis of the soundscape in
urban open public spaces. Building and Environment, 45(1), 150157.
Katzschner, L. (2010). Urban climate in dense cities. In Designing high-density cities
for social, environmental sustainability. London; Sterling, VA: Earthscan.
Kleerekoper, L., van Esch, M., & Salcedo, T. B. (2012). How to make a city climateproof, addressing the urban heat island effect. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 64, 3038.
Kubota, T., & Ossen, D. R. (2009). Spatial characteristics of urban heat island in
Johor Bahru City, Malaysia. In South East Asian Technical Universities Consortium(SEATUC) - 3rd SEATUC Symposium Proceeding 25th - 26th February 2009,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
Matzarakis, A., Beckrge, W., & Mayer, H. (1998). Future perspectives in applied
urban climatology. In Paper presented at the Proc Second Japanese-German meeting, report of research Center for Urban Safety and Security.
Memon, R. A., Leung, D. Y., & Liu, C.-H. (2010). Effects of building aspect ratio and
wind speed on air temperatures in urban-like street canyons. Building and Environment, 45(1), 176188.
Mirzaei, P. A., & Haghighat, F. (2010). Approaches to study urban heat
islandAbilities and limitations. Building and Environment, 45(10), 21922201.
Mirzaei, P. A., & Haghighat, F. (2012). A procedure to quantify the impact of mitigation techniques on the urban ventilation. Building and Environment, 47, 410420.
Mirzaei, P. A., Haghighat, F., Nakhaie, A. A., Yagouti, A., Gigure, M., Keusseyan, R.,
et al. (2012). Indoor thermal condition in urban heat IslandDevelopment of a
predictive tool. Building and Environment, 57, 717.
Mucsi, L. (1996). Urban land use investigation with GIS and RS methods. Acta Geographica Szegediensis, 25, 111119.
Myrup, L., McGinn, C., & Flocchini, R. G. (1993). An analysis of microclimatic variation in a suburban environment. Atmospheric Environment., B. Urban Atmosphere,
27(2), 129156.
Nichol, J., & Wong, M. S. (2005). Modeling urban environmental quality in a tropical
city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 73(1), 4958.
Nunez, M. (1974). The energy balance of an urban canvas. Vancouver: University of
British Columbia (Ph. D. Thesis).
Oke, T., Johnson, G., Steyn, D., & Watson, I. (1991). Simulation of surface urban heat
islands under idealconditions at night Part 2: Diagnosis of causation. BoundaryLayer Meteorology, 56(4), 339358.
Oke, T. R. (1973). City size and the urban heat island. Atmospheric Environment (1967),
7(8), 769779.
Oke, T. R. (1981). Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: comparison
of scale model and eld observations. Journal of Climatology, 1, 237254.
Oke, T. R. (1982). The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly Journal of
the Royal Meteorological Society, 108(455), 124.
Oke, T. R. (1984). Towards a prescription for the greater use of climatic principles in
settlement planning. Energy and Buildings, 7(1), 110.
Outcalt, S. I. (1972). A synthetic analysis of seasonal inuences in the effects of
land use on the urban thermal regime. Archiv fr Meteorologie, Geophysik und
Bioklimatologie, Serie B, 20(34), 253260.
Park, H.-S. (1986). Features of the heat island in Seoul and its surrounding cities.
Atmospheric Environment (1967), 20(10), 18591866.
Rajagopalan, P., Lim, K. C., & Jamei, E. (2014). Urban heat island and wind ow
characteristics of a tropical city. Solar Energy, 107, 159170.
Rufeux, D. (1995). Winter surface energy budget in Denver, Colorado. Atmospheric
Environment, 29(13), 15791587.
Sani, S. (1972). Some aspects of urban micro-climate in Kuala Lumpur West Malaysia.
Akademika, 1, 8594.
Santamouris, M. (2007). Heat island research in Europe: The state of the art. Advances
in building energy research, 1(1), 123150.
Svensson, M. K. (2004). Sky view factor analysisImplications for urban air temperature differences. Meteorological Applications, 11(3), 201211.
Svensson, M. K., & Eliasson, I. (2002). Diurnal air temperatures in built-up areas in
relation to urban planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 61(1), 3754.
Taha, H. (1997). Urban climates and heat islands: Albedo, evapotranspiration, and
anthropogenic heat. Energy and Buildings, 25(2), 99103.
Tapper, N., Tyson, P., Owens, I., & Hastie, W. (1981). Modeling the winter urban heat
island over Christchurch, New Zealand. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 20(4),
365376.
Tominaga, Y., Mochida, A., Yoshie, R., Kataoka, H., Nozu, T., Yoshikawa, M., et al.
(2008). AIJ guidelines for practical applications of CFD to pedestrian wind
environment around buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96(10), 17491761.
292
Voogt, J. A., & Grimmond, C. (2000). Modeling surface sensible heat ux using surface
radiative temperatures in a simple urban area. Journal of Applied Meteorology,
39(10), 16791699.
Voogt, J. A., & Oke, T. (1991). Validation of an urban canyon radiation
model for nocturnal long-wave uxes. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 54(4),
347361.
Worden, N. (2001). Where it all Began: The representation of Malaysian heritage
in Melaka. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 7(3), 199218.
Yan, H., Fan, S., Guo, C., Wu, F., Zhang, N., & Dong, L. (2014). Assessing the effects
of landscape design parameters on intra-urban air temperature variability: The
case of Beijing, China. Building and Environment, 76, 4453.