English 3140 - 410: Technical Writing

Research Project
First Draft
22 July 2016

TWO WHEELS OFF-ROAD: AN EXPLORATION OF PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

INNOVATIONS IN MOUNTAIN BIKE DESIGN

Alix C. Griffin
Undergraduate Researcher
Mechanical Engineering
Clemson University
alix@clemson.edu
1.1.1 The Balloon Tire The tires used on the first
mountain bikes were known as balloon tires. They featured an
inner tube inside of the exterior tire, allowing for much wider
tires than the tires used on the road at the time [2]. A wider tire
creates a larger contact patch with the riding surface.

ABSTRACT
This paper presents an exploration of innovations to
mountain bike design since the creation of the sport. Past
technology is examined and specific innovations are analyzed
to determine the merit of the designs. Current and near-future
bike technology is analyzed to determine areas in need of
improvement. The origins and requirements of modern
mountain biking disciplines are examined to form ideas of
specific discipline requirements. Areas of future innovation
are identified within each discipline, and predictions are made
about the method of innovation.

PLACEHOLDER - IMAGE OF BALLOON TIRE AND

CONTACT PATCH COMPARISON
Larger contact patches translate to more traction on a
mountain bike, giving the rider more control over steering and
braking on loose riding surfaces. A larger contact patch also
translates to more rolling resistance, sapping kinetic energy
from the bike. Mountain biking requires control to ensure the
bike takes a fast and safe path, so the gains in traction
outweigh the loss of energy.

1. THE INVENTION OF THE MOUNTAIN BIKE

Bicycles have been ridden off-road almost since they
were first used. The lack of paved roads forced cyclists to use
bikes capable of riding on rougher surfaces like gravel and
dirt. However, mountain biking did not emerge as a sport until
the 1970s in Marin County, California [1].

1.1.2 The Coaster Brake The original mountain bikes

used coaster brakes to stop. Coaster brakes are a form of brake
mounted inside the hub of a bike. When activated, they create
drag on the hub, using friction to slow the bike down.

1.1 The First Mountain Bikes

The first mountain bikes were created from standard road
bike frames, which were rigid steel frames. The frames were
frequently taken from older bikes and upgraded with heavyduty road bike componentry.

PLACEHOLDER - COASTER HUB EXPLODED VIEW

The design of the brake in figure PLACEHOLDER
offered the primary advantage of strong braking force.
However, it came with several disadvantages. Because friction
is the method of slowing the hub, the brakes heat up quickly.
Heated brakes can result in reduced effectiveness, ultimately
resulting in total brake failure [3]. Additionally, using the
pedals in reverse to apply the brakes forced riders to balance
exceptionally well while coasting. If the rider shifted the
center of gravity towards the rear of the bike, the brakes would
apply. While mountain biking, shifting weight is essential to

PLACEHOLDER - IMAGE OF FIRST GEN BIKE

Bikes such as the one in figure PLACEHOLDER were
hand built by dedicated cyclists. Though they were fashioned
from road bikes, they featured two main components that
adapted them to trail riding: balloon tires and the coaster
brake.

2. ANALYSIS OF SELECTED COMPONENTRY

Current bike technology has been engineered to maximize
its effectiveness on a bike. Analysis of the various systems of
a bike will reveal how current technology aids riders in
covering longer and more difficult terrain than ever before.

gaining control over the bike, so it was easy for the cyclists to
accidentally apply the brakes.
1.2 Design of Early Production Bikes
As mountain biking began to grow, manufacturers began
to produce purpose-built off-road bicycles. These bikes were
built with the intention of filling the demand for quality bikes
with the durability necessary for mountain biking.

2.1 Brakes
There are two main types of brakes in use on mountain
bikes. Because of their different methods of applying braking
force, the rim brake and the disc brake offer very different
characteristics.

The first bike specifically designed and produced for

mountain biking was the JBX1 "Breezer 1". It was designed
and built by Joe Breeze in 1977. Its frame was intended to be
stronger than typical road bike frames, and it used high-end
motorcycle and road bike components [4].

2.1.1 Rim Brakes Rim brakes are a type of brake that

uses friction pads, usually made from rubber, that get pressed
onto the rim of the wheel. They are actuated by a cable
running to a lever mounted on the handlebar of the bike.

After the Breezer, many companies began producing

mountain bikes. The frame designs all followed the same basic
principle of durability, but the specific geometries of the
frames began to change as technology advanced. The
components diverged from those of road bikes and
motorcycles, ultimately giving rise to specific mountain bike
components.

PLACEHOLDER - ANALYSIS OF RIM BRAKES

2.1.2 Disc Brakes Disc brakes are a type of brake that
uses friction pads, usually made of ceramic or metal, that get
pressed onto a dedicated disc brake rotor attached to the wheel
at the hub. They are actuated by a cable or hydraulic line
running to a lever mounted on the handlebar of the bike.

1.3 Innovations in Mountain Bike Specific

Componentry
As demand for mountain bikes grew, companies sought to
produce components better designed to perform well off-road.
Technological advancements were made to improve the
comfort, safety, and capability of the bikes.

PLACEHOLDER - ANALYSIS OF DISC BRAKES

2.2 Forks
The fork setup of a bike directly impacts how the bike
will behave on rough terrain. The fork can help keep the front
wheel on the ground, maintaining traction for turning. Forks
are divided into two main categories: rigid and suspension.
Each fork type behaves slightly differently, and different forks
from different manufacturers will behave differently.

1.3.1 Brakes With newer production bikes came newer

styles of brakes. Rim brakes gained popularity over coaster
brakes due to the lack of heat buildup and similar stopping
power. Additionally, rim brakes freed the pedals to move
without engaging the brake. When more stopping power was
required, the disc brake was created. Disc brakes allow for
more braking force on a dedicated braking surface. The
braking surface can withstand a high frictional force with
minimal wear and heat buildup.

2.2.1 Rigid Fork A rigid fork on a bike does not have any
dampening system built in. It is a rigid material from the
headset down to the wheel hub. Any force felt at ground level
will be felt at the headset.
PLACEHOLDER - ANALYSIS OF RIGID FORK

1.3.2 Suspension The rigid frames of older mountain

bikes provide a very responsive ride due to the lack of any
dampening mechanism between the rider and the ground.
However, the lack of a dampener means the rider experiences
a rough ride and potential loss of traction when the wheels
leave the ground. To solve the problems associated with a
rigid frame, suspension was developed for both the front and
rear wheels of the bike. Front suspension is typically built into
the fork of the bike. It dampens the feeling of bumps on the
front tire, and it helps keep the front wheel on the ground,
maintaining traction for turning. Rear suspension dampens
shock transferred to the rider's legs and helps maintain traction
for the rear wheel.

2.2.2 Suspension Fork A suspension fork features a

dampening component and a component that acts as a spring.
Suspension forks come in many varieties, including air, coil,
triple tree, and inverted. The characteristics of each type are
slightly different, but for simplicity of analysis, a standard air
fork will be examined.
PLACEHOLDER - ANALYSIS OF AIR FORK
2.3 Rear Suspension
Rear suspension on a bike drastically changes the
handling characteristics of a bike. Small changes in the setup
can lead to large changes in the feel and functionality of a
shock. This can be seen in the comparison between the YT
Tuesday and the Specialized Demo.

1.3.3 Frame Design The shape of mountain bike frames

began to change in response to the needs of mountain biking.
The tall, high center of mass frames frequently encountered in
road bikes did not lend themselves to stability on mountain
trails. Mountain bike frames began to become shorter and
more stretched out to increase stability and maneuverability.

PLACEHOLDER - DH BIKE COMPARISON

Adding rear suspension introduces a number of effects

other than dampening. It allows for pedal sag, sapping
efficiency from climbing. However, the dampening effect is
oftentimes worth the sacrifice in efficiency.

feature components that are useful on any type of terrain. They

can be rigid, but are usually either hardtails or full suspension
bikes. They will generally have middle range travel present in
the suspension.

PLACEHOLDER - ANALYSIS OF REAR SHOCK

3.3 All Mountain and Enduro

All mountain and enduro bikes are designed for riders
who desire fast descending, but who still wish to maintain
climbing ability. These bikes will mostly feature long travel
full suspension. They are usually designed for strength for
difficult terrain and for stability at high speeds.

2.4 Frame Geometry

The geometry of the frame of a bike can affect hos the
bike handles. A slack head angle can create a long wheelbase,
introducing stability at high speeds. A movement in shock
position can have very profound influence on the feel of a
bike.

3.4 Downhill
Downhill bikes are only designed to travel down steep,
technical, high-speed terrain. They feature the longest travel
full suspension available. Usually overbuilt, they come with
the most heavy-duty components designed for hard use at very
high speeds.

PLACEHOLDER - HEAD ANGLE ANALYSIS

2.5 Wheel Size
In the mountain biking world, three main tire sizes
dominate. The 26", 27.5", and 29" are the standard tires
offered with most mountain bikes.

3.5 Free Ride

Free ride bikes are designed to maximize
maneuverability. They have long travel full suspension, but
are built with extremely heavy-duty components. They are
made for balancing and tricks, but are able to perform minimal
climbing.

PLACEHOLDER - WHEEL ANALYSIS

2.6 Tire Type
Tire choice is crucial for creating the proper feel for a
bike. Different tread patterns can heavily affect how much
traction and rolling resistance are present in the bike.
Additionally, the option to go tubeless can affect the pressure,
and therefore the ride, of a given bike.

3.6 Dirt Jumping

Dirt jumping bikes are made for withstanding large
impacts that come with large dirt jumps. They are usually
hardtails with short travel suspension in the front. The frames
are usually very low to the ground, and they are designed to be
extremely maneuverable in the air.

PLACEHOLDER TIRE ANALYSIS

2.7 Drivetrain
Drivetrain is the system connecting the rider's feet to the
rear wheel. Most drivetrains consist of one, two or three front
chainrings connected to multiple rear gears in a cassette. The
choice of chainrings and cassette affects the power the rider is
able to transfer to the rear wheel.

3.7 Trials
Trials bikes are intended to be ridden at extremely low
speeds. Often lacking saddles entirely, the bikes are made for
performing tricks and maintaining balance while stationary.
Trials riders usually do not travel far to ride, instead they use
surrounding objects as obstacles.

PLACEHOLDER DT ANALYSIS
3. THE DIVERSIFICATION OF DISCIPLINES
As the sport of mountain biking grew, different
disciplines began to develop, each with their own set of needs.
Riders seeking speed and difficult terrain began to demand
more downhill oriented bikes, while riders looking for a more
balanced, endurance based ride looked for lighter, more
efficient bikes.

4. CURRENT PROTOTYPES AND FRINGE

TECHNOLOGY
5. FUTURE INNOVATION PREDICTIONS
REFERENCES
[1] "Mountain Biking History," The Marin Museum of
Bicycling, http://mmbhof.org/mtn-bike-hall-offame/history/
[2] 1933 Schwinn Catalog. Arnold, Schwinn & Co.,
http://schwinncruisers.com/catalogs/1933.html
[3] "Them's the Brakes," History of Bicycle Brakes, Classic
Cycle, http://classiccycleus.com/home/thats-thebrakes/

3.1 Cross Country

The cross country discipline focuses on extreme distances
and a balance between climbing and descending. Bikes used in
cross country riding need to be light and efficient while
maintaining the ability to ride rough terrain. The bikes can be
rigid, hardtails (front suspension only), or full suspension.
They generally have large numbers of gears to adapt to any
type of terrain.
3.2 Trail
Trail bikes are designed to cover all types of terrain over
any distance. They are very durable, and they frequently