Precipitation Reactions

A reaction that result in the formation of an insoluble product by a rxn.

Precipitate is an insoluble solid formed by a reaction in solutions.
Precipitation reactions occur when pair of oppositely charged ions attract each
other so strongly that they form an insoluble ionic solid.

Exchange Metathesis Reactions

A reactions in which atoms and ions appear to exchange partners conform to the
general equation.
AX + BY = AY +BX
Ex.

AgNO3(aq) +KCl(s)

AgCl(s) +KNO3(aq)

Steps in Complete and Balance Metathesis Reactions

1. Use the chemical formulas of reactants to determine which ion are present.
2. Write the chemical formulas of the products by combining the cations fromone
reactant with the anion of the other, using ionic charges to determine the
subscripts in chemical formulas.
3. Check the water solubility of the products for a precipitation occur of least one
product must be insoluble to water.
4. Balance the equation.

NET IONIC EQUATIONS

A chemical equation for a reaction involving ions which only these species that
actually react are included.
Molecular Equation
-

Equation showing the complete chemical formulas of reactants and products

because it shows the chemical formula of the reactants and products without
indicating their ionic character.

Spectator ion

Ions that appear identical form and both the reactant and product of a
complete ion equation. They are present but play no direct rule in the rxn.
When spectator ion are omitted from the equations
Every ion in a complete ionic equation is a spectator, NO REACTION
OCCURS

Procedure for Writing NET IONIC EQUATION

1. Write balanced molecular equation for the rxn.
2. Rewrite the equation to show the ions that form solution when each soluble strong
electrolytes dissolves in aqueous solution are written in ionic form.
3. Identify and cancel spectator ions.

SOLUBILITY GUIDELINES FOR COMMON IONIC

COMPOUNDS IN WATER
SOLUBLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

IMPORTANT EXEMPTIONS

Compounds NO3
Containing C2H3O2
ClBrISO42-

NONE
NONE
Compounds of Ag+, Hg2+, and Pb2+
Compounds of Ag+, Hg2+, and Pb2+
Compounds of Ag+, Hg2+, and Pb2+
Compounds of Sr2+, Ba2+, Hg2+, and Pb2+

INSOLUBLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

IMPORTANT EXEMPTIONS

S2

Carbonate CO32PO43Hydroxide OH-

Predict the product if necessary

Compounds of NH4+, the Alkali Metal

cations and Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+
Compounds of NH4+, the Alkali Metal
cations
Compounds of NH4+, the Alkali Metal
cations
Compounds of NH4+, the Alkali Metal
cations and Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+

1. AgNO3 +K3PO4
=
AgPO4 + KNO3
3AgNO3 +K3PO4
=
AgPO4 + 3KNO3
3Ag+ + 3NO3-1 + 3K+ + PO43 -=
AgPO4 + 3K+ + 3NO3
3Ag+ =
AgPO4

2.

AgNO3 + KCl
=
AgCl + KNO3
Soluble + soluble =
insoluble + soluble
Ag+ + NO3- + K+ + Cl= AgCl + K+ + NO3Ag+ + Cl=
AgCl

3. Mg(NO3)- + NaOH =
Mg(NO3)- + 2NaOH =
Mg(OH)2 +2 NaNO3
2+
+
Mg + 2NO3 + 2Na + OH
=
Mg(OH)2 +2 Na+ +2NO3Mg2+ + OH- = Mg(OH)2

4. Na2CO3 + MgSO4
=
Na2SO4 + MgCO3
2Na2CO3 + MgSO4 =
2Na2SO4 + MgCO3
22+
22Na2 + 2CO3 + Mg +SO4 =
2Na++SO42- + MgCO3
2CO32- + Mg2+ =
MgCO3

5.

Pb(NO3)2(aq)+K2SO4(aq)
The first product of this reaction, PbSO4, is soluble according to rule 4 because it
is a sulfate. The second product, KNO3, is also soluble because it contains nitrate
(rule 2). Therefore

, no precipitation reaction occurs.

Electrochemistry is

the study of electricity and how it relates to chemical

reactions. In electrochemistry, electricity can be generated by movements of electrons
from one element to another in a reaction known as redox reaction, or oxidationreduction reaction.

OXIDATION STATES AND OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS

Oxidations~ involves direct combination with oxygen

C + O2

CO2

Reduction~ involves direct contamination with hydrogen

H2 + Cl2

2HCl

~removal of oxygen from a compound

2FeO3
~

4Fe + 3O2

or oxidized

Oxidation- increased in oxidation number

Reduction- decrease in oxidation number
Reducing Agent- substance that is increased or oxidized.
Oxidizing Agent- substance that is decreased or reduced.
Reduction Rxn

C0

O0

Oxidation Rxn

Reducing Agent

C+4O22Oxidizing Agent

To find the oxidation no. of Carbon in CO2

Let x be the unknown:

CO2 = 0
x + 2(-2) = 0
x 4 =0
x = +4

Balancing Redox Equation

Half-Reactions
A half reaction is a reduction or an oxidation reaction. For example, the following are
half reactions.
2 H+ + 2 e - = H2
MnO4- + 5 e- + 8 H+ = Mn2+ + 4H2O
Zn = Zn2+ + 2 eCu = Cu2+ + 2 eA half reaction does not occur by itself, at least two such reactions must be coupled so
that the electron released by one reactant is accepted by another in order to complete the
reaction. Thus, oxidation and reduction reactions must take place simultaneously in a
system, and this type of reactions is called oxidation reduction reaction or simply redox
reaction. For example,
Zn + Cu2+ = Zn2+ + Cu
is such a redox reaction, Zn being oxidized, and Cu 2+ being reduced. Redox reactions take
place in battery operations.
Half-reaction equations are useful for balancing redox reaction equations.

Balancing Redox Reactions with Half Reactions

1. Divide the equation into one oxidation half-reaction and one reduction half- rxn.
2. Balance each half reactions
a. First, balance elements other than H and O
b. Next, balance O atoms by adding H2O as needed.
c. Then, balance H atoms by adding H+ as needed.
d. Finally, balance charge by adding e- as needed.
3. Multiply half-reactions by integers as needed to make the number of electrons lost
in the oxidation half-reaction equal the number of electrons gained in the
reduction half-reaction.
4. Add half-reaction and, if possible, simplify by cancelling species appearing on
both sides of the combined equation.
5. Check to make sure that atoms and charges are balanced.

VOLTAIC CELLS
A voltaic cell is an electrochemical cell that uses a chemical reaction to produce
electrical energy. The important parts of a voltaic cell: The anode is an electrode where
oxidation occurs. The cathode is an electrode where reduction occurs.
The energy released in a spontaneous redox reaction can be used to perform electrical
work. This task is accomplished through a voltaic or galvanic cell, a device in which the
transfer of electrons takes place through an external pathway rather than directly between
reactants present in the same reaction vessel.
Anode ( oxidation half-reaction )
Cathode ( reduction half reaction )

Zn(s)

Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cu(s)

Electrochemical Cell Potentials

A cell's standard state potential is the potential of the cell under standard state conditions,
which is approximated with concentrations of 1 mole per liter (1 M) and pressures of 1
atmosphere at 25oC.
To calculate the standard cell potential for a reaction

Write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for the cell.

Look up the reduction potential, Eoreduction, for the reduction half-reaction in a table
of reduction potentials

Look up the reduction potential for the reverse of the oxidation half-reaction and
reverse the sign to obtain the oxidation potential. For the oxidation half-reaction,
Eooxidation = - Eoreduction.

Add the potentials of the half-cells to get the overall standard cell potential.
Eocell = Eoreduction + Eooxidation

Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

What is the strongest reducing agent?
The
values
for the
table entries
are reduction potentials, so lithium at the top
of the list has the most negative number,
indicating that it is thestrongest reducing
agent.
The strongest oxidizing agent is
fluorine with the largest positive number for
standard electrode potential.
The strength of reducers and oxidizers
depends upon the thermodynamic favorability
of their reactions. The strongest elemental
reducing agent is lithium, which is not the
least electronegative element. When Li acts as
a reducing agent, metallic bonds are broken
and one electron is removed from each Li
atom. These processes are endothermic. The Li is solvated (exothermic). For an oxidizer
like chlorine, the Cl-Cl bond is broken (endothermic) then the Cl gains an electron
(exothermic). The chloride is solvated (exothermic).

Free Energy and Redox Reactions

Changes in reduction potential are linked to changes in the free energy of a
system
Changes in reaction conditions can have a tremendous effect on the course of a redox
reaction. For example, under standard conditions, the reaction of Co(s) with Ni 2+(aq) to
form Ni(s) and Co2+(aq) occurs spontaneously, but if we reduce the concentration of
Ni2+ by a factor of 100, so that [Ni2+] is 0.01 M, then the reverse reaction occurs
spontaneously instead. The relationship between voltage and concentration is one of the
factors that must be understood to predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous.
The Gibbs Free Energy change (DG') is the quantity of usable energy (chemical
potential) in a reaction. Here,DG' is the difference between the free energy of the
reaction products and the reactants:
DG' = (energy of products) (energy of reactants)
Since naturally occurring or spontaneous processes always proceed toward the state
that has the least potential energy, the energy of the products is less than the energy of the
reactants.
For a spontaneous process, DG' is negative.
It is not surprising then that changes in the quantities of Gibbs Free Energy and reduction
potential, DE' andDG', are related to one another, for both can be used to predict
whether processes are spontaneous. Indeed, the relationship between these two quantities
is given by the following formula

DG' = nF(DE')
where
DG' is the Gibbs free energy change of a system (in Joules)
DE' is the change in reduction potential of the redox reaction (in Volts)
n is the number of electrons transferred in the reaction (in moles)
F is Faradays constant (96,500 Joules/Volt/mol)

Concentration cell

A
is a limited form of a galvanic cell that has two
equivalent half-cellsof the same material differing only inconcentrations. One can
calculate the potential developed by such a cell using the Nernst Equation.
A concentration cellproduces a small voltage as it attempts to reach equilibrium.
The standard electrode potential, commonly written as Eocell, of a concentration cell is
equal to zero because the electrodes are identical. But, because the ion concentrations are
different, there is a potential difference between the two half-cells. One can find this
potential difference via the Nernst Equation,

Ecell= Eocell 0.0592 log Q

n
at 25oC. The E stands for the voltage that can be measured using a voltmeter (make sure
if the voltmeter measures it in millivolts that you convert the number before using it in
the equation). Note that the Nernst Equation indicates that cell potential is dependent on
concentration, which results directly from the dependence of free energy on
concentration. Remember that to find Q you use this equation:
aA + bB cC + dD
Q = (C)c (D)d
(A)a (B)b
When Q=1, meaning that the concentrations for the products and reactants are the same,
then taking the log of this equals zero. When this occurs, the Ecell is equal to the Eocell.
Another way to use the Eocell , or to find it, is using the equation below.
Eocell = EocathodeEoanode

CORROSION
~of metals occurs when electrons from atoms at the surface of the metal are transferred to
a suitable electron acceptor or depolarizer . Water must be present to serve as a medium
for the transport of ions. The most common depolarizers are oxygen, acids, and the
cations of less active metals.

Corrosion cells and reactions

The special characteristic of most corrosion processes is that the oxidation and reduction
steps occur at separate locations on the metal. This is possible because metals are
conductive, so the electrons can flow through the metal from the anodic to the cathodic
regions. The presence of water is necessary in order to transport ions to and from the
metal, but a thin film of adsorbed moisture can be sufficient.
A corrosion system can be regarded as a short-circuited electrochemical cell in which the
anodic process is something like
Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e
and the cathodic steps can be any of
O2+2H2O+4e4OHH+ + e = H2(g)
M2+ + 2e = M(s)
where M is a metal.
Electrochemical corrosion of iron. Corrosion
often begins at a location (1) where the metal is
under stress (at a bend or weld) or is isolated
from the air (where two pieces of metal are
joined or under a loosely-adhering paint film.)
The metal ions dissolve in the moisture film and
the electrons migrate to another location (2)
where they are taken up by a depolarizer. Oxygen
is the most common depolarizer; the resulting
hydroxide ions react with the Fe2+ to form the
mixture of hydrous iron oxides known as rust.

Electrolysis refers to the decomposition of a substance by an electric current.

The electrolysis of sodium and potassium hydroxides, first carried out in 1808 by Sir
Humphrey Davey, led to the discovery of these two metallic elements and showed that
these two hydroxides which had previously been considered un-decomposable and thus
elements, were in fact compounds:

Electrolysis of molten alkali halides is the usual industrial method of preparing the alkali
metals:
cathode:
anode:
net:

Na+ + e Na(l)
Cl Cl2(g) + e
Na+ + Cl Na(l) + Cl2(g)

E = 2.71 v
E = 1.36 v
E = 4.1 v

Ions in aqueous solutions can undergo similar reactions. Thus if a solution of nickel
chloride undergoes electrolysis at platinum electrodes, the reactions are
cathode:
anode:
net:

Ni2+ + 2 e Ni(s)
2 Cl Cl2(g) + 2 e
Ni2+ + 2 Cl Ni(s) + Cl2(g)

E = 0.24 v
E = 1.36 v
E = 1.60 v

Both of these processes are carried out in electrochemical cells which are forced to
operate in the "reverse", or non-spontaneous direction, as indicated by the negative for
the above cell reaction. The free energy is supplied in the form of electrical work done on
the system by the outside world (the surroundings). This is the only fundamental
difference between an electrolytic cell and the galvanic cell in which the free energy
supplied by the cell reaction is extracted as work done on the surroundings.

Nuclear Chemistry
the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, such
as nuclear transmutation, and nuclear properties.
The discovery of x-rays by William Conrad Roentgen in November of 1895
excited the imagination of a generation of scientists who rushed to study this
phenomenon. Within a few months, Henri Becquerel found that both uranium
metal and salts of this element gave off a different form of radiation, which
could also pass through solids. By 1898, Marie Curie found that compounds of
thorium were also "radioactive." After pain-staking effort she eventually
isolated two more radioactive elements
polonium and radium
from ores
that contained uranium.
In 1899 Ernest Rutherford found that there were at least two different forms
of radioactivity when he studied the absorption of radioactivity by thin sheets
of metal foil. One, which he called alpha ( ) particles, were absorbed by metal
foil that was a few hundredths of a centimeter thick. The other, beta (
particles, could pass through 100 times as much metal foil before they
became absorbed. Shortly thereafter, a third form of radiation, gamma ( )
rays, was discovered that could penetrate as much as several centimeters of
lead.

Application: Nuclear Reactors

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear reactions are generated, and the chain
reaction is controlled to release large amount of steady heat, thereby producing energy.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear reactions are generated, and the chain
reaction is controlled to release large amount of steady heat, thereby producing energy.
Nuclear fission is the process in which the nucleus of an atom is split, forming nuclei of
lighter atoms and neutrons. The mass of these products is less than the original mass.
According to Einstein's equation E=mc2, the small amount of missing mass is converted
into a large amount of energy.

A chain reaction, shown in the above

figure, occurs when the neutrons
released in fission collide with at
least one other nuclei, causing the
fission of another nuclei. The process
then repeats. In today's nuclear
reactors, Uranium-235 is commonly
used. During each U235/92 fission,
2.5 neutrons are released on average.
Note here; Uranium 235 is used
because it has a fairly large nucleus which facilitates the process of fission. An explosion
could only occur if the reaction becomes uncontrolled. When one mass of U-235 exceeds
the mass of U-235 that is large enough to hold down a chain reaction, also known as
critical mass, an explosion occurs. A great example of this phenomenon would be a
nuclear bomb. In uncontrolled reactions, neutrons escape too quickly to maintain a chain
reaction. This rapid release of nuclear energy causes an explosion. However, in a nuclear
reactor, energy is being produced at a controlled, constant rate; a nuclear explosion is
unlikely to occur.

Application: Radioisotopes in Medicine

Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the

functioning of a person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures
using radioisotopes are now routine.

Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer,

using radiation to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells.

Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and
demand for radioisotopes is increasing rapidly.

Sterilisation of medical equipment is also an important use of radioisotopes.

Nuclear medicine
This is a branch of medicine that uses radiation to provide information about the
functioning of a person's specific organs or to treat disease. In most cases, the information
is used by physicians to make a quick, accurate diagnosis of the patient's illness. The
thyroid, bones, heart, liver and many other organs can be easily imaged, and disorders in
their function revealed. In some cases radiation can be used to treat diseased organs, or
tumours. Five Nobel Laureates have been intimately involved with the use of radioactive
tracers in medicine.
Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine
Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine use radioactive tracers which emit gamma
rays from within the body.
Radionuclide therapy (RNT)
Rapidly dividing cells are particularly sensitive to damage by radiation. For this reason,
some cancerous growths can be controlled or eliminated by irradiating the area
containing the growth.
Biochemical analysis
It is very easy to detect the presence or absence of some radioactive materials even when
they exist in very low concentrations. Radioisotopes can therefore be used to label
molecules of biological samples in vitro (out of the body).

Sterilising
Gamma irradiation is widely used for sterilising medical products and supplies such as
syringes, gloves, clothing and instruments, many of which would be damaged by heat
sterilisation. Cobalt-60 is the main isotope used, since it is an energetic gamma emitter.

Therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals
For some medical conditions, it is useful to destroy or weaken malfunctioning cells using
radiation. The radioisotope that generates the radiation can be localised in the required
organ in the same way it is used for diagnosis through a radioactive element following
its usual biological path, or through the element being attached to a suitable biological
compound.
Isotopes used in medicine
Many radioisotopes are made in nuclear reactors, some in cyclotrons. Generally neutronrich ones and those resulting from nuclear fission need to be made in reactors, neutrondepleted ones are made in cyclotrons. There are about 40 activation product radioisotopes
and five fission product ones made in reactors.

Nuclear energy in industry

The use of nuclear power in modern industry in developed countries is very important for
improving processes for measurement and automation, and quality control.
The use of radiation is applied in a wide range of activities, either in quality control of
industrial processes, raw materials (cement, power plants, oil refineries, etc..) Or quality
control of products manufactured in series, as a prerequisite for the full automation of the
production lines at high speed.
Irradiation with intense sources is considered as an operation to improve the quality of
certain products (special plastics, sterilization products "disposable", etc..).
In addition, tracer experiments are performed to obtain an accurate and detailed status of
industrial equipment to qualify for the prolongation of life.
Industrial sources usually produce no radioactive waste in the country that uses them,
because once useless, the country's commercial signature provider to be removed when
the replacement.
Use of radioisotopes as tracers
The fact that small amounts of radioactive substances can be measured quickly and with
accuracy, makes radioisotopes used to further process or analyze the characteristics of
said processes. These substances are known as tracers.
Quality Control scintigraphy
Gamma radiography constitutes a quality control technique for verifying essential welds
in pipes and to detect cracks in aircraft components.
Use of radiation in other industrial processes
Gamma radiation ionizes the material and creates free radicals, which are the
intermediate species in many chemical reactions. Applied radiation (cobalt source-60)
with the monomers used to manufacture the plastic is induced formation of large polymer

chains, and if the irradiation is continued material, special plastics are high degree of
crosslinking catenary, which considerably improves their properties such as thermal and
electrical insulation. Thus, some polymer degradation induced by radiation, is a useful
property for some types of packaging.

Agriculture
In agriculture, radiation helps breed new seed varieties with higher yields, such as the
"miracle" rice that has greatly expanded rice production in Asia.
By the end of the 1980s, radiation had eradicated approximately 10 species of pest insects
in wide areas, preventing agricultural catastrophes. These pests included the
Mediterranean fruit fly and the screwworm fly.
Agricultural researchers also use radiation to:

Develop hundreds of varieties of hardier, more disease-resistant cropsincluding

peanuts, tomatoes, onions, rice, soybeans and barley.

Improve the nutritional value of some crops, as well as improve their baking or
melting qualities or reduce their cooking time.

Pinpoint where illnesses strike animals, allowing the breeding of disease-resistant

livestock.

Show how plants absorb fertilizer, helping researchers to learn when to apply
fertilizer, and how much to use; this prevents overuse, thus reducing a major
source of soil and water pollution.

Questions
1. How are isotopes used in the medical field?
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the
functioning of a person's specific organs, or to treat them. Diagnostic procedures using
radioisotopes are now routine.

2. What are radioactive isotopes used for in medicine?

Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine use radioactive tracers which emit
gamma rays from within the body. These tracers are generally short-lived isotopes
linked to chemical compounds which permit specific physiological processes to be
scrutinised. They can be given by injection, inhalation or orally.

3. Cite some Advantages of advancement of nuclear technology?

The generation of electricity through nuclear energy reduces the amount of

energy generated from fossil fuels (coal and oil). ...
less fuel offers more energy. ...
The production of electric energy is continuous. ...
It's an alternative to fossil fuels, so the consumption of fuels such as coal
or oil is reduced.

4. Cite some disadvantages of using theadvancement of nuclear

technology?

One of the main disadvantages is the difficulty in the management of

nuclear waste. It takes many years to eliminate its radioactivity and risks.
Current nuclear reactors work by fission nuclear reactions. These chain
reactions is generated in case control systems fail, generating continous
reactions causing a radioactive explosion that would be virtually
impossible to contain.
Nuclear power plants generate external dependence. Not many countries
have uranium mines and not all the countries have nuclear technology, so
they have to hire both things overseas.
The energy generated is cheap compared to the cost of fuel, but the
recovery of its construction is much more expensive.
5. What is the danger of nuclear power?
There are two major kinds of risk associated with nuclear power: Safety
risks. A serious accident at a nuclear power plant could release large
amounts of dangerous radiation, with disastrous consequences for the
environment and an increased risk of cancer for those exposed to the
radiation.

Calculation Nuclear Reactions

Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two nuclei to form a heavier nuclei. The reaction is
followed either by a release or absorption of energy. Fusion of nuclei with lower mass
than iron releases energy while fusion of nuclei heavier than iron generally absorbs
energy. This phenomenon is known as iron peak. The opposite occurs with nuclear
fission.
Fission
Fission is the splitting of a nucleus that releases free neutrons and lighter nuclei. The
fission of heavy elements is highly exothermic which releases about 200 million eV
compared to burning coal which only gives a few eV. The amount of energy released
during nuclear fission is millions of times more efficient per mass than that of coal
considering only 0.1 percent of the original nuclei is converted to energy. Daughter
nucleus, energy, and particles such as neutrons are released as a result of the reaction.

The energy change in a nuclear reaction is considerably greater than that of a normal
chemical reaction. This change can be calculated using Einstein's equation:
E = mc2
where E is the change in energy, m is the change in mass (mass of products - mass of
reactants), and c is the speed of light (3.00 x 108 m/s).
As written, this relation gives the energy change in joules and the mass change in
kilograms. Usually small quantities of a sample decay, and the energy change is very
large, so it's more common to get an energy change in kilojoules (kJ) corresponding to a
mass change in grams. Using the relations
1 kJ = 103 J and 1 kg = 103 g
Einstein's equation may be rewritten
E (in kJ) = 9.00 x 1010 m (in grams)

For example, to calculate the E in kJ for the radioactive decay of radium:

226

Ra --> 22286Rn + 42He

88

when one mole of radium decays, we first calculate m for the reaction and then obtain
E using the equation.
m = mass of 1 mol 42He + mass of 1 mol 22286Rn - mass of 1 mol 22688Ra
m = 4.0015 g + 221.9703 g - 225.9771 g
m = -0.0053 g
Note that m may be an extremely small quantity, so it is important to know the masses
of products and reactants with a high degree of accuracy in order to know the mass
difference to two significant figures.
E (in kJ) = 9.00 x 1010 x (-0.0053)

E = -4.8 x 108kJ

E in kJ when one gram of radium (one mole weighs 226 g) decays would be:
E = 1 g Ra x (-4.8 x 108 kJ)/226 g Ra
E = -2.1 x 106 kJ

Questions
1. Calculate the amount of energy (in electronvolts per atom and kilojoules
per mole) released when the neutron-induced fission of 235U produces
144
Cs, 90Rb, and two neutrons:
235

U +10n14455Cs+9037Rb+210n

92

Solution:
A The change in mass that accompanies the reaction is as follows:
m=massproductsmassreactants
=mass(14455Cs+9037Rb+210n)mass 23592U
=(143.932077 amu+89.914802 amu+1.008665 amu)235.043930amu
=0.188386 amu
The change in energy in electronvolts per atom is as follows:
E=(0.188386 amu)(931 MeV/amu)=175 MeV
B The change in mass per mole of 23592U is 0.188386 g = 1.88386 104 kg, so the
change in energy in kilojoules per mole is as follows:
E=(m)c2=(1.88386104 kg) (2.998108 m/s)2
=1.6931013 J/mol=1.6931010 kJ/mol
2. Calculate the amount of energy (in electronvolts per atom and kilojoules
per mole) released when deuterium and tritium fuse to give helium-4 and a
neutron:
2

H+ 1H 2He+10n

Answer: E = 17.6 MeV/atom

= 1.697 109 kJ/mol

3. Consider the neutron bonbardment

235

U+10n23692Ufission products

92

which releases 3.201011J per U235 atom. How much energy would be released if
1.00g of U235 were to undergo fission?
SOLUTION
(1.00gU235)(1mol235U) x (6.0221023atoms235U) x (3.201011 J )
235g235U
1mol235U
1mol235U
=8.201010J

4. Calculate Q-Value of the following nuclear reaction

4
3Li + 1H > 22He
7

Check whether the reaction is exoergic or endoergic

The value of Q can be calculated from the masses of the products and reactants of the
equation.
The exact mass of 3Li7 isotope = 7.01601 a.m.u. and that of 1H1 = 1.00738 a.m.u.
The exact mass of 2He4 = 4.00260 a.m.u.
Where, a.m.u. is Atomic Mass Unit.
Hence
Sum of the masses of reactants = 7.01601 + 1.00738 = 8.02384 a.m.u.
Sum of the masses of products = 2 X 4.00260 = 8.00520 a.m.u.
Therefore, M = Sum of the masses of products Sum of the masses of reactants
= 8.00520 8.02384 = 0.01864 a.m.u.
As there is decrease of mass, hence energy is being released.
The value of Q will be therefore Positive i.e.
Q = + 0.01864 a.m.u. X 931.5 MeV/a.m.u = + 17.36 MeV

238

92

5. Calculate the energy released nuclear reaction

> 90Th234 + 2He4 + Q

The exact mass of 92U238 isotope = 238.1249 a.m.u. and that of 90Th234 = 234.1165 a.m.u.
The exact mass of 2He4 = 4.0039 a.m.u.
Where, a.m.u. is Atomic Mass Unit.
The value of Q can be calculated from the masses of the products and reactants of the
equation.
(Given) The exact mass of 92U238 isotope = 238.1249 a.m.u. and that of 90Th234 = 234.1165
a.m.u.
The exact mass of 2He4 = 4.0039 a.m.u.
Where, a.m.u. is Atomic Mass Unit.
Hence
Sum of the masses of reactants = 238.1249 a.m.u.
Sum of the masses of products =234.1165 + 4.0039 = 238.1204 a.m.u.
Therefore, M = Sum of the masses of products Sum of the masses of reactants
= 238.1204 238.1249 = 0.0045 a.m.u.
As there is decrease of mass, hence energy is being released.
The value of Q will be therefore Positive i.e.
Q = 0.0045 a.m.u.X 931.5 MeV/a.m.u = + 4.19175MeV = 4.2MeV
Hence the above reaction is exoergic.