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7.

Seepage through Soils


7.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter 6, the seepage case was relatively a simple case. The flow considered was onedimensional and linear i.e. the flow velocity was presumed constant at every point in a cross-section
perpendicular to the flow line and the flow lines were also supposed to be parallel. The flow of water through
soil is not in one direction only nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow.
Darcys law is applied to the problems of one-dimensional flow, it cannot be solved directly for two-dimensional
flow because both i and A vary throughout the flow regime. Therefore, the analyses are more complex and
need to incorporate a mathematical function called LaPlace equation. But most of groundwater flow problems
are two- or three-dimensional flow.
In reality, all flow is three-dimensional. The three-dimensional flow is the most general flow situation, but the
analysis of such problems is too complex to be practical and hence, flow situations are simplified to the twodimensional flow. The flow near the abutments of an earth dam is an example of the three-dimensional flow.
In irrigation and drainage engineering, the groundwater flow as being essentially two-dimensional. The seepage
that takes place around sheet pile walls, under masonry dams and other water retaining structures and through
earth dams, embankments, etc., the flow is not one-dimensional. In two-dimensional flows, the velocity
components in the horizontal and vertical directions vary from point to point within the cross-section of the soil
mass i.e. f(x,y).

Fig. 7.1 Velocity Components


One-dimensional Flow Condition The condition in which velocity vectors are all parallel and of equal
magnitudes. In other words, the water always moves parallel to some axis and through a constant crosssectional area. e.g. 1-D flow in a Confined Aquifer
Two-dimensional Flow Condition When all the velocity vectors are confined to a single plane but vary in
direction and magnitude within that plane. e.g. Flow into a long excavation
Three-dimensional Flow Condition Most general condition Exists when the velocity vectors vary in the
x,y and z directions. e.g. flow into multiple wells

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7.1.1 What is Seepage?


Seepage is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium. Seepage takes place when there
is difference in water levels on the two sides of the structure such as a dam or a sheet pile as shown in Fig. 7.2.

Figure 7.2 Seepage beneath (a) a concrete dam (b) a sheet pile
Whenever there is seepage (e.g., beneath a concrete dam or a sheet pile), it is often necessary to estimate the
quantity of the seepage, and permeability becomes the main parameter here.
Seepage is the ease at which water flows through the soil and this is possible due to the presence of voids within
the soil particles.
7.1.2 Purposes of Studying Seepage Conditions
The purposes of studying the seepage conditions under or within the structures such as cofferdam cells, sheet
pile walls, concrete dams, earth dams, levees, embankments, slopes, etc. are:
To estimate the rate of flow
To determine seepage force or uplift force
To determine the pore-water pressure distribution for effective stress analysis, etc.
7.2 Two Dimensional Flow - LaPlaces Equation
Two dimensional flow problems may be classified into two types namely,
1. Confined flow; for example, Flow of water through confined soil stratum.
2. Unconfined flow; for example, Flow of water through body of the earth dam.
These problems are to be addressed in geotechnical engineering in order to meet the following objectives
of practical importance;
To calculate quantity of flow (seepage) in case of both confined & unconfined flow
To obtain seepage pressure distribution and uplift pressures (stability analysis)
To verify piping tendencies leading to instability
Preliminaries required for good understanding of this topic include continuity equation, Darcys law of
permeability, and the validity, limitations and assumptions associated with Darcys law.
The analysis of two-dimensional flow through a saturated soil mass involves determination of quantity of
seepage and distribution of seepage pressure and can be done with methods based on Laplace equation.
Laplaces equation governs the flow of a fluid through a porous material. The derivation of Laplaces equation
is based on the following assumptions:
1. Darcys law is valid. (Flow is laminar)

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2. The soil is completely saturated. (Degree of saturation is 100%)


3. The soil is homogeneous. (Coefficient of permeability is constant everywhere in the soil medium)
4. The soil is isotropic. (Coefficient of permeability is same in all directions)
5. During the flow, the volume of soil & water remains constant i.e. the soil and water are incompressible. (No
expansion or contraction i.e. No volume change occurs)
6. Flow conditions do not change with time i.e. steady state conditions exist.
7. The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known.
Note: Limitations of such assumption are stated in the brackets.
Derivation of LaPlace Equation (Considering 2-D Flow in a Vertical Plane)
We consider a soil element of size dx, dz and of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of figure (i.e. along ydirection).

Vz
x
dx
vx

(vx +

dz

(Vz +

Fig. 7.3 Two-dimensional Flow (Element of Soil)


Let vx and vz be the velocity components at entry in x and z directions. Then the corresponding velocity
components at exit will be
(vx +

) and (vz +

Total flows into the soil element are


Qin = (v.A.ne)in = L.ne(vxd z + vzdx) = vx(dz.1) + vz(dx.1) ---------- (a)
Qout = (v.A.ne)out = L.ne[(vx +

)dz + (vz +

)dx] = (vx +

)(dz.1) + (vz +

)(dx.1) -----------

(b)
where,

L = length of the element in the y-direction =1 (take)


ne = effective porosity

According to the assumption (the soil is saturated and its volume remains constant) that the quantity of water
entering an element is equal to the quantity of water leaving the element in any given time, we have
i.e. Qin = Qout

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vx (dz.1) + vz (dx.1) = (vx +

i.e.

) (dz.1) + (vz +
+

) (dx.1)

= 0 ------------------------------- (1)

This is the Continuity Equation for two-dimensional flow. This means any change in the velocity in the xdirection must be offset by an equal and opposite change in the z-direction.
According to the assumption that Darcys law is valid for flow through soil medium, we have

vx = -kx.ix = -kx and vz = -kz.iz = -kz

where, kx and kz are coefficients of permeability in x and y directions. The minus sign indicates that the head
decreases in the direction of flow.
By substitution of the values of vx and vz in Eq. (1), we get,

kx + = ----------------------------------- (2)
For an isotropic soil medium, k x = kz = k (say)
Then Eq. (2) reduces to the form

+ = 0 ----------------------------- (3)

This is a Second Order Partial Differential Equation called the LaPlaces Equation for Two-dimensional
Flow (in terms of head). It governs the steady state two-dimensional flow of incompressible fluid through an
incompressible porous material. It describes the energy loss associated with flow through a medium and is used
to solve many kinds of flow problems including those involving heat, electricity and seepage.
For three-dimensional flow, the LaPlace equation becomes

= ----------------------- (4)

Sometimes, the LaPlaces equation is represented in terms if velocity potential (), given by
= -kh
therefore,
and

= = -k

= = -k

Substituting the values of vx and vz in Eq.(1)


= 0 (2-D Flow)

+ +

= 0 (3-D Flow)

In del operator notation, the LaPlaces equation can be expressed as


=

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LaPlaces equation can be solved if the boundary conditions at the entry and exit are known.When LaPlace
equation (Eq. 3) is solved graphically the equation gives flow net consisting two sets of curves
intersecting at right angles known as flow lines (or stream lines or -lines) and equipotential lines or -lines.
Flow Lines (or Stream Lines or Velocity Lines or -lines) indicate the direction of flow. They represent the
path traced by an individual water particle.
Equipotential Lines (Equal Head Lines or Equal Total Head Lines or -lines) are the lines joining points
where the total potential (head) equal. In other words, they are the loci of points of equal potential (or head). At
all points of equipotential lines, the water would rise to the same level in a piezometric tube indicating the
constant total head along the equipotential line. The water particles travel along the flow lines at right angles to
the equipotential line.
The equipotentials must be spaced so that head drops occur between adjacent equipotentials and equal
volumetric flow occurs between adjacent flow lines.
The space between any two adjacent flow lines is called Flow Channel.
The space enclosed between two adjacent flow lines and two successive equipotential lines is called a Field.
The loss of head between the two successive equipotential lines is called the Potential Drop. In other words, the
difference between two adjacent equipotential lines is called equipotential drop.
For convenience, usually the equipotential lines are so constructed that the drop between any two successive
equipotential lines is constant. If Nd is the numbers of drops and total head causing the flow is h then, the value
of each drop h is given by

h = ---------------------------------- (A)

Relation Between Flow or Stream Function () and Velocity Potential Function ()(Flow Net Solution for
Two-dimensional Flow)
Flow or Stream Function () is a scalar function of the coordinates x and z such that its partial derivatives
satisfy the following equations:

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= and

= ----------------- (1)

As a stream function is a continuous function, its total differential is given by


d =
Substituting the values of

and

. +

from Eqn.(1),
d = -vz dx + vx dz -----------(2)

If the stream function is constant along a curve, d= 0. Therefore,


-vz dx + vx dz = 0 ------------(3)
The Eq.(3) can be rearranged to solve for the slope as

m1 = () =

------------- (4)

Velocity Potential Function () is a scalar function of x and z such that its partial derivatives satisfy the
following equations:

= and

= ----------------- (5)

As a velocity potential function is a continuous function, its total differential is given by

d = . +

Substituting the values of and from Eqn.(5),


d = vz dz + vx dz ------------ (6)
If the stream function is constant along a curve, d= 0. Therefore,
vx dx + vz dz = 0 --------------(7)
The Eq.(7) can be rearranged to solve for the slope as

m2 = () = --------------(8)

From Eqs.(4) and (8),

m1 x m2 = () x () = ( ) x ( ) = - 1

Therefore, at any point (x,z) in a flow field, the streamline or flow line or -line is normal(orthogonal) to the
equipotential line or -line.
Since,
So,
or,

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= and
=

2
2

= ;

= and

(known as Cauchy-Riemann Equations)


(partial derivative w.r.t.z)

and

or,

Therefore,

2
2

(partial derivative w.r.t.x)

=0

Thus the stream or flow function () also satisfies the LaPlace equation.
In del operator notation, the LaPlaces equation can be expressed as
=
7.3 Flow Nets
7.3.1. What is a Flow Net?
A flow net is 2-D diagram of equipotentials (lines of equal head) and flow lines. They are built from field
observations and/or theoretical constraints.
A flow net is a graphical solution to the equations of steady groundwater flow. A flow net consists of two sets
of lines which must always be orthogonal (perpendicular to each other): flow lines, which show the direction of
groundwater flow, and equipotential (lines of constant head), which show the distribution of potential energy.
Flow nets are usually constructed through trial-and-error sketching.
A flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field (Solution of LaPlace equation) and comprises a
family of flow lines and equipotential lines. Flow lines and equipotential lines together constitute a flow net.
The solution of LaPlace equation requires knowledge of the boundary conditions. Geotechnical problems
have complex boundary conditions for which it is difficult to obtain a closed form solution.
Approximate methods such as graphical methods and numerical methods are often employed. Flow net
technique is a graphical method, which satisfies LaPlace equation.
The concept of the flow net is based on LaPlaces equation of continuity, which governs the steady flow
condition for a given point in the soil mass.
7.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Flow Nets
Advantages
Simple
Easy to do; gives quick understanding of flow regime
Examines aquifer at much larger scale than core, slug or pumping tests
Can give as accurate a result as the simple conceptualization allows and data justifies
Disadvantages
Assumptions are very constraining
Especially
Steady State
More or less homogeneous domain

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Two dimensional flow


7.3.3 Effects of Seepage (Purposes of Studying Seepage Conditions)
The interaction between soils and percolating water has an important influence on:
The design of foundations and earth slopes,
The quantity of water that will be lost by percolation through a dam or its subsoil.
As water flows through soil it exerts a frictional drag on the soil particles resulting in head losses. The frictional
drag is called seepage force in soil mechanics.

Fig. Effects of seepage on the effective stresses near a retaining wall


In the stability of slopes, the seepage force is a very important factor. Shear strengths of soils are reduced due to
the development of neutral stress or pore pressures.
A detailed understanding of the hydraulic conditions is therefore essential for a satisfactory design of structures.
The computation of seepage loss under or through a dam, the uplift pressures caused by the water on the base of
a concrete dam and the effect of seepage on the stability of earth slopes can be studied by constructing flow nets.
7.3.3 Characteristics/Properties of Flow Nets
1. Flow lines or stream lines represent flow paths of particles of water.
2. Flow lines and equipotential lines cut each other at right angles i.e. they are mutually orthogonal to
each other.
3. Each field is an approximate square and in a well-constructed flow net one should be able to draw a circle in
a field touching all the four sides.

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9|P ag e

Fig. 7.3 Methods of drawing a flow-net diagram (after Leliavsky 1955)


4. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the two types of curves will be smooth, being either
elliptical or parabolic in shape.
5. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel.
6. The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant (q) i.e. the discharge (q) between any two adjacent
flow lines is constant.
7. Flow cannot occur across flow lines.
8. An equipotential line is a line joining points with the same head.
9. The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line.
10. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head loss (h),
the drop of head (h) between the two adjacent equipotential lines is constant.
11. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
12. An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line.

13. The ratio of the length and width ()of each field is constant. The ratio is generally taken as unity for
convenience. In other words, the flow net consists of approximate squares.

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Fig. 7.4 Flow Net and its Characteristics


7.3.4 Methods for Obtaining Flow Nets
The flow nets can be obtained by one of the following methods.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Graphical Method (Flow Nets, a Trial-and-Error Method)


Electrical Analogy Method/Electrical Flow Analogy Method (Build Electric Model)
Soil Models/ Sand Models
Plastic Models
Analytical Method/Solution of Lapalces Equation
Capillary Flow Analogy Method
Relaxation Method
Numerical Solution (Approximation, Finite Difference Method)
Direct Mathematical Solution (Different Boundary Condition for Different Answer)

7.3.5 Flow Net by Graphical Method (Guidelines for Drawing Flow Nets)
This method of flow net construction is most commonly used method. The graphical method of flow net
construction involves sketching by trial and error. It was first given by Forchheimer (1917). The hydraulic
boundary conditions are examined and keeping in mind the properties if flow net initial sketching is done and by
trial and error the flow net is improved to make it acceptable for practical applications. For beginners, Arthur
Casagrande (1937) has given the following excellent hints to construct the flow nets.
1. Well-constructed flow nets should be studied and effort should be made to retain the salient features in mind.
2. Draw to a convenient scale the cross sections of the structure, water elevations, and soil deposit profiles.
3. Establish boundary conditions that is, Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries. The soil and
impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines. The soil and permeable boundary interfaces are
equipotential lines.
4. Draw one or two flow lines and equipotential lines near the boundaries. Sketch intermediate flow lines
and equipotential lines by smooth curves adhering to right-angle intersections such that area between a
pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines is approximately a curvilinear square grid.

5. About four or five flow channels (space enclosed between two flow lines) are sufficient for the first trial, as
too many flow channels will distract attention from essential features.
6. The appearance of the entire flow net should be watched and not that of a part of it. Small details can be
adjusted after the entire flow net has been roughly drawn.
7. After initial sketching, the flow net should be observed as a whole while adjusting the finer details.
8. All transitions should be made smooth being either roughly elliptical or parabolic in shape.
9. But for a few exceptional fields, all fields should be approximate squares.

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10. Where flow direction is a straight line, flow lines are equal distance apart and parallel. Also, the
flow net in confined areas between parallel boundaries usually consists of flow lines and equipotential
lines that are elliptical in shape and symmetrical.
11. Try to avoid making sharp transition between straight and curved sections of flow and equipotential lines.
Transitions must be gradual and smooth. Continue sketching until a problem develops.
12. Successive trials will result in a reasonably consistent flow net. In most cases, 3 to 8 flow lines are usually
sufficient. Depending on the number of flow lines selected, the number of equipotential lines will
automatically be fixed by geometry and grid layout.
13. The flow lines and equipotential lines should be orthogonal and form approximate squares.
14. The size of the square in a flow channel should change gradually from the upstream to the downstream.
7.3.6 Typical Illustrations of Flow Net
Following illustrations, Fig. 7.5, Fig. 7.6 ,Fig. 7.7 and Fig. 7.8 demonstrate the typical flow nets drawn for
different kinds of seepage problems pertaining to flow beneath hydraulic structures like, dam, sheet pile,
dam with sheet pile as heel cutoff wall and dam with sheet pile as toe cutoff wall respectively.

Fig. 7.5: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam without any cutoff wall
[Lambe & R.V.Whitman (1979)]

Fig. 7.6: Typical flow net for the flow around a sheet pile wall

Fig. 7.7: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam with heel cutoff wall [Lambe & R.V. Whitman
(1979)]

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Figure 7.8: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam with toe cutoff wall [Lambe & R.V. Whitman
(1979)]

Fig. 7.9

Fig. 7.10

Fig. 7.11
7.3.6 Applications of Flow Nets

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A flow net can be used to determine (a)


(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a)

quantity of seepage i.e. the flow rates (discharge)


total head at a point
seepage pressure at a point
pressure head at a point
hydrostatic pressure at a point
exit gradient
piping effects
pore- water pressure
Determination of Quantity of Seepage

Let us consider the field marked in Fig. 7.12, which illustrates a portion of a flow net. (Let l and b denote the
length and breadth of the field. (l=b=1)

If q = rate of discharge through each flow channel (between two adjacent streamlines)

h = head drop per field = (i.e. Head loss between two adjacent equipotential lines)

H = Total head causing flow i.e. net hydraulic head of flow


Nd = Number of potential drops in the entire flow net i.e. number of squares between two adjacent streamlines
(Flow Lines) from the upstream equipotential to downstream equipotential.
Nf = Number of flow channels for the complete flow net i.e. that is, number of squares between two
adjacent equipotential lines from one boundary streamline to the other boundary streamline.
Applying Darcys law we have, for flow through the field, q = k

( 1) = .

(Considering unit thickness perpendicular to plane of figure)

For flow through entire flow net, q = q. Nf = k .Nf ( = 1)

i.e. Total Flow/unit width,

q = kH

Thus the quantity of seepage across total width L of soil medium beneath thus the dam is given by

This equation is used to find the discharge through an isotropic soil for which k x = ky =k.

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(b) Determination of Total Head at a Point


The loss of head (h) from one equipotential line to the next is

. The total head at any point (P) can be

determined as under:

hP = H n x h =H n x

where, n = number of equipotential drops upto the point P


H = Total head causing flow i.e. net hydraulic head of flow
(c) Determination of Seepage Pressure or Uplift Pressure at a Point
When buried structures extend below the groundwater table, they are subjected to uplift pressures from the pore
water. Seepage pressure at a point, ps is given by
ps = h.w
Where,

h = total head at that point = (H-n.h)


H = total head causing flow
n = number of potential drops upto the point under consideration
h = potential drop per field =

The uplift force (P) = ps x A


(d) Determination of Pressure Head at a Point
The hydrostatic head at a point is given by
Pressure Head = Total Head Datum Head
hw = h z
where, h = total head at that point = (H-n.h)
n = number of potential drops upto that point
h = potential drop per field =

z = datum head at that point


z will have positive value when the point is above datum and negative value when it is below datum.
(e) Hydrostatic Pressure at a Point
The hydrostatic pressure at the point is given by
u = hw. w
(f) Determination of Seepage Force
It is often convenient to define seepage as the seepage force per unit volume (it has units similar to unit of
weight) which we will denote j. If the head loss over a flow distance, L is h the seepage force is given as

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j=

If the seepage direction is downwards, then the resultant seepage stresses are in the same direction as the
gravitational effective stresses.
z = .z + i.z.w = .z + j.z
In case of upwards seepage, they are in opposite direction and
z = .z - i.z.w = .z - j.z
(g) Piping Effects (Effect of Seepage on Structures)
Foundation failures due to 'piping' are quite common. Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil on the
downstream sides of some hydraulic structures get lifted up due to excess pressure of water. The pressure that is
exerted on the soil due to the seepage of water is called the seepage force or pressure.The action of water
passing through or under an embankment dam and carrying some of the finer material with it to the surface at
the downstream face. The progressive removal of soil particles from a mass by percolating water leads to the
development of channels.
When the upward hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition can occur leading to erosion in soil and
piping. Piping begins near the downstream (d/s) toe but may lengthen progressively towards the upstream (u/s)
side as the seeping water gradually washes away more and more soil particles, leaving voids or pipes in the soil.
Piping may work its way backwards along the base of the dam or along a bedding plane in the soil strata where
the resistance is minimum. If piping is not stopped, it may result in a catastrophic collapse of the structure. Since
the consequences of a failure are extremely devastating, no chances can be taken and hence a very conservative
design is made. The hydraulic gradient at exit, called the exit gradient, is equal to h/l. The exit gradient must
never come close to the critical hydraulic gradient. In fact, a factor of safety of at least 6 is recommended for
safety against piping. Exit gradient can be to a considerable extent by providing vertical cut off walls at the d/s
end of the base of the dam.
There is another kind of piping failure caused by heave which can be expected to occur on the d/s side of a
hydraulic structure when the upward acting forces of seepage exceed the d/s forces due to the submerged weight
of soil. The calculation of the factor of safety with the piping by heave is illustrated in the following equation.
The FOS can be increased by placing a graded filter over the soil prism which is affected. The new FOS will
then be given by the equation
FOS =
Where,

Wb = submerged weight of the soil prism


Wf = weight of the filter
U = total seepage force

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Soils can be eroded by flowing water. Erosion can occur underground, beneath the hydraulic structures, if
there are cavities, cracks in rock, or high exit gradient induced instability at toe of the dam, such that
soil particles can be washed into them and transported away by high velocity seeping water. This type
of underground erosion progresses and creates an open path for flow of water; it is called piping.
Preventing piping is a prime consideration in the design of safe dams. Briefly the processes associated
with initiation of piping in dams are as follows,
Upward seepage at the toe of the dam on the downstream side causes local instability of soil in that
region leading erosion.
A process of gradual erosion and undermining of the dam may begin, this type of failure known as piping, has
been a common cause for the total failure of earth dams.
The initiation of piping starts when exit hydraulic gradient of upward flow is close to critical hydraulic gradient
Factor of safety against piping is defined as,
FS =

Where iexit is the maximum exit gradient and i critical is the critical hydraulic gradient. The maximum exit
gradient can be determined from the flow net. A factor of safety of 3 to 4 is considered adequate for the safe
performance of the structure against piping failure.

(h) Determination of Exit Gradient


The flow nets are also useful in investigating the unstable condition which can arise when seepage lines emerge
vertically upward on the downward on the downstream boundary (which is an equipotential line) of a dam,
especially near the toe. The hydraulic gradient of flow will be the maximum adjacent to the toe because it is here
that square are the smallest in size and thus the length of flow for a certain constant drop in head will be the
smallest.(see Fig.)

Fig. 7.13 Part of Flow Net Near Toe of Dam


Hydraulic Gradient: The potential drop between two adjacent equipotential lines divided by distance
between them is known as hydraulic gradient. Thus, the hydraulic gradient across any square in the flow net
involves measuring the average dimension of the square. The maximum value of hydraulic gradient which
results in maximum seepage velocity occurs across smallest square (flow grid).
Exit Gradient: The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream end of the flow line where
percolating water leaves the soil mass and emerges into the free water at the downstream.
The exit gradient, iexit is given by
iexit =

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where, h = potential drop per field =

lexit = average length of smallest exit field (which will be adjacent to structure)
Maximum Exit Gradient: Dams and Sheet Pile Walls
The maximum exit gradient for the cases of both dams and sheet pile walls can be determined from the
flow net. The maximum exit gradient is given by
iexit =

Fig. 7.14 Computation of Maximum Exit Gradient

Fig. 7.15 Computation of maximum exit gradient for sheet pile wall
Maximum Exit Gradient: Sheet pile walls
Maximum exit gradient Sheet pile walls can be computed alternatively as explained below. A theoretical
solution for the determination of the maximum exit gradient for a single row of sheet pile structures is available
and is of the form.

Critical Hydraulic Gradient

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Consider a case of water flowing under a hydraulic head x through a soil column of height H as shown
in the Fig.

Fig. 7. 16 Computation of critical hydraulic gradient at point O

(i) Determination of Pore-Water Pressure


A flow net is used to determine the pore-water pressure at a given point due to seepage through an earth dam.
The pore-water pressure is calculated by multiplying the pressure head at that point with the unit weight of
water. To determine the pressure head at point, say A, we select an equipotential line on the flow net passing

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through that point. If this equipotential line meets the pheratic surface (top flow line) at point B, the vertical
distance between points A and B gives the pressure head, because the pheratic surface itself is subject only to
atmospheric pressure.
7.4 Unconfined Flow
In the confined flow, the flow space is completely defined by the boundary conditions and the flow itself is
limited to this space. For such a problem, drawing of flow net is not very difficult. The flow net shown in Fig.
7.17 is an example of a well-drawn flow net for confined flow. The flow under sheet piles, concrete or masonry
dams are the examples of confined flow.

Fig. 7.17 Flow Net for Confined Flow


Unconfined flow problems differ from confined flow problems in that the upper flow line is unknown and must
be determined during the analysis process. Fig. 7.18 shows three different flow nets under unconfined flow
conditions. In each case, the upper flow line also represents the pheratic surface (groundwater table). The
location of the phereatic surface will depend on the flow conditions in the problem. In Fig. 7.18 (a), the location
of the pheratic surface will depend on the height of water in the reservoir. Similarly, in Fig 7.18 (b), the depth of

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water in the pond will affect the pheratic surface. In Fig. 7.18(c), the location of the pheratic surface will depend
on the rate at which water is pumped from the wells. Changes in the pumping rate will change the flow net
itself.
The process of creating flow nets for unconfined flow starts by estimating the location of the pheratic surface.
Once the pheratic surface is located, all the boundaries of the flow region are defined and the solution proceeds
as with the case for confined flow.
7.5 Seepage in Anisotropic Soil Condition
Most of the man-made deposits are anisotropic. The coefficient of permeability in all directions may not be
equal. In general, the soil has maximum permeability in the direction of stratification and a minimum value in
the direction normal to the stratification i.e. khorizontal > kvertical.
Let kx is the permeability in the x-direction and kz is the permeability in the z-direction.
For anisotropic soil, kx kz (usually kx > kz

We have, from continuity equation,

=0

--------- (1)

From Darcys Law, vx = -kx.ix = -kx and vz = -kz.iz = -kz --------- (2)
Now, from (1) and (2), we get,
or,

kx + =

+ =

-------------------------- (3)

It is not a LaPlaces equation, so, flow net cannot be obtained directly as in the case of isotropic medium. Eq.(3)
can be transformed into the Laplacian form by making the following substitution,

xr = x so that =

and 2 =

7.6 Seepage through an Earth Dam on an Impervious Base

7.7 Flows through Non-homogeneous Sections


7.8 Prevention of Erosion-Protective Filters
The possibility of piping occurring during seepage is more in regions where the flow is concentrated and
seepage lines emerge vertically upward. If the seepage forces are large enough to erode the soil particles, piping
can initiate and may progressively lead to a structural collapse. Soils most susceptible to piping by erosion are
sands and silts.
To prevent the possibility of erosion and piping, two approaches are normally used.
a) Control of seepage and seepage forces and
b) Use of protective filters

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a) Control of seepage and seepage forces


Certain measures such as providing cut-off wall or a trench to stop seepage or lengthening the flow path with the
help of impervious blankets fall into this category.
b) Use of protective filters
The use of protective filters prevents erosion and reduces uplift pressure. A protective filter consists of one or
more layers of coarse-grained, free-draining material placed over a less pervious soil called the base. A filter
would prevent the migration of finer particles but without inhibiting the flow of seepage water, so there is hardly
any loss of head. This assures that within the filter itself, seepage forces are reduced.

Design of Filters
In order to avoid failures of hydraulic structures due to piping effects, many remedial measures are
available. Some of these remedial measures that are usually adopted in practice are shown in Fig. They
include providing impervious blanket on the upstream and gravel filter at the toe as shown for the case of an
earth dam (Fig.).
Main objectives of these measures are preventing buildup of high seepage pressure and migration of eroded soil
particles.

Fig. Remedial measures against piping


When seepage water flows from a soil with relatively fine grains into a coarser material there is a danger that the
fine soil particles may wash away into the coarse material. Over a period of time, this process may clog the void
spaces in the coarser material. Such a situation can be prevented by the use of a protective filter between the two
soils.
Conditions for the proper selection of the filter material are,
1. The size of the voids in the filter material should be small enough to hold the larger particles of the
protected material in place.
2. The filter material should have a high permeability to prevent buildup of large seepage forces and
hydrostatic pressures in the filters.
The experimental investigation of protective filters provided the following criteria which are to be followed to
satisfy the above conditions:

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Filter Requirements to Control Piping


Filter drains are required on the downstream sides of hydraulic structures and around drainage pipes.
A properly graded filter prevents the erosion of soil in contact with it due to seepage forces.
To prevent the movement of erodible soils into or through filters, the pore spaces between the filter particles
should be small enough to hold some of the protected materials in place.
Taylor (1948) shows that if three perfect spheres have diameters greater than 6.5 times the diameter of a small
sphere, the small spheres can move through the larger as shown in Fig

Soils and aggregates are always composed of ranges of particle sizes, and if pore spaces in filters are small
enough to hold the 85 per cent size (D85) of the protected soil in place, the finer particles will also be held in
place as shown in Fig.

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