Annex I

GUIDELINES FOR
MANAGING NATURALLY OCCURRING
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
IN PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

H. BASHAT, SENV Environmental Advisor

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GUIDELINES

FOR

MANAGING

NATURALLY

Annex I

OCCURRING

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS (NORM) IN PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

SUMMARY

Naturally occurring radioactive materials, NORM, have been known to be present in

varying
concentrations
in
hydrocarbon
reservoirs.
These
NORM, under certain reservoir conditions can reach hazardous contamination levels. The
recognition of NORM as a potential source of contamination to oil and gas facilities has
become widely spread and gaining increased momentum from the industry. The contents of
the Annex which wee extracted mainly from References 1 to 3, address the various
problems with NORM and provides the recommended procedures for managing these
materials.
INTRODUCTION
There are two types of NORM contamination which are commonly known in the
oil and gas operations:
1) Radium contamination which is common to formation water and produces
low specific activity scale known as LSA.
2) Radon contamination which is common to natural gas production.
Both of these elements when accumulate in significant concentration will form serious
health and environmental hazard in addition to the operational problems. Therefore
periodic analyses to detect and identify these contaminants at an early stage is becoming an
acceptable industry practice. The following sections will address each type separately.

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I. NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS FROM

PRODUCTION WATER

BACKGROUND
Naturally occurring radioactive materials NORM in formation water are soluble
radionuclides, may precipitate, under certain operational environment, as low specific
activity scale, known as LSA scales. These scales tend to be barium sulphate and strontium
sulphate which co-precipitate with naturally occurring radium leached out of the reservoir
rock; such scales emit alpha, beta and gamma radiation and this, together with the physical
properties of the LSAS, can give rise to a number of problems if such scales or sludges have
to be removed, handled or disposed.
Once LSA scales are formed within the production system two main problems are
presented: the scale will tend to foul valves and restrict the well fluid stream, and secondly,
the levels of radiation on the outside of the flowline or vessel may be so high that the
surrounding area may have to be designated as a restricted area and be cordoned off.
Scale formation can be prevented with some success by the use of scale formation
inhibiting chemicals. However, if the removal of LSA scale is necessary it can be difficult
and expensive because LSA scales (unlike calcium carbonate scale) are insoluble in
inorganic acids. Scale will either have to be removed (by hand or mechanically), or the
scaled up equipment taken out of service and put into safe storage. Therefore safe systems
of work and proper procedures which recognise the hazards, protect the workers from
harmful exposure, minimise interference with the environment and ensure compliance with
government and international regulations are essential.
1. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF RADIOACTIVE SCALE
1.1 NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE ROCKS
The main radioelements found in the common sedimentary rocks include potassium,
uranium and thorium and the highest concentrations are normally found in shales as
indicated in Table 1.

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Table 1 Radioelement concentration in sedimentary rocks

Sandstones
a) Orthoquartzites
b)

U-238
(ppm)

Th-232
(ppm)

1.7

0.45

1.7

1.5

5.0

3.2

13.1

Arkoses

Shales
a) Grey and green
b)

K-40
(ppm)

2.9

Black

Limestones

8-20
0.4

Evaporites

2.2

1.1

<0.1

The potassium content of shales is a reflection of their clay mineral, particularly illite
content. The high uranium concentrations in black shales are probably due to their
augmented organic content.
Sandstones owe their potassium values to their K-felspar, K-mica and glauconite content.
The uranium content of limestones is held largely within the crystal lattice of calcium
carbonate where the uranium ions substitute for the calcium. Thorium, however, does not
enter the carbonate lattice easily and, in consequence, thorium values tend to be low and
held mainly in the clay and heavy mineral fractions. Uranium and thorium values in
evaporites are, however, very low and restricted to the small detrital silicate mineral
fraction.
1.2 RADIOACTIVE DEPOSITS
Generally it can be said that the radionuclide enrichment of the formation water occurs due
to the concentration of uranium and thorium-bearing minerals within the source rock.
Subsequent leaching by formation or injection water may result in radioactive deposits in
the production train given suitable conditions. The injected seawater, being normally less
saline than the formation water, may additionally dissolve radioactive salts from the
minerals present in various geological strata. These deposit can take several forms:
SCALES
Natural formation water will undergo changes of temperature and pressure as it is coproduced with the oil and gas, and may under certain conditions deposit scale within the oil
production system.
Depending on variations in temperature, pressure, flow and geochemical conditions, these
radioactive salts selectively precipitate in a non-reversible manner on the cement, or pipe
around cased wells, liners, tubings, etc. This is significant from the radiological protection
aspect since the co-precipitation effectively encapsulates the radium in a minerals shield,
thereby ensuring almost complete self-absorption of the alpha particles emitted during the
radioactive decay. Thus, a combination of radioactive leaching by either the natural
formation water or the injected seawater together with the occurrence of injection water
"breakthrough" may lead to deposits of mineral scale containing measurable quantities of
natural radioactivity concentrated by this scaling process.

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SAND AND SILT DEPOSITS

These are potentially a greater problem in topside equipment (e.g. production separators).
This material can act as an absorbtive surface for radionuclides present in the production
fluid. An exchange mechanism between cations can then give rise to radioactive sludges
and deposits.
Radon-222 gas is part of the decay chain of radium-226. In most cases where radioactive
scale is produced radium-226 as well as some of its daughter nuclides including radon-222
may be found entrapped within the scale. Normally, radon-222 would be carried away with
the normal gas. There are fears that where sludges are formed, the entrapped radon-222 gas
may be given off in relatively large quantities, particularly when this sludge is being
disturbed. Therefore precautions must be taken to protect the people working with such
materials.
IRON (RUST) DEPOSITS
It has been noted that occasionally a matrix like iron oxide in oily-water separators has
exhibited low levels of radiation. The mechanism is unclear, but there is some speculation
that radium-226 could be locked into rust itself.
LEAD DEPOSITS
In some cases lead deposits occur which have high Pb 210 contents. They can occur with
gas wells producing from carboniferous strata. Often they are characterised by high sodium
chloride concentrations in the formation water. The deposits are usually found in well
tubing and well heads.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Radioactive scales and sludges or contaminated equipment may have to be
removed at some time for storage or disposal. Since this could cause
environmental problems strict precautions have to be taken to prevent the
irradiation and contamination of people, animals, plants and other materials.
The problems involved are:
2.1 Radioactive scales tend to be highly insoluble in acids. They contrast with
most common non-active shales (e.g. calcium carbonate) which are readily
soluble in acids. Difficulties experienced in dissolving scale with inorganic
acid should prompt to check for the presence of radioactivity.
2.2 LSA scales invariably emit alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Their
presence in production systems and equipment can give rise to occupational
hygiene problems. A particular concern is with dust particles which can be
released in cleaning operations. This dust can be trapped in the tissues of
the lung and emit alpha particles which can cause long-term health
problems. Where LSA scale is present in production trains or in items such

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as tubulars or wellheads, concern mainly centres on any effect that the

gamma radiation could have on those working close by.
2.3 Radioactive scale on the insides of the tubing strings may interfere with the
natural radioactive levels of the surrounding strata, causing anomalies in
the readings from gamma ray logs. The observation of such gamma ray
anomalies can be an early indicator of the presence of radioactive scales.
3. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The units used for Activity, Absorbed Dose and Dose Equivalent have recently changed
following the introduction of SI units and are:
3.1 ACTIVITY
The activity of an amount of radioactive nuclide at a given time is the number
of spontaneous nuclear transformations in the time unit. The SI unit of activity
is the becquerel (Bq) equal to 1 nuclear transformation per second.
3.7 x 1010 Bq equals 1 Curie (Ci) exactly
37 M Bq equals 1mCi (millicurie)
37 k Bq equals 1Ci (microcurie)
The units generally used for measurement are Bq/g for solids and Bq/l for liquids and gases.
3.2 DOSE
A term denoting the quantity of radiation energy absorbed by a medium.
Although the terms "dose" or "radiation dose" are often sued in a general sense,
they should usually be qualified, for example as absorbed dose, dose equivalent,
etc. The dose is still usually measured in pre SI units. Three pre SI units are
used, viz:
3.2.1 the Roentgen which measures the radiation dose in air and is sometimes
called the exposure dose;
3.2.2 the Rad which is a measure of the absorbed radiation dose, and
3.2.3 the Rem which is the unit of dose equivalent. For all practical purposes,
it is assumed that doses measured in Roentgen are equal to doses
measured in rads at the same position in the radiation field.
Only dosimeters for measuring neutrons are normally calibrated in rem units.
The unit of dose equivalent takes into account the fact that some types of
radiation, particularly alpha particles and neutrons, are much more efficient at

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killing or damaging cells per unit amount of absorbed dose. The rem dose is
related to the rad dose by the following relationship:
Dose in rem
= Dose in rad x QF
(dose equivalent) (absorbed dose) (quality factor)
The value of the quality factor can be as high as 20 for alpha particles and 10 for neutrons.
For gamma and beta particles, it is 1. These units are large and for operational purposes
measurements are made in mR, m rad or mrem, which are 1/1000 of the principal unit.
Under SI units, the Roentgen does not have an equivalent. The unit of

absorbed dose replacing the rad is of the Gray or Joule kg -1 and the unit of dose
equivalent replacing the rem is the Sievert. These SI units are related in the
same way as the rad and the rem, i.e.:
Dose in Sieverts (Sv) = Dose in Grays (Gy) x QF
By definition:
1 Gray
= 100
rad
1 Sievert = 100 rem
The SI unit is thus even larger than the existing unit and measurements will be made in Gy
or Sv (1/1,000,000th of the principal unit).
4. FIELD EQUIPMENT FOR RADIATION DETECTION
Generally there are two broad types of detectors available; contamination meters for
measuring surface radiation such as alpha and beta, and the dose rate meters for measuring
gamma radiation. There are also devices capable of measuring both beta and gamma
radiation simultaneously.
4.1 CONTAMINATION METERS
These are very sensitive devices for measuring surface radiation. They indicate level of
radiation in "counts per second" and should be able to measure alpha, alpha and beta, and
beta radiation. The ability to measure these three ranges is necessary because if the LSA
scale is damp, if there is moisture in the atmosphere or LSA scale is overlayed with calcium
carbonate scale, then the alpha particles may be absorbed. However, by measuring alpha
and beta emissions together the alpha emissions of the LSA scale may be inferred, i.e. as far
as LSA scale is concerned alpha and beta particles are always emitted together. If an
indication of LSA scale contamination is given by such a meter it must be confirmed by
radiochemical analysis or gamma spectrometry.
Contamination meters should be calibrated against a range of sources of known activity and
of similar isotopic composition; the calibration chart then produced will enable, say, a
reading of five counts per second to be converted to 0.37 Bq/cm2 which would only be true
for that particular meter. However, personnel trained in the use of such meters will soon
become adept at interpreting readings correctly.
Contamination meters, if treated with care, will give an early indication of a contamination
problem, provided that the scale is not shielded.

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4.2 RADIATION MONITORS OR DOSE RATE MATERS

These meters are reasonably robust and are used to measure radiation levels throughout
industry. Generally they indicate measurements in Sievert/hr and measure gamma
radiation. They are not as sensitive as contamination meters at measuring levels near
background but are a very useful tool to establish whether or not LSA scale with higher
levels of radiation is present inside pipelines, wellheads, vessels, etc. This is because the
steel will stop the alpha and beta particles but allow a certain percentage of the gamma ray
to pass; levels of radiation inside a steel pipeline or vessels may be in excess of two to three
times those indicated outside, depending on the thickness of the steel.
4.3 AVAILABLE DEVICES
The available devices to measure gamma and beta radiation in the field
equipment and facilities during operations and maintenance are:
sodium iodide scintillation counters (SC);
energy compensated geiger mueller (GM);
thin window geiger mueller Pancake (PK).
4.4 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Both types of meter are available from a number of manufacturers world-wide
but there are some basic precautions which must be taken when either or both
are used:
the meters should be calibrated by a suitable laboratory and either, in the
case of a contamination meter, a conversion chart supplied for that particular
meter or, in the case of a dose rate meter, the meter adjusted to read as
accurately as possible across the range;
meters should be overhauled and calibrated at least once a year;
if a meter is dropped or damaged it should be recalibrated;
meters should not be abused and should be switched off and kept securely
when not in use;
personnel who use such meters should be trained in their operation, be able
to interpret readings properly and be able to recognise when meters may not
be working properly;
indications of LSA scale should be confirmed by radiochemical analysis of
gamma spectrometry so that a completely accurate record of the levels of
radiation may be kept.

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NOTE:
LSA scales with high levels of contamination, and therefore posing potentially high health
risks of inhaled/ingested, may not register as such on dose rate meters and ideally, if the
presence of LSA scale is suspected, both kinds of meter should be used together.
5. RECOMMENDED LIMITS
5.1 DOSE LIMITS
The basic recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICPR) are laid down in its publications No. 26 and 30. However the "dose equivalent
limit" recommended by ICPR is 50 mSv over one year according to the defined working
conditions. Table 2 summarises these recommendations.
5.2 ACTIVITY LIMITS
When radioactive materials are handled, they should be classed as a radioactive substance
when the specific activity level (the activity per unit of mass) is greater than 100 Bq/g. This
limit only refers to the activity level of the material itself. This must be clearly
distinguished from the limit that is used for decontamination purposes: the allowable
contamination level for alpha emitters on a surface is usually 2 Bqcm-2.
Therefore, when either of these limits is exceeded, proper operation, handling and disposal
are required.
6. OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES DISPOSAL ASPECTS
6.1 SCALE HANDLING
When handling scale or scaled items, during such operations, as when pulling
tubing, entering production separators or produced water skimmers, removal of
Xmas trees, valves, meters and flowlines, etc. The following measures should be
considered:
contain contamination as near as possible to its site or production;
limit the possibility of ingestion or inhalation;
control and restrict direct exposure of workers;
measure and record the levels of activity where scale is found;
follow the recommended method of disposal.

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Table 2 Activity and radiation dose limits

Involvement Classified

Term
Dose limits (1) (2)
for whole body

Working condition 'A'

Controlled area
50 mSvYr-1

for individual organs/tissues 500 mSvYr-1

workersNon-classified

workersPublic and workers with no

involvement
(special
for
(1) Working condition 'B'
(1) requirements
transportation)**
(2) Supervised area
(2)
3/10

50mSv

15 mSvYr-1
3/10
x
500
-1
150 mSvYr

mSv

=1/10

x
50
5 mSvYr-1
=1/10
x
500
-1
50 mSvYr

mSv

mSv

Derived levels
Hourly limit for external2000 Sv h-1 (recommended15
expose of the whole body (2) maximum for radiographers)

mSv5
mSv
-1
= 7.5 Svh
= 2.5 Svh-1
2000 hours
2000 hours
"Annual limit of intake"* ALIRadium 226 by inhalation is 3/10 ALI, e.g. for Radium 2261/10 ALI, e.g. for Radium 226
of radioactive material (1)
20 kBq
Yr-1by inhalation 3/10 x 20 kBqby inhalation 1/10 x 20 kBq
Radium 226 by ingestion isYr-1 = 6 kBq Yr-1
Yr-1 = 2 kBq Yr-1
70 kBq Yr-1
Surface contamination levelALI
(2),
likely to result
8 Bq cm-2 for Ra 226
Airborne contamination+
ALI
(2),
-3
3 Bqm for Ra 226
Radioactive substance
Specific activity

Precautions

e.g.3/10

ALI
(2),
2.4 Bq cm-2 for RA 226
e.g.3/10
ALI
-3
e.g. 1 Bqm for Ra 226

e.g.1/10

ALI
(2),
e.g.
0.8 Bq cm-2 for Ra 226
(2),1/10
ALI,
-3
e.g. 0.3 Bqm for Ra 226

100 Bq g-1 and any other substance having a lower activity0.4 Bqg-1 used for pollution
concentration that cannot be disregarded for the radiological control
and
disposal
protection of persons at work (2).
authorisations.
Use only classified workers orALARA***.
RegularALARA***
and
'not
non classified workers workingmonitoring of affected areas.significantly above background
to a strictly controlled writtenContain surface contamination.levels'. Controls on radioactive
system of work (dose limitPrevent
airbornesubstances as pollutants.
15 mSv per annum, i.e. 500 hrscontamination.
per year at 30 Sv-hr); contain
contamination.
Controlled disposal of radioactive substances. Occupational
hygiene precautions to prevent inhalation and/or ingestion.

Annual limit of intake (ALI): an ALI is the amount of radioactive material which if taken into the body would delivery a
committed dose equivalent to the annual dose limit for either the whole body or individual tissues whichever is the more
restrictive. Each isotope has its own ALI, e.g. Radium 226 by inhalation is 20 BqYr-1.

**

Transport packages contain limit. On external surfaces of transport packages/containers the limit is 4 Bqcm -2 (3). 70 Bqg1 is limit used in transport regulations (3) (but check with national regulations for applicable limits).

***
+

ALARA: as low as is reasonably achievable.

Airborne contamination: very different limits can apply to different isotopes,
e.g. 3 Bq m-3 Ra 226; 0.01 Bq m-3 natural thorium

(1)

Internal commission on radiological protection limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers, ICRP Publication No. 30, Part
2, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980.
EURATOM Directive of the Council about radiation protection of workers and the public.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Series No. 6, Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials 1973,
Revised Edition (as amended), Vienna 1979.

(2)
(3)

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6.2 Containment, disposal and the environment

Disposal of LSA scale and sludges can be difficult and expensive, due to the
occupational hygiene and environmental protection considerations discussed
earlier. The following courses of action should be considered:
containment;
disposal.
6.2.1 CONTAINMENT
If tubulars are pulled and are found to be scaled, then provided that the scale is thin, hard,
tenacious and smooth and offers little resistance to well fluid production, and provided that
the tubing does not need to be reworked, then the scaled tubulars can be re-run back into the
well. Similarly if a vessel is opened up for inspection and is found to contain LSA scales or
sludges which are not interfering with production and the material does not have to be
removed, then the vessel can be closed up again.
6.2.2 DISPOSAL
The decision logic for disposal is presented in Figure 1.
Method of disposal include:
DISPOSAL TO THE SEA
Scales exhibiting levels of activity above background may be disposed of to the sea either
from offshore installations or from onshore facilities with their own direct flushed outfall.
Generally a maximum particle size (say 1 mm) could be specified together with a limit on
the total activity (specific activity times weight) expressed in Gigabecquerels.
Because particles of this size will obey Stokes Law, if this method is employed where there
are reasonably strong tides and currents, there should be no detectable increase in the level
of radioactivity in the sea or the surrounding seabed. In such instances, however, seabed
surveys (much like those for oil-based mud cuttings) may be required.
DISPOSAL ON LAND
Listed below are methods of disposal on land:
In specially dug pits, abandoned mines and oil wells: where such
facilities are available, burial of scale in mines, pits or abandoned wells are
possible methods of disposal.
Storage in secure yards or warehouses: in many cases where it is
considered too difficult or expensive to descale such items as tubulars, filter
baskets, valves, etc., it may appear cost-effective to put them into long-term
secure storage. Such storage must only be used with the agreement of the
relevant authorities.

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However, the following produced offshore, should be considered:

the risks of exposing other workers to the hazards of LSA scale are increased
(e.g. seamen, dockers, transport workers);
if LSA scales are stored onshore, thought must be given to keeping such
stores secure for generations in order to prevent workers from being exposed
to risk in the future the half-life of Radium 226 is 1620 years;
if methods such as mixing 'concentrated' LSA scale with cement and then
pumping the slurry into drums or down abandoned wells are used then again
additional risks are incurred by the workers handling the scale.
6.3 SCALE INHIBITION AND SCALE DISSOLUTION
6.3.1 INHIBITION
Generally, it can be said that scale inhibition of Ba/SrSO 4 using the correct programmes,
appropriate solutions and clean suitable equipment, will be successful. Scale inhibitor
squeezes will usually be performed when it is known that barium is present in the formation

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water following the first indication of injection water breakthrough. An increasing sulphate
ion count in the produced water is the usual indicator of the onset of breakthrough.
Otherwise, the produced water must be monitored closely for other indications. Inhibitors
can also be injected into the well fluid stream in the production train to help prevent scale
formation in valves and production manifolds, etc.
6.3.2 DISSOLUTION
Scale dissolution, usually in the production train manifolds, has been attempted, most often
using organic chemicals. Some of these organic chemicals show promise, but dissolution of
the salts has still to be proven effective, due to their almost chemically inert nature.
7. PROCEDURE FOR A FIELD SURVEY
The initial survey for a NORM at a site is typically performed along the exterior of on-line
intact equipment such as vessels, piping, compressors, and other production equipment. Of
the three types of radiation present in NORM (alpha, beta and gamma), gamma rays alone
can penetrate the steel and be detected outside the equipment. As discussed in the detection
equipment section (section 4.3), the SC probe is used to identify areas of potential concern
and the GM probe is used to quantify potential human doses.
Both measurements can be made during the same survey using a meter that can support the
two probes. The results of the survey should be documented and assigned one of the four
categories (A, B, C, D) described in Table 3.
Cut-offs of 2.5, 25 and 500
microSieverts/hour (uSv/hr) are used to define requirements needed to ensure a safe work
environment9 such as limiting access, posting of signs, and other follow-up actions. (Note:
10 uSv/hr = 1 mR/hr). It is recommended that sites with NORM contamination be
resurveyed every two years to identify changing conditions.
TABLE 3 DETERMINATION OF AREA NORM CATEGORY
uSv/hr (GM)

Category

Definition

Requirements

<2.5

Public access area

None

2.5-5

Limited access area

Limit public access

Document findings
Inform maintenance

25-500

Regulated area

Limit worker access

Post with NORM sign
Train workers
Personal dosimetry

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High radiation

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Limit worker access

Post with "high radiation" sign
Train workers
Personal dosimitry
Work permit required
Notify EA

8. DECONTAMINATION
Any equipment, tools, or personal protective equipment (PPE) that has contacted NORM or
LSAS contaminated surfaces needs to be evaluated to determine whether they have been
contaminated.
Similarly areas where NORM-related work has led to possible
contamination also need to be evaluated.
The decontamination decision logic is presented in Figure 2. Measurements are made using
the GM probe and the PK probe (direct measurement or a wipe sample depending on the
configuration of the surface). If both measurements are less than the criteria, the material is
not considered to be NORM contaminated.
For materials that do not meet the stated criteria, decontamination and repeat monitoring are
one possible option. The other option is packaging for disposal.

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II.
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS IN NATURAL GAS
OCCURRENCE OF RADON
Natural gas contains small quantities of the gaseous radioactive nuclide Radon-222 formed
from the decay of Radium-226, which is a daughter nuclide of naturally occurring Uranium238. Radon enters natural gas in the earth by diffusion from a formation. Uranium
minerals are often associated with carbonaceous deposits, therefore radon can be expected
to occur in natural gas.
Radon-222 has a half life of 3.8 days and produces upon decay a series of short and long
lived daughter nuclides as shown in Figure (1). When propane is separated from natural
gas, radon tends to be concentrated in the propane process stream since the boiling point of
radon is close to that of propane. Consequently, it is typically enriched in propane by a
factor of the order of 10.
In natural gas condensate the long lived daughters of radon (particularly Lead-210 and
Polonium-210) are generally present.

Figure (1) Decay scheme of the 238U natural series

Notes:
1) Half-lives are indicated in years a, days d, minutes min, and seconds.
2) The nature of the radiation is indicated by , , and (only energetic
radiations with high yield).
Recent reports of radon contaminated buildings through out the world, attest to the wide
distribution of radon in the environment.
Once formed by the radioactive decay of radium-226, radon is free to migrate as a gas or
dissolve in water without being trapped or removed by chemical reaction. Migration
through rocks and soil, radon is produced with natural gas at the wellhead. Table 1 shows

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that radon contamination of natural gas is a worldwide problem, and particularly high
concentrations of radon are reported in the US and Canada.
Table 1 - Radon concentrations in natural gas at the wellhead *
Location of Well
Radon concentration (pCi/L)
Borneo
1 to 3
Canada
Alberta
10
to
205
British Columbia
390
to
540
Ontario
4 to 800
Germany
1 to 10
The Netherlands
1 to 45
Nigeria
1 to 3
North Sea
2 to 4
US
Colorado, New Mexico
1
to
160
Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma
1 to 1,450
Texas Panhandle
10
to
520
Colorado
11
to
45
California
1 to 100
*) From "Radon Concentration in Natural Gas at the Well, UN Scientific
Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation; Sources and Effects of
Ionizing Radiation, United Nations, New York City (1977).
When radon-contaminated produced gas is processed to remove the NGL's, much of the
radon is removed also. Radon's boiling (or condensing) point is intermediate between the
boiling points of ethane and propane. Upon subsequent processing, radon tends to
accumulate further in the propylene distillation stream. Table 2 shows the boiling points of
radon, the lighter NGL's, and propylene. As expected radon usually is recovered more
completely in plants with high ethane recovery. The radon is concentrated in the lighter
NGL's and is detected relatively easily with radiation survey meters.

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Table 2 - Boiling points at 760 mm Mercury

F
Methane
-258.0
Ethane
-124.0
Radon
-79.2
Propylene
-53.9
Propane
-44.4
Butane
+31.1
As long as it is contained and controlled within vessels, equipment, and piping, radon
generally is not a health hazard to employees and the public. Even if radon-contaminated
propane were released, the threat of fire or asphyxiation would far outweigh the hazard of a
short-lived radiation exposure.
NORM IN NGL FACILITIES
Although entire natural-gas and NGL systems may be contaminated with NORM, some
facilities will be contaminated to the extent that they present significant decontamination
and disposal problems. Gasoline plants and other NGL facilities will be among the most
highly contaminated areas in a system.
During processing in a gasoline plant, the levels of external radiation from radon in propane
1 ft from a liquids pump may be as high as 25 milli-roentgens (mR)/hr. Radiation levels up
to 6 mr/hr have been detected at outer surfaces of storage tanks containing fresh propane.
Sludges in gasoline plants are often contaminated with several thousand picocuries of lead210 per gram.
Table 3 shows vessels and equipment in NGL service that may be significantly
contaminated with NORM. Although NORM contamination will be general throughout an
NGL facility, the contamination usually will be greatest in areas of high turbulence, such as
in pumps and valves.
Table 3 - Priority areas of concern for high radon and radon decay product
contamination
NGL facilities
De-ethanizers
Stills
Fractionators
Product condensers
Flash tanks
Pumps in liquid service
Piping in liquid service
NGL storage tanks
Truck terminals
Filter separators
Dessicants
Waste pits
Pipelines
Filters
Pig receivers

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Machine shops
In-house Contract
When employees open equipment and vessels, precautions must be taken to prevent
exposure to radioactive contamination. Maintenance procedures should include the use of
respirators and good hygiene to prevent inhalation of radioactive dust. Grinding, if
necessary, should be done wet to minimise dust.
Occasionally, a plant or other facility that has been processing light hydrocarbons,
particularly ethane and propane, is taken out of service and the facility sold or dismantled.
Any equipment with internal surface deposits of NORM must receive special consideration
when scrapped, sold, transferred, or otherwise disposed of, particularly when the facility is
being released for unrestricted use. Analyses for lead-210 usually will be required to verify
the extent of contamination and to determine if special handling is needed. Particularly care
must be used to prevent employee exposure to NORM contamination.
There are potential liabilities involved if contaminated equipment, vessels, and other parts
of the facility are released or sold for unrestricted use without first being cleaned and tested
to be essentially free of NORM contamination according to state and federal regulations.
Much of the material wastes from a facility contaminated with NORM must be handled as
low-level radioactive waste and disposed of accordingly. Contaminated wastes should be
consolidated and separated from non-contaminated waste to keep radioactive waste
volumes as low as possible. Consolidated contaminated wastes should be stored in a
controlled-access area. The area should be surveyed with a radiation survey meter and, if
required, should be posted.
THE INVESTIGATION LEVEL
Normally, the amount of radioactivity in the natural gas and its products is insufficient to
cause health hazards during handling and subsequent use by consumers.
However, it is recommended that the radon content of natural gas and Polonium-210 in the
condensate of wells should be monitored prior to production. A record should also be kept
of radon and polonium in gas and condensate from reservoirs which have been in
production for a long period. The results of such measurements should be compared with a
'Derived Investigation Level'. A derived investigation level, as defined by the international
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), is a value of concentration of radioactive
material. It is usually set in relation to a single measurement, which is the resulting
radiation dose to humans sufficiently important to justify further investigation.
It is important to recognise that an investigation level is not intended to be a limit. Should
an investigation level be exceeded, this should be reported to the Central Offices EP Health,
Safety and Environment Department (SIPM-EPO/6) who will contact the radiological
specialists for advice. A close investigation of the (local) circumstances will be required.
The investigation will often be no more than a recognition that the circumstances will not
cause any hazard as the investigation level is based on a 'worst case' estimate. Below the
investigation level, the information need not be further studied by experts.
CALCULATION OF THE INVESTIGATION LEVEL
Two types of radioactive exposure to humans resulting from radioactivity in
natural gas or condensate can be identified:

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a) During the use of the natural gas by consumers, e.g. heating and cooking.
b) Relating to gas handling at gas processing stations.
In both cases, a derived investigation level will be specified.
NATURAL GAS AND LPG FOR DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION
When natural gas or LPG is burned in domestic appliances (cooking and heating) radon will
be emitted into the atmosphere and contribute to the radiation level already naturally
present. Radon (and its daughter nuclides which are formed by decay) become attached to
aerosol particles and may subsequently be inhaled.
To calculate the derived investigation level for radon in raw natural gas, the
following 'worst case' conditions are assumed:
- Minimal ventilation and maximal invented appliances of LPG in which radon
is enriched.
- The combustion products will all contribute to the radon concentration in
indoor air.
The maximum permissible yearly dose to members of the public is 5 mSv/a (milliSievert
per year, a unit for the ionising radiation dose to human beings). As a base for the derived
investigation level, one twentieth of this dose equivalent is taken, i.e. 0.25 mSv/a. This
dose equivalent is not exceeded when the concentration in the natural gas is below 2
kBq/m3 (50 pCi/dm3). For comparison, the average yearly dose from the natural
background and medical radiation is around 3 mSv/a. This level can be considered as the
derived investigation level for radon in raw natural gas taking into account the use of
recoverable LPG when converted into fuel gas.
For use of natural gas as an industrial fuel gas, the same investigation level should be used,
provided that the investigation level for surface contamination is not exceeded.
CONTAMINATION OF GAS PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
Inner parts of gas processing equipment may be contaminated with the long lived daughter
products of Radon-222 as a result of deposition of the solid daughters (particularly the long
lived Pb-210 and Po-210) at places where the stream is dispersed over a large surface or
where high turbulence occurs. An additional effect is the enrichment in the propane stream
(see 3.8.1) which causes an increased chance of contamination in the propane stream
equipment.
Similarly, Polonium-210 present in the condensate may be deposited in pumps, distillation
columns, heat exchangers, etc.
The chance of contamination above a certain level is related to the initial concentration of
radon or polonium in natural gas or natural gas condensate. However, possible enrichment
and the throughput of gas or condensate are also important factors.
The long lived daughters of radon (e.g. Polonium-210) mainly emit alpha radiation which
cannot penetrate steel walls of equipment. Only the short lived Bismuth-214 may be
detectable at the outside of the equipment. In view of the short half-life, however, the

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external radiation level will always be minimal and will disappear after shut-down of the
installation.
Thus, radiation hazards, if present, may only occur when opening equipment, by inhalation
or ingestion of the contamination. Before workers enter equipment which has been exposed
to condensate containing polonium or propane containing radon, it may be advisable to
monitor the inner surfaces to avoid the risk of contamination of the personnel involved. For
a derived investigation on surface contamination of equipment, 4 kBq/m3 (10 pCi/cm2)
should be used.
Since the mechanism for deposition of solid daughters of radon (e.g. Polonium-210) cannot
be quantitatively described, it is not possible to calculate investigation levels for liquid
concentration of radon or Polonium-210 resulting in contamination. However, from
experience, contamination of inner surfaces of equipment is unlikely when the level of
Polonium-210 in natural gas condensate is below 20 kBq/m3 (0.5 pCi/cm3).
MONITORING
Radon-222 in natural gas can be detected using an ionisation chamber. Radon
concentration determination is usually carried out as one of the routine tests during
production testing of new gas reservoirs.
Several methods for determination of Polonium-210 in natural gas condensate are available.
One of the accurate methods consists of extraction of Po-210 from the condensate and acid
destruction followed by plating Po-210 on a silver disc. The alpha activity on the silver
surface is determined using, for example, a surface barrier detector.
For detection of contamination of inner surfaces of equipment, a simple technique
developed by KSLA of applying a film sensitive to alpha radiation is available.
SUGGESTED PROGRAMME FOR THE CONTROL OF NORM
The following are suggestions for use in establishing a programme for the control of
NORM contamination.
1) Determine whether there is a NORM contamination problem.
2) Determine areas of potential NORM exposure and contamination.
a) Make gamma radiation surveys of facilities and equipment.
b) Make wipe tests on accessible interior surfaces of selected equipment
and vessels, especially any in NGL service.
c)

Obtain samples of sludges and scale and analyse for radium and lead210.

d) Obtain samples of other waste materials, such as dessicants and filters.

e)

Analyse produced water and waste pond water for radium.

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3) Establish programmes to ensure personnel safety, products quality,

customer satisfaction, and protection of the environment.
a) Establish policy on periodic surveys, inspection and maintenance
procedures, product controls, and record keeping.
b) Provide safety-manual material that informs employees and details
required procedures, particularly for maintenance personnel.
c)

Recommend a management and audit system.

d) Develop plans and procedures for the disposal of contaminated waste

materials, equipment, and facilities.
REFERENCES
1.

Low specific activity scale: origin, treatment and disposal

E&P Forum Report No. 6.6/127, 1988

2. E.C. Thayer and L.M. Racioppi

Naturally occurring radioactive materials: the next step
SPE 23500, 1991
3.
P.R. Gray "NORM contamination in Petroleum Industry" JPT Jan. 1993.
4. G.E. Jackson
Formation and inhibition of scale in offshore oil productive systems
Offshore Radioactivity Seminar, OYEZ London, 1983
5. K.S. Johnson
Water scaling problems in the oil production industry
in Chemicals in the Oil Industry, Ed. P.H. Ogden, 1983
6. UKOOA Reference Manual on naturally occurring radioactive substances on
offshore installations
UKOOA, London, 1985
7.

W.A. Kolb and M. Wojcik

Enhanced radioactivity due to natural oil and gas production and related
radiological problems
Science of the Total Environment 45, 77-84, 1985

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8. A.L. Smith
Radioactive scale formation
OTC 5081, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1985
9.
10.
11.
12.

P.R. Gray "Radioactive materials could pose problems for the gas industry" Oil & Gas
J. (June 25, 1990) 45-48.
J. Summerlin Jr. and H.M. Prichard "Radiological Health Implications of Lead-210
and Polonium-210 Accumulations in LPG Refineries" J. American Industrial Hygiene
Assn. (1985) 46, No. 4, 202-05.
E&P Form Report no. 6.6/127, 1988. Low Specific Activity Scale.
E.C. Tayler & C.M. Raciopi NORM; "The Next Step", SPE 23500, 1991.

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Radiological units SI conversions

Conversion table
ACTIVITY UNITS
1pCi
1nCi
1Ci
1mCi
1 Ci
1KCi

=
=
=
=
=

37mBq
37 Bq
37KBq
37MBq
37GBq (37E+09Bq)
37TBq

1mBq
1 Bq
1KBq
1MBq
1GBq
1TBq

=
=
=
=
=
=

0.027pCi
27pCi
27 nCi
27Ci
27mCi
27Ci

= 27fCi

CURIES TO BECQUERELS
1 pCi
37 mBq

1 nCi
37 Bq

1 Ci
37 KBq

1m Ci
37 MBq

1 Ci
37 GBq

1 MBq
27 Ci

1 GBq
27 mCi

1 TBq
27 Ci

BECQUERELS TO CURIES
1 Bq
27 pCi

1 kBq
27 nCi

ABSORBED DOSE UNITS

1rad
1mrad
1 rad
1Krad
1Mrad

=
=
=
=
=

0.01Gy
0.01mGy
0.01 Gy = 10mGy
10 Gy
10 KGy

1Gy
1mGy
1 Gy
10 KGy
1MGy

=
=
=
=
=

100rad
100mrad
100 rad
0.1Mrad
100 Mrad

DOSE EQUIVALENT UNITS

1rem
1mrem
1 rem
1Krem
1Mrem
(H)rem
1
1
(H)Sv

=
=
=
=
=

0.01Sv
0.01mSv=10Mv
0.01 Sv=10mSv
10 Sv
10 KSv
mrem
1
10
Sv

1Sv
1mSv
1 Sv
1KSv
1MSv
mrem
10
100
Sv

= 100 rem
= 100 mrem
= 100 rem
= 0.1Mrem
= 0.1Grem
mrem
10
1
mSv

mrem
1
10
mSv

PREFIXES
k
M
G
T

kilo
mega
giga
tera

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thousand (103)
million (106)
thousand million (109)
million million (1012)

n
p

milli
micro
nano
pico

thousandth (10-3)
millionth (10-6)
thousand-millionth (10-9)
million-millionth (10-12)

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Glossary

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Activity

The quantity of a radionuclide described by the number of nuclear

transformations occurring per unit time (see becquerel and curie).

ALARA

As low as is reasonably achievable.

Alpha particle ()

A charged particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom having a

mass and charge equal in magnitude to that of a helium nucleus, i.e.
two protons and two neutrons.

Becquerel

The SI unit of activity. One Becquerel (symbol Bq) equals one

nuclear transformation per second.

Beta particle ()

Charged particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom, with a mass

and charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron.

Coelestobarite

Ba/Sr(Ra)SO4 solid solution of RaSO4 in Ba/SrSO4.

Contamination
(radioactive)

Radioactive material in any place where it is not desired particularly

where its presence may be harmful. The harm may be in inhaling or
ingesting the radioactive material which may cause internal
radiation dose.

Controlled area

A defined area in which the occupational exposure of personnel (to

radiation) is under the supervision of the Safety/Radiation Adviser
and the dose rate is above 7.5 Sv/hr.

Counter (Geiger-Muller) A glass or metal envelope containing a gas and two electrodes.
Ionising radiation causes discharges, which are registered as electric
pulses in a counter. The number of pulses is related to the dose.
Counter (Proportional)

A similar device as a Geiger-Muller counting tube; the intensity of

the electric pulses produced is proportional to the energy of the
primary ionising particles.

Counter (Scintillation)

A device containing material that emits light flashes when exposed

to ionising radiation. The flashes are converted into electric pulses
by a photo-multiplier.

Curie

The pre-SI unit of activity. One curie (abbreviated Ci) equals 3.7 x
1010 nuclear transformations per second, i.e. it equals 37
gigabecquerel.

Decay

Disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by spontaneous

emission of charged particles and/or photons. It causes the decrease
in activity or radioactive substances.

Detector (Radiation)

Any device for converting radiant energy to a form more suitable for
observation. An instrument used to determine the presence, and
sometimes the amount, of radiation.

Dose

A general term denoting the quantity of radiation or energy

absorbed. For special purposes it must be appropriately qualified. If
unqualified, it refers to absorbed dose.

Collective effective
dose

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The quantity obtained by multiplying the average effective dose

equivalent by the numbers of persons exposed to a given source of
radiation. Expressed in man-sievert. Frequently abbreviated to
collective dose.

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Cumulative radiation The total dose resulting from repeated exposures to dose.
dose (radiation)
Dose equivalent
(symbol H)

A quantity used in radiation protection. It expressed all radiation

on a common scale for calculating the effective absorbed dose such
that biological effects can be compared. It is defined as the product
of the absorbed dose and the quality factor (see Quality factor and
Sievert).

Effective dose
equivalent

The quantity obtained by multiplying the dose equivalents to

various tissues and organs by the risk weighting factor appropriate
to each and summing the product. This procedure makes it possible
to compare this number with a whole-body dose equivalent.

Maximum permissible The greatest dose equivalent that a person or specified part thereof
dose equivalent (MPD) shall be allowed to receive in a given period of time. This quantity
has been rejected in ICRP 26.
Dose rate

Absorbed dose delivered per unit of time.

Dosimeter

Instrument to detect ad measure a dose received. For example, a

pencil-size ionisation chamber with a self-reading electrometer, used
for personnel monitoring.

Exposure

A measure of the ionisation produced in air by X or gamma radiation

(see Roentgen).

Gamma ray ()

Short-wave length electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin (range

of energy from 10 KeV to 9 MeV) emitted from the nucleus.

Gray (symbol Gy)

The unit of absorbed dose. One gray equals one joule per
kilogramme.

Half-life (radioactive)
(symbol t1/2)

Time required for a radioactive substance to lose half of its activity

by decay. Each radionuclide has a unique half-life.

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Authority.

ICRP

International Commission on Radiological Protection.

Ionising radiation

Radiation that produces ionisation in matter. Examples are alpha

particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X rays and neutrons.

Irradiation

Exposure to radiation.

Isotopes

Nuclides having the same number of protons in their nuclei, and

hence the same atomic number, but differing in the number of
neutrons, and therefore in the mass number. Almost identical
chemical properties exist between isotopes of a particular element.
The term should not be used as a anonym for nuclide.

Joule

The unit for work and energy, equal to one Newton expended along a
distance of one metre (IJ = 1N x 1m).

Monitoring

Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of ionising

radiation or radioactive contamination present.

Nuclide

A species of atom characterised by the number of protons and

neutrons, and the energy content.

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Rad

The pre-SI unit of absorbed dose; equal to 0.01 J/kg (see Gray).

Radiation

The emission and propagation of energy through space or through a

material medium in the form of waves; for instance, the emission
and propagation of electromagnetic waves. The term radiation or
radiant energy, when unqualified, usually refers to electromagnetic
radiation. Such radiation commonly is classified, according to
frequency, as hertzian, infra-red visible (light), ultraviolet, X ray,
and gamma ray (see Photon).

Background

Radiation arising from radioactive material other than the one

directly under consideration. Background radiation due to cosmic
rays and natural radioactivity is always present. There may also be
background radiation due to the presence of radioactive substances
in other parts of the building, in the building material itself, etc.

External

Radiation from a source outside the human body.

Internal

Radiation from a source within the body (as a result of incorporation

and deposition of radionuclides in body tissues).

Radioactivity

The property of certain nuclides of spontaneously emitting particles

or electromagnetic radiation.

Radionuclide

An unstable nuclide that emits ionising radiation.

Radon

In the context of this report Radon is taken to mean either Radon

222 or Radon 220 radioactive gases produced by decay of Ra 226 or
Ra 224.

Rem

The pre-SI unit of dose equivalent; equal to 0.01 J/kg (see Sievert).

Risk factor

In connection with ionising radiation, the probability of cancer and

leukaemia or genetic damage per unit dose equivalent. Usually
refers to fatal malignant diseases and serious genetic damage.
Expressed in Sv.

Roentgen (R)

The pre-SI unit of exposure. One Roentgen is the dose given by a

radiation field that produces ionisation, due to secondary electrons,
of one electrostatic unit of charge per cm3 (NTP) of air. It is equal to
2.58 x 10-6 coulomb per kilogramme of air.

Sealed substance
(or source)

A radioactive substance sealed in an impervious container which

has sufficient mechanical strength to prevent contact with and
dispersion of the radioactive substance under the conditions of use
and wear for which it was designed.

Shield

A body of material used to prevent or reduce the passage of particles

or radiation.

SI

Abbreviation of "Systme International d'Unites", the International

System of Units, recommended for general use.

Sievert (symbol Sv)

The unit of (effective) dose equivalent. The sievert has the

dimensions of joule per kilogramme. The dose equivalent in sieverts
is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in grays multiplied by the
quality factor (see Gray and Quality factor).

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Specific activity

Total activity of a given nuclide per unit mass of the specific

material.

Tracer (isotopic)

The isotope or non-natural mixture of isotopes of an element which

may be incorporated into a sample to permit observation of the
course of that element, alone or in combination, through a chemical,
biological, or physical process.

Tritium

The hydrogen isotope with one proton and two neutrons in the
nucleus. (Symbol 3 H or H-3, sometimes T).

X rays

Electromagnetic radiation of which the wave lengths are shorter

than those of visible light. They are usually produced by
bombarding a metallic target with fast electrons in a high vacuum,
as occurs in an X ray machine.

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