Molecules of Life PDF

Chapter
3
The Molecules of Life
PowerPoint Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for

Campbell Essential Biology, Sixth Edition, and
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fifth Edition
Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, Kelly A. Hogan, and Jane B. Reece
2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 3.0-2
Chapter Thread: Lactose Intolerance

Biology and Society: Got Lactose?

Lactose is the main sugar found in milk.
Lactose intolerance is the inability to properly
digest lactose.
Instead of lactose being broken down and absorbed
in the small intestine, lactose is broken down by
bacteria in the large intestine, producing gas and
discomfort.
Biology and Society: Got Lactose?

Lactose intolerance can be addressed by
avoiding lactose-containing foods or
consuming lactase pills along with food.
Organic Compounds
A cell is mostly water.
The rest of the cell consists mainly of carbon-based
molecules.
Carbon forms large, complex, and diverse

molecules necessary for lifes functions.
Organic compounds are carbon-based
molecules.
Carbon: The Central Atom

Carbon atoms participate in four covalent bonds.
Has four electrons in the outer energy level
Can make double bonds with oxygen
Can double or triple bonds with other carbon atoms
Figure 3.1
Double bond
Carbon skeletons vary in length
Carbon skeletons may

have double bonds,
which can vary in location
Carbon skeletons may be

unbranched or branched
Carbon skeletons may

be arranged in rings
Figure 3.2
Structural formula
Ball-and-stick model
Space-filling model
Figure 3.3
Octane
Dietary fat
Functional
Groups
Isomers
Isomers
Organic molecules can have the same number and
composition of atoms, but can have different
arrangements.
These are called isomers.

Molecules with the same empirical formula but
different structural formulas
Hexose Isomers
Carbon Chemistry
Carbon is a versatile molecule.
Carbon can share electrons with other atoms in four
covalent bonds.
Because carbon can use one or more of its bonds to

attach to other carbon atoms, it is possible to
construct an endless diversity of carbon skeletons
varying in
size and
branching pattern.
Carbon Chemistry
The carbon atoms of organic compounds can also
bond with other elements, most commonly
hydrogen,
oxygen, and
nitrogen.
Carbon Chemistry
One of the simplest organic compounds is
methane, CH4, with a single carbon atom bonded
to four hydrogen atoms.
Methane is abundant in natural gas and is
produced
by prokaryotes that live in swamps (i.e., swamp gas)
and
in the digestive tracts of grazing animals, such as
cows.
Carbon Chemistry
Larger organic compounds
are the main molecules in the gasoline we burn in
cars and other machines and
are important fuels in your body.
The energy-rich parts of fat molecules have a

structure similar to gasoline.
Carbon Chemistry
The unique properties of an organic compound
depend on
its carbon skeleton and
the atoms attached to the skeleton.
Carbon Chemistry
In an organic compound, the groups of atoms
directly involved in chemical reactions are called
functional groups.
Each functional group plays a particular role during
chemical reactions.
Many biological molecules have two or more
functional groups.
Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks

On a molecular scale, many of lifes molecules are
gigantic, earning the name macromolecules.
Three categories of macromolecules are
1. carbohydrates,
2. proteins, and
3. nucleic acids.

Macromolecules are polymers.
Polymers are made by stringing together many
smaller molecules called monomers.
A dehydration reaction
links two monomers together and
removes a molecule of water.

Organisms also have to break down
macromolecules.
Digestion breaks down macromolecules to make
monomers available to your cells.

Hydrolysis
breaks bonds between monomers,
adds a molecule of water, and
reverses the dehydration reaction.
OH
Short polymer
Monomer
Dehydration
reaction
H2O
Longer polymer
(a) Building a polymer chain
Figure 3.4-1
H2O
Hydrolysis
OH
(b) Breaking a polymer chain

Figure 3.4-2
Large Biological Molecules

There are four categories of large biological
molecules found in all living creatures:
1. carbohydrates,
2. lipids,
3. proteins, and
4. nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
All have the general formula CH2O
Names end in ose
Serve as the primary energy source for most living
things
Also serve as structural support
Plant cell walls
Important components of nucleic acids

DNA and RNA
3-27
Polymers
3-28
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and polymers of
sugar. Examples are
small sugar molecules in soft drinks and
long starch molecules in spaghetti and bread.
Carbohydrates
In animals, carbohydrates are
a primary source of dietary energy and
raw material for manufacturing other kinds of
organic compounds.
In plants, carbohydrates serve as a building

material for much of the plant body.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
are the monomers of carbohydrates and
cannot be broken down into smaller sugars.
Common examples are glucose in sports drinks

and fructose found in fruit.
Both of these simple sugars are also in honey.
Figure 3.5-1
Monosaccharides
Glucose
C6H12O6
Fructose
C6H12O6
Isomers
(same formula, different arrangements)
Monosaccharides
Glucose and fructose are isomers, molecules that
have the same molecular formula but different
structures.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides, particularly glucose, are the
main fuels for cellular work.
In water, many monosaccharides form rings.
Figure 3.6
(a) Linear and ring structures
(b) Abbreviated ring

structure
Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a double sugar constructed from
two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
Figure 3.7-1
OH
Glucose
Galactose
H2O
Lactose
Disaccharides
Disaccharides include
lactose in milk, made from the monosaccharides
glucose and galactose,
maltose in beer, malted milk shakes, and malted

milk ball candy, and
sucrose in table sugar.
Disaccharides
Sucrose is the main carbohydrate in plant sap.
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is made by a
commercial process that converts natural glucose
in corn syrup to much sweeter fructose.
HFCS is often one of the first ingredients listed in
soft drinks.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
are complex carbohydrates and
are made of long chains of sugarspolymers of
monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides
Starch
is a familiar example of a polysaccharide,
consists of long strings of glucose monomers, and
is used by plant cells to store energy.
Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in

our diet.
Polysaccharides
Glycogen
is used by animal cells to store energy and
is broken down to release glucose when you need
energy.
Polysaccharides
Cellulose
is the most abundant organic compound on Earth,
forms cable-like fibrils in the walls that enclose plant
cells, and
cannot be broken by any enzyme produced by
animals.
Figure 3.9
Starch granules
in potato tuber cells
Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue
(a) Starch
Glucose
monomer
(b) Glycogen
Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall
Cellulose
molecules
(c) Cellulose
Hydrogen bonds
The average American consumes about 45 kg of

sugar (about 100 lb) per year, mainly as sucrose
and high-fructose corn syrup.
Sugar
is a major cause of tooth decay, and
Overconsumption increases the risk of developing
type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
Lipids
Almost all carbohydrates are hydrophilic (waterloving) molecules that dissolve readily in water.
Lipids are hydrophobic, unable to mix with water.
When you combine oil and vinegar, the oil, which is

a type of lipid, separates from the vinegar, which is
mostly water.
Lipids
Lipids also differ from carbohydrates, proteins, and
nucleic acids in that they are neither huge
macromolecules nor are they necessarily polymers
built from repeating monomers.
Lipids are a diverse group of molecules made from
different molecular building blocks.
Fats
A typical fat, or triglyceride, consists of a glycerol
molecule joined with three fatty acid molecules via
a dehydration reaction.
Figure 3.11-1
HO
Fatty acid
H2O
Glycerol
(a) A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol
Figure 3.11-2
(b) A fat molecule with a glycerol head and three

energy-rich hydrocarbon fatty acid tails
Fats
Fats perform essential functions in the human body
including
energy storage,
cushioning, and
insulation.
Fats
If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has fewer than
the maximum number of hydrogens at the double
bond, it is unsaturated.
If it has the maximum number of hydrogens,
it is saturated.
A saturated fat has all three of its fatty acids
saturated.
Fats
Most animal fats
have a relatively high proportion of saturated fatty
acids,
can easily stack, tending to be solid at room

temperature, and
contribute to atherosclerosis, in which lipidcontaining plaques build up along the inside walls of
blood vessels.
Figure 3.12
TYPES OF FATS
Saturated Fats
Unsaturated Fats
Margarine
Plant oils
Trans fats
Omega-3 fats
Fats
Most plant and fish fats tend to be
high in unsaturated fatty acids and
liquid at room temperature.
Fats
Hydrogenation
adds hydrogen,
converts unsaturated fats to saturated fats,
makes liquid fats solid at room temperature, and

creates trans fats, a type of unsaturated fat that is
particularly bad for your health.
Phospholipids
Are complex organic

molecules that resemble
fats but contain
phosphate groups
Phospholipids are the
major components of
cell membranes.
3-57
Steroids
Steroids are very different from fats in structure
and function.
The carbon skeleton has four fused rings.
Steroids vary in the functional groups attached to

this set of rings, and these chemical variations affect
their function.
Steroids
Cholesterol is
a key component of cell membranes and
the base steroid from which your body produces
other steroids, such as estrogen and testosterone.
Figure 3.13
Cholesterol
Testosterone
can be converted
by the body to
A type of estrogen
Steroids
Synthetic anabolic steroids
are variants of testosterone,
mimic some of its effects,
may be prescribed to treat diseases such as cancer

and AIDS,
are abused by athletes to build up their muscles
quickly, and
can cause serious physical and mental problems.
Steroids
Most athletic organizations ban the use of anabolic
steroids because of their many potential health
hazards coupled with the unfairness of an artificial
advantage.
Proteins
Proteins
are polymers of amino acid monomers,
account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most
cells, and
are instrumental in almost everything cells do.
Figure 3.15
MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINS

Structural Proteins
(provide support)
Storage Proteins
(provide amino
acids for growth)
Contractile
Proteins
(help movement)
Transport Proteins
(help transport
substances)
Enzymes
(help chemical
reactions)
Structural Proteins: provide support

Storage Proteins: provide aminoacids for growth
Contractile Proteins: help movement

Transport Proteins: help transport substances
Enzymes: help chemical reactions
The Monomers of Proteins: Amino Acids

All proteins are made by stringing together a
common set of 20 kinds of amino acids.
Every amino acid consists of a central carbon
atom bonded to four covalent partners.

Three of those attachment groups are common to
all amino acids:
1. a carboxyl group (COOH),
2. an amino group (NH2), and

3. a hydrogen atom.
The variable component of amino acids

is called the side chain and
is attached to the fourth bond of the central carbon.
Figure 3.16-1
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
Side
chain
(a) The general structure of an amino acid

Each type of amino acid has a unique side chain,
which gives that amino acid its special chemical
properties.
Figure 3.16-2
Hydrophobic
side chain
Hydrophilic
side chain
Leucine
Serine
(b) Examples of amino acids with hydrophobic and hydrophilic

side chains
Structure/Function: Protein Shape

Cells link amino acids together by dehydration
reactions,
forming peptide bonds, and
creating long chains of amino acids called

polypeptides.
A functional protein is one or more polypeptide

chains precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a
molecule of unique shape.
Figure 3.17-s1
Carboxyl
group
OH
Amino
group
Side
chain
Side
chain
Amino acid
Amino acid
Figure 3.17-s2
Carboxyl
group
Amino
group
OH
Side
chain
Side
chain
Amino acid
Amino acid
Dehydration reaction
H2O
Side
chain
Side
chain
Peptide bond

How is it possible to make the huge variety of
proteins found in your body from just 20 kinds of
amino acids?
Like the English alphabet used to make different
words by varying the sequent of just 26 letters,
proteins use 20 different letters (amino acids) to
create polypeptides hundreds or thousands of
amino acids in length.

The amino acid sequence of each polypeptide
determines the three-dimensional structure of the
protein.
A proteins three-dimensional structure enables the
molecule to carry out its specific function.
Nearly all proteins work by recognizing and binding
to some other molecule.
Figure 3.4-3
Primary Structure
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
constitutes the primary structure of the protein.
This sequence is dictated by information in genes
(DNA).
All levels of protein structure depend on the primary
sequence.
3-77
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Secondary Structure
Polypeptides twist and fold
into their secondary structure.
Some sequences of
amino acids twist into a
helix.
This is called an alpha
helix.
Some sequences of
amino acids remain
straight and fold back on
themselves.
This is called a betapleated sheet.
3-78
Tertiary Structure
The various alpha
helices and beta
pleated sheets interact
to form a globular
structure.
This globular structure
is unique for each
polypeptide.
3-79
Quaternary Structure
Some proteins contain
more than one
polypeptide chain.
Each of these
polypeptides has its
own unique tertiary
structure.
These polypeptides
interact to form a
more complex
globular structure.
Quaternary structure
can be stabilized by
3-80 disulfide bonds.
Form and Function

The proteins overall shape
determines its job.
If a protein is not shaped
properly, it likely will not
work properly.
Example:
Sickle cell anemia
A mutation in the gene
causes the protein to
have a different shape.
This shape change
results in a change in
function.
Denaturation:
When heat or other
environmental conditions
break the bonds that
stabilize tertiary
structure.
3-81
Myoglobin and Hemoglobin
3-82
Figure 3.18
One amino acid

(alanine)
Here you can see how the polypeptide

folds into a compact shape.
129
The amino acid sequence of lysozyme
This model allows you to see the details
of the proteins structure.

A slight change in the amino acid sequence can
affect a proteins ability to function.
The substitution of one amino acid for another at a
particular position in hemoglobin, the blood protein
that carries oxygen, causes sickle-cell disease, an
inherited blood disorder.

A proteins shape is sensitive to the environment.
An unfavorable change in temperature, pH, or
some other factor can cause a protein to unravel.
SEM
Figure 3.19
Amino acid sequence
Normal peptide
Normal red
blood cell
Sickle-cell
polypeptide
Sickled red
blood cell
SEM
(a) Normal hemoglobin
Amino acid sequence

(b) Sickle-cell hemoglobin

One difference in sequence is enough to cause the
protein to fold into a different shape, which alters its
function, which in turn causes disease.
Misfolded proteins are associated with many
diseases, including some severe nervous system
disorders.
The diseases shown in Figure 3.20 are all caused
by prions, misfolded versions of normal brain
proteins.
Figure 3.20
Normal
protein
Prion
Clusters
of prions
Skull
Brain
Prion
converts
normal
proteins
Bovine spongiform
encephalopathy
(BSE)
Kuru
Prion
proteins
clump
together
Fatal weight loss in

deer, elk, and moose
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that
store information and
provide the instructions for building proteins.
They consist of two types:

1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
2. RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleic Acids
The genetic material that humans and all other
organisms inherit from their parents consists of
giant molecules of DNA.
The DNA resides in the cell as one or more very
long fibers called chromosomes.
Nucleic Acids
A gene is a unit of inheritance encoded in a
specific stretch of DNA that programs the amino
acid sequence of a polypeptide.
Those programmed instructions are written in a
chemical code that must be translated
from nucleic acid language
to protein language.
Figure 3.21
Gene
DNA
Nucleic
acids
RNA
Amino acid
Protein
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers made from monomers
called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three parts:
1. a five-carbon sugar,
2. a phosphate group, and
3. a nitrogen-containing base.
Figure 3.22
Nitrogenous base
(can be A, G, C, or T)
Connection
to the next
nucleotide
in the chain
Thymine (T)
Phosphate
group
Phosphate
Base
Connection to the
next nucleotide in
the chain
(a) Atomic structure
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Sugar
(b) Symbol used in this book
Nucleic Acids
Each DNA nucleotide has one of four possible
nitrogenous bases:
1. adenine (A),
2. guanine (G),
3. thymine (T), or
4. cytosine (C).
Figure 3.23
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Cytosine (C)
Space-filling model of DNA
Figure 3.23-1
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Nucleic Acids
Dehydration reactions
link nucleotide monomers into long chains called
polynucleotides,
form covalent bonds between the sugar of one

nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, and
form a sugar-phosphate backbone.
Bases (A, T, C, or G) hang off the backbone like

appendages.
Figure 3.24
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Nucleotide
Base
pair
Hydrogen
bond
Bases
(a) DNA strand

(polynucleotide)
(b) Double helix

(two polynucleotide strands)
Nucleic Acids
A molecule of cellular DNA is double-stranded, with
two polynucleotide strands coiled around each other
to form a double helix.
Bases along one DNA strand hydrogen-bond to
bases along the other strand.
The functional groups hanging off the base
determine which bases pair up:
A only pairs with T and
G can only pair with C.
Figure 3.24
Base
pair
Hydrogen
bond
(b) Double helix

(two polynucleotide strands)
Nucleic Acids
There are many similarities between DNA and
RNA.
Both are polymers of nucleotides and
both are made of nucleotides consisting of

a sugar,
a phosphate, and
a base.
Nucleic Acids
There are three important differences between
DNA and RNA.
1. As its name ribonucleic acid denotes, the RNA
sugar is ribose rather than deoxyribose in DNA.
2. Instead of the base thymine, RNA has a similar
but distinct base called uracil (U).
3. RNA is usually found in single-stranded form,
whereas DNA usually exists as a double helix.
Figure 3.25
Nitrogenous base
(can be A, G, C, or U)
Connection to the next
nucleotide in the chain
Uracil (U)
Phosphate
group
Sugar (ribose)
Connection to the next
nucleotide in the chain
The Process of Science: Does Lactose

Intolerance Have a Genetic Basis?
Observation: Most lactose-intolerant people have
a normal version of the lactase gene.
Question: What is the genetic basis for lactose
intolerance?
Hypothesis: Lactose intolerance can be correlated
with a single nucleotide at a particular site within
one chromosome.
The Process of Science: Does Lactose

Intolerance Have a Genetic Basis?
Prediction: This site would be near, though not
within, the lactase gene.
Experiment: Scientists examined the genes of 196
lactose-intolerant people from nine Finnish families.
Results: Research showed a 100% correlation
between lactose intolerance and a nucleotide at a
site approximately 14,000 nucleotides away from
the lactase gene.
Evolution Connection: The Evolution of Lactose

Intolerance in Humans
Most people are lactose-intolerant as adults.
Lactose intolerance is found in
80% of African Americans and Native Americans,
90% of Asian Americans, but
only 10% of Americans of northern European
descent.
Figure 3.UN02a
Carbohydrates
Functions
Components
Dietary energy;
storage; plant
structure
Monosaccharide
Examples
Monosaccharides:
glucose, fructose;
disaccharides:
lactose, sucrose;
polysaccharides:
starch, cellulose
Figure 3.UN02b
Lipids
Functions
Long-term
energy storage
(fats);
hormones
(steroids)
Components
Fatty acid
Glycerol
Components of
a triglyceride
Examples
Fats (triglycerides);
steroids
(testosterone,
estrogen)
Figure 3.UN02c
Proteins
Functions
Components
Amino
group
Enzymes, structure,
storage, contraction,
transport, etc.
Carboxyl
group
Side
chain
Amino acid
Examples
Lactase
(an enzyme);
hemoglobin
(a transport protein)
Figure 3.UN02d
Nucleic acids
Functions
Components
Examples
Phosphate
Information
storage
Base
DNA, RNA
Sugar
Nucleotide
Figure 3.UN02
Large Biological
Molecules
Carbohydrates
Functions
Components
Dietary energy;
storage; plant
structure
Monosaccharide
Lipids
Long-term
energy storage
(fats);
hormones
(steroids)
Fatty acid
Glycerol
Components of
a triglyceride
Proteins
Monosaccharides:
glucose, fructose;
disaccharides:
lactose, sucrose;
polysaccharides:
starch, cellulose
Fats (triglycerides);
steroids
(testosterone,
estrogen)
Carboxyl
group
Amino
group
Enzymes, structure,
storage, contraction,
transport, etc.
Examples
Side
chain
Lactase
(an enzyme);
hemoglobin
(a transport protein)
Amino acid
Phosphate
Nucleic acids
Information
storage
Base
DNA, RNA
Sugar
Nucleotide

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Chapter

PowerPoint Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter Thread: Lactose Intolerance

Biology and Society: Got Lactose?

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Biology and Society: Got Lactose?

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Carbon forms large, complex, and diverse

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Carbon: The Central Atom

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Carbon skeletons may

Carbon skeletons may be

Carbon skeletons may

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

These are called isomers.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Because carbon can use one or more of its bonds to

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

are important fuels in your body.

The energy-rich parts of fat molecules have a

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

the atoms attached to the skeleton.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks

reverses the dehydration reaction.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

(b) Breaking a polymer chain

Large Biological Molecules

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Important components of nucleic acids

long starch molecules in spaghetti and bread.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

In plants, carbohydrates serve as a building

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Common examples are glucose in sports drinks

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Linear and ring structures

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

(b) Abbreviated ring

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

maltose in beer, malted milk shakes, and malted

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.