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EP 94- 1130
EP 94- 1130
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Report EP 94 - 1130
April 1995
CONFIDENTIAL
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The authors appreciate the comments and review of the following people:
P.van Ditzhyijzen, SIPM- EPD/22
A.J.T. Grimberg, SIPM- EPD/21
A.B. Graper, SIPM- EPD/21
H.Niko, SIPM- EPD/221
P.R.A. Betts, SIPM- HTRH/52
P.M.T.M. Schutjens, KSEPL- RR/37
K.A. Heller, SIPM- EPD/21
J.P. van Hasselt, EPX/43
E.C. Thomas, SOC
F.R. Bradburn, SOC
Many petrophysicists at PDO, EXPRO, NAM, SSB, SVEN
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EP 94- 1130
SUMMARY
Core analysis is the acquisition of experimental data measured on core material for determining
parameters used for developing and managing a hydrocarbon reservoir from initial discovery to
mature field development. There are two main reasons for core analysis. Firstly, core analysis
data are used by petrophysicists to calibrate wireline logs in the determination of hydrocarbon
reserves. Such data include routine core analyses as well as special core analyses such as
measurement of electrical parameters for resistivity log interpretation. Secondly, reservoir
engineers use core analysis measurements such as relative permeability and pore volume
compressibility to provide input parameters for reservoir computer simulation. Core analysis data
are also used by other disciplines such as for production technologists to determine injectivity and
well performance and for explorationists in quantifying acoustic rock properties. Geological core
analysis (the subject of a manual in preparation) is done to establish the geological framework of
a reservoir.
Careful planning of a core analysis programme requires the involvement of an integrated team of
petrophysicsts, geologists, reservoir and production engineers and explorationalists to ensure
that core measurements meet critical data needs. Since optimum analysis programmes require
multi-disciplinary input, the manual is prepared in such a way to assist teams of petroleum
engineers to develop core analysis programmes. The contribution of each PE discipline is
highlighted. An appendix on application of value of information concepts as applied to core
analysis is given to provide a clear method for evaluating and justifying core analysis projects.
The various parameters which can be obtained from the analysis of core material are discussed
briefly. The available measurement techniques are detailed and discussed briefly. The available
measurements techniques are detailed and recommendations are made concerning the reliability
of the techniques and how best to obtain quality results. Core sampling guidelines that allow
easier application of core data, proper core preparation procedures, core screening methods for
obtaining representative cores, wettability considerations and ancillary measurements that ensure
quality and data applicability are described in detail.
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GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
A core analysis programme should be assembled with input from all PE disciplines to ensure
that the right data are measured with the proper procedures on appropriate core material.
The core analysis programme allows proper planning in the multi-disciplinary environment
and assists in the management of the core analysis programme.
Value of information concepts should be used for core analysis programmes and in
programmes justification.
High quality data can be obtained with careful core selection, core screening and core
preparation steps. Proper core screening is necessary to obtain relevant core data.
Extensive special core analysis programmes can be discussed with SIPM EPD/22 and/or
KSEPL RR/37 to assist in decisions as to where work should be carried out.
SIPM recommends that special core analyses be carried out in-house using facilities at
KSEPL. Bellaire Technology Center, Houston, and Calgary Research Center can be used as
alternatives with sufficient prior planning and available capacity. If Shell E&P laboratories are
not available, core contractors approved by SIPM can be used.
If contractor laboratories are used it is recommended that KSEPL be requested to carry out
duplicate special core analysis measurements on a small number of samples in order to
verify the performance of the contractor. A review of any extensive core analysis programme
is recommended and will be provided by SIPM upon request.
To date quality assessments have been made on the techniques used at Core Laboratories,
Simon Petroleum Technology, Poroperm-Geochem, GAPS Geological consultants, and
Corex (Aberdeen). SIPM recommends regular quality assessment of any core analysis
contractor involved in Shell work.
All measured data, procedures and equations used should be requested from the analysis
laboratory, including any data used in calculating final results such as raw data.
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Justification (see Chapter 2 and Appendix 1) and clearly stated objectives of the core
analysis programme (Chapters 3 and 4)
Core acquisition considerations including type of coring bit, core barrel, overbalance, drilling
fluids, well-site handling (see Core Handling Manual); core transport and fluid sampling
considerations
Multi- disciplinary input ensuring proper utilisation of core material and representatives of the
samples to be used in the core analysis programme
Core analysis considerations including types and scope of the core analysis, numbers of
samples, core sample screening methodology, core preparation methodology especially
cleaning, experimental conditions (confining pressure, temperature, pore pressure, fluids to
be used, experimental duration, etc), wettability conditions and so on
Fluid analysis considerations focusing on types of fluid analyses that can be used to support
interpretation of core data. It is a frequently overlooked aspect of formation evaluation
Finalised core analysis programme allowing each discipline to contribute and to agree to the
goals and methods and allows for better project management.
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Acknowledgements
Many people have contributed to the preparation of this manual. Staff at SIPM and KSEPL have
extremely reviewed the manual and helped in ways too numerous to detail. Interest and review
from Opcos has also encouraged us to make the manual as useful as possible. The information
contained in this manual has been collated from a number of previous SIPM and KSEPL
publications. Especially useful in the writing of this report were:
EPD/22/23
SIPM Coring Series Bulletin l: Core Justification
EP 88-1465
EPD/22/23
SIPM Coring Series Bulletin IIl: Core Analysis
EP 89-0105
Rock Characteristics Research Special Core Analysis
KSEPL, brochure 1991.
B.A. Schipper, R.J. van den Oord, and S.J. Adams
Petrophysical Core Analysis Contractors - Procedures and Quality
Assessment .
EP 92-1355
S.J. Adams and R.J. van den Oord
Capillary Pressure and Saturation Height Functions
EP 93-0001
This manual completes a series of three manuals dealing with aspects of coring, core handling
and core analysis. The first two manuals are:
J.A. Okkerman and L.C. van Geuns
Core Handling Manual
EP 93-2200
L.C. van Geuns and J.A. Okkerman (in preparation)
Geological Core Analysis
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Contents
SUMMARY
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations for multi-disciplinary core analysis planning
Acknowledgements
List of Figures (p) denotes photo
List of Tables
1.
I
II
III
IV
X
XIV
Introduction
About this manual
Problems solved by core analysis
SIPM/KSEPL recommendation on core analysis
Availability of other Shell E&P Laboratories for core analysis
Quality in core analysis
Literature
1
2
6
8
9
10
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2.
3.
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34
35
36
39
43
46
47
4.
48
49
50
50
51
53
54
55
55
58
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4.7
Core sampling
4.7.1
Sampling for basic core analysis
4.7.2
Sampling for special core analysis
4.7.3
Sampling considerations
4.8
Core sample preparation
4.9
Core sample screening for special core analysis
4.10
Core preservation
4.11
Fluid measurements
4.11.1 Brine measurements
4.11.2 Oil measurements
4.12
Fluid handling considerations
4.13
Sequencing and scheduling
4.14
Costs
4.15
Economic impact and justification
4.16
Project reporting
4.17
Project review
4.18
Literature
67
67
68
69
70
71
75
76
76
77
78
79
79
79
80
83
85
5.
Core preparation
5.1
Plug drilling
5.1.1
Drilling consolidated samples
5.1.2
Drilling unconsolidated samples
5.2
Core cleaning
5.2.1
Cleaning consolidated samples
5.2.2
Cleaning unconsolidated samples
5.3
Core drying
5.3.1
Oven drying
5.3.2
Critical Point Drying (CPD)
5.3.3
Humidity controlled drying
5.4
Review of some contractor preparation procedures
5.5
Literature
86
87
87
88
90
90
91
93
93
94
97
98
101
6.
102
103
103
104
106
107
108
110
112
114
114
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120
120
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123
7.
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127
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7.3
Whole core analysis
7.3.1
Whole core porosity by Boyle's Law porosimetry
7.3.2
Whole core steady-state gas permeability
7.3.3
Other whole core measurements
7.4
Literature
131
132
133
135
137
8.
Capillary pressure
8.1
Mercury/air capillary pressure
8.1.1
Mercury/air capillary pressure by high pressure injection - Autopore 9200, 9220
8.1.2
Mercury/air capillary pressure by pressure equilibrium
8.1.3
Stressed mercury/air capillary pressure
8.2
Oil/water capillary pressure
8.2.1
Oil/water capillary pressure by centrifuge
8.2.2
Oil/water capillary pressure by pressure equilibrium
8.3
Gas/liquid capillary pressure
8.3.1
Gas/liquid capillary pressure by centrifuge
8.3.2
Gas/liquid capillary pressure by porous plate vessel
8.4
Literature
138
141
142
145
147
149
150
152
154
155
156
157
9.
Electrical properties
9.1
Formation Resistivity Factor, FRF, and cementation exponent, m
9.2
Resistivity index, I, and saturation exponent, n
9.2.1
Resistivity index by pressure equilibrium
9.2.2
Resistivity index by continuous injection
9.2.3
Resistivity index by porous plate vessel
9.2.4
Resistivity index by rapid desaturation
9.3
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and Qv
9.3.1
Qve by membrane potential
9.3.2
Qv by multiple salinity measurements, Co-Cw
9.3.3
CEC by conductometric titration
9.3.4
CEC by absorbed water correlation
9.4
Literature
158
159
161
163
165
168
169
170
171
174
176
178
179
10.
Wettability and interfacial tension
10.1
Wettability
10.1.1 Cleaned-state samples
10.1.2 Restored-state samples (aging)
10.1.3 Fresh-state samples
10.1.4 Preserved-state samples
10.1.5 Pressure-retained core samples
10.1.6 Restored state vs native state
10.2
Wettability determination
10.2.1 Amott
10.2.2 United States Bureau of Mines method (USBM)
10.2.3 Other wettability determination methods
10.3
Interfacial tension
10.3.1 Interfacial tension by 'Pendant Drop'
10.3.2 Surface tension by 'du Nouy balance'
10.3.3 Interfacial tension by spinning drop tensiometer
10.4
Literature
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181
183
184
185
186
186
187
189
190
192
193
194
195
197
199
200
11.
Relative permeability
11.1
Steady-state measurement
11.1.1 Relative permeability by steady-state
11.2
Centrifuge measurement
11.2.1 Oil/water relative permeability by centifuge
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204
204
207
207
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211
213
213
216
219
219
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220
12.
Mechanical rock properties
12.1
Compressibility
12.1.1 Uniaxial compaction
12.1.2 Hydrostatic compaction
12.1.3 Oedometer compaction test
12.2
Rock strength parameters
12.2.1 Rock strength by triaxial testing
12.2.2 Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)
12.2.3 Thick-Walled-Cylinder strength test (TWC)
12.2.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength test (UCS)
12.3
Acoustic properties
12.3.1 Acoustic Travel Time (ATT)
12.4
Literature
222
223
224
230
231
232
233
234
236
239
240
240
241
13.
Supplementary tests
13.1
Rock analyses
13.1.1 Grain size by laser diffraction
13.1.2 Grain size by sieve analysis
13.1.3 Grain size by image analysis
13.1.4 Source rock analysis
13.1.5 Cap rock/seal analysis
13.2
Fluid analyses
13.2.1 Counter Current Imbibition (CCI)
13.2.2 Oil and gas analyses
13.2.3 Formation water and core water analysis
13.3
Rock-fluid compatibility
13.3.1 Compatibility flood
13.4
Miscellaneous tests
13.4.1 Acid response test
13.4.2 Solvent flushing - for wax removal
13.5
Literature
244
245
247
249
250
251
253
254
254
256
258
260
260
263
263
266
267
268
269
269
271
273
275
277
277
279
281
283
283
287
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290
293
297
301
302
306
308
309
311
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
335
337
339
340
341
341
342
343
344
345
348
349
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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
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8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
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9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
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12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
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List of Tables
4.1 Information from geological evaluation
4.2 Basic core analysis parameters and their uses
4.3 Information derived from core preparation
5.1 Laboratory comparison for core preparation
5.2 Summary of cost and timing in core preparation
10.1 Definitions of wettability
12.1 Brinell hardness number suggested loading schemes
A3.1 Image Analysis Regression Statistics
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Introduction
Core analysis encompasses techniques used to derive formation properties from core material
taken from the well-bore. The techniques generally involve measurement on plug samples of the
core material. In most cases, the sample should be maintained in or restored to a state that would
be representative of the state of the material in the formation and may, for example, necessitate
the application of appropriate stresses and/or temperature. In other cases, measurements are
made on the matrix material itself without regard to representative state. Measurements range
from the simplest determinations of porosity to the most complicated measurement such as three
phase relative permeability measurement at reservoir conditions.
Core analysis measurements are of interest to a wide range of disciplines in EP from
petrophysics, geology and reservoir engineering to drilling, production and exploration. Because
core analysis has so many customers, it must be a focus of the integrated efforts of PE teams
throughout Shell.
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The core analysis manual presents a strategy and plan for obtaining the highest quality data and
maximising the value from core analysis measurements. All too often core analysis fails to get the
engineering attention that it deserves. Frequently, core analysis planning is done poorly, if at all,
and the results of such efforts in terms of data acquired can often be confused and contradictory.
Yet core analysis remains an important source of critical information for quantifying reservoir
models and calibrating formation evaluation tools like wireline logging. As the construction of
reservoir models becomes more sophisticated, the demand on acquiring properly measured
formation properties using core analysis becomes that much more important.
This manual is about the many facets of core analysis, but the authors have taken the approach
that business processes involving core analysis need to be "re-engineered" to reflect the
business needs of Shell EP companies in the '90's. Two important business processes begin this
manual and they are:
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Chapter 4 discusses in more detail the issues to be addressed in getting started with a core
analysis project. Chapter 4 should be used as a guideline for those who are starting afresh with a
core analysis project. Every issue mentioned in Chapter 4 merits attention although the critical
items deserve the most attention.
The remainder of the manual describes the most commonly used core analysis techniques
performed today. The methods are included to ensure that PE staff are acquainted with general
methodology of core analysis. The method descriptions are aimed to be sufficiently detailed to
assist with planning, to allow optimisation of core measurements and to provide a means of
ascertaining quality and consistency. Beginning with Chapter 5, a reasonably comprehensive
survey of core analysis preparation techniques is given. From Chapter 6 onwards the progression
from basic analysis to aspects of special core analysis is presented. Chapter 13 addresses
supplementary analyses and chapter 14 presents an overview of research activities that
represent a glimpse into the probable future of core analysis activities. By necessity, brevity has
been imposed in order to allow the manual to be of reasonable length. Each measurement
technique is described by the following scheme:
points - remarks that highlight critical aspects of the measurement. An assessment of every
measurement is made whether the technique is recommended, acceptable or not
recommended.
The not recommended assessment is not to say that the technique always produces
incorrect data but that the technique has inherent tendencies which make obtaining reliable
data more difficult. General issues such as limitations, advantages and disadvantages are
also addressed, including possible data handling issues.
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The Appendices contain information that may be useful relating to CT-scanning and CT-scanning
interpretation. While the manual addresses measurements made from samples taken from whole
core, core analysis can also be made on other material sources such as sidewall cuttings and drill
cuttings.
There are many specialised core analysis techniques which are not included in this manual such
as coal bed methane analysis. The authors have not attempted to provide an exhaustive manual
on core analysis but to address the core analyses used in day-to-day Shell operations.
This manual completes a sequence of manuals on core, which are Core Handling, EP 93-2200,
and Geological Core Analysis, (in preparation).
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Core analysis can be used to answer many questions related to the production of hydrocarbons
from the subsurface. Besides providing the opportunity to directly see and describe the rock
formations of interest, core analysis also provides:
Distribution of fluids within the hydrocarbon column from capillary pressure measurements.
Grain size distribution data for engineering application in well completion programmes and for
geological application in assessing heterogeneity and depositional environment.
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Values of rock mechanical parameters used in production engineering and platform design:
- rock strength;
- compressibility;
- compaction;
- waterflood sensitivity.
Tests for non-reservoir rock, seal analysis and source rock analysis.
Fluid measurements are also important to provide a complete picture of the downhole
environment. Brine properties such as composition and conductivity, oil properties such as
viscosity, acid and base number and identification of gas/oil using High Pressure Liquid
Chromatography (see HPLC manual).
Measurement of the interfacial tension measurement between oil and water used in scaling
mercury/air capillary pressure curves to oil/water systems.
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Core analysis remains one of the critical sources of formation data necessary for proper
development planning and field management. Careful multi-disciplinary core analysis planning in
the integrated PE environment is necessary for acquisition of high-quality core analysis data,
avoiding sub-optimal data acquisition and improving data application. Proper economic analysis,
including "Value of Information" concepts, are important in appreciating the role core analysis
plays in field development and hydrocarbon resource management. SIPM recommends the
application of Shell core analysis technology which has been developed at Shell E&P laboratories
world-wide. Accordingly, critical special core analysis measurements should be performed at
KSEPL, Rijswijk, where possible, or at a core contractor recommended by SIPM/KSEPL. At the
very least, major core analysis programmes should involve SIPM/KSEPL, who will develop and
maintain a strategy of core contractor quality assurance. Consultation with SIPM EPD/22 and
KSEPL RR/37 (who will act as focal point for KSEPL) is recommended for any core analysis
questions including core data interpretation.
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1.4
1.4.1
SIPM has reached an agreement with SOC which allows Bellaire Technology Center (formerly
known as Bellaire Research Center) to provide core analysis services for SIPM when mutually
convenient. Should KSEPL be unavailable to perform any critical core analysis, it is now possible
to arrange, via SIPM, for work to be performed at Bellaire Technology Center, Houston, when
facilities there are available. Bellaire Technology Center has a long history of excellence in core
analysis and has developed numerous Shell standard techniques over the years. SIPM regards
BTC as a source of high quality core analysis data which incorporates Shell technology.
Arrangements should be made through EPD/222. Consult with EPD/222 for further information.
1.4.2
Calgary Research Center has developed considerable expertise in whole core analysis (see
chapter 7). These capabilities can be used for Group whole core analysis when mutually
convenient and should be arranged by SIPM EPD/222.
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The organising principle behind this manual is the central issue of quality in core analysis. Quality
is a critical issue. How often does a user of core analysis ponder the question:
core analysis planning - much attention is focused on this activity because data
assessment is a multi-disciplinary activity. For example, rock sample selection must involve a
geologist for proper attention to rock type.
sample screening - this step is frequently omitted but all too often core analysis
measurements are performed on samples that are unfit for measurement even though they
may appear as perfectly formed cylinders while they may contain internal heterogeneities
invisible from the outside.
peripheral measurements - this manual emphasises measurements that can and should be
performed to determine data consistency, to check data quality or to improve data
application. Certain parameters are critical in the determination of core analysis quantities.
The most important parameter in much of core analysis is the pore volume because it is the
fundamental determinant of the porosity and all saturation measurements are normalised to
the pore volume. Thus any error in pore volume is translated directly into errors in saturation.
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core analysis contractors - much of the core analysis performed for Shell companies is
done by contractors. Their results suffer from a high degree of variability in quality.
Experience shows that it is important not only to use a reputable contractor laboratory but to
use the most reputable personnel within those organisations. It is therefore advisable to pay
attention to the individuals performing the core analysis within contractor labs and, where
possible, to identify the key personnel who can provide quality data. It is insufficient to only
trust the manager or sales representative. In general it is preferable to select a core analysis
vendor that is capable of carrying out the bulk of the core analysis programme to reduce
handling and transportation that degrades core.
old core analysis data - many of the techniques presented in this manual can be applied to
the examination of old core analysis data. The quality of old core analysis data is difficult to
determine when quality assessment planning has been omitted. But the thinking and planning
for a quality core analysis programme can assist in determining how old core analysis data
may be assessed. Unfortunately, determining the quality of old core analysis is, at best,
uncertain.
application of core data - this manual is designed to allow core analysis measurements to
be performed in which quality is assured so that core analysis data can be more easily
applied. If core analysis is done with proper regard to geological setting, rock typing and
sample screening incorporating proper wettability considerations, then the core data should
be suitable for application in formation evaluation or reservoir simulation.
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Literature
SIPM EPD/22/3
SIPM Coring and Core Analysis Series Bulletin 1: Core Justification.
EP 88-1465, June 1988.
Advances in EP research 1990-1
SIRM research brief.
The Log Analyst Special Issue - Core Analysis
1991 European Symposia Abstracts - SCA and Formation Evaluation, September-October 1991
van der Grijp KH. and van den Oord R.J.
Well-Site Hydrocarbon Differentation using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
EP 93-0550.
Keelan, D.K.,
Core analysis for aid in reservoir description
JPT November 1982.
Maas, J., Boutkan, V., Ligthelm, D.,
Fit-for-purpose basic reservoir data
Production newsletter, February 1993.
Skopec, R.A,
Recent advances in rock characterization
The Log Analyst, May-June 1992, p 270.
Tannemaat, R.,
Core analysis methods
EP 59259, BSP, April 1983.
Haeringen, A. van,
Results of a conventional core analysis contractor comparison exercise.
EP 89-0234.
Schipper, B.A., Aperen, A.E. van, Looyestijn, W.J.,
Quality assessment of core analysis procedures of Core Laboratories Aberdeen.
EP 90-1886.
Schipper, B.A., Aperen, A.E. van, Looyestijn, W.J.,
Quality assessment of core analysis procedures of Poroperm-Geochem Limited, Chester.
EP 90-1901
Schipper, B.A., Hofman, J.P.,
Quality assessment of core analysis procedures of Corex Services Ltd, Aberdeen.
RKTR.93.052, May 1993 (EP 93-1296).
Schipper, B.A, Oord, R.J. van den, Adams, S.A.,
Quality core analysis - essential to our business!
Production Newsletter July/August 1992.
Schipper, B.A.
Quality Assessment of the Core Analysis Services of Simon Petroleum Testing, Aberdeen.
RKTR.94.089, May 1994 (EP 94-0974)
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Core analysis projects are subject to the necessity and rigor of economic justification. It is
important that each project be judged by its economic impact and not just solely on cost. Careful
economic justification generally shows that core analysis projects have a far greater economic
value than their cost. By recognising the economic benefits of core analysis, core analysis
projects can be developed that are optimised both technically and economically. Such justification
applies to all aspects of coring and core analysis and to data acquisition in general.
The economics of core analysis is driven largely by its role in reducing uncertainty in formation
properties, particularly hydrocarbon volume and hydrocarbon saturation. While accurate
hydrocarbon volume determination depends on a number of variables such as geological
architecture and reservoir distribution, a critical initial step is the determination of hydrocarbon
saturation. Hydrocarbon saturation is mostly obtained from wireline resistivity logs. However, the
actual relationship between hydrocarbon saturation and log resistivity is extremely variable,
making calibration with core measurements an essential step. One Opco has estimated that an
accurate understanding of their resistivity index-saturation (I-Sw) relations is worth at least US
$12.5 million annually in effective economic benefit, which is far more than the expenditure on
core analysis. Other core analysis parameters are critical to decisions in managing a hydrocarbon
resource. For example, sizing waterflood or water handling facilities can depend critically on
relative permeability parameters, such as water endpoint relative permeability. Again economic
impact studies show the value of the core analysis project usually far exceeds project cost.
To determine the economic impact of a core analysis programme, Value of Information (VOI)
concepts will be used which are detailed in Appendix 1. A summary of value of information
concepts is given in section 2.1 and examples of how value of information is applied are given for
a number of cases in section 2.2. Further discussion as to applications of VOI calculations are
provided there.
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In making a decision whether to gather information, it is possible to determine the economic value
of the information itself. Value of Information (VOl) concepts rationalise the decision as an act of
choosing between alternatives, each of which have an economic impact. One alternative involves
the gathering of the required (core analysis) information and the economic impact is calculated
based upon the information provided. The other alternative is the economic impact calculated in
the absence of the information. The difference in economic impact between the two alternatives is
the value of information. At this point the value of information does not include the cost of the
information gathering itself. Economic impact is calculated as Net Present Value (NPV).
Once the value of information is calculated, the decision whether to proceed or not is then based
on the value of the information versus the cost of the information gathering. If the value of
information is larger (see section 2.3 on Justification) than the cost of information gathering, then
it is economically justified to obtain the information. The difference between the value of
information and the cost of the information gathering is called the Value of Appraisal. For core
analysis, the economic alternatives are simply whether to proceed or not with the core analysis
project. The fundamental choice of whether to proceed with a core analysis project is addressed
in two different ways:
prospect screening where there is very large uncertainty typically associated with
exploration appraisal;
project optimisation, where quantifying rock and fluid properties can narrow design criteria
in development planning.
The basic theory behind the VOl calculation is presented in Appendix 1 (Appendix 1.1 for
prospect screening and Appendix 1.2 for optimisation).
In the next sections, the VOl nomenclature and a summary of the concepts is presented so that
the example presented in section 2.2 can be better understood but the reader is referred to
Appendix 1 for complete details.
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VOl Nomenclature
The terms used in VOl calculations in this manual are defined here.
NPV
NPVi
P(high)
P(low)
P(medium)
POCM
Probability of correct measurement in core analysis. Value is very high for Shell E
& P laboratories and about 0.75 for core contractor laboratories. (0.75 is a very
conservative number based on estimates from Shell core analysis experts, some
of whom feel that it is much lower especially for many special core analysis
services such as resistivity index, relative permeability and compressibility.)
POS .
Probability of success.
VOA
Value of Appraisal- value of information (VOl) minus the cost of gathering the
information.
VOl
Value of Information - value of information itself without any regard to the cost of
gathering the information.
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In prospect screening discussed in Appendix 1.1, the VOl equation shows that information has a
high value and that information gathering is economically justified. The justification stems mainly
from the fact that expenditure for data acquisition is done to eliminate the possibility of making an
unprofitable investment. Data acquisition is done to save on the loss of NPV if the field turns out
to have insufficient hydrocarbon reserves. The VOl calculation covers all aspects of data
acquisition from seismic data acquisition, wireline logging, production testing and core analysis.
The VOl does not distinguish the value of the core analysis by itself and some method must by
realised to assign benefit to the core analysis. In fact, the VOl of acquiring data is so high that it is
easy to justify core analysis in exploration appraisal situations. Factors that must be known to
properly evaluate the VOl for prospect screening are:
a method of assigning the benefit of the VOl calculation to core analysis as part of overall
data acquisition.
Using these factors in equation (A1.4) determines VOl for prospect screening.
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In optimisation discussed in Appendix 1.2, the VOI is calculated to assess the economic impact of
reducing uncertainty by performing the core analysis project. The VOI calculation is based on
reservoir simulation results which are aimed at determining the NPV impact when the uncertainty
in a critical parameter is examined. The sensitivity analysis for this critical parameter is done by
using the maximum and minimum parameter values. In optimisation calculations, the total benefit
of VOI calculation is due to the core analysis project. A VOI optimisation calculation requires the
economic impact of 4 scenarios to be performed usually by reservoir simulation. For a given rock
parameter, such as relative permeability, 4 cases are considered as follows:
high reserves, optimised high with economic impact, NPV1, in this case, the most optimistic
scenarios are used which translates into using a high oil relative permeability curve and a low
water relative permeability curve and optimistic endpoint saturations;
low reserves, optimised low with economic impact, NPV3, in this case, the most pessimistic
scenario is used e.g. a low oil relative permeability curve and a high water relative
permeability curve and pessimistic endpoint saturations;
high reserves, base case with economic impact, NPV 4, is the case where an average case
is used which might be using average relative permeability curves with optimistic endpoint
saturations;
low reserves, base case with economic impact, NPV6, is the case where an average case is
used which might be using average relative permeability curves with pessimistic endpoint
saturations.
The results of these cases are used in equation (A1.8) to determine VOI for project optimisation.
As described in Appendix 1.2, NPV2 and NPV5 do not enter in the calculation of VOI.
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VOI methods can be used to evaluate any economic decision. Section 2.3 describes other
aspects of VOI calculations pertinent to core analysis but an important example is the value of
correctly measured data. Basing decisions on incorrectly measured data carries risk and this is
discussed in Appendix 1.3. It turns out that using incorrect data puts at risk the primary benefit of
the development and it is in fact, worse to use incorrect data than to have no data. These rough
calculations can assess the risk of inaccurately measured data. Such a calculation requires:
the economic impact of the development if reserves are not proven, NPV3.
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In this section, a number of VOI examples will be shown to demonstrate how VOI techniques can
be applied to justify core analysis projects. Both VOI and VOA are calculated. One of the
examples (Example 4 - Section 2.2.4) is an Opco VOI example used recently to justify a core
analysis programme.
NOTE: For figures in this section, a red shaded rectangle denotes a human decision while a
yellow shaded ellipse represents the consequences of measurement, which are various
outcomes each with a given probability of occurring. Positive economic impact is given as NPVi.
A negative impact is shown as -NPVi.
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The details of prospect screening are given in Appendix 1.1. Economic options are shown in
Figure 2.1. The option of performing core analysis is clearly indicated by "Yes". However, the
results of core analysis are to indicate whether or not to proceed with development given with a
weighting by the probability of success. Net present value figures for each option are shown on
the right hand side which are used to quantify the value of core analysis. Without core analysis,
the "No" option, proceeding with development carries the risk of attempting to develop insufficient
reserves. Avoiding the loss in an unprofitable development is the value of the core analysis.
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An unconsolidated sandstone play has an estimated probability of success of 0.5. A suite of rock
measurements for the evaluation of this play is given in section 3.2.1. The core and core
evaluation cost is DFL 5 mIn. The entire data acquisition programme including seismic and well
testing is US $15 mIn. Proposed development costs include a platform and facilities at a cost of
US $400 mIn. Economic impact if the reserves are inadequate is a loss of US $200 mIn.
Here in example 1,
POS
NPV3
= 0.5
= - US $200 mIn.
VOl
= US $100 mln
The value of information is US $100 mln and the value of appraisal is obtained by subtracting a
cost of US $15 mln to obtain:
VOA
= VOI - Cost
= US $85 mln
Note that the value of information here reduces the uncertainty to zero i.e. the probability of
success is now unity, which is the combined effect of all the data gathered and not just core
analysis. The benefit assigned to core analysis, is the amount by which the core analysis
increases the probability of success. In prospect screening, core analysis is easily justified
because the economic benefits are so large. The reader is urged to consider section 2.3 on other
aspects of VOI calculations for core analysis.
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Example 2 - Ekofisk
Ekofisk has experienced surface subsidence which has cost a lot of money for remediation. This
problem might have been avoided or its impact reduced had sufficient special core analysis,
particularly compaction measurements, been performed to obtain critical data necessary for field
development. Hindsight is able to provide the economic impact of the various decisions made in
field development. Economic choices are shown in Figure 2.2. The probability of success is
estimated at 0.75. Net present value is presented on the right hand side of the figure.
Remediation is estimated conservatively at US $500 million.
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A coring and core analysis programme would have cost about US $2 million. But the cost of
repairing the Ekofisk structure is about US $500 million. Figure 2.2 summarises the economic
choices. POS is estimated as 0.75.
Here, in example 2,
POS
NPV3
= 0.75
= - US $500 mIn.
VOl
= US $125 mIn.
The value of information is US $125 mln and the value of appraisal is obtained by subtracting a
cost of US $2 mln to obtain:
VOA
= US $123 mIn.
The value of core analysis is far greater than the cost of the core analysis project. With hindsight,
it is reasonable to assign most of the value of acquisition entirely to core analysis. However, in a
prospect screening situation, it is not reasonable to do this.
Even if the probability of success were 0.90, then the value of information becomes US $50
million and the value of appraisal becomes US $48 million, which indicate significant value in core
analysis.
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VOl
= 0.33 * { 20 + 8 - 10 - 3 }
= US $5 mIn.
The value of information calculation here results in a value of information of US $5 mIn. The cost
of the core and core analysis programme is US $1 mIn. Therefore, the value of appraisal, VOA, is
VOA
= VOI - cost
= US $4.5 mIn.
Here the entire value of information benefit can be assigned entirely to the core analysis project.
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In this example, a well is being drilled. A core analysis, project can quantify the permeability
development below the gas-water contact and reduce the uncertainty in predicting aquifer
behaviour before the field is put on production. With proper characterisation of the aquifer, the
possibility exists that aquifer influx may be limited which would avoid the drilling of an extra well.
Without core analysis the drilling of an extra well is necessarily included in the development plan.
Net present value figures were supplied from the Opco. Economic choices (simplified) are shown
in Figure 2.4.
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The cost of the core analysis project including coring is estimated at DFL 500,000 including DFL
130,000 for core analysis. The core analysis project called for the acquisition of 4 coring runs
below the GWC for a total of 72 m. In fact, the original Opco analysis included the option of
continuous coring for 150 m which was found to have a slightly lower value of information and is
not included here to maintain simplicity.
The values of the top branch, Vyes' and bottom branch, Vno' are given by:
Vyes
Vno
= Vyes - Vno
= DFL 6.18 mln
= VOI - cost
A value of appraisal of DFL 5.68 mln is calculated because of the probability that the drilling of an
extra well can be avoided.
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This section deals with issues that arise in using VOI calculations for core analysis justification. In
some ways these issues can be considered consequences or corollaries to the examples shown
in the previous section.
Justification - VOI calculations should show a value of information, VOI, that is many times
programme cost, i.e. at least three times. Thus, the appraisal value, VOA, should be at least
twice the cost of the project. VOI calculations which show less value than this are not justified
economically. This is recommended as a reasonable guide to using VOI calculations for core
analysis projects.
Need for additional core - examples in section 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 discuss the situation of
justifying initial core in an appraisal situation. VOl methods can be used equally well to justify
the need for additional core even if there exists core from wells. Perhaps the previous cores
were also justified by value of information techniques which indicated large positive value in
core analysis. However, if the need for additional core is present then it must be due to some
"failure" of previous cores. By "failure" we include the following:
- previous cores missed an important target zone;
- poor recovery in target zone (perhaps due to poor planning which allowed poor coring
techniques and overlooked poor core handling. If the target zone is inherently difficult to
core, then you must demonstrate that new insights into the coring process have increased
the probability of success);
- incomplete planning as to core analysis needs (there now exists previously unanticipated
needs for core material such as to measure a critical parameter like compressibility);
- insufficient material (not enough material available from previous cores);
- poorly preserved core which indicates that the remaining core is unsuitable for
measurement.
The justification for additional core carries with it the need to evaluate previous VOI calculations.
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What if coring risks the well? If the coring programme carries with it an identifiable risk of
failure such as damaging an expensive well, such contingencies can be incorporated into the
value of information calculation which is done by adding more branches allowing the
possibility of failure. This is similar to the calculation in the Appendix 1.3 which shows the
problem of incorrectly measuring core analysis parameters. There, the extra risk is quantified
by the parameter POCM, probability of correct measurement. In the same manner, the risk to
a well is carried out by quantifying the risk that coring has on the well. Once that risk is
quantified, then the VOl calculation will show a diminished value because the risk of losing
the well is incorporated. If the VOl calculation is value neutral indicating that coring may be
too risky, then additional scenarios can be evaluated such as by coring on by-pass. In
coring on bypass, after a target zone has been drilled and logged and identified, the well is
sidetracked above the target zone and then cored through the target zone. This technique
has been employed in drilling the deepwater Gulf of Mexico turbidites and has the advantage
that the coring point is clearly known and the amount of core required is clearly identified.
VOl Lookback - it is a good idea to maintain the examples of VOl calculations to ensure that
the assumptions made for the VOl calculation were reasonable. VOl calculations assume that
the information will be successfully gathered. However, core analysis programmes can fail
such as through bad coring practices, bad core handling techniques, or even poor core
measurement techniques. In the case of such failures, it is likely that the full VOl was not
obtained and this should be reviewed for future VOl calculations.
Value and planning - after VOl has shown that the core analysis programme is of significant
value, the task at hand is to ensure proper planning to achieve the programme objectives.
We hope that recognising the value of a core analysis programme provides inspiration for
carrying out the critical aspect of core analysis, namely planning the analysis programme in
an integrated PE environment. Planning is the subject of the next two chapters.
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Literature
Demirmen, F.,
Subsurface Appraisal Justification: The Value of Information
June, 1994 EP 94-0585
E&P Economic Guidelines
Report EP 93-2150, October, 1993.
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Group experience indicates that coring and/or core analysis is usually poorly planned, is left to a
late stage, and results in under utilisation and poor application of expensive core material and
core data. SIPM recommends core analysis project planning in order that the proper multidisciplinary attention is paid to core analysis. Petrophysics, geology, reservoir engineering and
other disciplines have significant input into the development of an effective core analysis
programme. The core analysis programme allows for consensus building in the multi-disciplinary
environment and assists in the finalisation of programme goals. With proper planning core
analysis projects are better able to deliver required data in a timely fashion.
Core analysis planning is shown in a flow diagram in Figure 3.1. Within the guidelines established
for each Opco, coring and core requirements are defined for the prospect/field with input from
each discipline. Once the design of the core analysis programme has reached consensus, the
implementation of the programme can then take place.
The recommendation for core analysis planning is to follow the outline given in section 3.2. The
programme outline covers all items that impact the core analysis programme including the core
acquisition itself. The list given in section 3.2 is extensive but is done in such a way as to
maximise the information that can be obtained from core analysis and to assist in data
interpretation. Experience has shown that all aspects of the core analysis programme can be
critically important for subsequent data application. Of course, some items may not be necessary
for any given application but it is nevertheless worthwhile to consider the impact each item can
have on programme implementation.
Each item addressed in the outline represents a separate section in chapter 4, where appropriate
detail is found. Chapter 4 aims to present easy options for core analysis planners.
Many of the coring and core handling considerations are covered in the "Core Handling Manual",
EP 93-2200, but are included here in summary form for completeness.
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maximisation of quality in core analysis measurement through planning and selection of the
appropriate measurement suite;
obtaining input and consensus from a multidisciplinary EP team so that the majority of the
core analysis needs can be anticipated and incorporated and reduce the need for later
remeasurement;
definition of clear timing constraints in order to properly impact appraisal or field development
decisions.
optimisation of core analysis programme potentially eliminating the need for future
supplementary measurements by clearly defining expectations of the core analysis
measurements. This is especially valuable if additional coring can be avoided;
roles and responsibilities of each team member within a core analysis project schedule are
clearly defined. Timely advice from each team member assists in on-time data delivery.
careful core selection and proper core screening increase the likelihood of measurement on
the most representative samples;
an overall core analysis programme allows the core analysts to appreciate the entire scope of
the project and to meet mutually agreed deadlines. Better planning and scheduling usually
result;
core analysis projects can be more easily justified by using value of information concepts and
proper consideration of economic benefits;
greater confidence and better utilisation of core analysis data is achieved. Improved
application core analysis data in field development and resource management leads to
improved field development planning;
better project management which includes better continuity during staff changes because
expectations and scheduling are clearly noted;
easier presentation of core analysis plans and results to partners and other stakeholders in
the hydrocarbon resource.
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The multi-disciplinary planning of core analysis produces a better core analysis program with
input from each PE discipline. In order to encourage such involvement this section addresses the
roles and responsibilities of each PE discipline involved: namely petrophysics, geology and
reservoir engineering. Other disciplines such as production technology and exploration
functions can also have needs that can be addressed through core analysis.
The value of the integrated team approach to core analysis is the synergy that can be obtained
when each PE discipline contributes to the planning of the core analysis programme. More details
of the requirements of the integrated PE team are given in section 4.2.
It has been customary for the petrophysicist and geologist to arrange coring and core analysis
programmes. In the integrated PE environment, the petrophysicist remains likely to be the focal
point for core handling and core analysis. However, over time it is expected that any member of
the multi-disciplinary PE team can be focal point for a core analysis programme with the
assistance of this manual.
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appoint the core analysis programme focal point whose responsibility is to develop the core
analysis programme - this is usually the petrophysicist;
review and finalise the core analysis programme with the integrated team. This allows
synergy and detailed discussion to take place;
meet with drilling and well-site personnel (preferably at the well-site) just prior to coring to
review well-site activities regarding coring, drilling parameters, and well-site core handling
and transportation;
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Core screening
See section 4.6 and Appendix 2. Specify additional procedures for screening the whole core.
Core sampling
See section 4.7. Specify a method for selecting the most representative samples. Consult with a
geologist and reservoir engineer in special core analysis projects.
Core sample preparation
See section 4.8. Core sample preparation considerations should be specified with special
emphasis on cleaning requirements so that core handling can be minimised.
Core sample screening for special core analysis
See section 4.9. Specify screening measurements and screening criteria to ensure measurement
samples are the most representative.
Core preservation
See section 4.10. Core preservation is important to allow for future work.
Fluid measurements
See section 4.11. Specify the types of fluid measurements.
Fluid handling considerations
See section 4.12. In some core analysis programmes, careful consideration must be paid to the
fluids used in the core analysis such as relative permeability measurements. This section should
also summarise well-site fluid acquisition, transfer methods, transport and fluid preservation.
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Costs
Core preparation, slabbing, photography, CT-scans etc
US $20k
US $15k
US $20k
US $60k
US $50k
US $50k
US $50k
Total
US $265k
Justification - economic impact - value of information Core analysis project is designed to avoid unprofitable investment by ensuring the presence of
commercial hydrocarbons.
Project reporting
20 copies of all data (including raw and interpreted) data are required.
Project review
Preliminary review is recommended after completion of the geological description and prior to
selecting samples for SCAL work.
Project review scheduled for 6 months after arrival of core.
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Specifying the type of core analysis to be done also depends on the lithology to be studied. The
major lithologies and related general considerations in a core analysis programme are given as
follows:
Clean (consolidated) sandstones
Coring is usually straight forward.
All core analysis methods can be applied.
Minimal Qv and CEC analyses are required.
Mineralogy can be limited to special core analysis samples.
Special precautions are not required for plugging or cleaning beyond usual care.
Drying at 105C is acceptable.
Samples are not usually sensitive to fresh water.
Unconsolidated sandstones
Requires special coring bits, core barrels and care in coring considerations (see Core
Handling Manual)
Core stabilisation, such as freezing in dry ice, is required for transportation.
Core sample preparation is done at stress by solvent flushing and air drying.
Porosity from pore volume by liquid saturation and grain volume from dry weight and grain
density.
Most measurements (including capillary pressure) should be done at stress in a core holder.
Compressibility measurements are usually important.
Core analysis planning is critical.
Clay bearing and shaly sands
Coring fluids should not cause clay swelling.
Core handling should be aimed to prevent samples from drying out.
Plug drilling should be done using high salinity brine or refined oil.
Avoid high boiling point solvents during cleaning.
Samples should be dried at 95C.
Qv and CEC measurements are recommended using membrane potential.
Capillary pressure can be done using mercury/air but air/brine or oil/brine capillary pressures
are recommended to determine effects of clay-bound water.
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Resistivity-index vs water saturation curves may need correction for clay-conductivity effects.
Rock-fluid compatibility floods may be important.
Minerology and clay-typing is recommended.
Carbonates
Coring is usually straight-forward.
Samples often show variability between plugs and heterogeneity within the same plug.
Qv and CEC are usually not required; if required, only membrane potentials should be
performed.
Carbonates exhibit variable stress sensitivity.
Compaction measurements may be important because carbonates can exhibit pore collapse
at stress.
Not usually fresh water sensitivity.
Vuggy carbonates
Coring can be difficult in vuggy carbonates.
Whole core methods may be important in obtaining representative properties.
Bulk volume by mercury should be done with a thin sleeve around the sample to prevent
mercury invasion.
A high degree of mud invasion may occur.
Low permeability formations
Low permeability samples are sometimes difficult to measure due to equipment limitations.
Core analysis planning is critical because all procedures take significantly more time.
Mercury/air capillary pressure curves should be measured with the Autopore 9220.
Fractured reservoirs
Coring is often difficult.
Imaging techniques such as CT -scanning of the whole core can be used to assist in
identifying heterogeneous sections.
Sampling may be biased due to fragile nature of the rock.
Whole core measurement may be recommended.
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Evaporites
Care must be exercised in selecting solvents for cleaning.
Diatomite
Cleaning can take significantly longer than normal.
Samples typically exhibit very high porosity but low permeability.
Thin section and SEM are important.
Coal
Degree of water absorption is critical in measuring producable methane.
Samples should be studied in an "as-received" state as well as oven-dried.
Shale
Coring with oil base mud is recommended.
Use an anti-whirl bit
Cores should be cut with a fibreglass inner barrel.
Shale cores should be resin stabilised
Minimise mechanical impact during transportation
Gas-tight laminate bags should be used for storage.
Cut shale plugs with kerosene
Typical measurements can include Brinell Hardness, porosity, bulk density, moisture content,
UCS, Vp, Vs and CEC.
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The consideration of where to perform the core analysis programme, hinges on several issues:
Programme Scope. Programmes which are predominantly for basic analyses can be done
at core analysis contractors. Programmes with an extensive special core analysis component
should be done at Shell E&P laboratories or approved core contractors.
Quality. To have the highest quality core analysis, it is always preferable to perform critical
special core analysis at a Shell E&P laboratory. However, capacity at Shell E&P laboratories
can be limited.
Regional. It is preferable to perform as much of the core analysis project as possible at the
same place to minimise core transportation and core handling.
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Literature
Pink, M.J.
Exploration and Appraisal Technology - Maximising Rewards by Integration
Shell Selected Paper, January 1993
Van Ditzhuijzen, P.
Petrophysics - In Touch With the Reservoir
Shell Selected Paper, July 1994
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This chapter is designed to provide more information in support of planning a core analysis
programme as presented in section 3.2. Accordingly, it follows the same outline as presented in
section 3.2. Each topic is expanded upon to present relevant considerations so that all aspects of
a core analysis programme are included.
Fluid analyses are also included here which are particularly important for performing analyses
which involve wettability where using representative oil and brine samples are critical. Further
information on fluid analyses is provided in Chapter 13.
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Specifying the scope of a core analysis programme is an important first step in planning and
defines the measurement objectives of the programme. Proper scope and measurement
objectives clarify expectations and allow each team member to understand and support the
reasons for the core analysis programme. Moreover, a clearly defined project scope facilitates
project approval as well as increases the probability of success. Clearly defined objectives enable
the multi-disciplinary team to specify the necessary measurements and deadlines as well as
assist the performing group to understand the critical steps that ensure measurement success.
The scope of the project is defined by a set of objectives although each objective may entail a
large number of measurements. Example measurement objectives are given as follows:
capillary pressure and relative permeability of various rock types for input into reservoir
simulation;
saturation model parameters to evaluate hydrocarbon reserves for a specific formation using
resistivity logs;
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This section is aimed at summarising the responsibilities and input that can be obtained from
each member of an integrated team. It is placed early in programme development to encourage
teamwork.
4.2.1
Petrophysics
The petrophysicist has two roles to perform: firstly as core analysis programme focal point and
secondly, to co-ordinate petrophysical aspects of core analysis data acquisition. The
petrophysicist has the nominal task of organization and implementation of the coring and core
analysis programme. It is recommended that the petrophysicist put together a trial core analysis
programme, i.e. a strawman. By passing the strawman core analysis programme to each PE
team member and other disciplines a consensus can be reached. This may require one of more
multi- disciplinary team meetings so that the synergy of the integrated team can be used. The
petrophysicist must also ensure that the core analysis programme is consistent with other
aspects of the petrophysical data acquisition programme such as the wireline log evaluation
programme. The logging suite should be a guide to the core analysis programme. Resistivity
logging, sonic logging, and density logging can all be calibrated over the cored interval by core
analysis. Pay attention to potential mineralogy identification using spectral gamma ray logs, which
can be better quantified with calibration from mineralogy obtained from core.
The petrophysicist selects core analysis measurements relevant to the purpose of calibrating logs
and determining input parameters into log interpretation models. For examples:
basic rock properties porosity, permeability and fluid saturations;
capillary pressure measurement for saturation calculation;
stressed measurements if the formation is poorly considered or in anyway stress sensitive;
electrical properties for resistivity log interpretation along with cation exchange capacity;
acoustic rock properties for AVO calculations.
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Geology
The core analysis plan should be consistent and be closely interrelated with the geological core
analysis plan. Some data are common to both analyses and measurement duplication should be
avoided.
Geological input is critical to guarantee that measurements are performed on samples that are
most representative of the formation, especially for special core analysis. This may involve
determining the number of significant rock types and also roughly estimating the reserves that
may be contained in each rock type. The combination of rock typing, i.e. facies identification, is
part of the process of geological core analysis. Table 4.1 reviews techniques and information
typically obtained in geological evaluation. More detail is contained in the manual "Geological
Core Analysis" by L. C. van Geuns and J.A. Okkerman (in preparation).
Geological input should include some of the following:
core descriptions;
facies analyses which is critical to the sampling for special core analysis measurements;
mineral identification (interaction with petrophysicist may ultimately yield mineral identification
from logs);
investigating diagenesis as well as analysing the structure of the rock fabric (such variations
can play an important part in interpreting core analysis data). Thin sections and grain size
analyses are important;
lithology, depositional characteristics and age of the formations present for geological
characterisation of the reservoir.
The geologist makes a preliminary static reservoir model. The ultimate quantification of the
reservoir model is accomplished through the interaction of geologist, petrophysicist, reservoir
engineer and other disciplines which should determine the goals of the special core analysis
programme.
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Technique
Macroscopic description
Slabbed core
Plugs/sidewall samples/cuttings
Paleomagnetism
Fracture analysis by 'goniometer'
Visible light photography
U.V. photography
Microscopic description
Thin section microscopy
Compositional analysis
Energy Dispersive X-Rays
with SEM
X-Ray Diffraction
Mineralog from Core
Laboratories
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Information
Depositional environment
Rock type/gross lithology
Net/Gross
Bedding/structure
Degree of consolidation
Grain size/sorting
Fossils
Hydrocarbon shows
Core orientation
Fracture orientation
Visual record
Hydrocarbon shows
Grain characteristics
Porosity indication
Microscopic distribution of
minerals
Quantification of
microstructure and porosity
Geochemical analysis
Mineralogy
(Clay) Mineralogy
Mineralogy depth profile and
approx. matrix density
Quantitative determination of
amounts of U, Th, and K.
Used in spectral gamma ray
log evaluation
Chemical analysis of cap and
source rock
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Reservoir engineering
relative permeability parameters including endpoint saturations and the shape of the relative
permeability curve;
capillary pressure;
While it is unreasonable to run all sensitivities, selective sensitivity analysis can quickly clarify the
economic impact of determining core analysis parameters.
The output from reservoir simulation is used in the economic justification of the core analysis
programme using value of information as discussed in Chapter 2.
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Other disciplines
Drilling engineering provides advice on drilling parameters and on coring bit and core barrel
choices. New coring bits are continually being developed with the latest being low invasion,
high density and anti-whirl bits. Selection of core bits is covered in Core Handling Manual,
Chapter 2, and more discussion is available from section 4.4. Organisation of a pre-drilling
meeting should be done in close cooperation with drilling engineering.
Production technology input is sought when core analysis programmes are to be designed
to answer questions associated with well injectivity, sand control and rock strength issues
pertaining to well-bore integrity, rock mechanical properties for fracture design, sieve analysis
for gravel sizing and mineralogy for acid stimulation. An important area is cost estimation
involving production technology. Different options frequently require different facilities which
have a significant bearing on cost and value of information calculations.
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4.3
Core measurements
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Basic core analysis is carried out to assist in log calibration for formation evaluation such as
porosity, density and mineralogy. Basic core analysis data and its uses are summarised in Table
4.2. Basic core analysis consists of the core preparation together with the measurement of the
basic petrophysical parameters of atmospheric porosity, air permeability, grain density and fluid
saturations for samples taken at regular intervals throughout the cored interval. A sampling rate of
one per foot is common.
Parameter
Application
Hydrocarbon presence
Hydrocarbon type
Fluid contacts
Atmospheric Porosity,
Grain Density, g
Rock type
Rock characteristics
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basic core analysis is often referred to as routine core analysis. However, it is sometimes not
particularly routine and thus the authors prefer the term "basic" to denote the measurement of
basic rock properties;
the definition of basic analysis is not rigid and some contractor laboratories include a few of
the simpler measurements listed in the next section 4.3.2, Special Core Analysis, such as
sieve analysis and cation exchange capacity, in their basic analysis;
geological and petrographic evaluations, covered briefly in Appendix 3, are performed both
before and during petrophysical/reservoir engineering analysis;
basic core analysis is not performed by KSEPL but can be done at BTC;
after the initial preparation of core material, contractor laboratories tend to treat basic analysis
as a single service with porosity, permeability and grain density measurements offered in one
package. KSEPL recommended procedures should be used wherever possible;
particular care should be taken over the handling and storage of samples used in basic
analysis; undamaged samples can be used in future special analyses which do not require
fresh or native state samples.
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Special core analysis is the term applied to core measurements that are not part of basic core
analysis. For example, capillary pressure, relative permeability, compressibility and resistivity
index are considered as part of special core analysis. Some measurements are made where the
fluid distribution is at equilibrium while others are done under conditions of fluid flow.
Special core analysis complements the data from basic core analysis; allowing for more thorough
log calibration and reservoir modelling. Special core analysis is carried out to determine the
following:
rock fluid flow properties for assessment of reservoir productivity, stimulation design and
reservoir modelling;
rock water retention properties; fluid saturations, pore geometry and structure, and wettability;
the mechanical rock properties for the control of fines production and stimulation design;
rock/fluid interactions for the selection of drilling, completion, workover, stimulation, and
injection fluids;
the magnitude and distribution of residual oil saturations for reservoir management and
improved oil recovery.
Samples should be representative of the various lithologies, porosity and permeability ranges
found from basic analysis.
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capillary pressure;
acid solubility.
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It is worthwhile to understand the impact that the coring process can have on a core. Events that
happen during coring can later play a critical role in the interpretation of the measurement results.
Such considerations include the type of bit, type of core, drilling mud composition, length and type
of core barrel, overbalance, rate at which core should be brought to surface. Proper
considerations maximise the amount of core recovered. Core handling at the well-site will be
considered in the next section and frequent reference will be made to the "Core Handling
Manual", EP 93-2200.
coring bit type
In general, low invasion face discharge coring bits are recommended especially for
unconsolidated cores. Throat discharge bits are not recommended because they can cause
invasion. Eastman Christensen's RC412 and Security DBS CD93 are examples of excellent
coring bits with face discharge or modified face discharge with law or minimal invasion
characteristics. Check section 2.1.3 of the Core Handling Manual.
type of core
There are a number of coring methods such as conventional, sponge or even pressure coring.
Most coring is done conventionally. Check section 2.1.4 of the Core Handling Manual.
drilling mud considerations
An important consideration for a core analysis programme are the drilling mud components. Mud
filtrate can invade the core and make the core behave unexpectedly with regard to desired
measurements such as permeability or grain density. In the case of permeability, some drilling
mud additives such as certain polymer types can be very difficult to remove from the core and
make permeability measurements uncharacteristically low. In the case of grain density, hematite
frequently found in mud is difficult to remove leading to significant overestimation of the grain
density resulting in high porosity values.
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In general, coring should be performed in such a way as to minimise invasion and with a bland
mud, so that if invasion occurs, the rock fabric remains unaltered. A bland mud is one composed
of components that do not have high interfacial activity. Components such as xanthum gum
biopolymer and other polymeric products should not be present in the mud. Drilling mud additives
that are known to be surfactants should be explicitly avoided.
This is especially critical in the measurement of capillary pressure, relative permeability and
wettability where mud filtrate can cause a change in wettability and deliver results that are not
appropriate for input into reservoir simulation.
rate of penetration, weight on bit
Excessively high rates of penetration (> 75 ft/hr) and weight on bit (> 30 klbs) should be avoided
to minimise core disturbance,
rotary speed
Moderate rotary speeds are recommended such as between 60 to 100 rpm.
overbalance control
Again, invasion during coring should be minimised and therefore overbalance should be as small
as possible. However, safety and environmental guidelines should be reviewed when deciding
upon the appropriate overbalance.
core barrel considerations
Core barrels for containerised coring can be made of aluminium or fibreglass and can be made
up to varying lengths. Either aluminium or fibreglass barrels can be used as long as the material
can withstand downhole conditions.
The barrel length should be carefully considered especially in the case of unconsolidated
samples. The typical barrel length is 30 feet (10 metres) but longer barrels such as 60 feet (20
metres) or even 90 feet (30 metres)
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are possible and can reduce the drilling time necessary for coring. However, core quality can be
impacted by having too long a core barrel. For unconsolidated samples, 30 feet core barrel is, in
general, recommended. Longer core barrels can be used for more consolidated rock material.
core jamming
Review methods of detecting core jamming as it is better to trip out immediately following jam
detection than to continue. This is very critical to good recovery in fragile or unconsolidated
formations.
bringing core to surface
After coring, the core barrel is brought to the surface which involves changing the temperature
and pressure of the core material from formation conditions to surface conditions. The more
gradual the process the better the core material can adjust to new conditions. This is particularly
true for unconsolidated samples and poorly consolidated samples.
laying the core down
The process of bringing the core to a horizontal position should be done carefully so that no
bending of the core material occurs. Unnecessary bending causes core disturbance which then
leads to measurements on disturbed or altered core material resulting in unreliable data.
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Core handling
It is insufficient to only maximise core recovery, but it is important to obtain high quality core. For
core analysis to yield correct results, the core material should be damaged as little as possible by
careful consideration of each step involved with core handling. There are two periods during
coring when there is extensive core handling, namely:
4.5.1
At the well-site
Wellsite handling is covered in "Core Handling Manual" in sections 2.2 and Appendix 1. In
general, handling of the core should be done in such a way as to minimise core damage and
accomplish the following:
identify cores in such a way that orientation and depth as is known is clearly and
unambiguously marked to the point of redundancy;
minimise handling steps and avoid hammering to remove the core material;
minimise exposure to the elements - the core should not be allowed to dry in any way;
minimise core disturbance. Use suitable equipment, for example, some saw blades are better
able to cut core material;
alert core analysis laboratory that core has been shipped and indicate expected time of
arrival;
perform core analysis as soon as possible after coring. This improves data reliability and
applicability.
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Preparation for the receipt of core is advisable to minimise poor laboratory handling which can
result in undue delay in core analysis programme scheduling. It can also prevent core damage by
preventing improper handling which can happen if inadequate preparation is made for core
arrival. Planned activities so that core measurements can be initiated as soon as possible may
include:
inspect core sections; check sequence and mark driller's depth. Determine whether cores
should be taken out of any barrels;
describe core to provide basis for sampling for special core analysis;
slab (usually into 1/3 and 2/3 portions) but this should be carefully considered because some
analyses need long plugs taken before slabbing. Consequently, the time of slabbing should
be clearly specified;
core imaging such as CT-scanning (can be done before or after slabbing and can be done
before or after plugging);
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Core screening
Additional steps for screening whole core can be specified beyond the scope traditionally defined
in section 4.5.2. Additional screening techniques are described in Table 4.3 and in Appendix 2
Technique
Information
Probe Permeametry
X - Ray Fluoroscopy
Examination of sleeved
unconsolidated material.
Main applications of various scanning techniques are to aid in depth matching the core to wireline
logs and to estimate the degree of material homogeneity for sample selection.
Table 4.3 - Information derived from core screening
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Core sampling
Sample selection for core analysis is crucial to the success of the core analysis programme.
Proper sample selection ensures that the data are measured on the most representative samples
where the degree of heterogeneity is minimised or at least the degree of heterogeneity can be
quantified. Sample selection must be done with regard to the needs of geology, petrophysics,
reservoir engineering and other disciplines such as geophysics. Ideally, sampling should result in
a statistical representation of the core material. However, that is to be balanced against cost.
4.7.1
Basic core analysis is usually done on a one per foot sampling (or 3 per metre). A quick perusal
should be done to check that core competence allows such sampling. If too many plugs fall in
regions of poor quality core, it is possible to plug every foot but beginning at a different position
perhaps 3 to 6 inches away. In general, emphasis should be paid to the cutting of plugs as close
to the one foot spacing as possible without any regard for variations in lithology. Otherwise a bias
towards apparently better formation properties may be unwittingly introduced which can lead to
improper log calibration. For some cores, where variations occur on about the one foot scale, it is
recommended to consider a closer sampling such as 1 sample for every 6 inches (or 1 per 15
cm).
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In special core analysis, most attention is paid to determining the relevant rock types upon which
measurements are to be made. Samples for special core analysis are usually not taken at regular
intervals but are taken so that samples are representative of the appropriate lithology. Perhaps it
may mean only 1 or 2 plugs to be cut or as many as 20, but rarely as many as in a basic core
analysis programme. The data for special core analysis is then interpreted as to apply to the
appropriate formation in quantifying the reservoir model. There are two criteria that must be met
when selecting samples for special core analysis namely:
It is recommended for special core analysis to begin with at least twice as many plugs as
you think will be needed for special core analysis measurements.
For example, to have 6 relative permeability measurements, at least 12 plugs should be cut to
maximise the possibility of selecting the most representative plugs. For consolidated plugs, it is
often more efficient to select from the plugs used for basic core analysis measurements. It is most
important to take more plugs for any measurement involving fluid flow such as permeability and
relative permeability. Static measurements such as capillary pressure are less affected.
The larger number of plugs initially taken allows screening to be applied so that representative
samples are obtained. For formations that are very heterogeneous, such as some carbonates, it
may be necessary to select three (3) times as many plugs as will be needed for
measurement. Without a screening process, special core analysis projects run the risk of using
plugs that are not suitable for measurement. However, too much sampling may reduce the
amount of available core material for other purposes.
For very heterogeneous material, whole core measurements should be considered. Again, each
lithology should be represented by a number of whole core samples.
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Sampling considerations
Proper planning and cross discipline communication of requirements is important for proper
sampling and ensuring that the appropriate rock types are included in the core analysis
programme.
For basic core analysis, emphasis is placed on regular foot by foot (every 30 cm) sampling
with little regard for variations in geology.
For special core analysis, emphasis is placed on rock type within the formation. It is
recommended that twice as many samples as needed for a given measurement be taken for
the purpose of maximising representativeness of the samples.
CT-scanning (cross-sectional and every inch) is critical to determine locations for plug drilling.
Longitudinal CT-scans on each plug after drilling is needed to confirm acceptability of the
plug. Without CT-scanning before drilling, rejection rate of plugs can be as high as 90%.
Depending on the reservoir, a statistically representative data set may require tens of plugs;
the laboratory experiments have to be planned efficiently so that such a data set can be
obtained.
Always work in conjunction with the analysis laboratory on the sampling strategy.
Make sure KSEPL recommended drilling/plugging methods are used to minimise damage.
For unconsolidated material, sampling and analysis should be done as soon as possible
because unconsolidated material is not easy to store long term.
Prioritise sample taking; more important analyses usually merit samples from optimum
positions.
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Having selected samples for screening, the next step is core preparation. Detailing core
preparation procedures can minimise mistakes and damage to the core material. Details are
given in Chapter 5 on core preparation. Steps in core preparation can be divided into several
steps:
plug location identification
As noted in section 4.7.1, the selection of plug locations for basic core analysis and special core
analysis is based on different philosophies. In basic core analysis the emphasis is on the regular
spacing of plugs namely 1 per foot. In special core analysis, the emphasis is on taking plugs that
are representative of a particular lithology or rock type. The locations of the plugs should be
chosen in cooperation with the geologist, reservoir engineer, petrophysicist and geophysicist.
plug drilling
As noted in the next Chapter, the method of drilling plugs should be clearly outlined.
preparation
Cleaning, drying, saturation and wetting restoration steps (for relative permeability) are critical to
specify before embarking on the core analysis programme.
Whole core samples
In the case of vuggy carbonates or very heterogeneous rock, more representative results will be
obtained using whole core samples. Whole core analysis is detailed in section 7.3. Slabbing of
the required core section is not carried out.
Samples are usually taken from each foot of core, have a minimum length of 6 inches (15 cm),
and are trimmed into right cylinders. Samples for geological evaluation must be taken before
experiments are performed.
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Sample screening provides an important step in quality control in the core analysis programme
for special core analysis measurements. Sample screening is generally only applicable for
samples used for special core analysis. Samples used in basic core analysis with quality
problems are generally noted and treated as questionable data. As mentioned in the previous
section, for any special core analysis measurement plan, at least twice as many plugs are cut as
the number used for actual measurement. Thus, the screening process selects the better
samples for measurement.
Screening consists of a number of measurements aimed at determining basic properties and
degree of sample heterogeneity. These measurements are analysed with respect to rock typing
and facies identification to provide a clearer picture of the variety of rock types. It occasionally
happens that additional plugs must be cut before acceptable samples are obtained.
The activities and measurements which are recommended for special core analysis screening
are:
Core description
Thin sections
provide a microscopic view of the rock sample and a general measure of the degree of
heterogeneity. Thin section analysis on a number of samples for a given rock type generally will
better characterise the formation of interest. It is also important to note the presence of minerals
that can affect measurements or the possibility of any core alteration or core damage. Thin
section preparation and analysis is a critical component of core screening.
More detail about thin sections is given in Appendix 3.
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Plug photography
Photographs of the plugs are recommended. Plug appearance can be used for subsequent
interpretation of core data. It is a simple but frequently overlooked step.
Longitudinal plug CT-scanning (2 views)
provides a non-invasive and non-destructive view of the internal structure of the rock and
provides a measure of core scale heterogeneity. This is done by presenting the density through
the plug using two different slices through the sample position 90 degrees apart. CT-scanning is
nondestructive and longitudinal scanning is an excellent method of screening for internal
heterogeneities not visible from the surface. Figure 4.3 shows typical longitudinal CT-scans, of a
plug sample. Variations in colour are due to clay richness and provide a measure of plug quality.
Such a plug may be questionable for flow experiments. More detail about CT-scanning is given in
Appendix 2.
Porosity, permeability and grain density
Porosity, permeability and grain density are used to ensure values from special core analysis are
in line with basic core analysis. Sometimes porosity-permeability cross-plots will show the
separation of the rock types into recognisable lithologies which are important in identifying and
selecting appropriate samples.
Mineralogy
Sample mineralogy is useful in quantifying the abundance of unusual minerals. Variations in core
analysis data can be related to rock composition.
More detail on mineralogy determination is given in Appendix 3.
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Core preservation
Core preservation is aimed at maintaining core for future use. In any core analysis project, it is
very difficult to anticipate every need core analysis should address. This occurs because present
needs do not always coincide with future ones and because the demands placed on core analysis
may have to be met with core that has been preserved.
There are a number of ways of core preservation and these are described in detail in the Core
Handling Manual by Okkerman and van Geuns, EP 93-2200. The main types are as follows:
Core freezing
Shell has long been a proponent of freezing although freezing of core for preservation has been
controversial. Possible effects of freezing include rock damage if water saturation is too high,
fracturing if freezing time is not sufficiently slow, salinity variations because of freezing, and
alterations to rock fabric because of freeze thaw cycles. It is advisable to cake the core with ice,
and to store the frozen core at temperatures below 22C while minimizing sublimation by
ensuring that the frozen core is packaged in appropriate core package materials such as special
core wrap, aluminium foil and boxing. Core takes about 3-4 hours to freeze when in contact with
dry ice. Water saturation should not be too high less than 60% or at least 10% gas saturation
which generally is the case because of the hydrocarbon-bearing formation of interest or when the
core is brought to surface. Frozen core is easy to handle and plugs can be easily drilled with
liquid nitrogen. CT-scanning can also be done on frozen core.
Resin stabilisation
In many places around the world, dry ice is not available and the opportunity to freeze the core
and maintain the core at low temperatures is not possible. Resin stabilisation is an alternative to
freezing. Resin stabilisation is done at the well-site, where epoxy resin is introduced between the
core and the liner. Once the epoxy sets up, the core is stabilised and can be transported.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to completely fill the annulus with epoxy. Other problems
are possible contamination of the core by resin, core invasion by resin and possible safety
hazards with use of resin.
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Fluid measurements
Brine composition
Composition has ramifications because it can playa role in the preservation of the state of
minerals in the formation. Abundances of cation and anion types are important. In addition, pH is
a very important brine property because it may alter the wettability of the formation.
Brine resistivity
Brine resistivity plays a role in all electrical properties measurements. The brine resistivity used in
the measurements should duplicate as closely as possible the formation brine resistivity.
However, only few measurements are done at reservoir temperature. It is usually thought to be
more important to match the brine composition than its resistivity.
Brine-rock compatibility
Some consideration should be given to compatibility of brine for flow experiments. Incompatibility
results in poor results and unusable data. See section 13.3 for details.
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Gas Oil Ratio - is sometimes necessary for adding hydrocarbon gas to dead crude to
make it live. Although usually only methane is added, it is often that methane, ethane and
propane are added to obtain a better simulation of live crude properties. Live crude oil is
sometimes used in preserved or restored state experiments. Recent work has suggested
that it is more important to be at the correct reservoir temperature than the correct gas-oil
ratio and that dead crude results are similar to live crude results;
API gravity;
density - necessary for computation of oil volumes and for use in such analyses as
oil/water capillary pressure by centrifuge;
acid and base number - useful parameters for characterising wetting tendencies of oil;
cloud point and wax deposition rate are important for oil refinery processing
considerations;
presence of trace elements such as sulphur, nickel, vanadium which are also important in
processing considerations.
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Although this manual is primarily devoted to core analysis, some comment on the handling of
fluids is in order because modern special core analysis techniques require proper fluid samples,
especially oil samples, to deliver properly measured special core analysis data such as relative
permeability.
Sample oil volumes. Oil volumes can be obtained from formation testing logging tools
such as RFT, which may be the only source of oil in new discoveries. Note that before
fluid transfer, the tool should be warmed to 55C as well as pressured to 100 psi greater
than formation pressure. Agitating the tool during transfer is important. After as much fluid
as possible has been transferred, the tool should be rinsed with chloroform/methanol and
the rinses saved. Rinsing should be repeated two to three more times. In remote
locations, these procedures may be difficult.
Dead oil. Sampling from a well should be done at the wellhead. A well that has not been
worked-over recently should be selected and where no additives have been used.
Live crude oil. For live crude oils, appropriate volumes of separator gas are required.
Required volumes for analysis. It is important that required volumes be obtained. Oil
volumes should be sampled as follows:
Analysis
Volume required
Relative permeability
at least 300 ml
(for both aging and actual measurement; some relative permeability techniques require
significantly more oil such as up to 5 litres.)
PVT
around 1 liter
geochemical analysis
500 ml.
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The sequencing and scheduling of the core analysis programme allows each team member to
know when input is required and when to expect data. The process of sequencing and scheduling
is the key to the proper management of a core analysis project. Sequencing is critical to ensure
the maximum amount of data can be measured on each plug sample and takes into account the
time each step from core preparation to final data reporting should take so that proper time
allowance can be made. Some contingency is generally allowed for so that unforeseen
circumstances can be incorporated. Scheduling ultimately reduces to the issue of when data can
be expected. By recognising data needs and schedules within the larger project, core analysis
data should be scheduled to maximise its impact.
4.14
Costs
Costs for the entire coring and core analysis programme can be determined from appropriate
price lists. Although KSEPL does not provide prices, this manual does provide an estimate of cost
for services described herein. The prices are based on an average of US based and European
based prices as of 1994 and may vary by region.
4.15
Project approval should be based on the economic impact of the project and not just on cost
alone using Value of Information concepts as discussed in Chapter 2. Core analysis data
provides data for decisions used in economic development of hydrocarbon resources.
Recognising the balance between cost and impact is the responsibility of the integrated PE team.
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Project reporting
A core analysis programme is not complete until properly documented. Core analysis data are
reported in tabular, graphical, image and or digital form. These reports become permanent
records of the observations made at the time of coring, core handling, screening, preparation and
testing. Any commentary which may assist in the interpretation of the different data forms at the
present or in the future should be recorded, e.g.:
all raw data used to generate the final data should be included in the core analysis report;
It is important to specify the number of core analysis reports required by the Opco so that
appropriate stakeholders (including appropriate central files) receive a copy.
Tabular report
Tabular report should include all data, positively identified and tabulated in some convenient, but
usually spreadsheet, form. Identification comes in two forms:
Wellsite report:
well identification;
type of well (vertical, deviated, side track, etc);
type of core;
core recovery;
drilling parameters;
mud composition;
core depths;
well-site handling;
well-site preservation;
core transportation;
report timing of activities.
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The exact presentation of data may be determined between the user and the analyst. Suggested
significant figures to be reported are as follows:
Porosity values to
Grain density values to
Saturation values to
Pore volumes to
Grain volumes to
Bulk volumes to
Permeability values to
Pressure values to
Stress values to
Resistivity values to
Relative permeability values to
Compressibility
Graphical report
Graphical presentations are often included to provide the user with a pictorial overview of various
data. Through the continued advances of computer graphic software an unlimited selection of
pictorial formats are readily available including crossplots, histograms, or core data profiles (logs).
Specific formats are left to the discretion of individual Opcos. However, some essential
recommendations are made below:
Basic core analysis
Two graphical figures have been widely accepted and are recommended for inclusion in every
basic core analysis report:
- Permeability vs Porosity plot
- Core Data vs Depth plot.
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Project review
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A follow-up meeting of the PE team to review core analysis results is very important in order to
better apply core analysis data, to maximise impact of core analysis data and to ensure that the
needs of the PE team are met. This is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure 4.4. Having
completed a series of measurements, data review leads to a much clearer picture of which actual
data merit the highest consideration. It is most worthwhile to have the core analysts present at the
data review. This could be difficult with problems of distance and time, but perhaps modern
technology such as videoconferencing can be of assistance. Even basic core analysis projects,
although usually uncomplicated, merit review. The project review process should include:
review all measurements made on the same plug especially core photography, CT-scanning,
thin section, SEM and XRD results which will have a bearing on values measured. The
quality of the plug data can be checked, for example, if the sample coincidentally has a
higher clay content than normal coupled with an unusual resistivity, etc.;
review measurements in the geological context of the formation. Thus the implications of core
analysis data can be grasped by examining all measurements on the same facies;
determine the quality of the measurements. This is done with the core analysts who
performed the work being present;
As a consequence of the follow-up review, the best data will have been determined and a
consistent picture of the nature of the data will be evident. This will lead to better application of
the core analysis data in quantifying reservoir models in the multi-disciplinary team by proving the
proper contextual interpretation of the core analysis results.
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Literature
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Core preparation
core cleaning;
core drying.
After selecting plug locations and cutting plugs for analysis, the proper methods of core cleaning
set the stage for later measurements. Improper core preparation can impact subsequent data
quality. Avoidable errors often occur in these first steps of core analysis so it is advised to be as
specific as possible about core preparation steps.
This chapter begins with the appropriate considerations for proper drilling of core plugs followed
by methods of core cleaning and core drying. After core preparation, the clean dry samples are
ready for measurement or for restoration of wettability prior to relative permeability measurement.
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Plug drilling
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Principle
Whole core sections are slabbed into two sections typically with thicknesses 1/3 & 2/3 of the
original diameter after the optimum slabbing plane is determined through CT-scanning. Plugs are
taken from the 2/3 section and can be drilled with either fresh (or tap) water, brine, kerosene, air
or liquid nitrogen.
Points
Fresh (or tap) water is used for clean sands and carbonates.
Brine is used for cores from high salinity environments.
Kerosene (or petrofree) is used for shales and halite bearing samples.
Air is used for fluid saturation determination studies.
Liquid nitrogen is used for shales and when consolidation is questionable.
For most measurements cylindrical plugs of diameter 2.54 cm and length 2.5 to 5.0 cm
should be drilled from the slabbed core using fresh water as a drilling fluid (see also Chapter
10 if wettability must be preserved).
Horizontal plugs should be drilled parallel to the apparent bedding plane while vertical plugs
are drilled perpendicular to the apparent bedding plane. Care needs to be taken over the
direction of the bedding since fluid flow properties may vary with sample orientation. If
horizontal and vertical properties are to be compared the plugs need to be drilled as close to
each other as possible.
Samples should preferably be taken from the centre of the core to minimize contamination
from drilling mud invasion.
Plugs should be machined into right cylinders; the offcuts (also known as endpieces or
trimmings) of this process can be used in analyses which do not require plug samples, such
as thin sections, mineralogy, and cation exchange capacity determination (see chapter 9).
Small diameter cores must be plugged before slabbing to ensure plugs of adequate length,
see Appendix 4 for more details.
Price/timing
< US$25 per plug drilled
Plugging usually takes about 10-15 minutes per plug.
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Principle
Frozen unconsolidated whole core sections are slabbed into two sections typically with
thicknesses 1/3 and 2/3 of the original diameter after the optimum slabbing plane is determined
through a CT-scanning. Plugs are taken from the 2/3 diameter section. KSEPL recommends the
2/3 diameter core section be frozen in dry ice, if not already frozen, and that a plug be drilled
using liquid nitrogen as a coolant (see Figure 5.1). Plug samples should remain frozen prior to
measurement.
Points
Price/timing
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Core cleaning
5.2.1
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Principle
Cleaning is accomplished by means of a hot solvent extraction (Soxhlett) technique, in which an
azeotropic mixture of methanol and chloroform is heated and diffused into the sample. This
should be done below the boiling point of water, to avoid removing any water before the oil. The
technique also ensures that salt is not precipitated.
Points
Certain measurements require samples that have NOT been cleaned; fluid saturations by the
Dean-Stark method (section 6.3.1) is one example.
Gas-drive solvent extraction (e.g. CO2 saturated toluene extraction where a pressure drop
causes the gas to expand and flush the sample) used at some contractor laboratories is
considered acceptable, but must not be used for soft rock types such as chalk.
Types of solvents include acetone, chloroform/methanol azeotrope, cyclohexane, ethylene
chloride, naptha, tetrahydrofuran, toluene, trichloroethylene, xylene.
Usual criterion for plug cleanliness is a clean extract (check for fluorescence in solvent).
However using a second solvent can remove additional hydrocarbon and is recommended
when the first solvent takes more than three or four days to clean the sample.
The usual sequence is to begin cleaning with toluene and chloroform/ methanol. If it is found
that samples are not sufficiently clean more aggressive solvents are then used such as
xylene and tetrahydrofuran.
Combinations of solvents such as alternating chloroform/methanol and toluene can be used
for samples that are difficult to clean.
Tetrahydrofuran is recommended for cleaning to water-wet state prior to restoration of
wettability.
High boiling point solvents can cause clay dehydration. Naturally occuring halites may be
removed by toluene.
Price/timing
< US$25 per plug.
Cleaning by this technique usually takes one week. If this is not sufficient to remove all the
oil, an alternative solvent can be applied.
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Principle
At KSEPL, the frozen sample is mounted in a core holder and a confining stress of 30-50 bar is
applied. The sample is allowed to thaw. After thawing, the sample is cleaned by cold solvent
flushing with chlorothene and toluene alternately.
Points
KSEPL apparatus for cleaning unconsolidated samples is shown in Figure 5.2.
Cleaning in a stress cell prior to a stressed measurement is normally done and eliminates
one core handling step.
It may be difficult to ensure that the sample's pore structure is representative of the reservoir.
Computer Tomography (CT) scans can be used to recognise core disturbance and core
recovery in case of fibreglass or plastic liner contained cores.
Studies have found that if core material is frozen slowly by refrigeration or with dry ice,
damage to the microstructure is not induced.
Many core contractors apply a screen capped teflon method (SCTM) to unconsolidated plugs
in which a teflon sleeve confines the cylindrical surface while the ends are capped with a wire
mesh. Thereafter, for cleaning, drying and measurement the sample is treated as if it were
consolidated. The teflon is non-conductive so electrical properties can be investigated. Other
contractor labs use heat shrink tubing or lead sleeves.
Further preparation steps are usually: the sample is dried by purging with nitrogen, saturated
with a 10 g/l NaCI solution and frozen again. The frozen sample is then placed in the
experiment sample holder, subjected to a confining stress and allowed to thaw. The NaCI
solution is removed by flushing with methanol.
Price/timing
< US$75 per sample
Cleaning can take as long as several weeks depending on oil type.
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Core drying
5.3.1
Oven drying
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Principle
The sample should be dried in a vacuum oven. KSEPL advises that samples should be dried at
95C. Samples may show induced fractures at higher drying temperature.
Points
Use an explosion-proof oven. Conventional ovens as shown in Figure 5.3 are acceptable.
Each core sample should be dried until constant weight is obtained.
Drying times may vary substantially.
.
Care is critical in handling samples with hydrated materials. In some cases a lower
temperature should be used.
Pricing/timing
About US$5 per plug.
Drying is done in batches of up to 100 plugs overnight (at least 16 hours).
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Principle
The CPD technique prevents the development and advancement of a gas/fluid or fluid/fluid
interface within the rock by raising the fluid within the pores above its critical point (see Figure
5.4). The prevention of interface formation is achieved by replacing the oil and brine in the pore
space successively by methanol and liquid CO2 through diffusion. CO2 is preferred because its
critical point of 32C and 72 bar is more convenient than other solvents. The gas is vented
without an interface being formed. Methanol is used as an intermediate liquid to ensure full
miscibility.
Points
Diffusion time depends on sample size and permeability and can range from one day to one
month.
Temperature and pressure are chosen such that liquid carbon dioxide becomes a gas without
a phase change.
Critical point drying preserves the structure of the clays in the pores. It should be used if there
are delicate clay minerals, such as fibrous illite, which are sensitive to the conventional oven
drying method. If these minerals are damaged in the drying process, the air permeability of
the samples is profoundly affected, by up to a factor of 10 or more. Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show
the damage which can be caused to delicate clay minerals by conventional oven drying.
The CPD technique can only be used on consolidated material.
CPD is done on fresh cores.
After critical point drying, the sample can be resaturated without the appearance of interfaces
by using the critical wetting method; essentially CPD in reverse.
Permeability estimates can be obtained by using a cleaning solvent such as methanol which
avoids using brine.
Price/timing
About US$50-100 per plug.
CPD takes about 2 weeks to 2 months, depending on air permeability.
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When the pressure and temperature of the pore fluid are raised above its critical point, the fluid is
brought into a supercritical state in which no phase transition exists between gas and liquid. The
supercritical fluid can then be removed from the sample without damaging fragile clay minerals.
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Principle
Core contractors employ humidity drying where the sample is heated to 60C at 40% relative
humidity. Because of the low temperature, the drying may take several days. It is claimed this
method preserves the water adsorbed on the clays (clay-bound water).
Points
This technique is NOT recommended by KSEPL as the resulting 'effective' porosity has no
unique relationship with either log-derived effective or total porosity.
Salt is not removed and causes erroneous weights. Salt must be removed by flushing with
methanol/water before measurements of total porosity are made.
Small variations in relative humidity can impact porosity measurement of some plugs.
Price/timing
< US$25 per sample
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The following tables are based on recent studies carried out by KSEPL/SIPM on a number of
contractor analysis laboratories. The review summarises preparation procedures routinely
available. The remark "acceptable" indicates that KSEPL agrees with the procedure offered; it is
either similar to that used at KSEPL or expected to yield results of comparable quality. A blank
space indicates lack of information. In general, contractor laboratories can offer preparation
procedures of acceptable quality as long as recommended procedures are requested and
followed.
Note: Preparation costs are approximate.
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Literature
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The most frequent measurements in core analysis are performed for the determination of basic
physical properties. These are porosity, permeability, grain density, water and oil saturations.
Simple relationships govern these parameters such as:
Sampling for basic core analysis, as discussed in section 4.7.1 is generally foot by foot.
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6.1
6.1.1
Principle
A clean, dry, consolidated sample is immersed in mercury. The sample weight in mercury is
measured and Archimedes principle used to determine bulk volume, see Figure 6.1.
Points
KSEPL recommended technique because of simplicity and speed.
Significant error in bulk volume may be introduced if large surface pores are present, e.g. in a
vuggy sample.
Errors are minimised by using right cylinders and wrapping them in cling film before the
measurement.
For carbonates which are particularly cracked or vuggy, more representative bulk volume
measurements may be obtained by whole core or full diameter analysis (see section 7.3).
Precision
0.01 ml.
Price/timing
< US$75 per sample.
A single measurement takes a few minutes.
Peripheral measurements
Grain and/or pore volume are needed to determine porosity.
Dry weight is needed to determine grain density.
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Principle
A clean, dry, consolidated sample is immersed in mercury and the volume of displaced mercury is
determined by a piston displacement.
Points
This is an acceptable technique.
Ensure that there is not a significant head of mercury on the sample during measurement.
For this reason, bulk volume by mercury buoyancy is preferred.
Significant error in bulk volume may be introduced if large surface pores are present, e.g. in a
vuggy sample. Errors are minimised by using well formed right cylinders and wrapping them
in cling film before the measurement.
For carbonates which are particularly cracked or vuggy more representative bulk volume
measurements may be obtained by whole core or full diameter analysis (see section 7.3).
Precision
0.01 ml.
Price/timing
< US$75.
A single measurement takes a few minutes.
Peripheral measurements
Grain and/or pore volume are needed to determine porosity.
Dry weight is needed to determine grain density.
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Principle
A caliper is used to measure sample dimensions to calculate bulk volume.
Points
This is an acceptable technique for regularly shaped samples.
This method is slightly quicker than mercury displacement but is less accurate.
It can be used in cases where large surface pores/vugs are present.
Precision
0.15 ml (which is equivalent to a porosity precision of 1 porosity unit for a 20% porosity
sample).
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A single measurement takes a few minutes.
Peripheral measurements
Grain and/or pore volume are needed to obtain porosity.
Dry weight is needed to determine grain density.
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Principle
The weight of a clean, dry, consolidated sample is measured before the sample is 100%
saturated with a fluid, either brine or an organic solvent. The saturated weight is measured and
the pore volume is determined from the dry and saturated weights and density of the saturating
fluid.
Points
This is an acceptable technique although care must be taken to avoid handling errors such
as can arise in measuring saturated weight if extraneous fluid drops adhere to the sample
surface or if the sample is not fully saturated.
Pore volume is measured directly.
Consolidated samples only.
Precision
0.01 ml (which is equivalent to a porosity precision of 0.2 porosity units for a 20% porosity
sample).
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A batch of 20 samples usually takes about a day.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk volume and/or grain volume are needed to determine porosity and dry weight to
determine grain density.
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Principle
Five to ten grams of clean, dried (unconsolidated or crushed) sample are placed in a pycnometer
(which is a small glass flask of known weight accurately calibrated for volume; see Figure 6.2).
After weighing, the pycnometer is filled with toluene or kerosene, and the solvent is degassed.
The weight of pycnometer, sample, and solvent is then determined at a known temperature.
Grain density is calculated from weights, pycnometer volume and solvent density.
Points
KSEPL recommended technique for determination of grain density for unconsolidated and
consolidated material. The techniques is recommended for its accuracy.
Technique is destructive.
Trimmings (or endpieces) are usually used.
Temperature control is critical.
Automated pycnometers as shown in Figure 6.3 are often used where temperature control is
less critical.
Precision
0.002 g/ml.
This technique is used to calibrate other grain density methods.
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A batch of up to 20 takes about a day.
Peripheral measurements
Dry weight and bulk volume are needed to obtain pore volume and porosity.
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Principle
A sample is weighed when 100% saturated with a solvent such as chlorothene or toluene. The
saturated sample is immersed in a bath of the same solvent and re-weighed while suspended
below the surface of the solvent. Grain volume is calculated from the dry and saturated weights
and solvent density according to Archimedes Principle.
Points
This is the recommended technique (see Figure 6.4).
Consolidated samples only.
Temperature control is critical.
Precision
0.005 ml (which is equivalent to a porosity precision of 0.1 porosity units for a 20% porosity
sample).
Error can occur if sample is not completely saturated.
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A batch of 20 usually takes about a day.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk volume and dry weight are needed to obtain porosity and grain density.
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Principle
A Boyle's law porosimeter determines volumes by the principle of gas expansion. A typical design
is shown in Figure 6.5. It consists of two chambers, a reference chamber and a sample chamber
of known volume, which can be isolated. Helium gas, at a pre-set initial pressure, is allowed to
expand from the reference cell into the evacuated sample cell, which contains the clean, dry
sample of unknown grain volume. The final equilibrium pressure is measured and the grain
volume can be calculated using Boyle's Law.
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Points
Boyle's Law porosimetry is acceptable but KSEPL recommends that, on a regular basis,
either the pycnometer or buoyancy method be performed on a subset of samples so that
Boyle's Law technique can be checked or calibrated.
Sufficient time must be taken to reach pressure equilibrium otherwise porosity and grain
density can be underestimated particularly for low permeability samples.
The technique is non-destructive for consolidated samples.
Both consolidated and unconsolidated samples can be run.
Unconsolidated samples are placed in a cup of known volume
Precision
0.025 (which is equivalent to a porosity precision of 0.5 porosity units for a 20% porosity
sample).
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A typical measurement takes less than 30 minutes per sample.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk volume and dry weight are needed to obtain porosity and grain density.
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6.2
6.2.1
Air permeability
Principle
A core plug of known length and diameter is loaded into a Hassler type core holder (see Figure
6.6 ). The sample is subjected to a low confining stress (of about 15- 20 bar) to prevent gas flow
around the plug. Gas (air or nitrogen) is allowed to flow through the sample by applying a
pressure differential across the sample. Flow rate and pressure differential are measured and
used to determine sample permeability using Darcys law, pressure differential, sample
dimensions and gas velocity.
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Points
This is an acceptable technique. Liquid permeabilities are preferred but are much more
expensive.
Unconsolidated samples can be measured but problems can occur with by-passing if the
sample is not sleeved or if insufficient confining pressure applied. Permeabilities of
unconsolidated samples are better measured at reservoir stress.
Specify orientation of the core plug; horizontal and vertical permeability can be quite different.
If permeability anisotropy is required, vertical and horizontal permeabilities should be
measured on samples as near to each other as possible within the same rock type. KSEPL
RR/37 has cubical sample capability for permeability anisotropy (see Figure 6.7)
Precision
Precision depends upon permeability:
0.01 - 1.0
1 - 50
50 - 2,000
2 - 10
mD
mD
mD
D
accuracy: +20 %
accuracy: +10 %
accuracy: + 5 %
decreasing accuracy with increasing permeability.
Price/timing
< US$100 per sample.
A single measurement takes about 5 minutes.
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Peripheral measurements
Gas viscosity at temperature must be determined.
Klinkenberg correction. Using gas at low pressure leads to an apparent permeability which
is too high because the mean free path of the gas is no longer negligible compared to a
typical pore size. Corrected permeability values are obtained by measuring the permeability
at a series of different mean pressures and using them in the following equation:
kair = k ( 1 + (b/P) )
where
kair
k
P
b
Apparent permeability values are, in general, linear in reciprocal mean pressure. Extrapolation to
infinite mean pressure determines the theoretical liquid, or Klinkenberg, permeability, k, and the
slope is the Klinkenberg gas slippage factor, b. Values for b range from 0.1 for high permeabilities
to 10 for permeabilities in the micro-Darcy range.
Turbulence correction. Fluid acceleration and deceleration in the pore throats and bodies
lead to inertial effects, becoming more prominent at higher differential pressures and flow
rates. Darcy's equation will no longer describe the flow, as it is valid only for laminar flow. The
Forchheimer equation can be used as described below:
(P/L) = (Q/Ak) + (Q/A)2
where
P/L
Q/A
/k
pressure gradient
flow velocity
reciprocal mobility (viscosity/permeability)
coefficient of inertial resistance
fluid density.
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Probe permeability
Principle
In probe permeametry, gas flows from the end of a small-diameter tube (or 'probe') that is sealed
against the surface of a slabbed or unslabbed core (see Figure 6.9). Gas at a known pressure is
delivered from the probe to the sample. The pressure in the probe is measured together with the
corresponding volumetric gas flow rate. Gas permeability is determined from calibrations based
on pressure and flow rate.
Points
This is an acceptable technique as long as sufficient calibration is performed.
The permeability is localised to the region near the seal.
The method is non-destructive.
As the probe only investigates a small volume of rock, the measurement is well suited for
investigation of spatial permeability variation in cores. Also directional permeability variation
around the circumference of a whole core can be measured.
A permeability range of about 1 to 10,000 mD can be measured.
Data reliability depends heavily on the condition of the core.
Permeability data may reflect effective permeability at partial liquid saturations.
Precision
20% of measured permeability with proper calibration.
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
Each measurement takes a few minutes.
Peripheral measurements
Permeability should be checked against plug values.
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6.3
Fluid saturations
6.3.1
Principle
Dean-Stark extraction relies upon distillation of the water fraction and the solvent extraction of the
oil fraction from a sample using the apparatus in Figure 6.10. A virgin sample is weighed and
placed in the extractor. Vapour of the boiling solvent distils water from the sample. Solvent and
water vapours condense in a reflux-type condenser and are collected in a calibrated trap.
Additional extraction is sometimes needed to complete removal of oil and precipitated salts from
the sample. After water and oil have been removed, the sample is dried. The oil weight is
obtained as the difference between total loss in sample weight and water weight. Oil weight is
converted to oil volume using oil density which is measured separately.
Points
Dean-Stark is the recommended technique for determining fluid saturations.
Dean-Stark should be done as soon as possible after coring.
Consolidated samples usually remain undamaged and can be used for further testing.
Unconsolidated samples can be used but integrity is difficult to maintain.
Typical solvents are toluene, xylene, chloroform/methanol.
Reported saturations are at atmospheric conditions.
An extra methanol distillation can be used to remove precipitated salt which occurs with
samples that contain high salinity brines.
Plugs should be drilled with air and not kerosene.
Precision
Water saturation reproducibility is 3 saturation units
Price/timing
<US$50 per sample.
The total elapsed time for saturation determination is about a week.
Peripheral measurements
Pore volume (usually atmospheric), water and oil densities are needed.
Porosity measurements must be made after Dean-Stark extraction.
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Principle
Oil and water fluid saturations are obtained by a high-temperature retorting process in which oil
and water contained in a fresh sample of crushed core material are vaporised, condensed and
collected in calibrated glassware. The gas saturation is determined on an adjacent, lithologically
similar sample by placing it in a mercury pump and measuring the amount of mercury injected
with water and oil present.
Points
The method is NOT recommended because of high temperature degradation of oil causing
oil saturation to be too high.
The method is less accurate than Dean-Stark.
Twin plugs are required.
Porosity and saturation values are determined at the same time.
This method should not be used for samples containing gypsum or montmorillonite as the
mineral bound water will be removed by the high temperatures leading to an inaccurate water
saturation.
Low permeability samples contain small pore throats and limit mercury penetration which
underestimates gas volume.
Precision
Oil saturation
Water saturation
Porosity
Price/timing
< US$50 per sample.
A batch of 10-20 samples takes about a day.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk volume from adjacent sample by buoyancy in mercury or mercury displacement.
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Literature
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Stressed porosity values are important for reproducing formation porosity, especially for
unconsolidated or poorly consolidated samples. The stress dependence of the porosity is
determined by compressibility and can be a significant production mechanism.
Stressed permeability measurements are critical in determining reservoir flow potential. In
particular, the stress dependence of the permeability is important in determining flowrates over
the life of a producing hydrocarbon reservoir.
Whole core analysis is included in this section because the whole core methods used here
predominantly employ stress application.
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Principle
The method here is the same as the Boyle's Law porosimeter method for atmospheric conditions;
see section 6.1.7. A clean, dry (consolidated) sample is mounted in a stress cell and Boyle's Law
porosimetry is used to determine pore volume. Unconsolidated samples are mounted frozen,
thawed and cleaned at initial stress prior to measurement.
Points
Boyles Law porosimetry is an acceptable technique.
This is a direct measure of pore volume.
Boyle's Law porosimetry is not normally used to determine the stress dependence of the
porosity.
The equipment used at KSEPL for the measurement of mercury/air capillary pressures under
stress enables porosity to be measured concurrently under both atmospheric and stressed
conditions using a hydrostatic cell/helium porosimeter.
Precision
0.02 ml in pore volume
0.5% in true value of the porosity.
Price/timing/number of samples
< US$100 for a single stress.
Measurement time per samples is about half an hour.
3-5 samples per rock type are recommended, if possible.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk volume is needed to determine porosity.
Usually done at the same time as other measurements such as mercury/air capillary pressure
curve.
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Stressed permeability
7.2.1
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Principle
A cleaned, dried sample, with known dimensions, porosity and atmospheric air permeability, is
placed in a hydrostatic Hassler-type core holder (see Figure 7.1). If brine permeability is required,
the sample is 100% saturated with artificial formation brine. Measurements of pressure difference
across the sample, average pore fluid pressure and flow rate are determined at stepwise
increments of net isostatic confining pressure. Permeability is calculated and a relationship
between confining stress and permeability can be determined.
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Points
KSEPL recommended method for determining (stressed) permeability.
Brine ionic composition should approximate original formation fluid to prevent any reaction
with the rock.
Experiments should ensure stable flow rate and pressure drops at each stress.
Consolidated and unconsolidated cylindrical plug samples can be used.
Diameter 2.54 - 3.75 cm and length 3-5 cm can be used.
Maximum effective stress is 400 bar (5,800 psi). Effective stress is the difference between
confining stress and average sample pore pressure.
Permeability range: 10 D - 10 D
When gas is used, gas permeability can be measured concurrently under both atmospheric
and stressed conditions. After a number of samples have been measured a relationship
between gas permeability at effective in-situ stress and standard gas permeability can be
developed.
Prior to measurement, a pilot test should be carried out to determine flow rate, average pore
pressure, and average differential pressure for which gas slippage and turbulence effects are
negligible (see Section 6.1.7).
Precision
About 10-20% of true value.
Price/timing/number of samples
About US $1000 for 6-8 stresses.
Experiments may last 2-10 days per sample.
4-6 samples per rock type are recommended.
Peripheral measurements
Samples may not be reusable if they have been exposed to high stresses.
Longitudinal CT-scans, thin sections and mineralogy assist in data interpretation.
Special arrangements must be made if stressed porosity and permeability are required on the
same core plug.
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Principle
The apparatus is outlined in Figure 7.2. A clean, dry plug sample is placed in a Hassler type core
holder and is subjected to the effective confining stress of the formation. Gas pressure is raised to
about 100 bar. A pressure pulse is introduced by increasing the pressure in the upstream vessel
and then monitoring the return to equilibrium of the pressure, which is dependent on the
permeability of the sample. The method is suitable for measuring gas permeability and the
effective permeability to gas in the presence of an immobile liquid phase especially in low
permeability rocks.
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Points
Pulse decay permeability is recommended for rock samples with permeabilities below 1
mD.
This method can be used to determine permeabilities in the range from 50 nanodarcies to
100 millidarcies. This technique is very well suited to samples with low permeability and has
been used effectively to characterise tight gas reservoirs.
Gas slippage effects are negligible due to the high pore pressure used and therefore
Klinkenberg correction is not required.
Pulse decay permeability is not normally used to determine the stress dependence of the
permeability.
Required water saturation can be obtained by centrifuge desaturating.
Core Laboratories CMS 300 uses a pulse decay technique.
Precision
About 10-20% of true value between 0.01 - 100 mD.
For permeabilities < 0.01 mD, precision is reduced.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $500 per sample (single stress).
Measurement time per sample is several minutes to more than a day depending on
permeability.
4-6 samples per rock type.
Peripheral measurements
Partial liquid saturation is determined prior to measurement.
Longitudinal CT-scans and thin sections and mineralogy are used to assist in data
interpretation.
Capillary pressure curves e.g. mercury/air can be used to validate immobile liquid
saturations.
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Core analysis for petrophysical and reservoir engineering parameters is usually carried out on
2.54 cm to 3.75 cm diameter cylindrical plugs. However, some core material such as
heterogeneous carbonates merit sampling on a larger scale. Whole core analysis aims at
obtaining values more representative of the formation, by using sections of whole core that are
trimmed to form cylinders.
Calgary Research Centre, Calgary, Alberta
Calgary Research Centre (CRC), a Shell E&P laboratory is the Group's centre of expertise for
whole core analysis. CRC may be used for Group Opco work when capacity is available.
Coordination through SIPM EPD/222 is required.
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Principle
This technique is essentially a Boyle's law helium porosimeter experiment which measures the
pore volume of the sample using isothermal helium expansion. The conventional method is
described in section 6.1.7. A cleaned, oven dried sample is placed in a Hassler type core holder
and subjected to a confining pressure of 400 psi (28 bar) (Figure 7.5). The core holder is
connected to the porosimeter and helium is allowed to expand isothermally into the sample from
a reference cell of known volume and initial pressure. Pore volume is calculated from the final
pressure of the system using Boyle's law.
Points
Boyle's Law porosimetry is an acceptable technique.
This technique directly measures pore volume.
Sufficient time must be allowed for helium to expand into the entire pore space, otherwise
porosity may be underestimated particularly for low permeability samples.
Full diameter core samples are trimmed to form right cylinders and, if necessary, can be
machined to have diameters of 2, 4, or 7 inches (5, 10 or 18 cm).
Samples can be re-used for further tests.
Whole core samples may take a long time e.g. months, to clean.
Precision
Porosity can be repeated to within 0.5 porosity percent.
Price/timing
< US$100 per sample.
A single porosity measurement may take up to an hour.
Peripheral measurements
Bulk and/or grain volume is needed to complete porosity determination.
Special Core Analysis techniques can be adapted for whole core/full diameter samples. See
section 7.3.3.
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Principle
Both vertical and horizontal permeability to gas of a cleaned dried sample are determined using a
permeameter equipped with a Hassler-type core holder. The sample is loaded into a rubber
sleeve of the holder and subjected to a typical 20 bar (300 psi) confining stress. Flow regimes
used to measure the two permeabilities are shown in Figures 7.3 and 7.4. Vertical permeability is
determined by flowing gas through the length of the core. Horizontal permeability is determined
by passing gas through opposite quadrants of the cylindrical surface of the sample using an array
of permeable screens, which cover opposite quadrants on the surface and are rotated through
90o so that the measurement can be carried out in two perpendicular orientations.
Points
This technique is acceptable. Liquid permeabilities are generally preferred.
If there is inadequate sealing between the rubber seal of the core holder and the sample, gas
will tend to bypass the sample leading to erroneously high permeabilities.
The higher of the two horizontal permeabilities is sometimes referred to as kmax and the
lower as k90. Typically a geometric mean permeability is calculated which is used in porositypermeability relationships and in log calibration for permeability estimation.
Precision
Permeability can be repeated to within 10 to 15 percent.
Price/timing
About US $100 (including cleaning).
A single measurement takes about 15 minutes.
Peripheral measurements
Klinkenberg corrections might be considered but are not usually done in whole core analysis.
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The range of special core analyses that can be done on whole core/full diameter samples is
sufficient for most formation evaluation purposes. While special core analysis topics are reviewed
in detail in Chapters 9 - 13, it is appropriate to review available whole core services.
Capillary pressure
The technique used here is the pressure equilibrium method. See section 8.1.2 for details.
Resistivity index
See section 9.2.1 for details
Unsteady-state relative permeability measurements. This technique is usually not suitable for
heterogeneous core material which is often the case with whole-core samples.
See section 11.3 for details.
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Literature
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Capillary pressure
The manual "Capillary Pressure and Saturation Height Functions" by S.J. Adams and R.J. van
den Oord, (report EP 93-0001) contains an extensive discussion and description of capillary
pressure measurements and their interpretations. Consequently, this section on capillary
pressure highlights aspects of capillary pressure measurement relevant to a comprehensive core
analysis programme.
The capillary pressure curve is the most common special analysis measurement performed on
core plugs. Capillarity is responsible for the distribution of oil and brine in a reservoir and is the
first rock property discussed which focusses on two phase behavior of rock samples. Proper
measurement of capillarity is critical for accurate determination of hydrocarbon reserves. The
most common fluid pairs in measurement of capillary pressure are:
mercury/air;
oil/water;
gas/liquid.
Corrections for particular fluid pairs are made based on interfacial tension as well as an estimate
of contact angle or wettability, which are required for saturation-height functions.
Throughout all measurements of capillary pressure, accuracy of the capillary pressure curve is
dependent on the accuracy with which the pore volume is measured. Any error in pore volume is
translated immediately into a saturation error in the capillary pressure curve itself. It is
recommended as a general procedure in capillary pressure measurements to remeasure the pore
volume at the end of an experiment although this is difficult in the case of mercury/air curves.
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Primary drainage - begins with a fully (wetting phase) saturated core. Non-wetting phase is
introduced and the sample is driven to initial wetting phase saturation, Swi, This measurement
reflects the fluid distribution typically found at the time of discovery.
Imbibition - beginning with initial wetting phase saturation, Swi, imbibition describes the
process by which wetting phase saturation is increasing till residual non-wetting phase
saturation is achieved. An example of this process is waterflooding.
Secondary drainage - begins at residual non-wetting phase saturation and describes the
process by which the wetting phase saturation increases till an initial water saturation is
achieved. This saturation may not be the same as Swi obtained on primary drainage
depending on wettability, see section 10.1 for further discussion especially Figures 10.1 and
10.2. An example of this process is in movement of the OWC down following gas injection.
Secondary imbibition - follows secondary drainage and is similar to imbibition in that the
process describes a wetting phase saturation increasing process. An example is when an
OWC moves up again after first moving down.
Figure 8.1 also shows two parameters namely the initial wetting phase saturation, Swi, and the
entry pressure, Pe, The initial wetting phase saturation, which we shall take as the initial water
saturation has other names. It is often referred to as connate water saturation, Swc. Another
term that is frequently used is irreducible water saturation. However, irreducible in fact is a
relative term depending on the applied capillary pressure. At increasing capillary pressure, Swi,
decreases until it reaches zero at infinite capillary pressure. Thus, we prefer to use the term, Swi,
for initial water saturation, which is taken to mean the lowest water saturation consistent with the
initial capillary pressure.
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In mercury/air measurements, mercury is the non-wetting fluid and air, or vacuum, is the wetting
fluid. Mercury/air experiments are used because they can be done rapidly with many data points
measured. This makes mercury/air measurements the most accurate in terms of detailed
characterisation of capillarity of rocks. For example, an Autopore 9220 measures as many as 250
points in defining a capillary pressure curve.
Mercury/air experiments have the disadvantage that bound water effects are not included.
Accordingly, comparisons between mercury/air and oil/water capillary pressure curves will show
mercury/air curves achieve a lower wetting phase saturation at the same equivalent capillary
pressure.
Also, imbibition cycle capillary pressures cannot be reliably measured in the mercury/air system.
Note: mercury/air experiments should be the last measurement performed on a sample because
mercury is difficult to remove and renders the sample essentially useless for further work.
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Principle
The Micromeritics Autopore 9200 (recently replaced by model 9220) can measure mercury/air
capillary pressure curves up to a pressure of almost 4,000 bar (60,000 psi) (see Figure 8.2).
Experiments are performed in two separate chambers. A low pressure chamber acquires data for
pressures up to 1. 7 bar (25 psi) and a high pressure chamber acquires data up to 4,000 bar. A
clean and dried sample is loaded into a penetrometer (see Figure 8.3), which is placed into the
Autopore. Mercury pressure is applied which causes mercury to be displaced from the
penetrometer into the sample. The amount of mercury that enters the sample is determined by
the capacitance of the penetrometer at a given mercury pressure.
Points
This is the recommended technique for mercury/air experiments on consolidated
samples. Samples need to be at least friable. Sometimes rocks with only minimal degree
of consolidation can yield surprisingly good results, but stressed measurements are
recommended for unconsolidated samples.
Blank corrections tend to be small and generally not needed. Blank correction is a
volume correction that should be subtracted to account for cell expansion due to an
applied mercury pressure.
High mercury pressures attained allow determination of capillary properties of the very
tightest cores. However, tight samples with small pore volumes must be carefully closure
corrected and even blank corrected.
Some errors can be noticed for samples whose plateau lies at about 25 psi because it
corresponds to the transfer of the sample between the low pressure and high pressure
systems. This has been minimised in the Autopore 9220.
Samples should have a diameter of 1.5 or 2.54 cm (1") and a length of 2.3 cm (0.9").
Irregular samples can be used down to a minimum volume of 1 mI.
This technique can be used for drill cuttings analysis for porosity and permeability at
BTC. Drill cuttings should be at least 50 mg in weight (see Appendix 4.3.2).
Samples are not usable for further measurement. Any other measurements required
must be done before mercury intrusion.
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Precision
Intrusion volume precision is better than 0.001 ml or about 0.2% in saturation.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $350 per plug.
Can be done in batches of 4 in about a day.
6-8 samples per rock type. Capillary pressure is used to characterise rock types and thus
more samples are recommended to ensure proper rock typing.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate pore volume is essential.
Pore volume can be estimated with acceptable accuracy from the mercury intrusion at 4,000
bar.
Autopore estimates bulk volume from which porosity can be determined.
Grain volume is also needed for an accurate porosity estimate.
Thin sections (on an endpiece) are recommended for better data interpretation.
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Principle
A clean, dry sample is mounted and evacuated (see Fig. 8.4). The sample is injected with
mercury at stepwise pressure increments. The volume of mercury entering the sample at each
pressure step is measured.
Points
Acceptable technique but pressure limited to 1,500 - 2,000 psi compared to section 8.1.1.
A blank correction should be made on the system, typically done by running an experiment
on a steel cylinder.
Closure corrections (also known as packing corrections) should be applied which eliminates
from the capillary pressure curve, the erroneous contribution of space between cell and
sample caused by surface irregularity.
Samples are not usable for subsequent measurement.
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Precision
Intrusion volume precision is 0.001 ml or about 0.3% in saturation.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $500 per plug.
Experiments usually take about a day per sample.
6 to 8 samples per lithology or rock type are recommended. Capillary pressure is used to
characterise rock types and thus more samples are recommended to ensure proper rock
typing.
Peripheral measurements
An accurate pore volume determination is essential.
Thin sections are highly recommended in rock typing.
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Principle
Stressed mercury/air measurements can be performed on consolidated and unconsolidated
samples by applying hydrostatic (isostatic) stress to the samples before mercury injection (see
Figure 8.5). The difference between confining stress and mercury pressure is kept constant at the
required net effective stress to ensure that the rock sample is maintained at the proper stress
state. The technique is otherwise the same as the pressure equilibrium method.
Points
Recommended technique for unconsolidated samples.
A blank correction is important in this experiment.
Closure corrections (also known as packing corrections) should be applied.
Unconsolidated samples are often cleaned in the apparatus before measurement.
The maximum mercury pressure is usually about 2,000 psi (140 bar) although some systems
can go to 5,000 psi (350 bar).
Maximum applied stress is about 5,000 psi (350 bar).
Samples are not usable for further measurement.
Precision
About 0.2% in saturation.
Price/timing/number of samples
About US $750 per plug.
A typical experiment takes at least two days if cleaning is required.
6-8 samples per rock type are recommended per rock type.
Peripheral measurements
A stressed pore volume must be measured either by Boyle's Law or by fluid saturation. Pore
volume by fluid saturation has the disadvantage of requiring subsequent cleaning.
Thin sections on endpieces are highly recommended.
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Oil/water capillary pressure curves allow determination of capillary properties which more closely
approximate the subsurface environment. Measured pressures more directly relate to subsurface
values. In addition, effects of brine associated with clay particles, commonly known as clay-bound
water, can be incorporated.
Unfortunately, oil/water capillary pressure curves are determined by fewer points compared with
mercury/air techniques, because of the much longer time needed to approach equilibrium in
oil/water systems as well as a more limited pressure range. An advantage is that both imbibition
and drainage can be done using this technique.
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Principle
Brine saturated samples (usually in batches up to 6 samples) are spun in a centrifuge at a series
of increasing rotational speeds. Rotational speed, which can go as high as 20,000 rpm in an ultracentrifuge, determine the capillary pressure of the system. In a typical configuration (see Fig. 8.6),
the centrifugal force causes oil to displace brine from the sample. The volume of brine produced
is determined at each speed. For imbihition, experiments. brine displaces, oil and oil production is
monitored.
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Points
Recommended technique for oil/water capillary pressure curves.
Data should be extrapolated to infinite time before data analysis methods are applied.
Rotational speeds should be applied for at least 24 hours, otherwise production data
cannot be easily extrapolated.
Automated data acquisition systems provide better data.
Production data (average saturation) must be converted to endface saturation data and
such analysis can be quite complex. Best data analysis methods are parameter
estimation and Forbes technique.
Centrifuges can be either a low speed (up to 5000 rpm) conventional centrifuge or a high
speed (up to 20,000 rpm) ultra-centrifuge. The high speed ultra-centrifuge is better suited
for tighter samples.
Bond number, preferably not to exceed 10-5 otherwise desaturation effects may occur
causing incorrect residual saturations.
Stress can be applied in various configurations of centrifuge experiments.
By changing configuration, brine can displace oil so that an imbibition capillary pressure
curve can be measured.
The spontaneous imbibition branch for water-wet samples cannot be obtained when the
centrifuge is run on the imbibition cycle.
Precision
Price/timing/number of samples
About US$l,000 per capillary pressure curve is typical.
A batch of up to 6 samples can take about a week to 10 days.
4-6 samples per rock type are recommended.
Peripheral measurements
An accurate pore volume is essential.
Centrifuge capillary pressure curves can be combined with relative permeability
measurements using the centrifuge (see Chapter 11).
Thin sections are recommended.
A mercury/air capillary pressure capillary curve is recommended for comparison with
primary drainage curves.
If imbibition capillary pressure curves are determined, then an estimate of wettability can
be obtained. Representative wettability (aging) should be applied for imbibition
experiments.
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Principle
In the Pressure Equilibrium technique, the capillary pressure curve is usually obtained as part of a
resistivity index versus saturation measurement (see Chapter 9). A clean, dry sample in contact
with a capillary diaphragm, is mounted in a stress cell and vacuum saturated with brine (see
Figure 8.7). Oil pressure is applied at a specific pressure and the oil volume injected into the rock
sample is determined after the system has equilibrated. A number of pressure steps are used
(typically 6-10) to define the oil/water capillary pressure curve.
Points
This is an acceptable technique.
Experiment is usually run under stress.
Closure is determined as part of the resistivity measurement.
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Precision
Pressure precision is usually very high; saturation uncertainty is about 0.5% PV.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $750 per plug sample.
Very slow experiment; can take more than two months to complete.
About 2-4 samples per rock type are recommended.
Peripheral measurements
An accurate stressed pore volume measurement is essential.
Usually accompanied by a resistivity index measurement.
A comparison mercury/air capillary pressure measurement is recommended.
Thin sections are highly recommended.
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Gas/liquid capillary pressure curves are generally much easier to measure than oil/water capillary
pressure curves. The gas used is generally air although sometimes nitrogen is used.
Hydrocarbon gas is never used in these measurements. This is not so critical because the
wetting state in gas/liquid systems is strongly liquid wetting.
On the other hand a variety of liquids are used. Both air/water and air/oil curves are measured. In
air/water systems the effect of clay bound water is more clearly seen. Like oil/water curves,
gas/liquid capillary pressure curves are determined with fewer points than with mercury/air
techniques.
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Principle
The principle is the same as presented in section 8.2.1. However, in this technique, the
centrifugal force causes air to displace liquid. The liquid production is determined at each
centrifuge speed.
Points
Recommended technique for gas/liquid capillary pressure curves.
Data should be extrapolated to infinite time before data analysis.
Rotational speeds should be applied for at least 24 hours, otherwise data cannot be easily
extrapolated.
Production data (average saturation) must be converted to endface saturation data and such
analysis can be quite complex. Best data analysis methods are parameter estimation and
Forbes technique.
Imbibition curves are generally not measured in gas/liquid systems.
Precision
Reproducibility of centrifuge capillary pressure curves has been investigated at KSEPL and
was reported to be within 3% saturation.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $950 per plug.
A batch of up to 6 samples can take about a week to 10 days.
4-6 samples per rock type are recommended.
Peripheral measurements
An accurate pore volume is essential.
Thin sections are recommended.
A mercury/air capillary pressure curve is recommended for comparison with primary drainage
curves.
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Principle
A clean, dry sample is saturated with the wetting phase fluid (brine or oil). The sample is then
placed in a batch of 20 or so on a semi-permeable membrane, which is only permeable to the
wetting phase. The gas pressure is increased stepwise, forcing gas into the sample. Brine is
expelled through the porous plate. After equilibrium has been reached at each pressure step
(determined by non-brine production), the sample is removed from the cell and saturation
changes are determined gravimetrically. The plugs are again placed in the porous plate vessel
and a higher gas pressure is applied.
Points
This technique is NOT recommended because of sample alteration caused by frequent
handling and uncertain re-attainment of capillary continuity. Other problems also exist such
as possible salt precipitation during the experiment.
Samples mounted individually in contact with a porous plate in a sleeved core holder can be
used for gas/liquid capillary pressure measurement following guidelines in section 8.2.2.
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Electrical properties
The measurement of electrical properties is critical for proper evaluation of resistivity logs. This
chapter on electrical properties is divided into three sections:
methods for the determination of the cation exchange capacity which is an important
parameter in resistivity log interpretation of shaly samples.
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Principle
A sample is vacuum saturated in a hydrostatic stress cell and brine is flowed through the sample
until a stable resistivity value is obtained. Formation resistivity factor, FRF, is the ratio of sample
resistivity to brine resistivity. Formation factor, stressed porosity and cementation exponent are
determined at stress by measuring change in resistance, sample length and pore volume.
Points
This is the only direct method for measuring FRF and m at stress.
Both consolidated and unconsolidated samples can be used.
Isostatic stress conditions are generally used.
In shaly samples, clays can contribute to sample conductivity. The values obtained from
shaly samples require a correction for cation exchange capacity (CEC). Methods used for
measuring CEC are outlined later in this chapter. The Waxman-Smits model corrects
measured resistivity values for the presence of clay.
Precision
2.5% of actual value (i.e. about + 0.05 in cementation exponent, 'm'),
Price/timing/number of samples
US$950 per sample.
Each measurement takes approximately 2 days including preparation.
3-5 samples per rock type is recommended.
Peripheral measurements
Brine resistivity, Rw, is measured separately.
An accurate ambient porosity is essential. Stressed porosity is calculated during the
experiment.
Qv or CEC for shaly samples.
Two longitudinal CT-scans are important for determining heterogeneity.
Thin sections assist in data interpretation.
Formation factor measurements are always performed at the start of a resistivity index
measurement, see section 9.2.
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Resistivity index, I, is the ratio of the resistivity of a sample, Rt at a water saturation, Sw, to the
resistivity of the sample when fully saturated with the same brine, Ro. As water saturation is
decreased, the resistivity of the sample increases as hydrocarbon replaces the brine within the
pore space of the rock sample. The purpose of resistivity index measurements is to provide the
relationship between resistivity index, I, and saturation, Sw, such as shown in Figure 9.2, which
can be critical for the interpretation of resistivity logs. This relationship can be often approximated
by the Archie equation which is a power law expression and is thus linear on a log-log plot. For
more complex systems, the I- Sw relationship may be represented by a curve. The accurate
determination of the I- Sw curve and 'n' is very important for quantifying hydrocarbons using
resistivity logs.
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In Figure 9.2, the straight line (1) represents the classic Archie equation. For some rock samples
different curvatures are found. A downward curving relationship is characteristic of certain types
of shaly sandstone, for which the Waxman Smits equation can be used. Precise knowledge of
this curve is essential for correctly calculating hydrocarbon saturation from wireline logs and
hence for obtaining an estimate for HCIIP.
It is important to realise that hysterisis can occur ion the I-Sw relationship (see Figure 9.3).
Generally drainage data (water saturation decreasing) are measured. This is because formations
are discovered at initial water saturation at the end of the drainage cycle. In this case, systems
are mostly thought to be strongly water-wetting. Imbibition data (wetting fluid phase increasing)
do not necessarily plot on the same curve as drainage data, because of the effect of wettability on
oil production. When measuring resistivity data on the imbibition cycle, careful attention should be
paid to proper wetting state which is discussed in the next chapter.
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Principle
A clean, dry core plug is placed in a Hassler-type pressure cell and vacuum saturated under low
confining stress with brine of resistivity and ionic composition similar to formation water. Pore
volume is determined. Change in pore volume is determined from measured fluid volume. Brine
flushing continues until electrical equilibrium is reached and the resistivity at 100% brine
saturation, Ro, and the cementation exponent, 'm', are determined. The experimental set-up is
shown in Figure 9.4. Oil (kerosene or toluene) is injected into the sample. For a given injection
pressure, sample resistivity and volume of expelled brine are monitored when equilibrium is
reached (no more brine production). Measurement is repeated for increasing steps in oil
pressure.
Points
This is a recommended technique for resistivity index determination.
In addition to resistivity index, this technique can also yield an oil/brine capillary pressure
curve.
Imbibition mode can be studied by allowing brine to displace the oil.
Confining stress is necessary for unconsolidated samples.
A curved I-Sw relationship can be caused by a leaking membrane.
Precision
Uncertainty in water saturation is 0.5% and uncertainty in n is about 0.05.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $2,500 per sample is typical.
About 6 weeks per sample for drainage; 2 - 4 additional weeks for imbibition.
3-5 samples per rock type.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate stressed pore volume is essential.
Qv and CEC required for shaly samples.
Drainage saturation exponents are most frequently measured. Imbibition saturation
exponents require wettability and aging considerations.
CT-scans and thin sections help in data interpretation.
Formation factor and cementation exponent are always included.
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Principle
The experimental set up shown in Figure 9.5 is very similar to that used in the equilibrium method
outlined in section 9.2.1, but the oil phase (kerosene or toluene) is injected into the sample at a
constant slow injection rate. Resistivity of the fully brine saturated sample with brine resistivity
and ionic properties similar to the formation fluid, is measured. The drainage cycle is begun with
an injection rate chosen so that a pore volume of kerosene would be injected in about 14 days.
The pump displacement, resistance across the sample, injection pressure and temperature are
monitored continuously during injection. Water saturation is determined continuously from
injected/produced brine volumes and the pore volume.
Points
This is a recommended technique.
Continuous injection gives a qualitative indication of capillary pressure. However, pressure
equilibrium is not reached. X-Ray tomography experiments have indicated that these nonequilibrium fluid distributions have no significant effect on the measured I-Sw curve, provided
that the experiment is not carried out in less than two weeks. Research is ongoing at KSEPL
to use continuous injection for the determination of capillary pressure curves (see Section
14.2.1).
Studies by KSEPL have found that continuous injection and equilibrium methods yield almost
identical resistivity index and saturation exponent results. The continuous injection method
however, is considered superior since it provides a densely sampled I-Sw curve
corresponding to the 'plateau', or near constant gradient region of a capillary pressure curve
and is a lot faster.
Drainage mode only.
.
Figure 9.6 shows KSEPL capability for continuous injection.
A curved I -Sw measurement can be caused by a leaking membrane.
Precision
Uncertainty in water saturation is 0.5% and uncertainty in 'n' is about 0.05.
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Price/timing/number of samples
US $1,500 per sample is typical.
Measurement time is two weeks per sample but another 2 weeks is needed for sample
preparation.
3-5 samples per rock type.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate stressed pore volume is critical.
Qv or CEC required for shaly samples.
CT-scans and thin sections assist in data interpretation.
Formation factor and cementation exponent are always included.
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Principle
A clean, dry sample is weighed and brine saturated. The electrical resistance of the sample is
measured at ambient conditions. The sample is placed in a pressure cell on a plate permeable to
brine, where as many as twenty samples are placed at a time. The samples are desaturated by
increasing the air pressure in discrete steps, where each pressure level is maintained for 2-4
days so that equilibrium is reached. The plugs are then removed and resistivity and saturation
data are obtained from measurements of the sample resistivity and weight. The process is
continued until a pressure of 15 bar is reached. Saturation is determined from the weight loss.
Points
This technique is NOT recommended because of sample alteration such as grain loss
caused by frequent handling and uncertain reattainment of capillary continuity. Other
problems also exist such as salt precipitation during the experiment. The technique is not
suitable for unconsolidated samples.
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Principle
The resistivity and weight of a brine saturated sample is measured. After desaturation is obtained
by displacement of brine with air, sample resistivity and weight are measured, yielding a single
data point in the resistivity index- saturation relationship. Brine density must be known.
Points
This technique is NOT recommended because a single point is inadequate to characterise
the entire curve of resistivity- index vs saturation. Moreover there is no guarantee that the
sample is at initial water saturation.
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Samples with clay minerals can have anomalous resistivity behaviour due to additional
conductivity created by presence of clay particles, which becomes important in low brine salinity
environments. The extra conductivity is characterised by the exchange capacity which arises from
the clay structure through cationic substitution. This results in a net negative charge on the clay
surface. When in contact with brine, a double layer is formed causing extra conductivity, referred
to as the clay conductivity. The exchange capacity is expressed as Cation Exchange Capacity in
units of milliequivalents per unit weight of dry rock. Alternatively, the Waxman-Smits equation
uses Qv which has the units of milliequivalents per unit pore volume. A number of methods is
available to measure CEC and Qv. When measuring cation exchange capacity using membrane
potential, the value obtained for Qv is denoted as Qve.
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Principle
An electrical potential is generated when two brines of different salinity are brought into contact.
When a shaly sample is positioned at the interface, the electrical potential increases. The
magnitude of the increase is directly related to Qve. The experimental scheme is shown in Figure
9.7.
Points
Recommended technique; available from KSEPL and BTC.
Non-destructive measurement which properly incorporates effects of clay distribution within
the sample.
Plug samples should have a diameter of 2.54 cm and a length of 1-4 cm.
Both consolidated and unconsolidated samples can be used.
A stress of 7 bar is applied to prevent leakage around the sample.
Thomas salinities (1.288m: 0.096m) are generally used for which the relationship between
measured potential and Qve has been determined.
At KSEPL, salinities of 0.192m: 0.096m are used.
Samples should have a reasonably uniform clay distribution which can be checked with CTscanning.
Measurements can be unreliable for very high values of Qve i.e. Qve > 5 milliequivalents per
ml pore space.
Precision
Repeatability is estimated at 0.05 in Qve.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $300 - $400 is typical.
A measurement takes about 1 hour for a 20 mD sample and up to a day for tighter samples.
6-8 samples over a range of Qve values can provide a reasonable trend.
Peripheral measurements
Sample porosity and permeability should be known.
Longitudinal CT-scans, thin sections and mineralogy help with interpretation.
Membrane potential should be measured for each I-Sw curve.
Membrane potential should also be done when other CEC methods are used.
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Principle
The conductivity of a brine-saturated rock sample, Co is measured at different brine salinities of
known conductivity, Cw. Four brines are usually used, starting with the lowest salinity and at each
salinity the sample is flooded with brine until the conductivity has reached equilibrium. The
quantity, BQv, the clay conductivity in the Waxman-Smits model, is determined from a plot of Co
versus Cw (see Figure 9.9). The clay corrected formation resistivity factor, F*, is determined by
fitting a straight line of slope 1/F* through the high salinity data. Clay conductivity is obtained from
the difference between F*Co and Cw.
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Points
Technique is acceptable, but care needs to be taken to ensure brine equilibrium.
The technique is non-destructive.
Beginning experiments with low salinities appears to decrease the time to achieve electrical
equilibrium.
Both consolidated and unconsolidated samples can be used.
Plugs of diameter 2.54 cm and length 3-5 cm are preferred.
The experiment is carried out at room temperature and with a net isostatic confining stress up
to 400 bar.
Waxman-Smits, Bmax = 3.83 meq/mole, value is needed to determine Qv.
Typical brines used are 25 g/l, 50 g/l, 100 g/l and 200 g/l.
Precision
Repeatability is estimated at 0.1 in Qv due to the need for extrapolation.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $2,000 - $3,000 per sample.
The method is very time consuming - it can take weeks for a sample to reach equilibrium. It is
therefore recommended that its use should be limited to cases where the clay distribution
within the reservoir and the sample is not uniform and where salinity variation will not alter the
claymorphology.
3-5 samples per rock type is adequate.
Peripheral measurements
Membrane potential Qv measurement is recommended.
Porosity and permeability should be measured.
Longitudinal CT-scans, thin sections and mineralogy aid interpretation.
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Principle
The sample, usually a clean end piece, is crushed and weighed. The exchangeable cations are
exchanged using a suitable leaching solution and are quantified by conductometric titration, which
involves titrating the solution while monitoring the conductivity which displays a rapid increase
after the correct titre has been reached.
Points
This is an acceptable technique commonly used by KSEPL and BTC.
The test is destructive. Plug endpieces are ideal to use as they are more than 1 cm in length.
The procedure is simple and easy to perform.
Extreme crushing or powderisation will lead to overestimates of CEC.
Ideally, rock sample should be just disaggregated.
Other titration methods of determining CEC are done, such as using ammonium acetate, but
these are not preferred by KSEPL.
This is the usual contractor procedure.
Precision
Repeatability is about 0.03 in CEC (milliequivalents per 100 gram dry rock).
Price/timing/number of samples
US$250 per sample
Measurements usually take about 2-3 days and are done in batches of about 10.
3-5 samples per rock type. More samples are required if a trend is to be established, such as
with porosity.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate pore volume is required.
Is routinely done for every I-Sw sample at KSEPL.
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Principle
The measurement is based on an assumption that there exists a relationship between clay
surface area, which is measured by water absorption, and the cation exchange capacity of the
sample. The sample is dried at 40% relative humidity and 60C to leave a few layers of absorbed
water on the clay surface. After weighing, the sample is dried completely at 105C and the
measured weight loss gives the amount of absorbed water. This is then correlated with CEC,
obtained by using one of the other methods.
Points
The technique is NOT recommended because it relies on uncertain correlation and
calibration by other techniques.
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Literature
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In understanding the behaviour of oil and water in rocks, the issue of wettability is important. Until
now we have concentrated predominantly on the behaviour of samples that have been cleaned
and dried to a condition that is presumed to be water-wet. Definitions of wetness are given in the
next section, but it is sufficient to say that water-wetness expresses a preference for the sample
to imbibe only water. Core analysis experiments from basic analyses, capillary pressure and
resistivity index have focused on the use of cleaned samples. This is acceptable as long as we
are considering the behaviour of samples on primary drainage (see Figure 8.1) and the interest is
directed towards the initial water saturation. However, when considering the behaviour of oil and
water on the water saturation increasing cycle, reservoir wettability is the determining factor of
flow behaviour. Wettability is important because of its impact on the proper measurement of
imbibition cycle properties, particularly relative permeability.
This chapter focuses on issues associated with proper measurement of relative permeability
namely:
wettability and;
interfacial tension.
Interfacial tension is used here primarily as a means of screening the suitability of any crude oil
sample for core analysis experiments.
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Wettability
Reservoir wettability expresses the preference of a rock sample for a given fluid type and
determines the flow behaviour of oil and water upon production. Core measurements, such as
relative permeability, carried out on the imbibition cycle (water saturation increasing) must be
performed with the correct wettability. Wettability is usually defined by the angle (conventionally
measured through the wetting phase) made at an oil/water interface in contact with a solid
surface. Typical definitions of water wet, oil wet and neutral wet are given in Table 10.1 and
shown in Figure 10.1.
water wet
neutral wet
oil wet
0
70
110
<
<
<
<
<
<
70
110
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Wettability of core samples may change during handling. For example cleaned samples may be
more water wet than in-situ. This chapter addresses the types of sample preparation necessary to
conduct measurements at appropriate wetting conditions i.e. fresh state, restored state and
cleaned state. Fundamental to considerations about measurement at proper wetting conditions is
the comparison of results between different wetting states. SIPM/KSEPL recommends core
measurements made at two different wetting states such as stored state vs cleaned state or fresh
state vs restored state to estimate the impact of wettability.
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Steps to render cleaned-state samples water-wet have been developed at Shell. One method
is to expose samples (particularly sandstones) to tetrahydrofuran. Otherwise, alternating
solvents such as chloroform/methanol and xylene can help make a sample more water-wet.
Pyridine has also been shown to be effective in making samples water-wet.
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Extensive cleaning to remove all compounds from the rock surface and to produce a waterwet state.
Flooding with (dead) reservoir crude to initial water saturation which is accomplished through
application of appropriate capillary pressure.
'Aging' by leaving the sample in contact with these fluids for at least 4 weeks at reservoir
temperature and pressure at initial water saturation. A period other than 4 weeks may be
recommended following specific research (see Chapter 14.2.1).
Possible replacement of the aging fluids by refined oil and synthetic brine to be used in the
experiment. This is done if the crude oil is particularly difficult to handle. However, checks
must be made to establish compatibility between refined oil and crude oil.
Fresh-state and restored state data may be different because fresh-state samples can have
trapped water saturation upon return to initial water saturation while the restored state
samples have a lower and more representative initial water saturation (see Figure 10.3).
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Drilling muds with surfactants or pH differing significantly from the formation fluids must be
avoided.
Minimise exposure of consolidated core to air and drying after coring by performing the
following well site procedures:
- immersing the core sections in deoxygenated formation or synthetic brine and placing in
glass-lined steel or plastic tubing which is then sealed;
- OR wrapping the core sections in polyethylene or polyvinylidene film and then in aluminium
foil. The wrapped core is then coated in paraffin wax or a plastic seal.
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Native-state cores are generally cored with water-based mud so that some imbibition has
taken place resulting in a lower oil saturation. However, in order to restore the sample to an
initial water saturation, native state samples are generally flooded with oil. However,
performing such tests now drive the sample to an initial water saturation from a secondary
drainage cycle as opposed to the restored state cycle which achieves initial water saturation
under primary drainage. Secondary drainage processes in mixed-wet systems frequently
result in trapped water saturation which can be as much as 10-15% of the pore volume. This
is shown in Figures 10.2 and 10.3. While it has been thought that agreement between results
from restored state and native state tests should be expected, careful consideration shows
that only in situations that are strongly waterwet would such an agreement be acceptable. In
mixed wet cases, the difference in initial water saturations on primary versus secondary
drainage cycles can be as large as 10-15%. This is essentially the observation of hysteresis
in capillary pressure phenomena.
It remains important to pay careful attention to drilling parameters and drilling mud
composition when cutting core for use in wettability and relative permeability studies even
though restored-state techniques are used. This is to minimise any damage to the core
material during coring.
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Wettability determination
Whenever water/oil relative permeability or any other imbibition cycle water/oil measurements are
made, such as imbibition water/oil capillary pressure and imbibition cycle resistivity index
measurements, it is advisable to determine the wettability of the system. There are a number of
methods for measuring wettability from contact angle determination to capillary pressure
methods. The two most common wettability measurements are Amott and USBM methods.
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10.2.1 Amott
Principle
A wetting fluid will tend to spontaneously imbibe into a sample of core material displacing a nonwetting fluid. The Amott wettability index is calculated as the ratio of the volume of fluid displaced
by spontaneous imbibition (line 2 in Figure 10.4), to the total volume displaced by both
spontaneous and forced imbibition (line p-s). The ratio of displaced brine volumes is the
'displacement by oil ratio', and that of oil volumes the 'displacement by brine ratio'. Together, the
two ratios give a measure of sample wettability as follows:
water-wet
oil-wet
neutral-wet
oil ratio
0
1
0
water ratio
1
0
0
Points
Acceptable technique for wettability determination.
Technique is suitable for measuring wettability in strongly water wet or strongly oil wet
conditions and is not particularly sensitive at neutral wetting.
Values generally lie between 0 and 1 and it is the combination of the two ratios that provide
insight into the wetting state.
Mixed wet samples have both ratios positive.
Precision
Indicative only.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $l,000 -US $1,500 per sample.
The recommended imbibition time is 2-3 weeks. If imbibition is stopped after a short period of
time the measured displaced volumes are too small, producing wettability ratios that may be
too small.
Either one Amott or one USBM for each fresh-state or restored-state measurement.
Peripheral measurements
Amott tests are usually done in support of other measurements such as relative permeability.
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Interfacial tension
Interfacial tensions (IFT) are discussed here primarily as a means of quantifying the suitability of
crude oil in core analysis measurements. If an IFT value is obtained that is unreasonably low, e.g.
below 20 dynes/cm, then the use of the crude oil in aging and core analysis measurements would
be suspect because of sample contamination with surfactant.
Interfacial tension measurements are also necessary for the determination of saturation-height
functions from capillary pressure curves. Capillary pressure measurements are often carried out
using different fluids and under different wetting conditions than those in the reservoir.
Conversions, therefore, correct for differences in wettability and interfacial (surface) tensions.
Much uncertainty exists in the conversion with respect to wettability since the wetting conditions
within the core samples are very sensitive to the samples' history: the techniques used in their
acquisition, handling, storage, etc. Lack of knowledge of interfacial tension in the reservoir
increases the uncertainty. Order of magnitude values for reservoir interfacial tensions are quoted
in typical text books and Shell references, but existing interfacial tension data is quite diverse,
especially values for oil/water situations where an accurate value for an 'average crude' cannot
be given. Also, interfacial tensions for mixtures cannot be reliably predicted at this time. It is
recommended that the influence of uncertainties in the correction factors on the desired results
be checked; however, the need for accurate values increases with decreasing reservoir quality.
Studies by Buck and Thomeer suggest that, for low quality reservoir rock, inadequate knowledge
of the oil/water interfacial tension can significantly affect saturation, and therefore HCIIP
estimations obtained from capillary pressure curves.
Experimental techniques aim to reduce uncertainty by measuring the interfacial tension on
reservoir fluids at reservoir temperatures and pressures. Certain precautions need to be taken to
ensure valid results:
A bottom hole fluid sample is preferred early in field life, where the pressure remains above
the bubble-point pressure.
Fluid samples contaminated with non-reservoir fluids should be avoided.
The crude sample should not be exposed to air.
Parameters such as API gravity and surfactant content are required.
The apparatus must be clean and its reactivity and wetting state known.
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Price/timeliness
Typically US$1,000.
Typical contractor turnaround time for this experiment is 8 weeks.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate fluid densities are needed.
Usually part of PVT measurements, e.g. gas-oil ratio is needed when IFT measurements are
performed on live crude.
Appropriate capillary pressure curves.
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Literature
Anderson, W.G.
Wettability literature survey part 1: Rock / oil / brine interactions and the effect of core handling on
wettability.
JPT Oct. '86.
Jia, D., Buckley, J.S., Morrow, N.R
Alteration of Wettability by Drilling Mud Filtrates.
SCA 9408 paper presented at the International Symposium of the Society of Core
Analysts, September, 1994
Wunderlich, R.W.
Obtaining Samples with Preserved Wettability in Interfacial Phenomena in Oil Recovery, NR.
Morrow ed
Marcel Dekker, Inc New York City, 1990, pp 289-318.
Anderson, W.G.
Wettability literature survey part 2: Wettability measurement.
JPT. November, 1986.
Longeron, D., Hammervold, W.L., and Skjaeveland, S.M.
Water/oil Capillary Pressure and Wettability Measurements using Micropore Membrane
Techniques
SCA 9426 paper presented at the International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts,
September, 1994.
Schipper, B.A., Aperen, A.E. van, Looyestijn, W.J.
Quality assessment of core analysis procedures of G.A.P.S Geological Consultants, London.
EP 90-2172.
Amott, E.
Observations relating to the wettability of porous rock.
Petroleum transactions of AIME 1959.
Donaldson et al. US Bureau of Mines (USBM) Oklahoma
Wettability determination and its effect on recovery efficiency.
SPEJ, March 1969.
Buck, A.L., Thomeer, J.H.M.
In-situ interphase tension between reservoir fluids: a review.
BRC 21-85, EP06-2778.
Weg, P.B. van der
Computer automated interfacial tension determination with the spinning drop.
KSEPL, RKRS.92.RP.1.
Roest, J.A., Keir, C.A, Niko, H.
Measurement of residual oil - A state of the art review.
EP 65259, Feb. '86.
Harrison, D
A review of field procedures for preserving wettability, laboratory techniques for the measuring
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Relative permeability
Relative permeability is one of the most important reservoir characteristics measured in the
laboratory since it describes multiphase flow in a porous medium and is used in the prediction of
reservoir performance and ultimate fluid recoveries. Data obtained (from both imbibition and
drainage cycles) are itemised as follows and shown in Figure 11.1:
-
initial water saturation, Swi, (otherwise known as connate water saturation, Swc,);
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Steady-state measurement
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Points (continued)
Remarks on contractor service:
- contractor procedures which involve removing the sample and determining
saturations using gravimetric or volumetric material balance are NOT
recommended;
- contractor laboratory methods often place the sample with a mixing head upstream
and a production end plug downstream in a rubber sleeve and mounted in a Hassler
type hydrostatic core holder which can be pressurised to in-situ stress levels. The
Core Laboratories method using a specially designed hydrostatic core holder and Xray attenuation (SMAX) to monitor saturation profiles is considered acceptable;
- the applied flow conditions must be reported;
- end-point saturations should be checked by Dean-Stark extraction.
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Precision
Saturation can be determined within 3% (in saturation units).
Sor cannot be determined with high precision within a reasonable measurement time using
steady-state methods.
Price/timing/number of samples
Typical costs are US$3,000- US$4,000 per cycle.
Experiments take 1-3 weeks depending on automation per sample.
2-3 samples per rock type are recommended. At least 6 samples should be prepared for the
screening process to select the proper plugs for measurement.
Peripheral measurements
Wetting state of the sample should be determined; see section 10.2.
Accurate pore volume measurement is important.
An oil/water interfacial tension as a function of time is recommended to determine whether
the crude oil (if used) has been contaminated.
Two longitudinal CT-scans should be done as part of screening and should be used to check
sample quality. Cross-sectional CT-scans can also provide indications of heterogeneity.
Thin sections and mineralogy are recommended for data quality and to aid data
interpretation.
A capillary pressure measurement on the same sample is highly recommended.
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Centrifuge measurement
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Points (continued)
It is highly recommended to use computer simulation to derive relative permeability curves by
history matching the production data.
Volume resolution of at least 0.05 ml is recommended.
Note that no data are obtained during spontaneous imbibition.
Figure 11.6 shows comparison of centrifuge and steady-state measurements. Note that the
centrifuge data achieves very low values.
Precision
Saturation can be determined within 3% (in saturation units).
Uncertainty in relative permeabilty is estimated to be about 50%.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $3,000- US $4,000 which includes a capillary pressure measurement and both oil and
water relative permeability curves.
A typical experiment takes about a month excluding an aging time of 4 weeks.
4-6 samples are recommended per rock type. Experiments are usually done in batches of 3-6
depending on centifuge and centrifuge holder.
Peripheral measurements
Steady-state oil/water relative permeability curves are recommended as a check of the
centrifuge data especially in the mid-range saturation region.
An accurate pore volume determination is important.
An oil/water interfacial tension as a function of time is recommended to determine whether
the crude oil (if used) has been contaminated.
Two longitudinal CT -scans should be done as part of screening and should be used to check
sample quality. Extra plugs must be prepared for the screening process before deciding on
the best samples for measurement.
Thin sections and mineralogy are highly recommended for data quality and data
interpretation.
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Price/timing/number of samples
US $3,000 - US $3,500 which includes a capillary pressure measurement.
The method takes about 2 weeks.
4-6 samples per rock type are recommended.
Peripheral measurements
Accurate pore volume determination is critical.
A gas/liquid surface tension measurement is recommended to determine (crude) oil quality.
Two longitudinal CT-scans should be done as part of screening and should be used to check
sample quality. Extra plugs must be prepared for the screening process before deciding on
the best samples for measurement.
Thin sections and mineralogy are highly recommended for data quality and data
interpretation.
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Unsteady-state measurement
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Points (continued)
Displacement procedures do not always guarantee a representative initial water saturation.
Centrifuge methods can more easily attain lower and more representative water saturations.
Samples are limited to absolute air permeability values greater than 1mD.
Interpretation is best by history matching the production performance using computer
simulation incorporating effects of capillary pressure.
Unsteady-state methods do not properly reach residual oil saturation, Sor, because of the long
displacement times needed. If Sor numbers are critical then the recommended technique is
the centrifuge.
Both consolidated and unconsolidated core material can be used; diameters between 2.54
and 3.75 cm with a minimum plug length of 4 cm.
Only the data points measured after water breakthrough can be used to calculate relative
permeability curves. To ensure a sufficiently wide enough saturation range, a high fluid
mobility ratio is used which gives early breakthrough. However, this may lead to viscous
fingering problems.
Two common assumptions in the analytical data analysis are: ignoring capillary pressure end
effects and a constant pressure differential across the plug. Capillary end effects can be
reduced by using a sufficiently large pressure gradient, i.e. injecting at high rates; care should
then be taken to avoid sample damage. Experiments can be carried out at a constant rate
and monitoring pressure drop or at constant pressure and monitoring rate.
Precision
Saturation precision is about 1-2% (saturation units). However, uncertainty in relative
permeability is estimated to be higher than 50% in the mid-saturation range and increases as
endpoints are approached.
Price/timing/number of samples
US $2,500 per plug is typical.
The technique takes about 4 days.
3-5 samples per rock type. At least 6 samples should be prepared for screening.
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Peripheral measurements
The wetting state should be determined see section 10.2.
Steady-state measurements on a subset of the same samples should be done to check data
quality and consistency.
Accurate determination of pore volume is essential.
A capillary pressure curve on the same sample is highly recommended.
Interfacial tension measurements are needed along with oil characterisation for mobility
determination.
Two longitudinal CT -scans should be done as part of screening and should be used to check
sample quality. Cross-sectional CT-scans are also useful in assessment of plug suitability for
measurement.
Thin sections, mineralogy and grain size distribution (for sandstones) assist in data
interpretation.
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Points (continued)
Care should be taken to ensure use of humidified gas during gas displacement of water
experiments.
The absolute water permeability should be measured to determine the sensitivity to brine if a
compatibility test has not been carried out.
Flow conditions applied for the end point permeabilities should be reported.
Precision
Price/timing/number of samples
Peripheral measurements
Centrifuge measurements on a subset of samples should be used to check data quality.
Accurate pore volume determination is essential.
Two longitudinal CT-scans should be done as part of screening and should be used to check
sample quality. Cross-sectional CT-scans are also useful in assessing plug suitability.
A gas/liquid capillary pressure on the same sample is highly recommended.
Thin sections, mineralogy and grain size distribution (for sandstones) assist in data
interpretation.
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Literature
Heaviside, J.
Measurement of relative permeability.
Interfacial phenomena in petroleum recovery.
Marcel-Dekker Inc. NY '90
pp.377-411.
Niko, H.
Measurement and application of relative permeabilities: A state of the art review.
KSEPL, Report RKRS.88.06, June 1988.
Johnson, E.F., Bossler, D.P., Naumann, V.O.
Calculation of relative permeability from displacement experiments.
Pet. Trans. AIME, V 216, p370, 1959.
Niko, H., Maas, J.G.
Special Core Analysis as seen from Reservoir Engineering.
Contribution to the PW04 Advanced Reservoir Engineering Workshop Noordwijkerhout, October,
1993
Anderson, W.G.
Wettability literature survey part 5: The effects of wettability on relative permeability.
JPT. Nov. '87.
Anderson, W.G.
Wettability literature survey part 6: The effects ofwettability on waterflooding.
JPT. Dec. '87.
Heaviside, J., Brown, C.E., Gamble. I.J.A.
Relative permeability for intermediate wettability reservoirs.
SPE 16968 1987
Heaviside, J., Black, C.J.J.
Fundamentals of relative permeability: Experimental considerations.
SPE 12173 1983
,
Hove, A., Ringen, J.K., Read, P.A.
Visualisation of laboratory corefloods with the aid of computerised tomography of X-rays. SPE
Reservoir Engineering (May 1987) 148-154.
Lund, T.B.
Relative permeabilities measured on core plugs from the Ekofisk area chalk.
EP 86-0277.
Mundis, C.J.
Cano Limon core damage study: Vol. 3: Relative permeability tests
EP 87 -2094.
Prast, H.J., Coenen, J.G.C., Spijker, A.
The effect of small scale heterogeneities on relative permeability measurements.
KSEPL report RKRS.87.04.
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Measurements of mechanical rock properties are important because of their impact upon
production and well-bore behaviour. This chapter addresses three areas of mechanical rock
properties:
compressibility;
rock strength;
acoustic properties.
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Compressibility
Hydrocarbon bearing formations experience an effective compressive stress due to the difference
between overburden pressure and fluid pressure within the pore space. The production of
hydrocarbons results in pore fluid pressure reduction thereby increasing effective stress, which
can lead to reservoir compaction and surface or seabed subsidence above the reservoir. The
determination of the dependence of formation properties on effective stress is therefore
important.
Reservoir compressibility can only be quantified by performing experiments on core material to
measure compressibility (also referred to as compaction coefficients) under representative stress
conditions. Ideally, these tests should be carried out under in-situ fluid saturations and
temperatures. The most important parameter is the uniaxial compressibility of the reservoir rock,
Cm (bar -1), which is defined as the relative reduction in length per unit increase in effective axial
stress. Radial deformation must be zero and the rate of loading constant.
Laboratory measurements are applied in the prediction of reservoir compaction by making
several assumptions, including the possible dependence of Cm on loading rate and stress path,
minimal core damage, and initial reservoir stress state. Theoretical compaction models,
representative experimental procedures and the application of experimental results to compaction
prediction are currently being researched by the Rock Characteristics group at KSEPL, RR/37.
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Points (continued)
Drained experiments are used when the axial fluid permeability is too low to achieve pore
pressure equilibrium over the duration of the compaction experiment (5-8 hours).
Uniaxial compaction test requires true vertical plugs.
A typical loading rate is 50 bar/hour.
Poisson's ratio can be calculated from the change in total radial stress per unit change in total
axial stress during uniaxial compaction under drained conditions, provided the sample
compacts elastically.
Unconsolidated samples are mounted frozen.
Pore pressure reduction is the preferred technique. Reservoir depletion may cause a slight
expansion of rock grains which partially counteracts the compaction due to the increase in
effective axial stress. Determination of Cm by reducing pore fluid pressure will therefore
produce a more representative value. Because compaction data is so important, SIPM
strongly recommends that all compaction measurements be carried out at KSEPL or in BTC.
Application of measured compaction coefficients in reservoir modelling should account for the
difference in loading rates between laboratory measurement and reservoir conditions. For
relatively strong sandstones, (Cm < 10-5/bar) the influence of loading rate on compressibility is
probably small (<10%). However, for relatively weak sandstones (Cm > 2 x 10-5/bar), the
compressibility measured in the laboratory may be lower than during the actual reservoir
depletion. Consult with RR/37.
Cm is determined as a function of porosity, stress and depth.
Carbonate reservoirs can exhibit pore collapse which require special attention. Consult with
RR/37.
At the conclusion of the experiment, sample dimensions are measured after all stresses have
been released to determine the amount of permanent (inelastic) deformation.
For the first triaxial compaction apparatus shown in Figure 12.1, the limits on axial stress,
radial stress and pore pressure are 960 bar, 930 bar and 900 bar respectively.
For the second triaxial compaction apparatus shown in Figure 12.2, the limits on axial stress,
radial stress and pore pressure are 900 bar, 440 bar and 500 bar respectively.
The magnitude of creep is invariant with loading rate if equal pressure steps are used.
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Precision
10% in Cm but representativeness is important.
Price/timing/number of samples
About US $1,000 - US $3,000 per sample.
The experiment takes about 1-2 days per sample.
10 samples per rock type are recommended to provide proper statistical coverage. Screening
on 20 samples should be done if possible to obtain the best 10 samples. Because the
uniaxial compressibility may depend on porosity, it is recommended to select samples that
span the porosity range of the rock type being studied.
Peripheral measurements
CT scans should be carried out on both whole core and individual plugs before
measurements are made so that homogeneity and bedding plane orientation can be
investigated.
Initial atmospheric porosity is determined.
Vertical and horizontal permeability can be measured during compaction.
CT -scans, thin section analysis and mineralogy assist in quality assessment and data
interpretation. For sandstones, grain size analysis is also valuable.
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The mechanical strength of reservoir rock can be related to a number of parameters which can be
measured in the laboratory. Knowledge of rock strength is required in such studies as borehole
stability, sand production, prediction of in-situ stress directions or fracture behaviour.
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Peripheral measurements
Basic rock and acoustic properties ace usually measured on one triplet sample and
unconfined-compressive strength is usually measured on the remaining triplet sample.
BHN measurements are usually done on the whole core prior to TWC measurements.
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Acoustic properties
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Literature
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Schutjens, P.M.T.M., De Ruig, H., Sayers, C.M., Van Munster, J.G. & Whitworth, J.L.
Compressibility measurement and acoustic characterisation of quartz-rich consolidated reservoir
rock (Brent Field, North Sea).
SPE/ISRM paper 28096, presented at the EUROCK Conference, Delft, August 29-311994, p.
557-571., 1994
Scott, T.E. and Nielsen, K.C.
The effect of porosity on the brittle-ductile transition in sandstones.
J. Geophys. Res. 96, 405-414., 1991
Teeuw, D.
Laboratory measurement of compaction properties of Groningen reservoir rock.
Verhandelingen Kon. Ned. Geol. Mijnbouwk.Gen. Volume 28, p. 19-32., 1973
Veeken, C.A.M., Hertogh, G.M.M., Hydendaal, H.G.C. & Meulen, J.T. van der.
Groningen sand failure study. Status report Part 2. Rock stress and rock strength in Groningen /
Annerveen fields.
RKGR. 89. 201., 1989
Vernik, L, Bruno, M. & Bovberg, C.
Empirical relations between compressive strength and porosity of siliciclastic rocks.
Int. J. Rock. Mech.Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 30, N 7, p. 677-680., 1993
Compaction/strength of carbonate/chalks
Blanton, T.L.
Deformation of chalk under confining pressure and pore pressure.
Paper EUR41, presented at the European Offshore Petroleum Conference, London 1978.
Ditzhuijzen, P.J.D. Van & De Waal, J.A.
Reservoir compaction and surface subsidence in the Central Luconia gas bearing carbonates,
Offshore Sarawak, East Malaysia.
Paper 12400, presented at the Offsore SE Asia Conference, Singapore, February 1984.
Graaf, J.D. de & Schmidt, E.J.
Compaction study on core samples from wells Central Luconia F23-107 and F23-107ST,
Sarawak.
RKOR.84.023, 1984
Johnson, J.P., Rhett, D.W. & Siemers, W.T.
Rock mechanics of the Ekofisk reservoir in the evaluation of subsidence.
J. Petro Tech. July 1989, p. 717 - 722., 1989
Kooten, J.F.C. van.
Compaction measurements on core samples from wells NW D-2, NWD-3, NWD-5, NF-l and
UISE-l in the North field, Khuf reservoir, Qatar.
RKER. 87.193, 1987
Martin, J.C. & Serdengecti, S.
Subsidence over oil and gas fields.
Geol. Soc. Am. Reviews in Engng Geol. 6, 23-34., 1984
Ruddy, I., Andersen, M.A., Pattillo, P.D., Bishlawl, M., & Foged, N.
Rock compressibility, compaction and subsidence in a high porosity chalk reservoir:
A case study of Valhall field.
J. Petr. Tech. July, p 741-746., 1989
Smits, RM.M., Waal, J.A. de, & Kooten, J.F.C. van.
Prediction of abrupt reservoir compaction and surface subsidence due to pore collapse in
carbonates.
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SPE 15642. paper presented at the 61st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in New
Orleans, 1986.
Teufel, L.W., Rhett, D.W. & Farrell, H.E.
Effect of reservoir depletion and pore pressure drawdown on in situ stress and deformation in the
Ekofisk field, North Sea.
In: Roegiers (ed). Rock Mechanics as a Multidisciplinary Science. Balkema, Rotterdam., p. 63,
1991
Compaction/strength of loose aggregates (sands)
Chilingar, G.V., Yen, T.F., Rieke III, H.H. & Fertl, W.H.
Compressibilities of sands and clays.
Proc. US Dept. of Energy. Subsidence due to fluid withdrawals.
Symposium Checotah, Oklahoma 82-11-14-17. August 1983.
Ostermeier, RM., Offner, K.M., Hopkins, D.S. & Bowen, G.E.
Stress cycling and creep scouting of turbidite sands.
BRC 84-90. December 1990.
Ostermeier, R.M.,
Some Core Analysis Issues related to Deep Water Gulf of Mexico Turbidites.
SCA 9315 paper presented at the 7th Annual Technical Conference of the SCA in Houston,
August, 1993.
Pittman, E.D. & Larese, R.E.
Compaction of lithic sands: Experimental results and applications.
Am. Assoc. of Petroleum Geologists V. 75, N 8, p. 1279-1299., 1991
Schutjens, P.M.T.M.
Experimental compaction of quartz sand at low effective stress and temperature conditions.
Jl. of Geological Soc. London. Vol. 148.,p. 527-539., 1991
Schutjens, P.M.T.M. & De Ruig. H.
An experimental investigation into the compaction behaviour of core material from well B13-3
(NAM, offshore The Netherlands).
RKTR 93.082., 1993
Acoustics
Marion, D.P. & Pellerin, F.M.
Acoustis measurements on cores as a tool for calibration and quantitative interpretation of sonic
logs.
SPE 25018, 1992.
Shafer, J. 1991.
Measurement of pore compressibility characteristics in rock exhibiting pore collapse and
volumetric creep.
SCA 9124. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Technical Conference of the SCA in San Antonio,
August 1991
Vernik, L..
Predicting lithology and transport properties from acoustic velocities based on petrophysical
classification of siliciclastics.
Geophysics Vol 59, N 3, p. 420-427, 1994
Vernik, L..
Petrophysical classification of siliciclastics for lithology and porosity prediction from seismic
velocities.
AAPG Bull. 76, p. 1295-1309, 1992
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Supplementary tests
Both basic and special core analysis measurements require details of rock and fluid properties
that ensure data quality and enhance data applicability. This chapter addresses those analyses
which are fundamental to the understanding of core analysis data. The chapter is divided into
three main areas:
rock analyses such as grain size, seal and source rock analyses;
fluid analyses;
rock-fluid compatibility.
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Rock analyses
Grain size analysis is an important supplement to core analysis measurements. Grain size
analysis which applies generally only to sandstones describes the distribution of grain sizes. The
distribution is important in characterising the rock sample and in assessing the quality of the core
sample. Grain size analysis is used in a number of applications such as:
petrophysical evaluation in determining controls on log parameters;
permeability prediction;
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Precision
depends on analysis; contact KSEPL RR/26
Price/timing
From US $15 - 150 per sample.
Source rock analysis usually takes about 1-2 months. High priority samples can be turned
around in 1-2 weeks.
Peripheral measurements
Usually done in combination with or support of other measurements.
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Entry pressure accuracy can be very high. However, data applicability depends on sample
representativeness.
Price/timing/number of samples
US$2,000 per sample is typical.
This is a very slow experiment and can take more than a month.
2-3 samples per seal type are recommended. The more samples done the better the
characterisation of the seal.
Peripheral measurements
Capillary pressure measurements should also be made which can be mercury/air for
consolidated rocks.
CT -scans assist in data interpretation.
Thin section and mineralogy can be important for data interpretation.
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Fluid analyses
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Precision
depends on analysis; contact KSEPL RR/26.
Price/timing
Prices range from US$15 -250. Advanced chromatography can cost more.
Oil and gas analyses usually take 2-3 months depending on workload.
High priority samples can be turned around in 1-2 weeks.
Peripheral measurements
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Precision
depends on analysis.
Price/timing
Prices are variable depending on analysis.
Brine analyses can be turned around in 1-2 weeks.
Peripheral measurements
Usually done in combination with or support of other measurements.
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Rock-fluid compatibility
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Points (continued)
Both consolidated and unconsolidated core samples can be investigated.
Samples are of plug type; 2.5 cm diameter and 2 - 4 cm in length.
A sample of original formation water may be required; its composition (and resistivity) needs
to be determined.
Mobile fines can be caused by improper core preparation procedures.
Realistic flow rates should be used
Remarks on contractor procedures:
- The KSEPL procedure should be followed as closely as possible.
- Contractors tend to split up liquid permeability tests into three separate experiments:
specific permeability to a single liquid, effective permeability to oil at connate water
saturation, and permeability versus throughput.
- The test can be carried out using a constant flow rate or a constant pressure difference
across the sample. The injection rate can be varied to investigate rock-fluid interactions.
Longer term flow effects should be investigated via a permeability versus throughput test.
- If cumulative volume throughput of a single flowing fluid is measured and permeability
measurements are made at set time intervals until equilibrium is reached, then permeability
is obtained as a function of fluid throughput.
Precision
20-40% of true value which is less than normal permeability determination.
Price/timing
On quotation from vendor
Experiments can take months.
Peripheral measurements
At KSEPL, porosity, grain density and absolute permeability to air are measured selected
samples.
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Miscellaneous tests
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Precision
These measurements have a precision of 5-10 % of measured value but have low accuracy.
A significant increase in permeability should be observed.
Price/timing/number of samples
About US$1,500 per sample is typical.
Each test takes about 2 days.
3-5 samples per rock type is recommended.
Peripheral measurements
Porosity and Brinell hardness number should be measured before and after the core flushing
test.
Conventional air permeability.
SEM images, CT-scanning should be done on the core.
X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption should be performed on the effluent.
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Literature
Vischer, G.S.
Grain Size Distributions and Depositional Processes
Journal of Sed Petrology Vol 39, p 1074-1106, 1969
Komar, P.D. and Cui, B.,
The Analysis of Grain Size Measurements by Sieving and Settling Tube Techniques
Jour of Sed. Petrology, Vol 54, 613-614, 1972
Griffin, T.G.,
Extended Range of Particle Size Distribution using Laser Diffraction Technology:
A New Perspective
SCA 9126, paper presented at the Fifth Annual Technical Conference of the Society of Core
Analysts, August 1991.
Section Applied Geochemistry, RR/26
Price List and Sample Requirements Standard Geochemical Analysis Scheme.
KSEPL Report, RKTR.94.0001.
Blumer, D.J.,
Cano Limon core damage study: Vol. 1: Rock-water interactions.
EP 87.2094.
Eigner, M.R.P., Kantorowicz, J.D., Mattern, R.B., Stadt, M.E. van de,
The effect of rock fluid interaction on sea water permeability of core samples from Cormorant CA30, U.K., North Sea.
EP 86-1046.
Nitters, G.,
ldenfication and removal of impairment problems in the Rabi field, Shell Gabon.
EP 89-1212.
Nitters, G., Sedee, W.I.M.,
Acid response tests on core samples from well Tazerka-3 and simulated gravel packs, Shell
Tunirex.
EP 87-0343.
Nitters, G., Kouwenhoven, A.P., Oedai, S., Trompert, R.A.,
Optimisation of acid recipes for Southern North Sea gas wells, Shell Expro, A progress report.
EP 89-0850.
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The (special) core analysis techniques described in the previous chapters deliver accurate results
within the described limitations. Nevertheless, there is continuous development to enhance the
measurement of core properties. KSEPL and BTC are constantly developing more efficient ways
of making accurate core analysis measurements. Existing measurement techniques can always
be improved to extend measurement range or to yield additional information. In this way, capillary
pressure measurement was extended to yield pore trapping information (Apparatus for Pore
Examination), and the Continuous Injection equipment for measuring resistivity index curves was
extended to enable measurements under simulated in situ conditions (EMPRESS). New physical
measurement techniques developed outside the oil industry are also being investigated for
suitability for oil field purposes. For examples, CT scanning, Scanning Electron Microscopy and
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance techniques have been picked up by the oil industry. CT-scanning
and SEM, for example, have become routine methods in core analysis.
In this chapter, new developments at the forefront of core analysis are described briefly. None of
the techniques are currently available for standard (cat. 8) Opco measurements. Consequently,
the format as applied to the description of the techniques is not used. Most of these techniques
can be used in a limited degree in specific (cat. 6/7) research studies for Opcos. The techniques
described below fall under the following headings:
rock characteristics;
fluid flow;
supplementary.
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Rock characteristics
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14.1.4 Resistivity
Enhanced Measurement Procedure for Resistivity Experiments at Sub
surface conditions (EMPRESS)
In the existing Resistivity Index by Continuous Injection equipment (see section 9.2.2), the I-Sw
curve is measured by injecting kerosene at room temperature, and at a relatively low confining
stress (70 bar) and a pore pressure up to 9 bar. In the past few years, attempts to develop
RlMARC (Resistivity Index Measurement At Reservoir Conditions) equipment to measure the
I -Sw curve at reservoir temperature and pressure conditions, using live (reservoir) crude oil
proved difficult. Consequently, a variation of RlMARC called HTP (High Pressure and
Temperature) Continuous Injection equipment was built, which could handle high temperature
and pressure, but no live crude, which worked fine. Therefore, RIMARC has been replaced by
modified HTP equipment, called EMPRESS (Enhanced Measurement Procedure for Resistivity
Experiments at Sub-Surface conditions). EMPRESS is currently being used for a systematic
investigation of high pressure and temperature effects using "dead" crude (i.e. not containing gas)
on well defined outcrop material and reservoir rock obtained from interested Opcos. EMPRESS
measurements can be made using dead crude, at temperatures up to 150C, with confining
stress up to 400 bar and pore fluid pressures up to 55 bar. A possible subsequent extension of
the EMPRESS equipment would be to handle live crude (oil recombined with gas). Depending on
the importance of the effects found it will be decided whether EMPRESS will be offered to Opcos
as a standard service.
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Supplementary
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Porosity
The amplitude of the NMR signal is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen nuclei in the
sample and thus can be used to measure porosity. NMR signals that originate from hydrogen in
the rock matrix or clay bound water decay much faster than that in the pore-space and are not
seen by the detector coil; the measurement is therefore unaffected by the rock matrix. Hence, it is
lithology independent. The overall amplitude of the signal extrapolated to t=0 determines porosity.
The accuracy of the measurement depends upon how quickly the first data point is measured
after the equilibrium magnetisation is disturbed.
Pore-size distribution
NMR relaxation times are faster when a liquid occupies the pores of a rock than for a bulk fluid.
T2 is short for hydrogen nuclei in solids or in water molecules bound to rock surfaces( 1ms) but
long in bulk fluids (several seconds). The effect of the grain surface in the relaxation process
offers a link between T2 and pore size. The relaxation time for all hydrogen nucleii is decreased in
water-wet rocks because non-relaxed water molecules will tend to diffuse to the pore-wall. The
decrease is proportional to the surface-to-volume ratio of the pore which is a measure of pore
size. Hence the measurement of T2 and the subsequent deconvolution provides a
means of determining pore size distribution of the rock sample. For oil-wet rocks, the roles of
water and oil are reversed and for mixed wettability systems, the wetting mechanism will affect
whether the pore size distribution can be determined from T2.
Permeability
At KSEPL, many NMR measurements have been made on samples from different fields and
geological environments. It has been concluded from this data that the prediction of permeability
from porosity can be greatly improved by incorporating the average pore size as represented by
the T2 distribution. A general correlation determined for sandstones can predict permeabilities
within a factor of ten while local correlations have been used to predict permeability to within a
factor of three. Such correlations can be used to determine permeability from the response of the
NMR logging tool.
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Movable fluid
By ignoring the NMR signal originating from small pores in water-wet rock, the movable fluid
volume is determined. This volume available to contain hydrocarbons is directly related to
irreducible water saturation and is referred to as the free fluid index. The remaining volume can
be related to capillary bound and clay bound water.
Residual oil saturation
Residual oil saturation after waterflood in a water-wet sample can be measured directly. The
water in the sample is replaced by a solution containing paramagnetic ions, which accelerate
relaxation of hydrogen nuclei so that the only measured signal originates from the residual oil. If
oil is the non-wetting phase the decay will be unaffected by pore size and the amplitude of the
signal extrapolated back to t=0 corresponds directly to the residual oil. Under favourable
conditions, NMR diffusion methods may be used to determine the (residual) oil saturation, without
using paramagnetic ions.
Fluid diffusion coefficient
If a magnetic field gradient is applied to the sample, the T2 relaxation time is affected by
molecular diffusion. Diffusion can be monitored because the spinning nuclei are moving through a
changing background magnetic field. From diffusion coefficients, viscosity ratios can be obtained.
The use of this measurement for the logging tool allows differentiation of oil and gas.
Wettability
Wettability determination by NMR is an area of active research. Because the fundamental
mechanism of NMR relies on surface relaxation, the idea that NMR can differentiate between oilwet and water-wet behaviour seems clear. However, more research is required to elucidate the
mechanism.
NMR imaging
Imaging can provide the above measurements together with 2- or 3 dimensional mapping of the
nuclei under investigation. This is achieved by creating a magnetic gradient, through the bulk
sample, along the axis on which the spatial differentiation of the spin population is required. The
frequency shift exerted upon each nucleus will be directly proportional to its position on the
gradient axis. Higher gradients provide greater frequency shifts and greater spatial resolution.
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Literature
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Hyde, T.C.,
Permeability predictions from nuclear magnetic resonance measurements on core samples
KSEPL Report RKRS.87.01.
Hyde, T.C.,
Permeability correlations with porosity and nuclear magnetic resonance T1 data for brine
saturated core samples.
KSEPL Report RKRS.87 .07.
Kenyon, W.E.,
Nuclear magnetic resonance as a petrophysical measurement
Nuclear geophysics. Vol. 6. No.2. pp. 153-171. 1992.
NMR Logging - The New Measurement
EP 94-1525, November 1994.
Looyestijn, W.J.,
Nuclear magnetic resonance logging; A state of the art review.
EP 91-1824, August 1991.
Miller, M.N., Paltiel, Z., Gillen, M.E., Granot, J., Bouton, J.C.,
Spin echo magnetic resonance logging: Porosity and free fluid index determination.
SPE 20561, September 1990.
Nesbitt, G.J., Datema, K.P., Maas, J.G., Groot, A. de,
Applicability of nuclear magnetic resonance techniques in the characterisation of permeability and
wettability of core plug materials.
EP 91-1828, December 1989.
Sandor, R.K.J., van Ditzhuijzen, P.J.D.,
NMR logging: The New Measurement
EP 94- 1525
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NOTE: For figures in this section, a red shaded rectangle denotes a human decision while a
yellow shaded ellipse represents the consequences of measurement, which are various
outcomes each with a given probability of occurring. Positive economic impact is given as NPVi.
A negative impact is shown as - NPVi.
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(A1.1)
= POS * NPV1
(A1.2)
Note here that the probability of success should actually increase if the core analysis programme
is successful. Accordingly, the POS in equation (A1.2) ought to be larger than any POS used in
the bottom branch. Consequently, by using POS unchanged, equation (A1.2) underestimates the
value of the top branch, which will result in the VOl being underestimated.
The value of the bottom branch, Vno, is expressed as follows:
Vno
(A1.3)
= Vyes - Vno
= (1 - POS) * NPV3.
(A1.4)
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Note that if the probability of success is unity, i.e. no risk of failure, then the VOl is zero because
there is no economic impact and thus there would be no need for any additional information.
Alternatively, the larger the possibility of failure, the more advisable it may be to proceed with
core analysis. This of course depends on the type of risks involved. For example, coring may
impose a risk on the well which thus introduces a modification to the VOl calculation. Equation
(A1.4) shows that the justification of core analysis in prospect screening is directly related to the
avoidance of an uneconomic development and avoiding the loss given as NPV3.
While equation (A1.4) expresses the VOl for prospect screening, the VOl is applied to all data
acquisition collectively. The core analysis project may get no credit for the VOl benefit.
Nevertheless, the VOl calculation can be used to determine the level of data acquisition
expenditure. The value of the core analysis project should then be assessed in terms of the
appropriate uncertainties that need to be addressed. Alternatively, the value of information should
be discounted to obtain a basis of comparison for the core analysis project. Although this is not a
straight forward step, in prospect screening, VOl results are typically large, which makes
acquisition of the relevant data critical.
VOl concepts only provide the value of the information and do not include the cost of acquiring
the information. The Value of Appraisal, VOA, is the difference between VOl and cost of
acquiring the data.
In summary, for prospect screening options, the economic impact of core analysis is justified by
the avoidance of unprofitable investments. In general, development entails large investments and
economic impact of core analysis accordingly very large and the justification to proceed with core
analysis is very clear. An example is shown in section 2.2.1 for a prospect screening situation.
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The value of information is the difference in value between the upper branch and the lower
branch (base case), given as Vyes and Vno respectively:
Vyes
(A1.5)
Vno
(Al.6)
(A1.7)
In allocating the probabilities associated with high, medium and low reserves, the range of
reserves should be chosen so that P(high), P(medium) and P(low) are equal and thereby equal to
0.33. Note that outcomes 2 and 5 are essentially equal and cancel in equation (A1.7), which
simplifies to
VOl
(A1.8)
VOl is positive because NPV1 is greater than NPV4 and NPV3 is greater than NPV6. The exact
magnitude of VOl is dependent upon the reservoir simulation results. Note that only four options
need be calculated from reservoir simulation to be able to calculate VOl.
Here, the economic benefit from VOl optimisation is entirely due to the core analysis project
because the only variable is variation in rock property. On the other hand, cost of the reservoir
simulations must be included and although the costs do not appear in the VOl result, the costs
impact the VOA result. Accordingly, the reservoir simulations should be as simple as possible but
maintain the essential physics of the reservoir mechanism.
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(There is a chance that the core analysis laboratories can make an incorrect measurement
resulting in the false appearance of commercial hydrocarbons. This situation is rarely
encountered and is therefore omitted from the calculation. If it were to be included then it would
only make the economic impact of performing measurements at KSEPL even greater. Note it is
possible to construe the construction of unneeded water handling facilities as a result of this sort
of problem but the authors prefer to regard this example as non-optimal development.)
In Figure A1.3, the value of performing the core analysis at a Shell EP Laboratory is the
difference in value between the upper and lower branches.
The value of the upper branch, VEPLab, is given as follows:
V EPLab
(Al.9)
since the economic impact of no development is negligible. The value of the lower branch is given
by, V ConLab,
V ConLab
(A1.10)
If as stated above the probability of measurement success is just 3/4 for a commercial contractor
then, V ConLab, becomes
V ConLab
(A1.11)
Thus the value of performing measurements at Shell EP Laboratories is just, the difference
between V EPLab and V ConLab:
VOl
= VEPLab - V ConLab
= 0.25 * {POS * (NPV1 + NPV3)}
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The value of correctly measuring data results in a significantly large economic impact which
results from an identified risk of failure at a contractor laboratory. It therefore pays to have the
best data acquisition possible in any project because the value of the total project, NPV1, is at
risk in direct proportion to the possibility of measurement inaccuracy. In other words, it is far
worse to use wrongly measured data than it is to have insufficient data!!
Computing the value of non-optimal development, NPV3, is difficult. It is easy to ignore the risk
of measurement inaccuracy but it is every bit as important as selecting the right core
analysis measurements in the first place.
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Points (continued)
Factors affecting reliability of CT values include instrument drift, scanning energy, beam
filtering, sample size and shape, and artefacts that including beam hardening.
Presentation of CT-images should include a clear definition of CT-number range and legend;
a reference scan indicating the calibration standard is recommended. A CT-number
distribution should also be displayed as shown in Figure 4.3 in section 4.9 as this can be
used to better identify degree of homogeneity.
Most CT-scanners can scan at two different energies which can be used to determine density
and atomic number. Alternatively, dual energy scanning can be used to determine density of
an unknown material.
CT facilities are available at KSEPL, BTC and various core contractors.
Applications:
- Quality control in all aspects of core analysis.
- Generation of a topographic density log with the same resolution as the wireline density for
core/log depth matching.
- Identification of laminations, lithology changes, fracture,orientations, bioturbations and other
inhomogeneities. Fine details are revealed which are not visible on the surface. Topograms
can be compared directly with normal/UV light photographs of the slabbed core.
- Identification of drilling fluid invasion and induced damage.
- Selection of preferred orientation for core slabbing.
- Selection of plug sample locations.
- Determination of in-situ fluid saturation profiles in core flood experiments, which require
careful calibration of the CT-scanner.
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A2.5 Literature
Vinegar, H.J.,
X-Ray CT and NMR imaging of rocks.
JPT March 86 pp. 257-259.
Wellington, S.L., Vinegar, H.J.,
X-ray computer tomography.
JPT, 1987, pp. 885-898.
Hunt, P.K., Engler, P., Bajsarowicz, C.,
Computerised tomography as a core analysis tool: Applications, instrument evaluation and image
improvement.
JPT Sept. '88. pp. 1203-1210.
Deijl, B.M. van, Berg, F.G. van den,
Natural gamma ray spectroscopy on core material.
KSEPL report RKRS.88.06, June 1988.
Georgi, D.T., Phillips, C., Hardman, R.,
Applications of digital core image analysis to thin-bed evaluation.
1992 SCA conference paper no. 9206.
Nicholls, C.I., Heaviside, J.,
Gamma ray absorption techniques improve analysis of core displacement tests.
SPE 14421 Sept. '85.
Oord, R.J. van den,
Evaluation of contractor measurements of total gamma ray activity as well as of potassium,
thorium, and uranium in cores and logs.
KSEPL report RKMR.89.019., RKRS.89.08.
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petrography - petrographic information is used to relate core analysis data to rock type;
mineralogy - the compositional analysis can be important in the interpretation of core analysis
data. Mineralogy is recommended for all samples used in special core analysis as described
in section 4.7.
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A3.1 Microstructure/Petrography
Geological information is used in the interpretation of petrophysical and reservoir engineering
parameters obtained from dedicated core analysis techniques and can provide a check on the
validity and representativeness of core plugs. The majority of techniques used to determine
geological parameters from core material are carried out separately from the analysis for
petrophysical and reservoir engineering data, but some can be used to investigate rock-pore
characteristics and porosity.
Petrography, the microscopic visualisation, description and classification of rocks and minerals, is
particularly important in core analysis. There are two scales of examination of rock samples from
a microscopic viewpoint, namely scanning electron microscopy and thin sections.
Scanning electron microscopy is used on the grain scale to identify possible microscopic effects
on core analysis.
Thin sections are usually made by preparing thin slices of core material which can be dyed to
highlight the makeup of the rock such as key minerals and pore space. Thin sections can also be
prepared under stress which is important for unconsolidated rock samples.
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A3.1.1 Petrography from Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Enhanced Image
Analysis (IA)
In Scanning Electron Microscopy, images are formed by scanning the surface of a rock sample
with a focused electron beam. The various detection modes allow different images to be
generated from the same area each with different analytical properties. The rock samples can be
pieces of core, sidewall samples or even cuttings. Note that in the case of cuttings, depth
matching can be problematic. The combination of SEM with EDX (Energy dispersive X-ray
analysis) allows determination of elemental composition, leading to detailed characterisation of
lithology/mineralogy.
This is the most established application of the SEM. The SE-mode can show surface structure up
to nm-scale. At KSEPL, SE-mode is primarily used to observe clay morphology and distribution in
the pore space. Figure A3.1 shows an example of an SE image.
In this mode, flat, polished samples produce images in which the contrast is related to atomic
number. On reservoir rock samples, pore space (containing epoxy) appears as dark regions,
quartz and calcite/dolomite as grey and heavy minerals as white. It is this mode which is used for
estimation of porosity, permeability and formation factor, next to an indication of capillary
behaviour based on network modelling. Estimations of porosity, permeability and formation
resistivity factor are obtained by regression based on correlations with plug measured values on
sandstone samples. Table A3.1 below shows the statistical properties of the data set used for this
estimation on regressions derived from image analysis on a number of thin section samples.
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Figure A3.2 presents the results of BSE analysis on an image. With respect to the estimation of
capillary behaviour based on IA data the procedure is as follows:
Firstly, the microstructural information obtained from the samples is compared with
microstructural information from the reference (in-house) data set for which mercury/air capillary
pressure curves have been measured. Secondly, if samples with sufficient resemblance are
found, simulated capillary pressure curves are generated (by network modelling) for both the
sample data and reference data and compared. Thirdly, this is fitted against the measured
mercury/air capillary pressure curves resulting in an estimated capillary pressure curve for the
sample data.
Again, polished samples are used. In this mode visible light, induced by the electrons, is detected
by a photo-multiplier. In addition to imaging in BSE mode, CL enables different generations of a
particular authigenic mineral to be distinguished. For example in sandstones, CL allows
determination of the phases and proportion of quartz overgrowth, and visualisation of deformation
features like healed cracks. The combination of BSE/CL and image analysis enables
quantification of these features, providing valuable information for the reconstruction of diagenetic
and structural processes impacting reservoir quality. Figure A3.3 shows such a CL image next to
the BSE image from the same place on the sample.
Where the SEM enables surface structure and atomic density distribution to be examined, the
EDX allows elemental composition to be determined and the distribution of elements to be
visualised. The X-ray photons, induced by electrons, are analysed in terms of energy. As each
element has its own specific energy bands, elements can be recognised from their energy
spectrum. A spectrum with associated quantitative analysis is presented in Figure A3.4.
The ease of operation of the system makes it of interest for Opcos with specific problems where
SEM/EDX might help reducing uncertainty in reservoir evaluations. The SEM service is available
from RR/36.
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Points
SEM/IA can provide the most help in those cases where additional microstructural evaluation
might reduce uncertainty in the context of other evaluation techniques, e.g. log evaluation,
core description. SEM/IA is most effective if the expertise at KSEPL is combined with the
expertise of the problem owner. Interaction between problem owner and KSEPL staff can
reduce analysis time substantially and therefore cuts costs.
SE analysis is qualitative in nature. Samples for SE analysis can have a minimum size of 3 x
3 x 3 mm. Sidewall samples and cuttings can be used. Sample preparation takes place at
KSEPL.
BSE analysis requires larger sample size, preferably offcuts from plug samples. BSE analysis
allows quantitative assessment of porosity, permeability, formation factor and mineralogy.
Sample preparation takes place at KSEPL.
SEM/SE/BSE analysis, thin section analysis and coreslab analysis are available at KSEPL
and these services are regarded as standard.
Results of the analyses are presented in EXCEL format data files and images in standardised
TIFF, which are PC-compatible.
Because of the formalisation of the analyses and the ease of operation of equipment, Opco
staff can carry out the analyses themselves to gain maximum benefit.
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A3.2 Mineralogy
Compositional studies identify and quantify the minerals within the rock sample and are used in
conjunction with petrographic studies. There are a number of ways of accomplishing mineral
identification:
X-ray diffraction;
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A3.2.3 Mineralog
Principle
Infrared spectroscopic techniques are used to identify common sandstone and carbonate
minerals in core, sidewall, and drill cutting samples.
Points
Mineralog is an acceptable technique but should be calibrated especially in new exploration
areas.
The Perkin - Elmer Fourier Transform I.R. Spectrophotometer (Model 1720X) is in use at
Core Laboratories facility in Aberdeen.
Because Mineralog is reasonably inexpensive, it can provide a depth plot of mineralogy by
measuring samples on a foot by foot basis. An estimate of grain density for log calibration is
provided.
The accuracy of Mineralog has been checked against calibrated samples. The results of this
survey showed that the weight per cent values of the total clay and the other minerals which
can be individually measured by Mineralog were accurate to within 5 wt%, as advertised.
However, two problems were found with the Mineralog analysis. Firstly, it was found to be
poor at identifying clay minerals in the test samples. Secondly, the detection limits for chlorite,
illite, K-feldspar and pyrite were found to be larger than 5%.
Care must be taken when identifying pyrite and certain clay minerals. Comparison with XRD
methods is recommended.
Mineralog can be used for applications where the identification of individual clay minerals is
not critical and where the detection limits and quoted accuracy of the analysis are acceptable.
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A3.3 Literature
Fens, T.W.,
The scanning electron microscopy / X-ray analysis facility at KSEPL.
Review of principles and applications.
KSEPL report, RKGR.88.013.
Harville D.G. and Freeman, D.L.,
The Benefits and Application of Rapid Mineral Analysis Provided by Fourier Transform Infra red
Spectroscopy.
SPE 18120 paper presented at the 63rd Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the
Society of Petroleum Engineers, Houston, Tx, October 1988.
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A4.3 Cuttings
A4.3.1 Collection/sampling
Drill cuttings are washed up the well bore with the returning mud-flow and are collected by
sampling the material from the shaker screens at predetermined intervals. Rock samples offer the
most direct source of information available to geologists and petrophysicists, but drill cuttings tend
to get neglected as such a source. The reasons for this neglect arise from difficulties involved in
the depth control of the collected samples which limit the confidence placed in the subsequent
interpretation. Also new drill bits, such as the PDC bit, produce very small cuttings that prohibit
reasonable analysis.
Cuttings analysis should not be seen as an alternative to coring, since rock material may be
substantially altered by the drilling process.
Points
The sampling intervals are determined by calculating the uphole time of the mud returns from
each drilled depth using parameters such as pump rate, volume per stroke, hole volume, etc.
The uphole time must be corrected for the lag time for cuttings drilled at each depth relative
to the mud returns from that same depth. Depth matching the samples to their stratigraphic
position is complicated by variations in this sample lag time.
Simultaneously generated cuttings will arrive at the surface at different times due to the
differential velocity of various sizes and shapes of cuttings within the mud.
A mix of cuttings from various depths can be generated due to well bore cave-ins.
Fine cuttings, which are difficult to remove at surface, re-enter the wellbore and are
recirculated.
Care should be taken to ensure that cuttings are collected systematically. Biased sample sets
can be generated if this is not done.
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Points (continued)
Cuttings collection can be automated and SIPM has had experience with the ACS-200
system of Core Laboratories. For each metre of rock drilled, roughly 10 cm of cuttings are
collected. The quantity of samples can be varied by changing the equipment pump rate and
altering the proportion of the return mud being sampled. This equipment has been designed
to perform the following functions:
- Continuously sample the entire drilling interval.
- Preserve the complete sequence of cuttings both for on-site evaluation and for future
laboratory tests.
- Collect the samples before the solids control equipment so that the mixing of the cuttings
that occurs within the shale shaker is avoided.
- Preserve cuttings in the range 44 m- 5 mm.
- Work with all types of mud, including viscous muds or those with high gel strengths.
In preliminary trials at NAM Beerta-1 exploration well, the pseudo gamma ray log measured
on size-fractionated samples showed excellent agreement with wire line logs across much of
the reservoir.
Initial results suggest that cuttings with sizes less than 125 m travel to the surface at the
same speed as the drilling mud. Proper collection and analysis of these small size samples
will reduce the detrimental effect of sample lag time, the spread of cuttings, and the
recirculated solids.
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A4.4 Literature
Adams, S., Nicholson, P.,
The 'automated cuttings sampler
Production newsletter, May 1992.
Baaren, J.P. van,
Clastic reservoir rocks. Permeability estimates from side wall samples and cuttings.
KSEPL report RKGR. 0002.75.
Bush, D.C., Freeman, D.L.,
Drill cuttings porosity, grain density and permeability by direct laboratory measurements and their
reliability.
SPWLA 27th Annual Logging Symposium, June 9-13, 1986.
Georgi, D.T., Harville. D.G., Robertson, H.A.,
Advances in cuttings collection and analysis.
SPWLA 34th annual Logging Symposium, June 13-16, 1993.
Gijp, K.H. van der, Oord, R.J. van den,
Wellsite hydrocarbon differentiation using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
EP 93-0550, May 1993.
Prins; M.,
Reservoir rock characteristics from drill cuttings and sidewall samples.
EP 90-2108, April 1990.
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In oil-wet sponge analysis, as the pore pressure drops below the oil's bubble point, gas bubbles
evolve and expand. These bubbles can displace otherwise immobile oil. By adding the amount of
oil captured in the sponge to the amount left in the core, one obtains more representative values
of oil saturation. Sponge coring finds its main application in in-situ Sor determination in flooded
reservoirs. The sponge is saturated with brine prior to going into the well.
If the objective is to capture any water escaping the core as it is brought to the surface a waterwet sponge sleeve is used. The water wet-sponge is saturated with dry mineral oil prior to coring.
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A5.3 Literature
Looyestijn, W.J., Schipper, B.A.,
Determination of oil saturations in sponge coring by gas chromatography.
1993 SCA Conference paper no. 9305.
DiFoggio, R. ,Calkin, C.L., Ellington, W.E. and Setser, G.G.,
Improved method for extraction and quantification of hydrocarbon content of sponge core liners.
1990 SCA Conference paper no. 9019.
Vinegar, H.J. and Tutunjian, P.N.,
Analytical Methods and Apparatus for measuring the oil content of sponge core.
US patent number 4,866,983, September 19, 1989
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the rock should behave linearly elastic over the whole stress range of interest.
the rock should be homogeneous and isotropic.
the difference in stress regime should not cause a difference in pore shape deformation.
grain compressibility can be ignored.
The important consideration in the conversion procedure is the stress regime. Suppose the total
vertical (overburden) stress is sv. Rock deformation is governed by changes in the effective
stress, which is the total stress minus the pore fluid pressure. During depletion, the vertical
effective stress increases because the pore pressure decreases while the total overburden weight
does not change.
Before depletion, the initial vertical effective stress, Sv,e,i and the initial pore pressure, pi, are
related as follows:
Sv,e,i = sv - pi
(A6.1)
= 0.23 bar/meter
= 0.10 bar/meter
= 0.13 bar/meter.
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During depletion, the vertical effective stress after the reservoir pressure has dropped by P is
thus:
sv,e = s v - P i + P
(A6.2)
The horizontal stress in the reservoir will change during depletion such that the reservoir does not
deform horizontally. According to linear poro-elasticity theory, the horizontal effective stress at
uniaxial strain conditions, s h,e ,is related to the vertical effective stress, S v,e according to:
s h,e = (n /(1-n ))s v,e
(A6.3)
(A6.4)
Because strain is assumed to relate linearly to stress, it follows from equation (A6.4) that the
uniaxial compressibility cm (measured in a laboratory experiment in which radial deformation is
kept zero) is related to the hydrostatic (bulk) compressibility cb (measured in a laboratory
experiment in which horizontal and vertical stresses are taken equal) according to:
cm = (((1+n )/(1-n ))/3) cb
(A6.5)
where it has been assumed that the hydrostatic experiment is performed at a confining stress in
which vertical and horizontal stresses are all equal to the vertical effective stress (while in a
uniaxial experiment the horizontal effective stresses are lower than the vertical effective stress
(eq. (A6.3)).
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From the above, procedures can be derived to convert petrophysical properties obtained from
hydrostatic laboratory measurements to properties that would have been obtained under uniaxial
strain conditions at equivalent reservoir stress conditions, provided that above-mentioned
assumptions hold.
Suppose lab measurements were performed at hydrostatic conditions over a certain hydrostatic
stress regime. There are two methods to convert this measurement to true (uniaxial) strain
reservoir conditions.
The stress regime encountered during depletion (i.e. under uniaxial strain conditions) is given by
(A6.2) and (A6.3) and the mean stress encountered by the reservoir is given by (A6.4), where the
vertical effective stress increases from its initial value to the final value (at depletion) according to
(A6.2). Hence, if the calculated isostatic stresses (corresponding to different values of p) are
actually given in the laboratory tables (or can be obtained from these by interpolation), no
conversion is needed: the petrophysical parameters can be obtained from the laboratory tables
under the hydrostatic stress values as calculated from (A6.4) and (A6.2). This is the most
accurate procedure. It is also the only one that can be applied for properties other than porosity,
like FRF, permeability, capillary pressure etc.
Conversion of volumes
For porosity, equation (A6.5) can be used. Assuming negligible grain compressibility, both the
bulk and the pore volume change as follows:
under hydrostatic conditions:
V p = V b = cb V b shydr
(A6.6)
(A6.7)
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Hence, using the appropriate values for P, the hydrostatically measured pore and bulk volumes
at hydrostatic stresses can be calculated back to uniaxial conditions, using eq. (A6.5). For
instance, porosity at uniaxial conditions at the appropriate value of the vertical effective stress is
equal to:
= (Vp - a Vp )/(Vb - a Vp )
(A6.8)
Points
The quartz grain compressibility is 2.6x10-6 bar-1, and if the bulk compressibility approaches
this value (e.g. for low porosity (hard) rock), KSEPL should be consulted to apply a more
complicated correction procedure, and/or to perform additional triaxial tests.
If the above assumptions do not hold, it is much better to perform measurements in a triaxial
cell, where different horizontal and vertical stresses can be applied.
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Index
absorbed water 178
acetone
90
acid flood
263
acid permeameter
263
acid response curve
265
acid response test
263
acoustic properties
240
acoustic transmission anisotropy
271
additional core 28
aging 279
aging steps
184
air
87
air permeability 114
ammonium acetate
176
Amott 190, 192
Amott wettability index 190
Apparatus for Pore Examination (APEX)
Archie equation
161
Archies lithologic exponent,m 5, 159
Archies saturation exponent, n 6,161
Archimedes Principle 110, 103
backscattered electron (BSE) 312
basic core analysis
55, 102
Bellaire Technology Center (BTC)
BHN 234
bland mud
61
blank corrections
142
Bmax 175
bound water
141
Boyle's law
112, 126, 132
brine 87
brine analysis 258
brine composition
76, 258
brine permeability
127,260
brine measurements
76
brine resistivity 159, 165, 258
273
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brine-rock compatibility 76
Brinell Hardness Number 234
bringing core to surface 63
Buckley-Leverett 213
bulk volume 102,103, 104, 106
buoyancy 110
buoyancy in mercury 103
Calgary Research Center (CRC) 9,131
calibrating log 50
caliper 106
cap rock 253
capillary end effects 214
capillary pressure (on an endpiece) 73
capillary pressure 53, 138
capillary pressure curves 165
CAPRICI 193, 277
carbonates 44
cathodoluminescence mode 317
cation exchange capacity 87, 159, 170
CEC 163, 166, 171, 176, 178
cementation exponent 159, 163, 166
centrifuge capillary pressure curves 151
centrifuge core holders 207
centrifuge experiment 207
change in pore volume 125
chloroform/methanol 40,120
chloroform/methanol azeotrope 90
clay 159
clay bearing and shalf sands 43
clay bound water 154
clay conductivity 6, 174
clay minerals 170,260
clay-bound water 97, 149
clean (consolidated) sandstones 43
cleaned state 182
cleaned-state samples 183
cleaning unconsolidated samples 91
closure corrections 145
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Co-Cw 174
coal 45
commercial hydrocarbons 290
compatibility flood 260
compositional analysis 52
compressibility 125,223
computer simulation 24
conductometric titration 176
confining stress 127, 133
connate water saturation, Swc 202
contact angle 138, 193
continuous injection 165
contractor analysis laboratories 98
contractor laboratory 297
core analysis contractors 11
core analysis laboratory data 81
core analysis planning 2, 10, 32
core analysis programme 49, 50
core analysis programme focal point 50
core analysis project 291
core barrel considerations 62
core cleaning 86, 90
core description 36, 71
core drying 86,93
core freezing 75
core gamma ray 306
core gamma scan 65
core gamma scanner 6, 306
core handling 36,40, 64
core j amming 63
core plug drilling 86
core preparation 70,86
core preservation 37,41, 75
core sample preparation 37,40,70
core sample screening 41
core sample screening for special core analysis 37
core sampIing 67
core screening 37, 66
core screening techniques 301
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effective porosity
Ekofisk 22
electrical equilibrium 163
electrical properties 158
Empress 275
energy dispersive X-ray analysis 315, 323
ethylene chloride 90
evaporites 45
exploration 1
exploration appraisal 290
exploration functions 34
failure stress 239
fluid analyses 254
fluid flow 277
fluid handling considerations 37,41, 78
fluid measurements 37,41,76
fluid saturations 120
fluoroscopy, etc. 65.
Forbes technique 151
Forchheimer equation 117
formation brine 158
formation evaluation 55
formation resistivity factor, FRF 159, 166
formation water 258
fractured reservoirs 44
free fluid index 285
freezing of core 75
fresh 87
fresh state 182, 187, 192
fresh-state samples 184
fresh-state samples 185
friable 142
gamma ray attenuation 66
gamma ray spectroscopy 66
gas analyses 256,
gas chromatography 344
gas slippage 117, 128
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membrane 277
membrane potential 171
mercury 103
mercury displacement 104
mercury/air 141,145, 147
microcracks 271
microscopic description 52
microstructure 313
mineralogy 72, 87, 312, 321, 324
mixed wettability 181
mobilisation of fines 49, 260
movable fluid 285
mud filtrate 61
multi-disciplinary 36, 50, 84
multiple salinity 174
naphtha 90
native-state 187, 219
natural gamma ray scan 66
NMR 283
NPV 15
NPVi 15
objectives 36
oedometer 231
oil 6
oil analyses 256
oil measurements 77
oil properties 77
oil relative permeability, kro 202
oil sample collection 256
oil samples 78
oil-wet 181
oil-wet membrane 277
oil-wet sponge analysis 340
oil/water capillary pressure 149, 150, 152
oil/water interface 181
oil/water relative permeability 213
old core 36
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overbalance control 62
P(high) 15
P(low) 15
P(medium) 15
packing corrections 145
parameter estimation 151
particle size 247
PDC bit 335
PE team, 84
pendant drop apparatus 195
percussion 333
peripheral measurements 4, 10
permeability 6, 72 284
permeability anisotropy 115, 116
permeability reduction 266
permeameter 133
petrographic image analysis 319
petrography 312, 313, 314
petrophysics 1, 34, 36, 39, 50
photography 36
planning 34
plug drilling 70, 87
pIug Iocations 70
plug photography 72
POCM 15
points 3
poor quality core 67
pore body 273
pore throat 273
pore volume 10, 107, 126, 138, 163
pore-scale 271
pore-size distribution 284
porosimetry 112
porosity 1, 6, 72, 103, 284
porous plate 168
porous plate vessel 156
POS 15
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precision 4
preserved-state 187
preserved-state samples 186
pressure coring 186
pressure equilibrium 163
price 4
primary 204
primary drainage 139,188
principle 3
probability of success 292
probe permeameter 66, 118, 329
problems 6
production
1
production engineering 24
production technology 5, 34, 54
project optimisation 14, 17, 24, 293
project reporting 38, 80
project review 38,83
prospect screening 14, 16, 20, 290
pulse decay permeameter 129
pulse decay technique 130
PVT properties 77
pycnometer 108
quali ty 46
Qv 159,163,166,170,174
Qve 171, 176
rapid desaturation 169
rates of penetration 62
raw data 80
receipt of core 65
relative humidity 178
relative permeability 54, 193,202, 204,207
relative permeability at reservoir conditions 219,
representative data 69
representative plugs 68
reservoir conditions 1, 275, 277
reservoir engineering 1, 34, 36, 39, 53
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