The PIT Package: A new MODFLOW package to permit the simulation of pore

pressure reduction as a result of lithostatic unloading in open pit mining.

Mark Raynor1, Alastair Black1 & William Gibson2

1SRK

Consulting UK Ltd, Cardiff, UK; 2 SRK Consulting (Australasia) Pty Ltd, wgibson@srk.com.au, Perth, Australia. Contact: mraynor@srk.co.uk

Overview

The PIT Package Workflow & Examples

The importance of lithostatic unloading in the evolution of pore pressures in pit slopes is well documented and increasingly evident in monitoring data from
operational mine sites. Alongside localized permeability enhancement resulting from blast damage, unloading typically serves to reduce pore pressures
through expansion of pit floor and wall rock masses. Such pore pressure changes are a key input to the slope design process but are rarely simulated or
accounted for in hydrogeological decision making processes. Failure to represent these processes can lead to the over prediction of pore pressures in the
slope design process.

Constants

Paramete
r
Unit

A number of modeling codes have been developed to simulate these hydromechanical processes but constraining the input parameters is notoriously
difficult. Furthermore, currently available codes do not offer the flexibility and range of features of MODFLOW which are required for the representation of
local scale hydrogeological features and the appropriate evaluation of broader mine site hydrogeological issues.

Hydromechanical Coupling

Time variant parameters

This poster presents data demonstrating lithostatic unloading and associated aquifer property and pore pressure change. In addition, a practical and
pragmatic addition to the industry standard groundwater modeling package MODFLOW to permit coupled simulation of hydro-mechanical processes is
introduced. In essence we are looking to include: rock mass removal, associated stress change, expansion, aquifer property change and hydraulic head
change. The new module for MODFLOW is being developed collaboratively by hydrogeologists and geotechnical engineers. The module is intended improve
the realism and efficiency of pore pressure simulation where the broader hydrogeological environment must be incorporated into the slope scale pore
pressure simulations.

and why standard MODFLOW cant simulated it

T e P

Pore pressure

Effective stress

1/Pa
1/Pa
kg/m3

s
g

kg/m3
m/s2

TOPO

m
kg/m3
-

Sy
Ss
H

T
Skempto
n_B

Pa

m/day

Horizontal drain drilling, Batu Hijau, Indonesia

Pit slope failure, Bingham Canyon, Utah

Constants & Variables (note the number of variables that would normally
be considered constants in conventional groundwater modelling)

Total stress

Description
Material compressibility (this is the inverse of the bulk
modulus)
Water Compressibility
Density of Water
Density of Solids (i.e. the SG of the solid phase, independent
of porosity)
Gravity
Topographic surface, which incorporates the time-variant pit
shell
Dry Bulk Density, a function of s and n
Total Porosity
Specific Yield, assumed to have a linear correlation with n for
the purposes of initial testing
Specific Storage, calculated based on n, &
Hydraulic head at cell centre
Total calculated stress at cell base, incorporating mass of
overlying soil based on TOPO & ; weight of water in
saturated zone (n), and retained water in unsaturated zone
(n - Sy)
Skemptons B Coefficient (equivalent to / ( + n)),
assuming an incompressible solid phase.
Hydraulic Conductivity, assumed to have a linear correlation
with n for the purposes of initial testing

Change in effective stress dictates the extent of

compaction/expansion of a solid material

Underground drain hole drilling, Kibali, DRC

Ss = g + n
Type 1: Direct solid to fluid coupling, where a change in
stress results in a change in pore pressure
Type 2: Direct fluid to solid coupling, where a change in pore
pressure results in a change rock mass volume
Type 3: Indirect solid to fluid coupling, where a change in
stress causes a change in the hydraulic properties of the rock
Type 4: Indirect fluid to solid coupling, where a change in
pore pressure results in a change in the mechanical
properties of the rock

dVT
=

VW

The only mechanism for changing the effective

stress is the change in the hydraulic head (i.e. the
weight of water). Changes in overburden stress
are not recognised in MODFLOW (or any other
comprehensive GW modelling code)

de
dVW

VT

Groundwater flow theory recognises this principal

within the Specific Storage term, but.

dp

Pore pressure response below an advancing open pit in a zero

recharge low permeability environment. Rate of pit floor
advance is indicated by the blue line and the indicative
responses for a shallow and deep piezometer are shown by the
red and green lines. The shallow and deep piezometers are
represented by an assumed porosity reduction with depth. The
porosity reduction results in an increase in Skemptons B
coefficient, and a greater proportion of the unloading response
being carried by a pore pressure change.

Assumptions & limitations

The effective stress calculations are

currently
one-dimensional.
An
incompressible solid phase is assumed
in all cases

The theory that supports the

calculations is based on the assumption
of saturated conditions

Field Examples

Example of a coupled hydromechanical response

from Yanacocha, Peru. Rapid depressurisation is
observed in response to bench excavation, followed
by recovery as groundwater flows into the
depressurised area.

For further information contact

Mark Raynor mraynor@srk.co.uk; or
Alastair Black ablack@srk.co.uk

Example of pervasive downward gradients beneath open pits

Northern Chile. Near zero recharge rates and very low permeability
prevent the unloading responses being masked by recharge responses
and lateral groundwater flow (from Beale & Read, 2014).

Pore pressure response for a moderately compressible formation (1 x 10-8 Pa-1)

with inflow simulated from the adjacent General Head Boundary. The
simulated head demonstrates the characteristic unloading response observed
in a number of open pit mining operations.

Next steps

Horizontal drain reticulation system, Belo

Horizonte, Brazil

Incorporation of three dimensional stress calculations

and incorporation into the MODFLOW USG code.

Diavik Diamond Mine, NW Territories, Canada

The package is semi-coupled rather

than fully coupled to improved
computational efficiency, stability, and
relies on the careful selection of stress
period duration to constrain this
limitation

Material and water compressibility are

assumed to be constant, so linearity of
the stress stress-strain relationship is
inherent. This is not the case in many
open mining environments, especially
where significant slope movements are
occurring

The incorporation of the three dimensional stress fields is important as

the changes in effective stress around a pit are complex . On the left
hand side of the figure, the crosses showing principal stresses are vertical
and horizontal prior to mining. In the post-mining situation on the right
hand side of the figure the orientation of the stresses have changed with
one component increased and the other reduced.

Chucqicamata Copper Mine, Chile