July 18, 2016

Jennifer Worthen
ANTH-1020-008
Human Origins
Dr. Teresa Potter

Bipedalism is known to be a form of an animal or machine that moves using two feet.
This is by the means of its two rear limbs or legs. Such movement is running, hoping, and
walking to name a few. Many traits were similar to the early hominins, three million years ago,
such as the pelvis area. The pelvis of humans were shortened from top to bottom and bowlshaped (Analysis of Early Hominins, Copyright 1999-2012 by Dennis O'Neil). Standing
upright placed a lot of pressure on the pelvis by having it support our weight. The ape pelvis was
able to support the use of quadrupedal locomotion due to the longer pelvis (Analysis of Early
Hominins, Copyright 1999-2012 by Dennis O'Neil). In humans the iliac ala is lateral and
flares on the side while in apes the iliac ala parallels the plane on the back. The gluteus stabilizes
in the humans by supporting and in apes the gluteus is more attached which give it more like hip
extensors (efossils.org/book/pelvis, Step by Step: Evolution of Bipedalism). The main
differences between humans and apes are the size of the pelvic region to accommodate for
human birth due to larger brains.
I have been reading that bipedalism may have been adapted due to the environment, for
example being able to see over tall grasses for food or predators and height aided in the release
of heat that helped speed up the cooling process. There is evidence suggesting that bipedal

animals usually can walk greater distances because less energy is expended with their longer
strides. However, the legs of bipedal animals need to be sturdy enough to support at least 2.5
times their body weight while running. (Analysis of Early Hominins, Copyright 1999-2012
by Dennis O'Neil). The early record is of Australopith and paranthropine to adapt to bipedalism.
Major morphological features diagnostic (i.e., informative) of bipedalism include: the presence
of a bicondylar angle, or valgus knee; a more inferiorly placed foramen magnum; the presence of
a reduced or nonopposable big toe; a higher arch on the foot; a more posterior orientation of the
anterior portion of the iliac blade; a relatively larger femoral head diameter; an increased femoral
neck length; and a slightly larger and anteroposteriorly elongated condyles of the femur.
(efossils.org/book/anatomical-evidence-bipedalism).
These animals became less capable over time to continue to use the trees. Some of the
readings suggest bipedalism leading to the ability to carry food or other food or other portable
items over longer distances; the freeing of forelimbs for foraging, tool use, or protection
(efossils.org/book/why-bipedalism). The foot then began to have an arch. The pelvises in the
hominins were larger and wider. Chimpanzees were smaller and longer. Apes and chimpanzees
had longer arms than legs and no arches in the foot.
In the fossil record, Ardi, Ardipithecus ramidus was discovered 4.4 million years ago
by Tim white in 1994 in Ethiopia. This was identified as female adult, 45% of her skeleton was
located, pelvis, hands, feet, and skull. Her remains only showed her to be about 311 and 110
lbs (Prominent Hominid Fossils, http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/specimen.html, 22 May
2011 Copyright Jim Foley). The Kanapoi Hominid, Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered in 1965 and 1994, and was about 4.1 million years ago was the most significant for
hominid bipedalism was the tibia that was discovered. Although it missing the middle portion of

the bone, is the oldest known evidence found (Prominent Hominid Fossils,
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/specimen.html, 22 May 2011 Copyright Jim Foley).
A fossil discovered in 1974 at Hadar, was Lucy, Australopithecus afarensis. Lucy was
an adult female and her remains were able to show she was bipedal. Many of the remains were
small in size with the males being slightly larger than the females. A group of 13 individuals
were discovered in the same area of Lucy (Prominent Hominid Fossils,
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/specimen.html, 22 May 2011 Copyright Jim Foley).
The large brain in the hominid line is different than those found in apes. There is a large
hole in the cranium (foramen magnum), where the spinal column goes through. Our chin is
parallel to the ground and the spinal column runs perpendicular to the ground from the chin. In a
quadruped the spinal column runs parallel to the ground and the chin is placed further in back of
the cranium (efossils.org/book/cranium).
The Australopithecines had about 1/3 of brain size of humans today (Analysis of Early
Hominins, Copyright 1999-2012 by Dennis O'Neil). The faces of these hominids were large
compared to their brains and they had large jaws. They powerful muscles, small front teeth, large
molars and thick enamel which gave the big cheek bones. In the late hominids the jaw muscles
passed through a sagittal crest, this muscle was attached to the ridge of the bone on top of the
skull in the robust species (paranthropoids), (Analysis of Early Hominins, Copyright 19992012 by Dennis O'Neil). Their faces were concave or dish-shaped would project forward at the
bottom, which is known as prognathism.
Toumai, Sahelanthropous tchadensis was estimated to be six to seven million years
ago, discovered by Ahounta Djimdoubmalbaye in 2001. This cranium was smaller in size, the

brows and smaller canine teeth. The Taung child, estimated to be three years old had a brain size
was 410 cc and would have been 440 cc as an adult. The brain size of Mrs. Ples,
Australopithecus africanus was found to have the size of 485cc (Prominent Hominid Fossils,
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/specimen.html, 22 May 2011 Copyright Jim Foley). The
cranium was found to be well preserved during the discovery.
The more I have read and learned in class, the pelvis in women were adapted to have
babies with larger heads to pass through for birth. The human brain has continuously increased in
size, along with human size in general. During the years humans have capitalized in the use of
hands creating tools, smaller teeth and jaw muscles due to diet changes. Scientists still have other
fossils they have discovered but have not been assigned a species yet. We still have much more
to learn of the early hominids.

Analysis of Early Hominins, Copyright 1999-2012 by Dennis O'Neil

efossils.org/book/pelvis, Step by Step: Evolution of Bipedalism
efossils.org/book/anatomical-evidence-bipedalism
efossils.org/book/why-bipedalism
Prominent Hominid Fossils, http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/specimen.html, 22 May 2011
Copyright Jim Foley
efossils.org/book/cranium

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