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Fissuring from hydraulic fracture of clay soil

Lefebvre, G.; Philibert, A.; Bozozuk, M.; Pare, J. J.

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Ser
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National Research
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FISSURING FROM HYDRAULIC FRACTURE O F CLAY SOIL

by G. Lefebvre, A. Philibert, M. Bozozuk and J- J. P a r e

ANALYZED

Reprinted f r o m
Proceedings, 10th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Stockholm, 15 - 19 June 1981
p. 513 - 518

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NRC

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DBR P a p e r No. 998

Division of Building Research

P r i c e $1.00

OTTAWA

MRCC 19688

SOMMAIRE
Des e s s a i s de f a c t u r a t i o n hydraulique o n t 6 t d e f f e c t u d s dans
d e w couches d ' a r g i l e molle s e n s i b l e de n a t u r e geologique
d i f f C r e n t e pour Btudier les f r a c t u r e s q u i s e f o m e n t autour des
pi8zome'tres i n s i t u .
Au cours du programme d ' e s s a i , on s ' e s t
s e r v i de pi8zomStres de d i v e r s e s longueurs e t d'une t e i n t u r e au
b l e u de d t h y l s n e pour marquer l e s f i s s u r e s .
Aprss a v o i r
r e c o u v e r t 1' a r g i l e d' un g c h a n t i l l o n d e l a r g e d i a m s t r e , les
f i s s u r e s ont Bte r e c h e r c h k s , p u i s r e p r o d u i t e s s u r une c a r t e .
Des f i s s u r e s v e r t i c a l e s bien n e t t e s s e s o n t d h e l o p p e e s a u t o u r
d e 1 1 e x t r Q n i t 8 d e s p i C z o d t r e s les p l u s longs, mais pas a u t o u r
d e s p i 8 z o d t r e s de 0 arm.
Cependant, dans t o u s l e s e s s a i s , d e s
f i s s u r e s i n c l i n e e s d e 20 a 35 d e g r e s p a r r a p p o r t B
1'horizon t a l e s e s o n t developees au-dessus d e chaque e x t r h i t 8
des pi6zodtres.
Ces f i s s u r e s ont l a forme d'un cane i n v e r s e
L1btude
d o n t l e soumet se s i t u e a l a t S t e du p i 8 z o d t r e .
t r a i t e de l a forme des f r a c t u r e s e t de l ' i n f l u e n c e de l a
l o n g u e u r d e s p i 6 z o m 8 t r e s , du temps p e n d a n t l e q u e l l e s
pi8zouGtres r e s t e n t en p l a c e , e t d e s m o d i f i c a t i o n s causdes par
l a
presence
des
pi6zomiStres
dans
l e
sol.

Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm 15-19 June 1981

Comptes rendus du Dixieme Congres lnternationale de

Mecanique des Sols et des Travaux de Fondations, Stockholm 15-19 juin 1981

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Tenth International Conference
Mecanique des Sols et des Travaux de
Fondations
Dixieme Congres lnternationale

OFFPRINT

TIRE-A-PART

Editor: Publications Committee of X.ICSMFE

Editeur: Comite des Publications du X.ClMSTF

A.A. BALKEMA/ROlTERDAM/1981

Fissuring from Hydraulic Fracture of Clay Soil

Fissuration des Argiles par Claquage Hydraulique

G. LEFEBVRE
A PHlLlBERT
M. BOZOZUK
J-J. PARE

Professor, Universite de Sherbrooke

Graduate Student, Universite de Sherbrooke
Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada
Chef de Service, Geologie et Mecanique des Sols, Societe d'Energie de la Baie James

SYNOPSIS
Hydraulic fracture tests were carried out in two geologically different soft sensitive
clays in order to study the fracture pattern which had formed in situ around inserted piezometers.
Piezometers of different lengths were used in the test program, and a methylene blue dye was used to
mark the fissures. The fractured clay was recovered with a large diameter block sampler and the
fissures identified and mapped. Well defined vertical fractures developed around the long piezometer tips but not around the ones of zero length. In all tests, however, fractures inclined from
20 to 35 degrees from the horizontal developed above each piezometer tip, tracing the surface of an
inverse cone with its apex at the top of the piezometer.
The paper discusses the fracture patterns and the effects of piezometer length, time of embedment,
and the effect of soil disturbance, caused by installing the piezometers, on hydraulic fracture test
results.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic fracture applied to rock formations is
a well known technique that has been used by the
petroleum industry for several decades (Le
Tirant and Baron, 1979). Its use in cohesive
soils to determine lateral stresses in situ is
relatively recent (Bjerrum et al, 1972; Bjerrum
and Andersen, 1972). The analytical aspects of
this technique is based upon the assumptions
that the soil is a semi-infinite, homogeneous,
isotropic, elasto-plastic mass. Based on these
assumptions, Bjerrum et al.(1972) proposed an
analytical model to explain what happens in a
soil around a piezometer when it is subject to
hydraulic fracture.
In the last few years, some questions have been
raised concerning the hydraulic fracture test
in soft clays with respect to the zone of remoulded soil around the piezometer tip, the
direction and extent of the fractures, the degree of homogeneity and natural fissuring
(Bozozuk, 1974; Massarsch et al. 1975; Parkin,
1977; Tavenas et al. 1975). The interpretation
of the test results was always based on the
assumption that hydraulic fracture occurred in
a unique and well defined mode. It was never
demonstrated that the hydraulic fractures that
occurred around a small piezometer tip pushed
into a small clay specimen in a laboratory
(Bjerrum and Andersen, 1972) were accurate representations of the hydraulic fractures that
developed around a full size piezometer in the
field, and that the method used to interpret
the laboratory test results could be applied
directly to the field tests. In the present
study hydraulic fracture tests were performed
in the field and the fractured clays around the
piezometer tips were extracted and examined in
order to verify the mode of fracturing in situ.
Studies were also made to determine how the

estimates of the in situ lateral stresses were

affected by heterogeniety of the natural soil,
the length of piezometer tips, the remoulding
of clay around the piezometer, and the length of
time the piezometers were in the ground.

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL DEPOSITS

The tests were performed in two geologically
different clay deposits in Eastern Canada at the
Gloucester test site near Ottawa, Ontario, and
at the Olga test site near Matagami, northwestern Qu6bec.
The soils at Gloucester are marine clay deposits
of the Champlain Sea. The geotechnical profile
has been described in detail by Bozozuk and
Leonards (1972), and by Lo et al. (1976). They
are mainly silty clays, almost normally consolidated to a depth of 5,5 m, and lightly overconsolidated to a depth of 18 m where it is
underlain by a thin layer of varved clay over
till. At the 4 m depth, where the hydraulic
fracture tests were performed, the water contents were about 25% greater than the liquid
limits, and the sensitivity measured in situ
with a Geonor vane varied from 70 to 100. The
clay appeared homogeneous in its natural state
but displayed a contorted structure when air
dried. A summary of the engineering properties
of the clay taken around the piezometer tips is
given in Table 1.
The soils at Olga are lacustrine deposits of the
postglacial lake Barlow-Ojibway. The geotechnical profile has been described in detail by
Lefebvre and Locat (1979). The deposit consists
of varved clays that are somewhat over-consolidated, and extend to a depth of about 11,5 m at
the site. The hydraulic fracture tests were

TABLE I
Summary of Engineering Properties
of Soil at the Two Sites
Olga
90%
70%
40%
20 kPa
10
2,9
P;/P;
Clay Size Particules (<2u) 90%
Natural Water Content
Liquid Limit
Plasticity Index
Cu (Field Vane)
Sensitivity (Field Vane)

Gloucester
75%
52%
25%
20 kPa
70-100
1,4
14%

performed at depths of 3,8 and 4,s m. At these

depths the varves alternate between light and
dark bands 4 to 10 mm thick. The natural water
contents are about 60% for the light and 100%
for the dark bands which on the average are
about 1,3 times more than the liquid limits.
The amount of clay size particles is about 90%
and the sensitivity measured in situ with a
Nilcon vane apparatus is about 10. A summary
of the engineering properties of the soil is
given in Table I.

TEST PROCEDURES
Installation of ~iezometers
Geonor piezometers made of porous bronze and
33 nun in diameter were used. Three lengths
were installed: 300 mm (standard), 100 mm and
0 nun. The piezometer tips of 0 length were
made from a porous bronze plate. Before installation all piezometer tips and connecting
tubing were filled and saturated with deaired
water, care being taken to ensure that the
tubing uaS tightly plugged at the top to hold
the water and to resist the excess pore water
pressures generated during installation. After
saturation the piezometer tips were fitted to
"E" size steel drill rods (O.D. about 36 mm)
and jacked continuously into the ground until
the desired depth was attained. Five piezometers were installed to depths of 3,7 to 3,8 m

at Gloucester and two to depths of 3.8 and 4,s m

at Olga. The piezometers at Olga were 300 nun
long whereas at Gloucester three were 300 mm
long (one was a reference piezometer installed
in 1972), one was 100 mm long and one had 0
length. The characteristics of the different
piezometers and the times of installation and
tests are given in Table 11.
Hydraulic fracture tests
The tests were performed following the procedure
of Bjerrum and Andersen (1972) but instead of
using a mercury manometer in the system a pressure transducer was incorporated. Before the
tests were performed, however, the water in the
piezometers was replaced with an aqueous solu<ion of methylene blue in a concentration of
10 g/L. Methylene blue adheres to the surface
of the clay particles and is an excellent tracer
for the fractures produced in the test.
The test is performed by gradually increasing
the hydraulic pressure in the piezometer using
a Geonor screw pump until the soil fractures.
The build up of pressure and the subsequent
pressure with time as the fractures close is
automatically recorded electronically. Initially from 100-300 mL of aqueous solution were
injected into the fractures to ensure that sufficient solution was available to mark them, but
this was later reduced to 3 mL without loss of
definition.
The interpretation of the closing pressure is
easily obtained from tests performed in clays of
low permeability. In the more permeable clayey
silts the closing pressure can be identified
from a plot of pressure versus log time
(Bozozuk, 1974).
Block sampling of fractured clay
When the hydraulic fracture tests were completed
the steel "E" rods and the attached piezometers
were rotated to break the bond with the soil,
then removed using manual jacks. The hole left
in the ground served as a guide for the large
diameter block sampler. Two cylindrical undisturbed blocks of clay about 270 mm in diam-

TABLE I1
Characteristics and Results of Hydraulic Fracture Tests
PIEZOMETER NO.

LENGTH
mm
Gloucester test site
P-43 original
300
P-43 E
300
P-43 W
300
P-43 (0)
0
P-43 (10)
100
Olga test site
P-19
300

DATE OF INSTALLATION

DEPTH
m

DATE OF TEST
O'

FRACTURE PATTERN
Vertical Cone

(0,73)
(0,68)
(0,81)
(0,901
(0,81)

yes
yes
yes
no
yes

21-31
350
350inv.
16O-18~
lSO-30

(1,82)
(1,39)
(2,03)
(1,461

yes

yes

yes

yes

eter and 370 mm long were taken (one above the

other) at each piezometer location where the
tips were 300 mm long, and only one block
obtained where they were 100 and 0 mm long.
Each block was carefully wrapped, waxed and
shipped in an insulated container to the laboratory. The large diameter block sampler and
the sampling technique are described by
Lefebvre and Poulin (1979).

MODE OF SOIL FRACTURE

The fractures produced in the clays in the
vicinity of the piezometer tips were clearly
marked by the methylene blue dye. It was
therefore possible to cut selectively the
cylindrical blocks of soil into sections and
precisely map the network of fractures. These
are shown graphically for the soil around
piezometers P-43 (O), P-43(10) and P-43E from
the Gloucester site (respectively 0, 100 and
300 mm long) on Figs 1 and 2. Figure 1 shows
the fractures that appeared on the outside of
the cylindrical blocks while Figure 2 shows
them on selected horizontal sections after the
blocks were cut. Similar observations were
made on the block samples from the Olga site,
but the fractures were not as clearly defined
because of alignment difficulties during
sampling.

The fracture mode was quite different from the

one assumed for interpreting hydraulic fracture
tests in clay soils. Large, well-defined, vertical fissures were observed on the block of
soil surrounding the 300 mm long piezometer tip
(Fig. l(c)) , which extended radially outward
from the hole left by the piezometer (Fig. 2
Section CD). As the piezometer tip became
shorter (100 mm), the fissures on the outside
of the block became shorter and subvertical
(Fig. 1 (b)1 , and they also radiated outward
from the hole left by the piezometer (Fig. 2,
Section BB). When the length was reduced to 0,
vertical fissures were almost entirely absent
(Fig. 1 (a), Fig. 2, Section A A ) .
In addition to the vertical fractures, however,
a well-defined continuous fracture appeared on
all the blocks of soil at a location above the
head of the piezometer. These fractures occurred at an angle varying from 20 to 35 degrees from the horizontal, tracing a curved
surface forming an inverted cone (Fig. l(a),
This cone was particularly well
1
, 1
defined in the soil around the piezometer tip
of 0 length. Figure 2 shows the pattern of
concentric fractures from this cone that formed
above each of the piezometer tips (Sections AA,
BA and CA)

Figure 3 was prepared from the observed distribution of fractures to show the fracture mode

PIUOMETER

HORIZONTAL SECTIONS
ABOVE PIEZOMETER T I P

HORIZOHTAL

SECTIOHS

ACROSS F i E M U m E R TlP

PIEZOMETER
I

Fig. 1

Fractures identified at the vertical

periphery of the samples

Fig. 2

Fractures identified on horizontal

cross-sections for different lengths of
piezometer tips

that develops in the clay around a piezometer

of some length as a result of an hydraulic
fracture test. There are two distinct fracture
zones. A continuous crack forms at the top of
the piezometer tip forming the surface of an
inverted cone with its apex at the piezometer.
The angle of the cone varies from 20 to 35
degrees from the horizontal and increases with
the length of piezorneter tip. The intersection
of plane 01 with the surface of the cone ( F i g .
3) traces cracks which are similar to those
shown on Fig. 2 (Sections RA, BR and C A I

The second fracture zone contains essentially

vertical (and subvertical) fractures radiating
outward from the piezometer tip (Fig. 3 ) . The
number of fractures and the angle between them
are variable and not unique. The trace left
by the fractures intersecting plane 02 (Fig. 3)
is similar to the ones observed on Fig. 2
(Sections BB and CD).

SOIL DISTURBANCE AROUND THE PIEZOMETER TIPS

Fig. 3

Schematical representation of the

fractures observed around the
piezometer tip.

BOUNDARY OF
THE SAMPLE

12

16

PIEZOMETER
LOCATION

!
20

24

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (cm)

* SWEDISH

FALL
CONE 1 0 0 / 3 0

Fig. 4

Swedish fall cone penetration around

piezometer tip.

Soil disturbance or remoulding caused by installing the piezometer has often been used to
explain questionable test results. It was
possible in the present study to verify the
extent of remoulding and to evaluate its influence on the mode of fracture in the hydraulic
fracture test. Tests with a Swedish cone
penetrometer were carried out on each of the
slices cut from the large block samples. The
penetration indices showed that the disturbed
zone extended horizontally for a distance of 2
to 3 piezometer diameters (Fig. 4). Some of
this disturbance occurred at the time of installation, but most of it probably took place
after the tests were completed when the piezometers were rotated and pulled out. This zone
was generally less im~ortantfor the less plastic (I = 25%), extremely sensitive (St = 70P
100) clays at Gloucester than for the clays at
Olga where the plasticity was higher (I = 40%)
P
and the sensitivity less (St = 10).
The development of radial fractures around the
piezometer tips did not seem to be affected by
the presence of the disturbed zone of soil.
The fractures developed and passed through the
disturbed zone and extended into the undisturbed neighbouring clay as indicated on Fig.2,
Sections BB and CD.

GLOUCESTER 1979

EFFECT OF FRACTURE MODE ON KO

LENGTH OF PIEZOMETER T I P ( cm

Fig. 5

Influence of the length of piezometer

tip on the calculated value of K

The value of KO, calculated from hydraulic

fracture tests is affected by the length of
piezometer tip as shown on Fig. 5. Using the
300 mm long piezometer tip, a KO of 0,68 was
obtained. It increased to 0,81 using the 100
mm long tip, and finally a value of 0,91 was
measured using the piezometer of 0 length.
The variation must be due to the fracture mode
observed around the piezometer tips. The 300
mm long tip produced the longest vertical fractures, and it could be argued that this test

was mostly influenced by the horizontal pressure in the soil. The 100 m long tip produced shorter vertical and subvertical fractures. The fact that KO increased to 0,81
shows that the test is also sensitive to the
inclined fractures which formed at the head of
the piezometer, and that it is responding more
to the vertical pressure. There were no vertical fractures around the piezometer of 0
length, and it gave a KO = 0,91. The fractures were inclined forming an inverted cone.
Consequently the pressures measured in this
test were strongly influenced by the vertical
overburden pressure, and to a minor extent by
the horizontal pressure.
The inverted fracture cone was observed to
develop above all piezometer tips in all
tests, and consequently all determinations of
K0 were affected. It could be argued that the
best results were obtained using the 300-mlong piezometer tips, but the correct K is
0
still not known.

REDUCTION OF MEASURED KO WITH TIME

!
I

Hydraulic fracture tests were performed on an

interval of 28 months on the piezometers at
Olga. There was a marked reduction in the
stress ratio K0 over this time period, by as
much as 24 and 28% for piezometers P-19 and
P-28 respectively as shown in Table 2. This
agrees with Tavenas et al. (1975) who also
found that long relaxation times produced a
significant reduction in measured horizontal
pressure. This reduction can be attributed to
soil relaxation around the piezometer tip
(consolidation and creep). It is very likely,
however, that the vertical fractures that
formed perpendicular to the smallest stresses
(horizontal) in the first test were enlarged
by repeated hydraulic fracture tests. Consequently subsequent tests would be more sensitive with time to the smaller horizontal pressures. On the other hand, the cone-shaped
fracture plane at the head of the piezometer
tip is sensitive to the greater vertical pressures and it would not be affected by repeated
tests to the same degree.

Sampling difficulties were encountered at Olga.

The large block samples that were recovered almost missed the fractured zone around the piezometer tips. The very little information
that was obtained showed that the fracture mode
was similar to that observed in the marine clay
at Gloucester. The varved clay at Olga appeared to have little or no influence on the
development of fractures during the tests.

CONCLUSIONS
Seven hydraulic fracture tests performed in two
soft clay deposits of different geologic origin
have shown that the fracture mode is not unique.
Two distinct sets of fractures developed. Vertical fractures radiated out from the piezometer tips as expected and, in addition, cracks
inclined from 20 to 35 degrees from the horizontal formed an inverted cone-shaped fracture
surface with its apex at the top of the piezometer. As the hydraulic fracture test would be
sensitive to the fluid pressures in both sets
of fractures it would lead to an overestimate
of KO. The hypothesis that a unique fracture
mode, i.e., that only vertical fractures developed in normally consolidated clay, was not
verified.
The presence of the remoulded or disturbed soil
around the piezometer tips did not affect the
development of fractures during the hydraulic
fracture tests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the conscientious efforts of A. Laberge and T.J.
Hoogeveen, Technical Officers, Division of
Building Research, for carrying out the hydraulic fracture tests. The research has been carried out jointly by the University of
Sherbrooke and the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada and
has been supported by the Soci6te dlEnergie de
la Baie James, the MinistSre de 1'Education du
Quebec and the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council Canada.

REFERENCES
DISCUSSION
The fractures formed in the clay soils from the,
hydraulic fracture tests were easily marked and
identified using the methylene blue dye. Fractures that formed during the tests are not only
related to the horizontal pressures, but also
to the vertical pressure.
The fracture cone observed at the head of piezometer P-43W (Table 2) sloped downwards and
limited the length of the vertical fractures
which developed around the piezometer tip.
Consequently the vertical stress had a greater
influence during the test, and this increased
the measured KO to 0,81 from 0,68 obtained with
P-43E (Table 11).

Bjerrum, L., Andersen, K.H. (1972). In situ

Measurement of Lateral Pressures in Clay,
Proceedings of the 5th European Conf. of
the I.S.S.M.F.E., Madrid, Vol. 1, pp. 1120.
Bjerrum, L., Nash, J.K.T.L., Kennard, R.N.,
Gibson, R.E. (1972). Hydraulic Fracturing
in Field Permeability Testing, GBotechnique, vol. 22, no 2, pp. 319-332.
Bozozuk, M. and Leonards, G.A. (1972). The
Gloucester Test Fill. Proc. ASCE Specialty
Conference on Performance of Earth and
Earth-Supported Structures, Purdue University, 11-14 June, Vol. 1, Part 1, pp.
299-317.

Bozozuk, M. (1974). Minor Principal Stress

Measurement in Marine Clay with Hydraulic
Fracture Tests, presented at the Engineering Foundation Conference on Subsurface Exploration for Underground
Excavation and Heavy Construction, New
England College, Henniker, New Hampshire,
pp. 333-349.
Le Tirant, .?. et Baron, G. (1970). Fracturation hydraulique des roches stratifiges et
fissurses - Application aux rgservoirs
d'hydro-carbures. Compte rendu du 2e
CongrSs de la Socistg internationale de
mscanique des roches, Belgrade, 1970,
V0l. 3.
Lefebvre, G., Poulin, C. (1979), A New Method
of Sampling in Sensitive Clay, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 16, NO 1,
pp. 226-233.
Lefebvre, G., Locat, J., Pars, J.-J. and
Dascal, 0. (1979). A Detailed Study of
the Compressibility of a Varved Clay
Deposit as Related to Foundation Settlement, 32nd Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Quebec, Canada.
Lo, K.Y., Bozozuk, M., Law, K.T. (1976).
Settlement Analysis of the Gloucester Test
Fill, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 13, no 4, pp. 334-354.
Massarsch, K.R., Holtz, D.L., Holm, B.G. and
Fredriksson, A . (1975). Measurement of
Horizontal In Situ Stresses, ASCE,
Specialty Conference on In Situ Measurements of Soil Properties, Raleigh, N.C.,
Vol. 1, pp. 266-286.
Parkin, A.K. (1977). Lateral Earth Pressure
at Rest in Soft Clay, Discussion, Journal
of the Geotechnica'lEngineering Division,
A.S.C.E., Vol. 103, GT9, pp. 1030-1031.
Tavenas, F., Blanchette, G., Leroueuil, S.,
Roy, M., La Rochelle, P. (1975).
Difficulties in the In Situ Determination
of KO in Soft Sensitive Clays. Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference on
In Situ Measurement of Soil Properties,
Raleigh, N.C., pp. 450-476.

Soil mechanics and foundation engineering - Proceedings o f the 10th international conference, Stockholm,
15-19 June 1981
1981,28 cm, c.3500pp., 4 vols., Hfl.850 1 $380/170
Over 500 papers (40 in French, rest Enghsh) from contributors throughout the world. Prediction and performance; tunnelling in soils; groundwater and seepage
problems; laboratory testing; soil/structure interaction;
environmental control (incl. waste material); soil
exploration and sampling; pile foundations; saving cities
and old buildings; soil dynamics; slope stability; soil
improvement. All papers were selected and reviewed by
the nationaI societies of the International Society for
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
CONTENTS
1. Prediction and performance (Accuracy of predictions and its
determination; Application
of probability and decision theory
-design; Factors governing the performance of buildings and
other structures). Pile foundation problems in white chalk;
Settlements under intermittent loading; Settlement calculation
by a new strength theory; Construction of a pile wall in a rockfill dam; Rheological definition of loess subsidence; Insulation
for foundations and buried services; Land reclamation using
fine-grained dredged material; Settlement analysis of tanks on
soft clay; Pitfalls of back-analyses; Observations of creep during
heave; Consolidation of sensitive clays; etc.
2. Tunnelling in soils (Case records of tunnel constructions;
Effects of different excavation/construction techniques; New
calculation methods; Mapping and control systeins). Strain
field around a tunnel in stiff soil; Principles of tunnel design
for seismic regions; Analytical study of NATM; etc.
3. Groundwater and seepage problems (Prediction and measurement of groundwater conditions and flow; Internal erosion and
piping, hydraulic fracturing, etc.; Control of ground water;
Effects of changes in groundwater level). Theory of non-linear
seepage; Experience in plastic filter application; Jet grout
method and cut-off walls stability; Soil drainage and stability
of slopes; Initial gradient in a dense glacial till; Structural
improvement of alluvial soils; Seepage interaction etc.
4. Laboratory testing (Relevance of laboratory soil testing
methods; Standardization of laboratory tests for practical
application; New laboratory testing methods; Model tests).
Investigation of soils creep; Mechanical properties of soft rock
and rock mass; Laboratory and pressuremeter tests on a stiff
clay; Laboratory testing of vertical drains; The consolidation
properties of a soft rock; Dynamic compaction of rockfill
samples; Model for determining of soil parameters; ctc.
5. Soil structure interaction (Case histories and observation of
real behaviour; Design and construction procedures which take
account of soil/structure interaction; Acceptable deformation
in relation to the performance and function of structures). An
elastoplastic analysis of anchored walls; Computing foundation
slabs with building rigidity; Soil interaction in buried structures;
A method of settlement calculation; On the validity of Winkler's principle; Design and monitoring of an embankment on
alluvium; Anchor slab structure retains earth fill; etc.
6. Environmental control (Waste material in earth structures
and protection against groundwater pollution; Erosion protection; Change of geotechnical properties due to pollution; Subsidence due to lowering of the groundwater level and to the
withdrawal of oil and mining). Fly ash as fill material; Mechanical behaviour of coal fly ashes; Mechanisms for detoxifying
soil; Pollution in peats; Environment protection in Italy; etc.
7. Soil exploration and sampling (In-situ testing and deformation measurements; Quality (scatter) of soil data in relation to
specific foundation problems; New techniques for soil sampling
and penetration tests). Portable geotechnical field equipment;
The static-dynamic penetrometer; Geological interpretation of
SIR data; Energy dissipation on the SPT rods; Field investigations of clay soils; A sampler with a new type of shutter; Tests
in alluvial sand with the PQS probe; etc.

8. Pile foundations (Use of stress-wave theory in prediction of

pile performance; Control methods for driven and cast-in-place
piles; New pile systems and new pile driving methods; Friction
piles; Behaviour of pile groups; Failure of pile foundations).
Pile foundation settlements; Load test on friction piles in clay;
Bearing capacity of pile preloaded by downdrag; Consolidation
due to lateral loading of a pile; Downdrag on bitumen coated
piles in a warm climate; Skin friction on underslurry piles; H
steel piles in dense sand; Load tests on large bored piles in
sand; Installation of piles for marine structures in the Red Sea;
9. Saving cities and old buildings (Geotechnical problems connected with the protection of existing structures against subsidence and floods; Investigation of the integrity, durability
and bearing capacity of structures; Underpinning and other
methods of saving structures and ground). Foundation documentation for conservation planning; Preservation of old buildings in the USSR; The Tower of Pisa: recent observations; etc.
10. Soil dynamics (Design of machine foundations; Damage
by vibrations and protection of buildings and structures; Effect
of dynamic loads on strength and deformation properties of
soils). Prediction of seismic pore-water pressures; Characteristics of embankment dams during earthquakes and man-induced vibrations; Displacements of cyclicall)' loaded structures
embedded in sands; Saturated sands under cyclic loading; etc.
11. Slope stability (Detection and classification of potential
landslide areas; Factors influencing the short- and long-term
stability of slopes; Analysis of slope stability, including dams;
Slide warning systems and methods of prevention of landslides). Stability of natural slopes in quick clay; Dynamic programming in dam slope design; Relationship between limit
equilibrium slope stability methods; etc.
12. Soil improvement (Compaction; Reinforcement of soil;
Grouting, excluding control of groundwater flow and seepage;
Consolidation by preloading and/or vertical drains, electroosmosis, etc.; Soil stabilization by ion exchange; Thermal stabilization). Geodrain installation at Lornex Tailings Dam, Canada; Soil nailing: a technique of in-situ reinforced earth; Soil
improvement by lime-fly ash slurry injection; etc.
Discussions and additional papers (In vol. 4, end 1981).

Soft ground tunneling - Failures and disphcements

1980,25 cm, c.200 pp., Hfl.45 / $22.00 / 9.00
Based on a specialty session on soft ground tunneling
held during the 6th Panamerican conference on soil
mechanics and foundation engineering, held in Lima,
Peru in December 1979. Geotechnical problems;
weathered-rock portion of the Wilson tunnel, Honolulu;
failure of shafts & tunnels in soft soils; lost ground subsidences in 2 shallow tunnels; assessment of tunnel stability in clay by model tests; settlements upon softground tunnelling; tunnels under compressed air; prediction of surface movements; stress path approach for
a tunnel driven in stiff clay; etc. Editors: Director &
scientist at Inst. Ingenieria, Univ. Mexico.
Weak rock - Proceedings of the international symposium, Tokyo, 21 -24 September 1981
1981, 25 cm c.1500 pp., Hfl.396/$195.00 /79.50
Knowledge on weak rock has become increasingly
important for the design and construction of dams,
underground openings, undersea tunnels, mines, foundations of nuclear power stations, large suspension
bridges and transmission towers, long slopes, etc.
The papers and discussions are by engineers interested
in engineering properties, in situ investigations, specialized theories, analyses, adequate designs, construction
practices, dynamics and tectonics. The symposium
was sponsored by ISRM, ISSMFE, etc.

A. A.Ralkema Publishers. P.O.Box 167-5, NI, 3000 BR Rotterdam, Netherlands

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