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page 22
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
BOOK ONE
PART ONE
OR
INTEGRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL
FORMULAS.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 23
CHAPTER I
dy
dx
dy
dx
= X.
COROLLARY 2
42. Hence a function of x of this kind is sought, of which the differential is equal to Xdx;
hence the integral of this, which now is accustomed to be indicated by Xdx , provides
dy
dx
= p, it is
required to prevail, in order that for some proposed equation between the three quantities
x, y and p, from this the natural form of the function y is found, or an equation between x
and y, with the letter p elicited. But the question thus proposed in general is considered to
outdo the analytical powers so far, so that at no time can a solution be expected.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 24
Therefore our strengths are to be exercised in the simpler cases, among which the case
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
dy
dx
= X or
dy = Xdx and thus the integral y = Xdx is required, as we arrange in the first section.
Now this case extends widely to various natural forms of the function X and also it is
involved in many more difficult cases, from which we put in place only questions to be
resolved in this chapter, in which that function X is rational, and then to be progressing
to these irrational functions. Hence this part is subdivided conveniently into two parts, in
the first of which the integration of the simple formulas, in which p =
dy
dx
is equal to a
clearly as the differential formula is multiplied by that constant magnitude, the integral
must be multiplied by the same. Thus if the formula of the differentials is aPdx + bQdx +
cRdx, whatever functions of x are designated by P, Q, R, the integral is
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 25
SOLUTION
Since the differential of the power x is mx m 1dx , there is in turn
m
mx
m 1
dx = m x m 1dx = x m
and thus
m 1
dx = 1 x m ;
m
x dx = n1+1 x
n
n +1
and a x n dx = na+1 x n +1 .
the reason or from which thus is apparent, because the differential actually is equal to
ax n dx . And this integration always has a place, whatever number is attributed to the
exponent n, either positive or negative, either an integer or a fraction, or even irrational.
Hence a single case is excepted, in which the exponent n = 1 or it is proposed to
integrate this formula adx . Now in the differential calculus I have shown, if lx denotes
x
the hyperbolic logarithm of x, the differential of this is equal to dx , from which in turn
x
dxx = lx
and
adxx = alx .
Whereby with an arbitrary constant added the complete integral of the formula adx is
x
equal to
alx + C= lxa+ C,
that also on putting lc for C can thus be expressed: lcxa.
COROLLARY 1
47. Hence the integral of the differential formulas ax n dx is always algebraic with the
only excepted case, in which n = 1 and the integral is expressed by logarithms, which
are to be referred to as transcendent functions. Obviously, it is given by
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 26
COROLLARY 2
48. If the exponent n denotes a positive number, then the following integrations are to be
expressed properly, in as much as they are especially easy:
adx = ax + C, axdx = a2 xx + C , ax dx = a3 x + C,
3
4
4
5
5
6
ax dx = a4 x + C, ax dx = a5 x + C, ax dx = a6 x + C.
2
COROLLARY 3
49. If n is a negative number, on putting n = m there becomes
adx
x
m
= a x1 m + C =
1 m
a
( m l ) x m 1
+C ,
= a + C, adx = a + C, adx = a + C,
adx
x
2 xx
x
x
x
3x
= a + C, adx = a + C, etc.
adx
x
x
4x
5x
2
COROLLARY 4
50. But also if n denotes a fractional number, hence the integrals can be obtained.
First let n = m ; then
3
adx
x m = 2a x x m + C,
m+2
COROLLARY 5
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 27
xadxx = 5 x2ax + C.
3
COROLLARIUM 6
ax dx = a x
+
+C
or through roots,
x = a x + + C ;
adx
but if there is put n =
= a x
adx
+C
or through roots,
adxx = a
+C .
SCHOLIUM1
53. Nevertheless I have decided in this chapter to treat only rational functions, yet these
irrationals can still be presented at once, as likewise they can be treated as rationals.
Hence the remaining more complicated formulas are able to be integrated also, if
functions of a certain variable z are taken for x. Just as if we put x = f +gz, then dx = gdz;
whereby if for a we write ag , there is had
adz ( f + gz )
a
( n +1) g (
f + gz )
n +1
+C ,
= a l ( f + gz ) + C .
( fadz
+ gz ) g
Then if there shall be n = m, the integral becomes
( f adz
+ gz )
( m 1) g ( f + gz )
m 1
+C.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
+1
adz ( f + gz ) = a ( f + gz ) + C ;
( + ) g
page 28
( f +adzgz )
a( f + gz )
( ) g ( f + gz )
+C .
SCHOLIUM 2
54. Here another significant property deserves to be noted. Since here a function y is
dy
y = na+1 x n +1 + C ,
on account of ax n = p there is also
px
y = n +1 + C
and thus we have the case, where the relation of the differentials through a certain
equation is proposed between x, y and p and now we know for each to be satisfied by the
equation y = na+1 x n +1 + C . Now this no further is the complete integral for the relation
px
held in the equation y = n +1 + C , but only a particular one, because the new integral does
not involve a constant, which is not in the relation of the differentials. Moreover the
complete integral is
y = naD
x n +1 + C
+1
and thus
px
y = n +1 + C.
PROBLEM 2
55. To find a function of x, of which the differential is equal to Xdx, with X denoting some
rational integer function of x, or to definite the integral Xdx .
SOLUTION
Since X is a function of x of the rational integers [e. g. a polynomial], by necessity it
contained in this form :
X = + x + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + etc.,
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 29
Xdx = C + x + 12 x
+ 13 x3 + 14 x 4 + 15 x5 + 15 x6 + etc.,
X = x + x + x + etc.,
then there becomes
Xdx = C + +1 x
+1
+ +1 x +1 + +1 x +1 + etc.,
where the exponents , , etc. are able to signify both positive and negative numbers
as well as fractions, provided it is noted, if there should be = 1 , then there becomes
xdx = lx , which is the single case to be referred to the order of transcendent functions.
PROBLEM 3
56. If X denotes some rational fractional function of x, to describe the method, with the
help of which it is convenient to investigate the integral of the formula Xdx.
Therefore let
X=M
N
SOLUTION
, thus in order that M and N are to become integral functions of x,
and in the first place it is to be considered, whether the sum of the powers of x in the
numerator M is either greater or less than in the denominator N, in which case from the
, integral [i. e. whole] parts can be elicited by division; the integration of
fraction M
N
which can be obtained without difficulty, and the whole calculation is reduced to a
, in which the sum of the powers of x in the numerator M is less
fraction of this kind M
N
than in the denominator N.
Then all the factors of the denominator N itself are sought, both simple if they are real,
as well as real squares, clearly in turn of the simple squares of [complex conjugate]
imaginary factors arising ; likewise it is to be considered whether these factors are all
unequal or not ; for indeed with the equality of the factors another method for the
into simple fractions has to be put in place, since they arise
resolution of the fraction M
N
from the factors of individual fractions, of which the sum of the fractions proposed is
. Certainly from the simple factor a + bx the fraction arises :
equal to M
N
A
a + bx
if two are equal or the denominator N should have the factor (a + bx)2 , hence there arises
the fractions :
A
B ;
2 +
a +bx
(a + bx )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 30
moreover from the factor (a + bx) of this kind these three fractions arise:
A
(a + bx )3
B
(a +bx ) 2
+ a +Cbx :
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
but if the cube, thus ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) should be a factor of the denominator N,
3
C + Dx
2
2
cos . +bbxx )
aa
abx
E + Fx
+ aa 2abx
;
cos. +bbxx
( a +bx )
or
A+ Bx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
and now it is required to integrate the individual terms multiplied by dx; the value of the
.
function sought is the sum of all these integrals Xdx = Mdx
N
COROLLARY 1
57. Hence for an integration of all the forms of this kind Mdx
the whole calculation is
N
( aAdx
+ bx )
and
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 31
COROLLARIUM 2
58. And indeed the integral of the first form above ( 53) is now obtained, from which it
is apparent to be :
Adx = A l a + bx + Const .
)
a + bx b (
( aAdx
+ bx )
( aAdx
+ bx )
A
b( a + bx )
A
2
2b( a + bx )
+ Const .
+ Const .
et generally
( aAdx
+bx )
A
n 1
1
n
b
( ) ( a +bx )
+ Const .
COROLLARY 3
59. Hence in order that the proposition can be completed, nothing else is required, except
that the integration of this form
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
must be shown, indeed for the case n = 1, then for the cases n = 2, n = 3, n = 4, etc.
SCHOLIUM 1
60. Unless we want to avoid imaginary quantities, the whole calculation now can be
completed from what has been treated; for with the denominator N resolved into all its
simple factors, they are either real or imaginary, the proposed fraction always can be
resolved into partial fractions of this form aAdx
or of this Adx n ; since the integrals of
+ bx
( a +bx )
here there might be some inconvenience the pairs of imaginary parts [i. e. complex
conjugates] thus are joined together, in order that a real expression results, which
nevertheless completes the nature of the integration absolutely.
SCHOLION 2
61. Certainly here it is to be conceded that we postulate the resolution of an integral
function into factors, even if the algebra so far has by no means led to that [conclusion],
in order that this resolution actually can be put in place. But this is accustomed to be
postulated in analysis everywhere, in order that, as the longer we progress, those things
which are left behind, even if they have not been explored well enough, we assume as
known ; evidently it suffices here that all the factors are able to be assigned by the
method of approximation, however close they can be assigned. In a like manner in the
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 32
integral calculus the longer we proceed, the integrals of all the formulas of the form Xdx,
whatever function of x may be signified by the letter X, we will consider as known and
by us to be the most outstanding, if we can prevail to reduce more obscure integrals to
these forms ; this also disturbs nothing in practical use, since the values of such formulas
Xdx are allowed to be assigned almost to any extend you wish, as we shall show in
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
what follows. Otherwise about these integrals, the resolution of the denominator N into
its factors is absolutely necessary, therefore in order that the individual factors are present
in the expression of the integral ; there are just a few cases and these are especially easy,
in which we are able to do without that resolution ; just as if this formula is proposed
x n 1dx
1+ x n
d
, the integral of
n(1+ )
which is 1n l (1 + ) = 1n l 1 + x n , where there was no need for the resolution of the factors.
Now cases of this kind are so evident in themselves, so that no particular explanation of
these may be needed.
PROBLEM 4
( A+ Bx )dx
y = aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
SOLUTION
Since the numerator depends on the two parts Adx+Bxdx, this latter term Bxdx can be
removed in the following manner. Since there arises
l ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) =
2 abdxcos . + 2bbxdx
aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
this equation is to be multiplied by 2Bbb and taken away from the proposed equation ; for
thus there is produced
y B l ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) =
2bb
( A+
Bacos .
b
)dx
aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
thus in order that only the formula to be integrated remains. For brevity the formula is put
in place
Bacos .
A+ b
=C
so that this becomes
aa 2abxCdx
cos . + bbxx
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 33
aa sin . +Cdx
( bx acos. )
2
There is put in place bx acos. = av sin. and hence dx = adv bsin. from which our
formula becomes
Cadv sin . :b
C
dv
aa sin . (1+vv ) = ab sin
. (1+ vv ) .
2
bx a cos .
a sin .
Ab + Ba cos .
b
Ab + Ba cos .
bx a cos .
Arc.tang. a sin .
abb sin .
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
is equal to
B l aa 2abxcos.
2bb (
Ab + Ba cos .
bx a cos .
Arc.tang. a sin .
COROLLARY 1
cos .
agreeable to be the constant to be added, there is produced Arc.tang. a bx cos . and thus
we have
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 34
Ab + Ba cos .
bx sin .
= 2Bbb l ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) + abb sin . Arc.tang. a bx cos .
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
a
Ab + Ba cos .
+ abb sin .
bx sin .
Arc.tang. a bx cos .
Hence this integral depends on logarithms in part, and in part on the arc of circles or
angles.
COROLLARY 3
65. If the letter B vanishes, the part depending on logarithms vanishes and there is
produced
bx sin .
= A Arc.tang. a bx cos . + C
aa2abxAdx
cos . + bbxx ab sin .
and thus is defined by an angle alone.
COROLLARY 4
66. If the angle is right and thus cos . = 0 and sin . = 1 , there is obtained
( A+ Bx )dx
aa +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa +bbxx )
a
A Arc.tang. bx + C ;
+ ab
a
if the angle is 60 and thus cos. = 12 and sin . = 23 , then there arises
( A+ Bx )dx
aaabx+bbxx = bbB l
( aa abx +bbxx )
a
3
+ 2 Ab + Ba Arc.tang. 2bx
a bx
abb 3
3
, then there arises
2
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
( A+ Bx )dx
= Bl
aa + abx +bbxx bb
( aa + abx +bbxx )
a
page 35
3
+ 2 Ab Ba Arc.tang. 2bx
a + bx
abb 3
SCHOLIUM 1
67. Here it comes about entirely worthy to be noted, that in the case = 0 , in which the
denominator aa 2abx + bbxx becomes a square, the account of the angle disappears
from the integral. Indeed on putting the angle to be infinitely small then there becomes
B l a bx and the other part
cos. = 1 and sin . = , from which the logarithmic becomes bb
a
Ab + Ba Arc.tang. bx = ( Ab + Ba ) x
abb
a bx
ab( a bx )
bx
equal to a bx , and thus this part becomes algebraic. On account of which there becomes
( A+ Bx )dx B a bx ( Ab + Ba ) x
( abx )2 = bb l a + ab( a bx ) + Const.,
the truth of which is obvious from the preceding; for there is
( A+ Bx )
B + Ab + Ba
2 =
2
( a bx ) b( a bx ) b( a bx )
Now there becomes
B la = B l a bx ,
= B l ( a bx ) bb
b(aBdx
bb
a
bx ) bb
( Ab + Ba )dx Ab + Ba Ab + Ba ( Ab + Ba ) x
=
abb =
,
2
bb( a bx )
ab( a bx )
b( a bx )
if indeed each integration is thus determined, as in the case x = 0 the integrals vanish.
SCHOLION 2
68. In a similar manner, which we have used here, if in the formula with the differential
the sum of the powers of x in the numerator M shall be one degree less than
fraction Mdx
N
in the denominator N, also that boundary can be lifted. For let the equations be
M = Ax n 1 + Bx n 2 + Cx n 3 + etc.
and
N = x n + x n 1 + x n 2 + etc.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
AdN
n N
N
n
n
page 36
( n 1) A
( n 2 ) A
= dx
dy nAdN
B n x n 2 + C n x n 3 + etc.
N
N
( n 1) A
there is obtained
= B, C
( n 2 ) A
= C, D
( n 3) A
n
= D, etc.,
x + x
+ x
+ x
etc.
Therefore in this manner all the differential formulas of the fractions can be reduced by
that, so that the sum of the powers of x in the numerator shall be less by two or more
degrees than in the denominator.
PROBLEM 5
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
n +1
is to be reduced to another like formula, where the power of the denominator is less by
one degree.
SOLUTION
For the sake of brevity let the formula be aa 2abxcos. + bbxx = X and there is put
Since on account of
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
= y.
dX = 2abdxcos. + 2bbdxx
let
d . C + Dx
=
n
X
n( C + Dx ) dX
X
n +1
1
+ Ddx
n
X
2nb( C + Dx )( a cos . bx ) dx
+
X n +1
,
Ddx
X
n
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 37
we have
y + C + Dx
=
n
X
+ Ddx
n .
Now in the first formula the letters C and D thus are to be defined, in order that the
numerator becomes divisible by X ; hence [see * below] it is necessary for the numerator
to be equal to 2nDXdx ,
[i.e. the numerator becomes 2nDdx ( aa 2abx cos . + bbxx ) = 2nDXdx ]
from which we arrive at
A + 2nCab cos . = 2nDaa
and
2nDa =
A 2nCab cos .
a
or
C=
Ba + Abcos .
2 nabbsin 2 .
from which
B 2nCbb =
Ba sin .2 Ba Ab cos .
a sin .2
Ab Ba cos .
.
2naab sin .2
Ba + Ab cos .
2nabb sin 2 .
Ab cos . Ba cos .2
a sin .2
and D =
Ab Ba cos .
2 naab sin 2 .
and thus
or
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
= C nDx ( 2n 1) D dxn ,
X
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 38
( 2n 1)( Ab + Ba cos . )
2 naab sin .2
Xdx .
n
Whereby, if the formula dxn should be agreed upon, then it is also possible to assign the
integral
( A+ Bx )dx
X n+1
COROLLARY 1
70. Therefore since on keeping X = aa 2abx cos . + bbxx there shall be
dxX
bx sin .
1
= absin
Arc.tang . a bx cos . + Const .,
.
( A+ Bx )dx
X
bx sin .
bx sin .
( A+ Bx )dx
X2
COROLLARY 2
71. Hence therefore since there becomes
a cos . +bx
3
4 aa sin .2
Xdx + Const .,
2
dx
X3
a cos . +bx
4 aab sin .2 X 2
3( a cos . +bx )
24 a 4b sin .4 X
13
24 a 5b sin .5
bx sin .
Arc.tang . a bx cos .
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Xdx =
4
135
246 a 7b sin .7
page 39
bx sin .
Arc.tang. a bx cos .
COROLLARIUM 3
72. Thus by progressing further the integrals of all the formulas of this kind are obtained :
etc.,
the first of which is expressed by the arc of a circle only, while the remaining contain
algebraic parts as well.
SCHOLIUM
73. Moreover it is sufficient to know the integral dxn+1 , because the formula
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
+ 21b
BdX
X
( Ab + Ba )cos. dx
n +1
X n +1
But
XdX
n +1
= 1n ,
nX
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
B + Ab + Bacos .
b
2nbbX n
Xdx
n +1
XdX
n +1
And these are all the aids we require by which all the fractional formulas M
dx are to be
N
integrated. Provided M and N are integral [i. e. polynomial] functions of x. On account of
which in general the integration of all the formulas of this kind Vdx , where V is some
rational function of x, is in the rule; from which it is to be noted, unless the integration
should be algebraic, it can always be shown in terms of either logarithms or angles.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 40
Therefore nothing different remains, unless that we should illustrate the method with a
few examples.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
EXAMPLE 1
(A+ Bx )dx
74. With the proposed differential formula + x + xx , to define the integral of this.
Since in the numerator of the variable x there is fewer dimensions than in the
denominator, this fraction includes no integral parts. Hence the nature of the denominator
must be assessed carefully, whether it should have two real simple factors or not, and in
the first case, if the factors are equal ; from which we have three cases to be explained.
1. The denominator has both factors equal and let it be equal to (a + bx)2 and the
fraction
(A+ Bx )dx
(a +bx ) 2
+ b(aB+bx ) ,
(A+ Bx )dx
= bbBa(a+Ab
+ B l (a + bx) + Const. ;
bx ) bb
(a +bx )2
(A+ Bx )dx
(a + bx ) 2
( Ab Ba ) x
B l a + bx .
= ab(a +bx ) + bb
a
II. If the denominator has two unequal factors and let this be the proposed formula :
A+ Bx
dx ; and this fraction is resolved into these partial fractions :
(a + bx )(f + gx )
Ab Ba dx
bf -ag a +bx
Ag Bf
+ ag-bf f dx
,
+ gx
( A+ Bx )dx
Ag Bf
f + gx
f
Ag Bf
g (ag-bf )
= m n,
Ba l a + bx +
l
(a +bx)(f + gx) = bAb
(bf -ag )
a
g (ag-bf )
+ Const .
Putting
Ab Ba
b (bf -ag )
= m + n and
there becomes :
( a +bx )( f + gx )
af
+ nl
f ( a + bx )
;
a ( f + gx )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
B ( bf ag )
2 Abg Bag Bbf
2m =
= B and 2n =
bg ( bf ag ) bg
bg ( bf ag )
( A+ Bx )dx
( a +bx )( f + gx )
af
page 41
;
2 Abg B ( ag +bf ) f ( a + bx )
l
.
2bg (bf -ag )
a ( f + gx )
III. Let the simple factors of the denominator both be imaginary, in which case there is
had aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ; now as we have treated this case above [ 64], it becomes
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
a
Ab + Ba cos .
+ abb sin .
bx sin .
Arc.tang. a bx cos .
COROLLARIUM 1
75. In the second case, in which f = a and g = b , there will be
( A+ Bx )dx
aa bbxx
B l aa bbxx + A l a +bx
= 2bb
aa
2 ab a bx
= A l a +bx + C ,
aaAdx
bbxx 2 ab a bx
and
bbxx = B l
= B l aa aa
aaBxdx
bbxx 2bb
bb
( aa bbxx )
+ C.
COROLLARY 2
76. In the third case, if we put cos. = 0 , then we have
( A+ Bx )dx
Bl
= bb
aa +bbxx
( aa +bbxx )
a
A Arc.tang. bx + c
+ ab
a
= A Arc.tang. bx
+c,
aaAdx
a
+ bbxx ab
and
Bxdx
aa +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa +bbxx )
a
+c
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 42
EXAMPLE 2
m 1
77. With the proposed differential formula x dx
n , if indeed the exponent m 1 is less
1+ x
In the final chapter of the Institutionum Calculi Differentialis we have found the
m 1
is to be resolved, on taking for the
simple fractions, into which this fraction x dx
n
1+ x
2 k 1)
n
sin .(
2 k 1)
n
2 cos .
n 1 2 x cos .
( x cos .(
)
+ xx )
m( 2 k 1)
n
2 k 1)
n
( 2 k 1
n
),
where for k it is agreed to substitute all the numbers 1, 2, 3 etc., until 2k - 1 begins to
surpass the number n . [See the notes at the end of this translation.]
Hence this form is multiplied by dx and since it is to be compared with our general form
( A+ Bx )dx
aa 2 abxcos. +bbxx
then
a = 1, b = 1, =
and
( 2k 1)
n
or
( m 1)( 2k 1)
A = n2 cos .
n
B = n2 cos .
and
m ( 2k 1)
,
n
( 2k 1) sin . m ( 2k 1)
n
m ( 2k 1)
( 2k 1) + xx
l 1 2 x cos .
n
n
( 2k 1)
x sin .
m ( 2k 1)
n
+ n2 sin .
Arc.tang.
.
( 2k 1)
n
1 x cos .
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 43
n(1+ x )
, the integral of
which is 1n l (1 + x) , where the upper sign prevails, if m is odd, now the lower, if m is
1+ x
m 1
even. On account of which the integral sought x dx
can be expressed in the following
n
manner
n2 cos . m l
n
x sin .
n
1 2 x cos . + xx + n2 sin . m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .
x sin .3
n2 cos . 3m l
n
n2 cos . 5m l
n
n2 cos . 7 m l
n
n
1 2 x cos . 3 + xx + n2 sin . 3m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .3
n
x sin .5
n
1 2 x cos . 5 + xx + n2 sin . 5m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .5
n
x sin .7
n
1 2 x cos . 7 + xx + n2 sin . 7 m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .7
n
etc.
according to the odd numbers being less than to n itself ; and thus the whole integral is
obtained, if n should be an even number, but if n should be an odd number, the part
1n l (1 + x) is agreed upon above according to whether m should be either an odd or even
number; from which if m = 1, + 1n l (1 + x) is agreed above.
COROLLARY 1
78. We take m = 1, in order that the form dx n is obtained, and for the various cases of n
1+ x
we arrive at :
I. 1dx
= l (1 + x )
+x
II. dx = Arc.tang.x
1+ x
III. dx = 23 cos . 3 l (1 2 x cos . 3 + xx )
1+ x
2
+ 23 sin . 3 Arc.tang.
x sin . 3
1 x cos . 3
+ 13 l (1 + x )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 44
1+dxx
IV.
= 24 cos . 4 l
3
4
3
4
V.
dx
1+ x5
= 52 cos . 5 l
1 2 x cos . 5 + xx
(1 2 x cos . 35 + xx )
52 cos . 35 l
VI.
+ 52 sin . 5 Arc.tang .
x sin . 5
1 x cos . 5
+ 52 sin . 35 Arc.tang.
x sin . 35
1 x cos . 35
+ 15 l (1 + x )
dx = 2 cos . l
6
6
1+ x 6
3
6
3
6
5
6
5
6
COROLLARY 2
79. In place of the sines and cosines the values are to be substituted, where this can be
conveniently done, and we obtain :
1+dxx
= 13 l
(1 x + xx ) +
1 Arc.tang . x 3 + 1 l 1 + x
)
2 x 3 (
3
or
1+dxx
= 13 l
1+ x
(1 x + xx )
+ 1 Arc.tang . x2 3x
3
dx
1+ x 4
=+ 1 l
(1+ x
(1 x
)
2 + xx )
+ 1 Arc.tang.1x xx2 ,
2 2
dx
1+ x 6
=+ 1 l
(1+ x
(1 x
)
3 + xx )
+ 16 Arc.tang.
2 2
then
2 3
2 + xx
3 + xx
3 x (1 xx )
1 4 xx + x 4
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 45
EXAMPLE 3
m 1
80. With the proposed differential formula x dx
n , if indeed the exponent m 1 is less
1+ x
1+ x
( A+ Bx )dx
x sin . 2 k
n ,
1 2 x cos . 2k + xx + n2 sin . 2mk Arc.tang.
2
n
n
1 x cos . k
n
where all the successive values for k ,1, 2, 3 etc. must be substituted, as long as 2k
is less than n. These parts of the integral arising, 1n l (1 x ) and 1n l (1 + x ) , are to be
added above from the fraction n(11 x) and, if n is an even number, from the fraction
1
, where the upper sign prevails if m is even, and truly the lower, if m is odd. [A
n (1+ x )
correction to the first edition has been added here, by the editor of the O. O. edition]
On account of which the integral
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 46
1n l (1 x )
x sin . 2
n2 cos . 2m l
n
n2 cos . 4m l
n
(1 2x cos . 4n + xx ) +
2 sin . 4m
n
n
n2 cos . 6m l
n
(1 2x cos . 6n + xx ) +
2 sin . 6m
n
n
n
1 2 x cos . + xx + n2 sin . 2m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos . 2
n
x sin . 4
n
Arc.tang.
1 x cos . 4
n
x sin .6
n
Arc.tang.
1 x cos .6
n
etc.
COROLLARY
81. If m = 1 and for n successively the numbers 1, 2, 3 etc. are substituted, in order that
we arrive at the following integrations :
I. 1dx
= l (1 x )
x
(1+ x )
II. 1dxxx = 12 l (1 x ) + 12 l (1 + x ) = 12 l
(1 x )
III.
1dxx
= 13 l (1 x ) 23 cos . 23 l
(1 2 x cos . 23 + xx )
+ 23 sin . 23 Arc.tang.
IV.
dx
1 x 4
= 14 l (1 x ) 24 cos . 24 l
x sin . 23
1 x cos . 23
(1 2 x cos . 24 + xx )
+ 42 sin . 24 Arc.tang.
x sin . 24
1 x cos . 24
+ 24 l (1 + x )
V.
dx
1 x5
52 cos . 45 l
VI.
dx
1 x 6
2
5
2
5
= 15 l (1 x ) 52 cos . 25 l
4
5
4
5
= 16 l (1 x ) 62 cos . 26 l
62 cos . 46 l
+ 16 l (1 + x )
1 2 x cos . 26 + xx
(1 2 x cos . 45 + xx )
+ 62 sin . 26 Arc.tang.
+ 62 sin . 46 Arc.tang .
x sin . 46
1 x cos . 46
x sin . 26
1 x cos . 26
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 47
EXAMPLE 4
(x
m 1
+ x n m1 dx
1+ x
n2 cos . im l
n
x sin .i
n ,
1 2 x cos . i + xx + n2 sin . im Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .i
n
i ( n m )
n2 cos .
l
n
x sin .i
i ( n m )
n .
1 2 x cos . i + xx + n2 sin .
Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .i
Now there is
cos .
i ( n m )
= cos . i imn = cos . imn
n
and
i ( n m )
= sin . i imn = + sin . imn ,
n
from which the logarithmic parts cancel each other, and the part of the integral in general
is equal to :
sin .
x sin .i
n .
4 sin . im Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .i
n
Hence there is put in place the angle of convenience n = and there becomes :
(x
m 1
+ x n m1 dx
1+ x
.
= + n4 sin .m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos
.3
+ n4 sin .3m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 3
.5
+ n4 sin .5m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 5
.i
+ n4 sin .im Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos i
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 48
on taking for i the greatest odd number not greater than n. If the number n is itself odd,
the part arising from the position i = n vanishes on account of sin. mn = 0. Hence it is to
be noted here that the whole integral is to expressed by pure angles.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
COROLLARY
83. In a like manner the following integral can be elicited, where only in this manner the
following integral is elicited, where logarithms alone are left, on retaining n = :
(x
m 1
x n m1 dx
1+ x n
(1 2 x cos . + xx )
= n4 cos .m l
n4 cos .3m l
(1 2 x cos .3 + xx )
n4 cos .5m l
(1 2 x cos .5 + xx )
n4 cos .im l
(1 2 x cos .i + xx ) ,
clearly as long as the odd number i does not exceed the exponent n.
EXAMPLE 5
(x
m 1
x n m1 dx
1+ x n
.2 mk
(1 2 x cos .2k + xx ) + n2 sin .2mk Arc.tang. 1xxsin
cos .2 mk
+ n2 cos .2k ( n m ) l
But there is
and
.2mk
(1 2 x cos .2k + xx ) + n2 sin .2k ( n m ) Arc.tang. 1xxsin
cos .2mk
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 49
(x
m 1
x n m1 dx
1+ x
.2
= + n4 sin .2m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 2
.4
+ n4 sin .4m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 4
.6 ,
+ n4 sin .6m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 6
with the even numbers increasing all the while, as long as they do not exceed the
exponent n.
COROLLARY
85. Also from the same place this integral is completed with n = in place :
(x
m 1
+ x n m1 dx
1 x n
= n2 l (1 x )
n4 cos .2m l
(1 2 x cos .2 + xx )
n4 cos .4m l
(1 2 x cos .4 + xx )
n4 cos .6m l
(1 2 x cos .6 + xx ) ,
where also the even numbers are not to be continued beyond the term n.
EXAMPLE 6
86. With the proposed differential dy = 3 dx 4 , to find the integral of this.
x (1+ x ) 1 x
xx + 1 Arc.tang .x,
y = C + 2+ 2 x +5 xx l 1+xx + 18 l 11+ xx
4
4 xx(1+ x )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 50
SCHOLIUM
87. Therefore by this the chapter has been made clear, so that nothing further from this
dy
kind can be desired. Hence as often as a function y of x of this kind is sought, so that dx
is equal to some rational function of x, so the integration presents no difficulty, except
perhaps in the elucidation of the particular factor of the denominator where the teaching
of algebra has not been sufficient; then indeed the difficulty must be attributed to the
defects of the algebra, not the method of integration which we have treated here. Then
dy
also chiefly it is agreed to be noted always, since dx is put equal to a rational function of
x, the function of y, unless it is algebraic, does not involve other transcending functions
in addition to logarithms and angles ; where indeed here it is to be observed always that
hyperbolic logarithms are to be understood, since the differential of lx in not equal to 1x ,
unless the hyperbolic logarithm is taken ; but the reduction of these to common
logarithms is very simple, thus so that hence the application of the calculus to the practice
is not bothered by any impediment. Whereby we may progress to these other cases, in
dy
which the formula dx is equal to an irrational function of x, where indeed at first it must
be noted, whenever this function by a suitable substitution can be reduced to rationals, the
case to be returned to this chapter. Just as if there should be
3
dy = 1+ x 3 xx dx,
1+ x
(1+ z z ) 6 z 5dz
3
dy =
1+ zz
and thus
dy
= 6 z 7 + 6z 6 + 6 z 5 6 z 4 + 6zz 6 + 1+6zz ,
dz
y = 34 x 3 x + 76 x 6 x + x 65 x5 + 2 x 6 6 x + 6Arc.tang .6 x + C.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 51
APPENDICES FROM
INTRODUCTIO IN ANALYSIN INFINITORUM CH.2 &
INSTITUTIONES CALCULI DIFFERENTIALIS CH.18,Part 2.
In Ch. 9 145 of the Introductio..., Euler proceeds as follows : The
quadratic p qz + rzz in the variable z has imaginary roots if 4 pr > qq or
q
2 pr
< 1. Since
the sines and cosines of angles are less than 1, then the formula p qz + rzz has simple
imaginary factors, if
q
should be the sine or cosine of some angle. Hence, let
2 pr
q
2 pr
= cos . , or q = 2 pr cos .
and the trinomial p qz + zz contains the imaginary simple factors. But lest the
irrationality should produce any trouble, I assume this form pp 2 pqz cos . + qqzz , and
the simple imaginary factors of this are these :
qz p cos . + 1 sin . and qz p cos . 1 sin . .
Where indeed it is apparent, if cos . = 1 , then both the factors are equal and real since
sin . = 0 . [In modern terms, we would say that qz pei
n
factors, and powers of z can be expressed in the form z n = r n cos . 1 sin . ]. In
( cos .
and hence
1 sin .
= cos .n 1 sin .n ,
In 150 Euler examines the function a n + z n , and the form of the trinomial factors of
p
this factor pp 2 pqz cos . + qqzz is to be determined. On putting r = q into the equation,
there are produced these two equations : a n = r n cos .n , and 0 = r n sin .n . From the
latter equation we must have, for some integer k, n = 2k , or n = ( 2k + 1) ; but in
the former equation, we must choose n = ( 2k + 1) , in order that we have a n r n = 0 ,
and hence r = a = q . Hence in the above equation, p = a, q = 1, and = ( 2k + 1) n .
p
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 52
Hence the quadratic factor with conjugate roots of the function a n + z n can be shown to
be aa 2az cos . 2kn+1 + zz , where k is less than n. Euler goes on to look at numerous
cases involving this factorization.
The partial fraction reduction quoted above in Examples 2 and 3 comes from the
Institutionum...., Part 2, Ch.18, which we now address at length, we take up the story at
the end of 406 to Example 1 of 417 in translation :
P , then the values of the factors of the
If the rational fraction is expressed by Q
denominator can be found from the resolution of the equation Q = 0 , and here we make
use of a method involving the differential calculus in order that any simple factors of the
denominator can thus be defined.
P to have a factor f + gx ,
407. Therefore we arrange the denominator Q of the fraction Q
thus so that Q = ( f + gx ) S , and indeed here, neither does S contain in addition the same
factor f + gx . Let the simple fraction arising from this factor be equal to f +Agx and the
P.
complement has a form of this kind VS , thus so that f +Agx + VS = Q
P A =
P
f +Agx = P AS , and thus V = P AS .
Hence there arises : VS = Q
f + gx ( f + gx ) S
( f + gx ) S
( f + gx )
Therefore, as V is an integral function of x, it is necessary that P AS should be divisible
f
g
f
Hence on making x = g , since P AS = 0 , then A = PS , [for this value of x] as now we
( f + gx ) P , if there is
Q
have found above. But since S = f + gx , then there arises A =
Q
f
x= g ,
A=
( f + gx ) dP + Pgdx .
dQ
Pgdx
.
dQ
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 53
[One can see that Euler is thinking of the ratio becoming zero on zero when x = g , and
so the ratio is to the differential of the numerator to the differential of the denominator.
One can see also that the problem is essentially an application of L'Hpital's Rule : as is
well known, in the neighbourhood of a common simple zero x = a of well-behaved
functions r and s of x, or a common root of polynomials, the values of the functions at a
are represented by their differentials, and it is an easy matter to show that
r ( a ) r' ( a )
=
x a s ( a ) s' ( a )
lim
after everywhere here the value g is put in place of x arising from the equation
f + gx = 0 must be substituted. Hence, if Q is not expressed in factors, this division can
often be omitted without any bother, particularly if the denominator Q has indefinite
exponents, since the value of A can be obtained from the formula
Pgdx
dQ
. But if the
denominator now was expressed in factors, thus in order that hence the value of S should
be at once apparent, then the other expression is to be preferred, in which we found
f
A = PS on putting everywhere equally x = g . And thus for finding the value of A itself
in whatever case that formula can be used, which is seen to be the more convenient and
expedient. But we illustrate the use of the new formula with some examples.
EXAMPLE 1
x9
1+ x17
Since here Q = 1 + x17 , even if 1 + x is agreed to be a factor of this, yet, if as the first
method demands, we wish to divide by that, there is produced
S = 1 x + xx x3 + ... + x16
Pgdx
dQ
1 .
17(1+ x )
1
17
and on
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 54
EXAMPLE 2
x
1 x 2 n
of the denominator.
On account of the proposed factor 1 x there is f = 1 and g = 1 . Then the
obtained A =
Pgdx
xm
=
2nx 2 n1
dQ
becomes A =
1
1
, thus so that the simple fraction is
2n
2 n(1 x )
EXAMPLE 3
x
1 4 x k +3 x n
4
kx
+
3
nx
;
from
which
there
arises
A
=
and on putting
dx
4 kx k 1 + 3nx n1
1
x = 1 then A =
. The simple fraction arising from this simple factor of the
4 k 3n
1
.
denominator 1 x is now
( 4k 3n )(1 x )
A
2
( f + gx )
+ fB
.
+ gx
V
S
P
=Q
A
2
( f + gx )
P AS B( f + gx ) S
fB
and V =
2
+ gx
( f + gx )
2
A B ( f + gx ) is divisible by ( f + gx ) , and thus with the
also this expression P
S
f
factor f + gx = 0 or x = g not only this expression, but also the differential of this
f
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 55
1 = d . P ; from
equation A = PS , and from the second equation there now arises B gdx
S
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
A
2
+
f
( gx )
+ fB
can be found .
+ gx
EXAMPLE
x
1 4 x 3 + 3 x 4
= 1+ 2 xx +3 xx and d . PS =
(1+ 2 x +3 xx )
6(1 x )
Q = ( f + gx ) S and let the simple fractions arising from the cube of the factor ( f + gx )
3
be these
A
3
+
f
( gx )
B
2
+
f
( gx )
( f + gx )
P is
now the complement of these fractions to be established for the proposed fraction Q
V=
P AS BS ( f + gx ) CS ( f + gx )
( f + gx )
2
Whereby this expression PS A B ( f + gx ) C ( f + gx ) = 0 is divisible by ( f + gx )3 ;
f
from which on putting f + gx = 0 or x = g not only this expression, but also the first
f
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 56
2
A B ( f + gx ) C ( f + gx ) = 0
d . PS Bgdx 2Cgdx ( f + gx ) = 0
dd . PS 2Cg 2dx 2 = 0.
Hence from the first equation there becomes
A = PS .
Now from the second
1 d.P .
B = gdx
S
1 dd . P .
S
2 g 2 dx 2
thus in order that Q = ( f + gx ) S ,with these simple fractions arising from the factor
n
( f + gx )n
:
A
( f + gx )
( f + gx )
n 1
( f + gx )
n2
( f + gx )
n 3
( f + gx )
n4
+ etc.,
until finally the fraction is arrived at, of which the denominator is f + gx, if the method is
put in place as before, then this expression is found:
P A - B f + gx C f + gx 2 D f + gx 3 E f + gx 4 etc.
(
) (
)
(
)
(
)
S
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
A = PS
1 d. P
B = 1gdx
S
C=
1
12 g 2 dx 2
D=
1
123 g 3 dx3
E=
1
1234 g 4 dx 4
page 57
dd . PS
d 3 . PS
d 4 . PS
etc.
Where indeed it is to be observed it is required to take the differentials themselves of
P
S
412. Hence in this way these numbers A ,B,C ,D etc can be expressed more easily than
in the manner treated in the Introductio, and the values of these can be found more
readily on many occasions too by this new method. Which comparison by which, in the
previous manner, we can define the values of the letters A ,B,C ,D etc , can be put in
f
P BS
f + gx
= Q,
C=Q
S
QCS
f + gx
= R,
D= R
S
R DS
f + gx
= S,
E=S
S
then two of the imaginary factors are to be taken together, the product of which is real.
Hence let a factor of the denominator Q be ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx , which on being put
equal to zero gives this two-fold imaginary value :
f
x = g cos
sin ;
g 1
from which there arises
xn =
fn
gn
cos n
fn
sin n .
g n 1
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 58
We put the denominator Q = ( ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx ) S and in addition S is not to be
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
divisible by ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx . Let the fraction originating from this denominator be
A +ax
ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx
P is equal to V ; then
and the complement for the proposed fraction Q
S
P ( A + ax ) S
x = g cos +
sin
g 1
or
x = g cos
sin
g 1
414. Because P and S are integral [i. e. polynomial] functions of x, the substitution can
be made separately into each in turn ; and because for any power of x, for example x n ,
this binomial must be substituted
xn =
in the first place we can put
fn
gn
fn
gn
cos n
fn
sin n ,
g n 1
fn
changed into P and S into S . Then in place of x n everywhere there is put n sin n and
g
with this done P becomes p and S becomes s ; where it is to be noted that before these
substitutions each function P and S must be expanded out completely, thus in order that,
if perhaps factors are to be involved, then these are to be removed. From these values
f
p
1
P A ax or P A + ax S
(
)
S
p
1
af
af
sin S s
= A + g cos
g 1
1
from which on account of the sign condition these two equations arise :
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 59
af S
p = As + g cos + g sin ,
from which on eliminating A there arises
Sp- sP =
and thus there becomes
a=
af S2 + s2
) sin
g ( Sp-sP )
f S2 + s2 sin
)(
af
SP + sp = S2 + s2 A + g cos .
Hence
A=
S2 + s2
S2 + s2 sin
S = 2 ggx 2 fgcos
Now we may put, if
fn
gn
dQ
fn
gn
dQ
Therefore since S = S s with the same value for x put in place, there is obtained :
1
q
2 fgS
=
sin 2 fg s sin .
1
1
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 60
a=
and
A=
2 gg ( pq+PQ )
Q2 +q2
Q2 +q2
Q2 +q2
416. Hence therefore a suitable ratio is obtained and here a simple fraction can be formed
from whatever the factor of the second power, since the denominator of the proposed
denominator is retained in the computation, since we avoid a division, in which the value
of the letter S must be defined and which often is more than a little troublesome.
P has such a factor
Therefore if the denominator Q of the fraction Q
ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx = 0 , a simple fraction arising from this factor can be defined in
the following manner, so that we may produce :
+ax
= ff 2 fgxAcos
.
+ ggxx
fn
There is put x = g cos and for whatever the power of x n there is written n cos n ;
g
dQ
with which done P is changed into P and the function dx into Q . Then likewise there
fn
dQ
is put x = g sin and any power of this x n = n sin n and P is changed into p and dx
g
into q . And in this manner with the values of the letters P , Q, p and q found, A and a
can thus be found, in order that there becomes
A=
2 fg ( Pq-pQ ) sin
Q2 +q2
a=
2 fg ( pq+PQ ) cos
Q2 +q2
2 gg ( pq+PQ )
.
Q2 +q2
Hence the fraction arising from the factor ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx of the denominator Q is
given by
2 fg ( Pq-pQ ) sin + 2 g ( PQ+pq)( gx f cos )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 61
EXAMPLE 1
xm
a +bx n
ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx , to find the simple fraction agreeing with this factor.
dQ
P=
fm
gm
Q=
nbf n1
cos ( n 1) ,
g n1
cos m ,
p=
fn
gn
q=
nbf n1
g n1
sin m ,
sin ( n 1) .
Q2 + q2 =
n 2b 2 f (
2 n 1
g( )
2 n 1)
PQ - pq =
nbf m+ n1
sin ( n m 1) ,
g m+ n1
PQ + pq =
nbf m+ n1
cos ( n m 1) .
g m+ n1
and
or
2 g nm ( gx cos ( n m 1) f cos ( n m ) )
nbf n m1 ( ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx )
EXAMPLE 2
If this fraction should be proposed, m 1 n , the denominator of which has the factor
x
( a +bx )
ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx ; to find the simple fraction arising from this.
dQ
As there is p= 1 and Q = ax m + bx m + n , then dx = max m 1 + (m + n)bx m + n 1
fn
cos n , on account of P = x 0 , P = 1 ,and
gn
( m + n )bf
maf m1
m 1 cos ( m 1) +
g
g m+ n1
m + n 1
Q=
fn
and [on putting x n = n sin n ] p = 0 and
g
cos ( m + n 1)
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
m 1
q=
maf
g m1
page 62
Hence
A 2 + q2 =
m2 a 2 f (
g m1
2 m 1)
2 m( m + n ) abf 2 m+ n2
( m + n ) b2 f (
cos
n
+
2 m + n 1)
g 2 m+ n 2
g(
2 m + n 1)
bf n
bf n
bbf 2 n
.
n cos n = 0 and
n sin n = 0 , on account of which aa =
g
g
g 2n
A 2 + q2 =
( m+ n )
g
bbf
2( m + n 1)
2( m + n 1)
m( 2n + m )aaf
g
2( m 1)
2( m 1)
nnaaf (
2 m 1
g( )
2 m 1)
nnbbf (
2 m + n 1)
g(
2 m + n 1)
( m + n )bf
maf m1
sin ( m 1) +
g m1
g m+ n1
m + n 1
Pq - pQ =
sin ( m + n 1)
bf m+ n1
g m+ n1
bf m+ n1
n cos n sin ( m 1) + ( m + n ) sin n cos ( m 1)
g m+ n1
and
Pq + pQ =
bf m+ n1
g m+ n1
and
af m1
bf m+ n1
sin ( m + n 1) = 0 ,
m 1 sin ( m 1) +
g
g m+ n1
Q=
nbf m+ n1
cos ( m + n 1) and
g m+n1
q=
nbf m+ n1
sin ( m + n 1)
g m+ n1
or
Q=
naf m1
cos ( m 1)
g m1
and q =
naf m1
g m1
sin ( m 1)
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
2 g m ( f cos m gx cos ( m 1) )
naf m1 ( ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx )
page 63
Which formula follows from the first example, if m is put negative, from which there was
no need to have put in place this particular example.
EXAMPLE 3
xm
should have a factor of the form
a + bx n + cx 2 n
ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx , to find the simple fraction arising from this factor.
bf n
cf 2 n
bf n
cf 2 n
cos
n
+
cos
2
n
=
0
and
sin
n
+
sin 2n = 0
gn
g 2n
gn
g 2n
P=
Q=
q=
fm
cos m and
gm
p=
fm
sin m ,
gm
nbf n1
2ncf 2 n1
cos ( 2n 1) ,
n 1 cos ( n 1) +
g
g 2 n1
2 ncf 2 n1
nbf n1
sin ( 2n 1) .
n 1 sin ( n 1) +
g
g 2 n1
n2 f ( )
2 n 1
g( )
2 n 1
gn
g 2n
and thus
4bcf n
2 g 2 n aa
2ccf 2 n
cos
n
2
bb
;
gn
f 2n
g 2n
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 64
or
2
A +q =
4 n2
).
Pq - pQ =
nbf m+ n1
2 ncf m+ 2 n1
sin
n
+
sin ( 2n m 1) ,
(
)
g m+ n1
g m+ 2 n1
PQ + pq =
2 ncf m+ 2 n1
nbf m+ n1
cos
n
1
+
cos ( 2n m 1) .
(
)
g m+ n1
g m+2 n1
417. But these values are more easily expressed if we determine these factors themselves
from the denominator. Therefore let the denominator of the proposed fraction be
a + bx n ;
of which if the trinomial factor is put in place ff 2 fgx cos + ggxx ,
there will be, as we have shown in the Introductio,
a+
bf n
bf n
sin n = 0
n cosn = 0 and
g
gn
bf n
and hence
gn
f = a n and g = b n .
But we may retain in place of these irrational quantities the letters f and g or we may put
rather a = f n and b = g n , thus in order that the factors of this function are to be found :
f n + g n xn .
(2 k -1)
, where k can be designated to some positive number, but
n
indeed numbers for k greater than 2kn-1 are not to be taken, than which return 2kn-1 less
n
n n
Therefore since =
than unity ; hence the factors of the proposed fraction f + g x are the following :
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 65
ff 2 fgxcos n + ggxx
ff 2 fgxcos 3n + ggxx
ff 2 fgxcos 5n + ggxx
etc,
where it is to be noted that if n is an odd number, then this one binomial factor is present,
f + gx
but if n is an even number then no binomial factor is present.
EXAMPLE 1
xm
into its simple fractions.
f + g n xn
n
( 2k 1)
n
+ ggxx ,
( 2k 1)
,
in example 1 in the preceding paragraph, a = f n , b = g n , and =
n
from which there shall be
sin ( n m 1) = sin (m + 1) = sin
( m+1)( 2k 1)
and
cos ( n m 1) = cos (m + 1) = cos
( m+1)( 2k 1)
n
2 k 1)
n
sin .(
nf
m +1)( 2 k 1)
n
n m 1
2 cos .(
( gx f cos .(
)
+ ggxx )
m +1)( 2 k 1)
n
( ff 2 fgx cos .
2 k 1)
n
( 2 k 1
n
On account of which the proposed fraction can be resolved into these simple parts :
( gx f cos .n )
nf
g ( ff 2 fgx cos .n + ggxx )
3 m +1
3 m +1
2 f sin .3n sin . ( n ) 2 cos . ( n ) ( gx f cos . 3n )
+
nf nm1 g m ( ff 2 fgx cos .3n + ggxx )
5 m +1
5 m +1
2 f sin .5n sin . ( n ) 2 cos . ( n ) ( gx f cos .5n )
+
nf nm1 g m ( ff 2 fgx cos .5n + ggxx )
2 f sin .n sin .(
m +1)
n
n m 1 m
2 cos .(
etc.
m +1)
n
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 66
Therefore if n were an even number, in this way all the simple fractions arise;
but if n should be an odd number, on account of the binomial factor f +gx this must be
added to the resulting fractions above
1
n
m
1
nf
g m ( f + gx )
where the sign + prevails, if m is an even number, and conversely for the sign. If m
should be a number greater than n, then to these fractions the above integral parts of this
kind must be added
Ax m n + Bx m 2n + Cx m 3n + Dx m 4n + etc.,
A = 1n
Af n + Bg n = 0
B=
fn
g 2n
Bf n + Cg n = 0
C=+
f 2n
g 3n
Cf n + Dg n = 0
D=
f 3n
g 4n
etc.
etc.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 67
LIBER PRIOR
PARS PRIMA
SEU
METHODUS INVESTIGANDI FUNCTIONES UNIUS
VARIABILIS
EX DATA RELATIONE QUACUNQUE DIFFERENTIALIUM
PRIMI GRADUS
SECTIO PRIMA
DE
INTEGRATIONE FORMULARUM
DIFFERENTIALIUM.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 68
CAPUT I
DE INTEGRATIONE FORMULARUM
DIFFERENTIALIUM RATIONALIUM
DEFINITIO
dy
dx
dy
dx
= X.
COROLLARIUM 2
42. Hinc quaeritur eiusmodi functio ipsius x, cuius differentiale sit = Xdx; huius ergo
integrale, quod ita indicari solet Xdx , praebebit functionem quaesitam.
COROLLARlUM 3
43. Quodsi P fuerit eiusmodi functio ipsius x, ut eius differentiale dPsit = Xdx, quoniam.
quantitatis P + C idem est differentiale, formulae propositae Xdx integrale completum est
P + C.
SCHOLION 1
44. Ad libri promi partem priorem huiusmodi referuntur quaestiones, quibus functiones
solius variabilis x ex data differentialium primi gradus relatione quaeruntur. Scilicet si
functio quaesita = y et
dy
dx
inter ternas quantitates x, y et p inde indoles functionis y seu aequatio inter x et y, elisa
littera p, inveniatur. Quaestio autem sic in genere proposita vires Analyseos adeo
superare videtur, ut eius solutio nunquam expectari queat. In casibus igitur
simplicioribus vires nostrae sunt exercendae, inter quos primum occurrit casus,
quo p functioni cuipiam ipsius x, puta X, aequatur, ut sit
dy
dx
= X seu dy = Xdx
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 69
atque adeo transcendentes progressuri. Hinc ista pars commode in duas sectiones
subdividitur, in quarum altera integratio formularum simplicium, quibus p =
dy
dx
functioni
tantum ipsius x aequatur, est tradenda, in altera autem rationem integrandi doceri
conveniet, cum proposita fuerit aequatio quaecunque ipsarum x, y et p. Et cum in his
duabus sectionibus ac potissimum priore a Geometris plurimum sit elaboratum, eae fere
maximam partem totius operis complebunt.
SCHOLION 2
45. Prima autem integrationis principia ex ipso calculo differentiali sunt petenda, perinde
ac principia divisionis ex multiplicatione et principia extractionis radicum ex ratione
evectionis ad potestates sumi solent. Cum igitur, si quantitas differentianda ex pluribus
partibus constet ut P + Q R, eius differentiale sit dP + dQ dR, ita vicissim, si formula
differentialis ex pluribus partibus constet ut Pdx +Qdx Rdx, integrale erit
ita ut integratio tantum in singulis formulis Pdx, Qdx et Rdx sit instituenda,
hocque facto insuper adiici debet constans arbitraria C, ut integrale completum
obtineatur.
PROBLEMA 1
46. Invenire functionem ipsius x, ut eius differentiale sit = ax n dx , seu
integrare formulam differentialem ax n dx .
SOLUTIO
m
mx
m 1
dx , erit vicissim
m 1
dx = m x m 1dx = x m
ideoque
x
fiat m 1 = n seu m = n +1; erit
m 1
dx = 1 x m ;
m
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 70
dx = 1 x n +1 et a x n dx = a x n +1 .
n +1
n +1
cuius ratio vel inde patet, quod eius differentiaIe revera fit = ax n dx . Atque
haec integratio semper locum habet, quicunque numerus exponenti n tribuatur,
sive positivus sive negativus, sive integer sive fractus, sive etiam irrationalis.
Unicus casus hinc excipitur, quo est exponens n = 1 seu haec formula integranda
adx proponitur. Verum in calculo differentiali iam ostendimus, si lx denotet logarithmum
x
x
adx
= lx et
x
adx
Quare adiecta constante arbitraria erit formulae
x
dx
x
= alx .
integrale completum
= alx + C= lxa+ C,
quod etiam pro C ponendo 1c ita exprimitur: lcxa.
COROLLARIUM 1
47. Formulae ergo differentialis ax n dx integrale semper est algebraicum solo excepto
casu, quo n = 1 et integrale per logarithmos exprimitur, qui ad functiones transcendentes
sunt referendi. Est scilicet
COROLLARIUM 2
48. Si exponens n numeros positivos denotet, sequentes integrationes
utpote maxime obviae probe sunt tenendae
adx = ax + C, axdx = a2 xx + C , ax dx = a3 x + C,
3
4
4
5
5
6
ax dx = a4 x + C, ax dx = a5 x + C, ax dx = a6 x + C.
2
COROLLARIUM 3
49. Si n sit numerus negativus, posito n = m fit
adx
x
m
= a x1 m + C =
1 m
( m l ) x m 1
+C ,
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
COROLLARIUM 4
50. Quin etiam si n denotet numeros fractos, integralia hinc obtinentur.
Sit primo n = m ; erit
3
adx
x m = 2a x x m + C,
m+2
COROLLARIUM 5
adxx = 2a
x + C,
COROLLARIUM 6
ax dx = a x
+
+C
adx
sin autem ponatur n =
habebitur
x = a x + + C ;
+
page 71
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
= a x
adx
page 72
+C
adxx = a
+C .
SCHOLION 1
53. Quanquam in hoc capite functiones tantum rationales tractare institueram, tamen istae
irrationalitates tam sponte se obtulerunt, ut perinde ac rationales tractari possint.
Caeterum hinc quoque formulae magis complicatae integrari possunt, si pro x functiones
alius cuiuspiam variabilis z statuantur. Veluti si ponamus x = f +gz, erit dx = gdz; quare si
pro a scribamus ag , habebitur
adz ( f + gz )
( n +1) g (
a
f + gz )
n +1
+C ,
( f adz
+ gz )
( m 1) g ( f + gz )
m 1
+C.
At posito n = prodit
adz ( f + gz ) =
a ( f + gz ) +1 + C ;
( + ) g
( f + gz )
adz
a( f + gz )
( ) g ( f + gz )
+C .
SCHOLION 2
54. Caeterum hic insignis proprietas annotari meretur. Cum hic quaeratur functio y, ut
dy
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 73
ob ax n = p erit quoque
px
y = n +1 + C
sicque casum habemus, ubi relatio differentialium per aequationem quandam inter x, y et
y = naD
x n +1 + C
+1
novam constantem D involvens; hinc fit
dy
= aDx n = p
dx
ideoque
px
y= n +1 + C.
PROBLEMA 2
55. Invenire functionem ipsius x, cuius differentiale sit = Xdx denotante X
functionem quamcunque rationalem integram ipsius x, seu definire integrale
Xdx .
SOLUTIO
Cum X sit functio rationalis integra ipsius x, in hac forma contineatur necesse est
X = + x + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + etc.,
unde per problema praecedens integrale quaesitum est
Xdx = C + x + 12 x
+ 13 x3 + 14 x 4 + 15 x5 + 15 x6 + etc.,
X = x + x + x + etc.,
erit
Xdx = C + +1 x
+1
+ +1 x +1 + +1 x +1 + etc.,
ubi exponentes , , etc. etiam numeros tam negativos quam fractos significare
possunt, dummodo notetur, si fuerit = 1 , fore
ordinem transcendentium referendus.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 74
PROBLEMA 3
56. Si X denotet functionem quamcunque rationalem fractam ipsius x, methodum
describere, cuius ope formulae Xdx integrale investigari conveniat.
SOLUTIO
Sit igitur X = M
, ita ut M et N futurae sint functiones integrae ipsius x, ac primo
N
dispiciatur, num summa potestas ipsius x in numeratore M tanta sit vel etiam maior quam
in denominatore N, quo casu ex fractione M
partes integrae per divisionem eliciantur;
N
quarum integratio cum nihil habeat difficultatis, totum negotium reducitur ad eiusmodi
fractionem M
, in cuius numeratore M summa potestas ipsius x minor sit quam in
N
denominatore N.
Tum quaerantur omnes factores ipsius denominatoris N, tam simplices, si fuerint
reales, quam duplices reales, vicem scilicet binorum simplicium imaginariorum gerentes;
simulque videndum est, utrum hi factores omnes sint inaequales necne; pro factorum
enim aequalitate alio modo resolutio fractionis M
in fractiones simplices est instituenda,
N
quandoquidem ex singulis factoribus fractiones partiales nascuntur, quarum aggregatum
fractioni propositae M
aequatur. Scilicet ex factore simplici a + bx nascitur fractio
N
A ;
a + bx
si bini sint aequales seu denominator N factorem habeat (a + bx)2 , hinc nascuntur
fractiones
A
B ;
2 +
a +bx
(a + bx )
B
(a +bx ) 2
+ a +Cbx :
et ita porro.
Factor autem duplex, cuius forma est aa 2abxcos. + bbxx , nisi alius ipsi fuerit
aequalis, dabit fractionem partialem
A+ Bx
;
aa 2 abxcos . + bbxx
si autem denominator N duos huiusmodi factores aequales involvat, inde nascuntur binae
huiusmodi fractiones partiales
A+ Bx
C + Dx
2 +
aa 2abxcos . +bbxx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 75
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
C + Dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
E + Fx
+ aa 2abx
;
cos. +bbxx
et ita porro.
Cum igitur hoc modo fractio proposita M
in omnes suas fractiones simplices fuerit
N
resoluta, omnes continebuntur in alterutra harum formarum vel
A+ Bx
n
aa
abx
2
cos . + bbxx )
(
A
n vel
a
+
( bx )
ac singulos iam per dx multiplicatos integrari oportet; erit omnium horum integralium
aggregatum valor functionis quaesitae Xdx = Mdx
.
N
COROLLARIUM 1
57. Pro integratione ergo omnium huiusmodi formularum Mdx
totum negotium reducitur
N
( aAdx
+ bx )
et
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
= A l a + bx ) + Const .
aAdx
+ bx b (
= A + Const .
( aAdx
b( a + bx )
+ bx )
2
( aAdx
+ bx )
A
2
2b( a + bx )
+ Const .
et generatim
( aAdx
+bx )
A
n 1
( n 1)b( a +bx )
+ Const .
COROLLARIUM 3
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 76
59. Ad propositum ergo absolvendum nihil aliud superest, nisi ut integratio huius
formulae
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
( a +bx )
M dx integrale habetur. Tum autem non parum molestum foret binas partes imaginarias
N
ita coniungere, ut expressio realis resultaret, quod tamen rei natura absolute exigit.
SCHOLION 2
61. Hic utique postulamus resolutionem cuiusque functionis integrae in factores nobis
concedi, etiamsi algebra neutiquam adhuc eo sit perducta, ut haec resolutio actu institui
possit. Hoc autem in Analysi ubique postulari solet, ut, quo longius progrediamur, ea,
quae retro sunt relicta, etiamsi non satis fuerint explorata, tanquam cognita assumamus;
sufficere scilicet hic potest omnes factores per methodum approximationum quantumvis
prope assignari posse. Simili modo cum in calculo integrali longius processerimus,
integralia omnium huiusmodi formularum Xdx, quaecunque functio ipsius x littera X
significetur, tanquam cognita spectabimus plurimumque nobis praestinisse videbimur, si
integralia magis abscondita ad eas formas reducere valuerimus; atque hoc etiam in usu
practico nihil turbat, cum valores talium formularum Xdx quantumvis prope assignare
1+ x
d
, cuius integrale est
n(1+ )
casus per se tam sunt perspicui, ut eorum tractatio nulla peculiari explicatione indigeat.
PROBLEMA 4
( A+ Bx )dx
y = aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 77
SOLUTIO
Cum numerator duabus constet partibus Adx+Bxdx, haec posterior B xdx sequenti modi
tolli poterit. Cum sit
2 abdxcos . + 2bbxdx
l ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) =
aa 2 abxcos . +bbxx
multiplicetur haec aequatio per 2Bbb et a proposita auferatur; sic enim prodibit
y B l ( aa 2abxcos.
2bb
+ bbxx ) =
( A+
Bacos .
b
)dx
aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
ita ut haec tantum formula integranda supersit. Ponatur brevitatis gratia formula
Bacos .
=C
b
A+
ut habeatur haec
aa 2abxCdx
cos . + bbxx
quae ita exhiberi potest
aa sin . +Cdx
( bx acos. )
2
Statuatur bx acos. = av sin . hincque dx = adv bsin. unde formula nostra erit
Cadv sin . :b
C
dv
aa sin . (1+vv ) = ab sin
. (1+ vv ) .
2
bx a cos .
,
a sin .
unde ob
C=
Ab + Ba cos .
b
Ab + Ba cos .
bx a cos .
Arc.tang. a sin .
abb sin .
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 78
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
integrale est
B l aa 2abxcos.
2bb (
Ab + Ba cos .
bx a cos .
Arc.tang. a sin .
bx a cos .
cos .
63. Si ad Arc.tang. a sin . addamus Arc.tang. sin . , quippe qui in constante addenda
bx sin .
contentus concipiatur, prodibit Arc.tang. a bx cos . sicque habebimus
( A+ Bx )dx
aa 2abxcos. +bbxx
Ab + Ba cos .
bx sin .
= 2Bbb l ( aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ) + abb sin . Arc.tang. a bx cos .
adiecta constante C.
COROLLARIUM 2
64. Si velimus, ut integrale hoc evanescat posito x = 0, constans C sumi debet
B laa sicque fiet
= 2bb
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
a
Ab + Ba cos .
+ abb sin .
bx sin .
Arc.tang. a bx cos .
Pendet ergo hoc integrale partim a logarithmis, partim ab arcubus circularibus seu
angulis.
COROLLARIUM 3
65. Si littera B evanescat, pars a logarithmis pendens evanescit fitque
bx sin .
= A Arc.tang. a bx cos . + C
aa2abxAdx
cos . + bbxx ab sin .
sicque per solum angulum definitur.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 79
COROLLARIUM 4
66. Si angulus sit rectus ideoque cos . = 0 et sin . = 1 , habebitur
( A+ Bx )dx
aa +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa +bbxx )
a
A Arc.tang. bx + C ;
+ ab
a
( A+ Bx )dx
aaabx+bbxx = bbB l
( aa abx +bbxx )
a
3
+ 2 Ab + Ba Arc.tang. 2bx
a bx
abb 3
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa + abx +bbxx )
a
3
+ 2 Ab Ba Arc.tang. 2bx
a + bx
abb 3
SCHOLION 1
67. Omnino hic notatu dignum evenit, quod casu = 0 , quo denominator
aa 2abx + bbxx fit quadratum, ratio anguli ex integrali discedat. Posito enim angulo
B l a bx et altera pars
infinite parvo erit cos. = 1 et sin . = , unde pars logarithmica fit bb
a
Ab + Ba Arc.tang. bx
abb
a bx
( Ab + Ba ) x
bx
, quia arcus infinite parvi a bx tangens ipsi est aequalis,
ab( a bx )
( A+ Bx )dx B a bx ( Ab + Ba ) x
= bb l a +
+ Const .,
2
ab( a bx )
( a bx )
( A+ Bx )
B + Ab + Ba
2 =
bx ) b( a bx )2
b
a
(
( a bx )
Iam vero est
B la = B l a bx ,
= B l ( a bx ) bb
b(aBdx
bb
a
bx ) bb
( Ab + Ba )dx Ab + Ba Ab + Ba ( Ab + Ba ) x
=
abb =
,
2
bb( a bx )
ab( a bx )
b( a bx )
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 80
SCHOLION 2
68. Simili modo, quo hic usi sumus, si in formula differentiali fracta Mdx
summa
N
potestas ipsius x in numeratore M uno gradu minor sit quam in denominatore N, etiam is
terminus tolli poterit. Sit enim
M = Ax n 1 + Bx n 2 + Cx n 3 + etc.
et
N = x n + x n 1 + x n 2 + etc.
= dy Cum iam sit
ac ponatur Mdx
N
dN = n x n 1dx + ( n 1) dx x n 2 + ( n 2 ) dx x n 3 + etc.
erit
AdN
n N
n 1 ( n 1) A n 2 ( n 2 ) A n 3
= dx
+ n x
+ etc. ,
Ax + n x
N
( n 1) A
( n 2 ) A
dy nAdN
B n x n 2 + C n x n 3 + etc.
= dx
N
N
B
obtinebitur
( n 1) A
n
= B, C
( n 2 ) A
n
= C, D
( n 3) A
n
= D, etc.,
x + x
+ x
+ x
etc.
( A+ Bx )dx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
n +1
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 81
Cum ob
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
= y.
dX = 2abdxcos. + 2bbdxx
sit
n( C + Dx ) dX Ddx
+ n
X n +1
X
d . C + Dx
=
n
X
ideoque
C + Dx
Xn
habebimus
y + C + Dx
=
n
X
2nb( C + Dx )( a cos . bx ) dx
X n +1
+ Ddx
n ,
+ Ddx
n .
Iam in formula priori litterae C et D ita definiantur, ut numerator per X fiat divisibilis;
oportet ergo sit = 2nDXdx , unde nanciscimur
A 2nCab cos .
a
Ba + Abcos. 2nCabbsin 2 . = 0
seu
C=
Ba + Abcos .
2 nabbsin 2 .
unde
B 2nCbb =
Ba sin .2 Ba Ab cos .
a sin .2
ita ut reperiatur
D=
Sumtis ergo litteris
C=
Ab cos . Ba cos .2
,
a sin .2
Ab Ba cos .
.
2naab sin .2
Ba + Ab cos .
et
2nabb sin 2 .
D=
Ab Ba cos .
2naab sin 2 .
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 82
erit
dx
y + C + Dx
= 2nDdx
+ Ddx
n
n
n = ( 2 n 1) D
n
ideoque
sive
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
( A+ Bx )dx
X
= C nDx ( 2n 1) D dxn ,
n +1
( 2n 1)( Ab + Ba cos . )
2 naab sin .2
Xdx .
n
( A+ Bx )dx
Quare, si formula dxn constet, etiam integrale hoc
assignari
n +1
poterit.
COROLLARIUM 1
70. Cum igitur manente X = aa 2abx cos . + bbxx sit
dxX
erit
( A+ Bx )dx
X2
bx sin .
1
= absin
Arc.tang . a bx cos . + Const .,
.
=
+
Ab + Ba cos .
2 na 3bb sin .3
bx sin .
bx sin .
Integrale ergo
( A+ Bx )dx
X2
COROLLARIUM 2
a cos . +bx
3
4 aa sin .2
Xdx + Const .,
2
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 83
5( a cos . +bx )
46 a b sin . X
4
135
246 a 7b sin .7
3( a cos . +bx )
246 a 6b sin .6 X
bx sin .
Arc.tang . a bx cos .
COROLLARIUM 3
72. Sic ulterius progrediendo omnium huiusmodi formularum integralia obtinebuntur
etc.,
quorum primum arcu circulari solo exprimitur, reliqua vero praeterea partes
algebraicas continent.
SCHOLION
73. Sufficit autem integralia
Xdx
n +1
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
BdX
X n +1
+ 21b
( Ab + Ba )cos. dx
X n +1
At
XdX
n +1
unde habebitur
( A+ Bx )dx
X n +1
= 1n ,
B
2nbbX n
XdX
n +1
nX
Ab + Bacos .
b
Xdx
n +1
dx integrandas,
omnia subsidia, quibus indigemus ad omnes formulas fractas M
N
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 84
potestate; de quibus notandum est, nisi integralia fuerint algebraica, semper vel per
logarithmos vel angulos exhibeti posse. Nihil aliud igitur superest, nisi ut hanc
methodum aliquot exemplis illustremus.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
EXEMPLUM 1
(A+ Bx )dx
+ x + xx
(A+ Bx )dx
(a +bx ) 2
+ b(aB+bx ) ,
unde fit
(A+ Bx )dx
(a +bx )2
= bbBa(a+Ab
+ B l (a + bx)+Const. ;
bx ) bb
(A+ Bx )dx ( Ab Ba ) x B a + bx
= ab(a +bx ) + bb l a .
(a + bx ) 2
( A+ Bx )dx
Ag Bf
f + gx
f
Ag Bf
g (ag-bf )
= m n,
Ba l a + bx +
l
(a +bx)(f + gx) = bAb
(bf -ag )
a
g (ag-bf )
Ponatur
Ab Ba
b (bf -ag )
= m + n et
ut integrale fiat
ml
( a +bx )( f + gx )
af
+ nl
f ( a + bx )
a ( f + gx )
+ Const .
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 85
erit
2m =
erit ergo
B ( bf ag )
bg ( bf ag )
( A+ Bx )dx
B
= bg
et 2n =
( a +bx )( f + gx )
af
2 Abg B ( ag +bf ) f ( a + bx )
l
.
2bg (bf -ag )
a ( f + gx )
III. Sint denominatoris factores simplices ambo imaginarii, quo casu formam habebit
aa 2abxcos. + bbxx ; qui casus cum supra [ 64] iam sit tractatus, erit
( A+ Bx )dx
aa2abxcos. +bbxx
( aa 2abxcos. +bbxx )
Bl
= bb
Ab + Ba cos .
+ abb sin .
bx sin .
Arc.tang. a bx cos .
COROLLARIUM 1
g = b , erit
( A+ Bx )dx
aa bbxx
B l aa bbxx + A l a +bx
= 2bb
2 ab a bx
aa
= A l a +bx + C
aaAdx
bbxx 2 ab a bx
et
bbxx = B l
= B l aa aa
aaBxdx
bb
bbxx 2bb
a
( aa bbxx )
+ C.
COROLLARIUM 2
76. Casu tertio, si ponamus cos. = 0 , habemus
( A+ Bx )dx
aa +bbxx
Bl
= bb
( aa +bbxx )
a
A Arc.tang. bx + c
+ ab
a
hincque singillatim
= A Arc.tang. bx
+c
aaAdx
+ bbxx ab
a
et
= Bl
aaBxdx
+bbxx bb
( aa +bbxx )
a
EXEMPLUM 2
+c
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 86
m 1
, siquidem exponens m 1 minor sit quam n,
77. Proposita formula differentiali x dx
1+ x n
integrale definire.
In capite ultimo Institutionum Calculi Differentialis [L. EULERI Institutiones calculus
differentialis cum eius usu in analysi finitorum ac doctrina serierum, Petropoli 1755]
m 1
resolvitur, sumto pro
invenimus fractiones simplices, in quas haec fractio x dx
n
1+ x
2 k 1)
n
sin .(
2 k 1)
n
2 cos .
n 1 2 x cos .
( x cos .(
)
+ xx )
m( 2 k 1)
n
2 k 1)
n
( 2 k 1
n
),
ubi pro k successive omnes nnmeros 1, 2, 3 etc. substitui convenit, quoad 2k - 1 numerum
n superare incipiat. Hac ergo forma in dx ducta et cum generali nostra
( A+ Bx )dx
aa 2 abxcos . +bbxx
comparata fit
a = 1, b = 1, =
et
seu
( 2k 1)
n
( m 1)( 2k 1)
A = n2 cos .
n
B = n2 cos .
unde fit
Ab + Ba cos . = n2 sin .
ac propterea huius partis integrale erit
et
m ( 2k 1)
,
n
( 2k 1) sin . m ( 2k 1)
n
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 87
n2 cos .
m ( 2k 1)
( 2k 1) + xx
l 1 2 x cos .
n
n
( 2k 1)
x sin .
m ( 2k 1)
n
.
+ n2 sin .
Arc.tang.
n
( 2k 1)
1 x cos .
n(1+ x )
, cuius integraIe
est 1n l (1 + x) , ubi signum superius valet, si m impar, inferius vero, si m par. Quocirca
integrale quaesitum
x1+ xdx
m 1
x sin .
n2 cos . m l
n
n
1 2 x cos . + xx + n2 sin . m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .
n2 cos . 3m l
n
n2 cos . 5m l
n
n2 cos . 7 m
n
x sin .3
n
1 2 x cos . 3 + xx + n2 sin . 3m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .3
n
x sin .5
n
1 2 x cos . 5 + xx + n2 sin . 5m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .5
n
x sin .7
n
1 2 x cos . 7 + xx + n2 sin . 7 m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .7
n
etc.
secundum numeros impares ipso n minores; sicque totum obtinetur integrale, si n fuerit
numerus par, sin autem n sit numerus impar, insuper accedit haec pars 1n l (1 + x) , prout
1+ x
ipsius n adipiscimur
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 88
I. 1dx
= l (1 + x )
+x
II. dx = Arc.tang.x
1+ x
III. dx = 23 cos . 3 l (1 2 x cos . 3 + xx )
1+ x
2
+ 23 sin . 3 Arc.tang.
IV.
V.
dx
1+ x 4
dx
1+ x 5
x sin . 3
1 x cos . 3
(
)
24 cos . 34 l (1 2 x cos . 34 + xx )
= 24 cos . 4 l
1 2 x cos . 4 + xx
+ 13 l (1 + x )
+ 24 sin . 4 Arc.tang.
x sin . 4
1 x cos . 4
+ 24 sin . 34 Arc.tang.
x sin . 34
1 x cos . 34
= 52 cos . 5 l
3
5
3
5
VI.
dx
1+ x 6
(
)
62 cos . 36 l (1 2 x cos . 35 + xx )
62 cos . 56 l (1 2 x cos . 55 + xx )
= 62 cos . 6 l
1 2 x cos . 6 + xx
+ 62 sin . 6 Arc.tang.
+ 15 l (1 + x )
x sin . 6
1 x cos . 6
+ 62 sin . 36 Arc.tang.
x sin . 36
1 x cos . 36
+ 62 sin . 56 Arc.tang.
x sin . 56
1 x cos . 56
COROLLARIUM 2
79. Loco sinuum et cosinuum valores, ubi commode fieri potest, substituendo
obtinemus
1+dxx
= 13 l
(1 x + xx ) +
1 Arc.tang . x 3
2 x
3
+ 13 l (1 + x )
seu
1+dxx
= 13 l
1+ x
(1 x + xx )
+ 1 Arc.tang . x2 3x
3
tum vero
dx
1+ x 4
=+ 1 l
2 2
(1+ x
(1 x
)
2 + xx )
2 + xx
+ 1 Arc.tang.1x xx2 ,
2 2
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 89
=+ 1 l
dx
1+ x 6
2 3
(1+ x
(1 x
)
3 + xx )
3 + xx
+ 16 Arc.tang.
3 x(1 xx )
1 4 xx + x 4
EXEMPLUM 3
1+ x
( A+ Bx )dx
hincque
x sin . 2 k
n ,
1 2 x cos . 2k + xx + n2 sin . 2mk Arc.tang.
2
n
n
1 x cos . k
n
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 90
1n l (1 x )
x sin . 2
n2 cos . 2m l
n
n2 cos . 4m l
n
(1 2x cos . 4n + xx ) +
2 sin . 4m
n
n
n2 cos . 6m l
n
(1 2x cos . 6n + xx ) +
2 sin . 6m
n
n
n
1 2 x cos . + xx + n2 sin . 2m Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos . 2
n
x sin . 4
n
Arc.tang.
1 x cos . 4
n
x sin .6
n
Arc.tang.
1 x cos .6
n
etc.
COROLLARIUM
81. Sit m = 1 et pro n successive numeri 1, 2, 3 etc. substituantur, ut nanciscamur
sequentes integrationes
I. 1dx
= l (1 x )
x
(1+ x )
II. 1dxxx = 12 l (1 x ) + 12 l (1 + x ) = 12 l
(1 x )
III.
1dxx
= 13 l (1 x ) 23 cos . 23 l
(1 2 x cos . 23 + xx )
+ 23 sin . 23 Arc.tang.
IV.
dx
1 x 4
= 14 l (1 x ) 24 cos . 24 l
x sin . 23
1 x cos . 23
(1 2 x cos . 24 + xx )
+ 24 sin . 24 Arc.tang.
x sin . 24
1 x cos . 24
+ 24 l (1 + x )
V.
dx
1 x5
52 cos . 45 l
VI.
dx
1 x 6
2
5
2
5
= 15 l (1 x ) 52 cos . 25 l
4
5
4
5
= 16 l (1 x ) 62 cos . 26 l
62 cos . 46 l
+ 16 l (1 + x )
1 2 x cos . 26 + xx
(1 2 x cos . 45 + xx )
+ 62 sin . 26 Arc.tang.
+ 62 sin . 46 Arc.tang .
x sin . 46
1 x cos . 46
x sin . 26
1 x cos . 26
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 91
EXEMPLUM 4
(x
m 1
+ x n m1 dx
1+ x
definire.
Ex exemplo 2 patet integralis partem quamcunque In genere esse, sumto i pro numero
quocunque impare non maiore quam n,
n2 cos . im l
n
n2 cos .
x sin .i
n ,
1 2 x cos . i + xx + n2 sin . im Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .i
i ( n m )
l
n
1 2 x cos . i + xx + n2 sin .
n
Verum est
cos .
x sin .i
i ( n m )
n .
Arc.tang.
n
1 x cos .i
n
i ( n m )
= cos . i imn = cos . imn
n
et
i ( n m )
= sin . i imn = + sin . imn ,
n
unde partes logarithmicae se destruent, eritque pars integralis In genere
sin .
x sin .i
n .
4 sin . im Arc.tang.
n
n
1 x cos .i
n
(x
m 1
+ x n m1 dx
1+ x
.
= + n4 sin .m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos
.3
+ n4 sin .3m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 3
.5
+ n4 sin .5m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 5
.i
+ n4 sin .im Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos i
sumto pro i maximo numero impare exponentem n non excedente. Si ipse numerus n sit
impar, pars ex positione i = n oriunda ob sin. mn = 0 evanescet. Notetur ergo hic totum
integrale per meros angulos exprimi.
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
page 92
COROLLARIUM
83. Simili modo sequens integrale elicitur, ubi soli logarithmi relinquentur,
manente n = :
(x
m 1
x nm1 dx
1+ x
(1 2 x cos . + xx )
= n4 cos .m l
n4 cos .3m l
(1 2 x cos .3 + xx )
n4 cos .5m l
(1 2 x cos .5 + xx )
n4 cos .im l
(1 2 x cos .i + xx ) ,
(x
m 1
x n m1 dx
1+ x
definire.
Ex exemplo 3 integralis pars quaecunque concluditur, siquidem brevitatis
gratia n = statuamus,
n2 cos .2mk l
.2mk
(1 2 x cos .2k + xx ) + n2 sin .2mkArc.tang. 1xxsin
cos .2mk
+ n2 cos .2k ( n m ) l
At est
et
.2 mk
(1 2 x cos .2k + xx ) + n2 sin .2k ( n m ) Arc.tang. 1xxsin
cos .2 mk
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
(x
n m 1
1+ x
page 93
x sin .2
1 x cos 2
.4
+ n4 sin .4m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 4
.6
+ n4 sin .6m Arc.tang. 1x xsin
cos 6
(x
m 1
+ x nm1 dx
1 x
= n2 l (1 x )
n4 cos .2m l
(1 2 x cos .2 + xx )
n4 cos .4m l
(1 2 x cos .4 + xx )
n4 cos .6m l
(1 2 x cos .6 + xx ) ,
x (1+ x ) 1 x
1 9 l 1+ x 1 l 1 x
( ) 8 ( )
4(1+ x ) 8
+ 18 l (1 + xx ) + 14 Arc.tang.x,
quae expressio in hanc formam transmutatur
xx + 1 Arc.tang .x,
y = C + 2+ 2 x +5 xx l 1+xx + 18 l 11+ xx
4
4 xx(1+ x )
SCHOLION
87. Hoc igitur caput ita pertractare licuit, ut nihil amplius in hoc genere desiderari possit.
dy
EULER'S
INSTITUTIONUM CALCULI INTEGRALIS VOL. 1
Part I, Section I,Chapter I.
page 94
factores eliciendos Algebrae praecepta non sufficiant; verum tum defectus ipsi Algebrae,
non vero methodo integrandi, quam hic tractamns, est tribuendus. Deinde etiam
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce.
dy
potissimum notari convenit semper, cum dx functioni rationali ipsius x aequale ponitur,
functionem y, nisi sit algebraica, alias quantitates transcendentes non involvere praeter
logarithmos et angulos; ubi quidem observandum est hic perpetuo logarithmos
hyperbolicos intelligi oportere, cum ipsius lx differentiale non sit = 1x , nisi logarithmus
hyperbolicus sumatur; at horum reductio ad vulgares est facillima, ita ut hinc applicatio
calculi ad praxin nulli impedimento sit obnoxia. Quare progrediamur ad eos casus,
dy
quibus formula dx functioni irrationali ipsius x aequatur, ubi quidem primo notandum
est, quoties ista functio per idoneam substitutionem ad rationalitatem perduci poterit,
casum ad hoc caput revolvi. Veluti si fuerit
3
dy = 1+ x 3 xx dx,
1+ x
5
(1+ z z ) 6 z5dz
3
dy =
1+ zz
ideoque
dy
= 6 z 7 + 6z 6 + 6 z 5 6 z 4 + 6zz 6 + 1+6zz ,
dz
unde integrale
y = 34 z 8 + 76 z 7 + z 6 56 z 5 + 2 z 3 6 z + 6Arc.tang .z
et restituto valore
6
y = 34 x 3 x + 76 x 6 x + x 65 x5 + 2 x 6 6 x + 6Arc.tang .6 x + C.