Module III

TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS:

Effective training or development depends on knowing what is required - for the individual, the
department and the organisation as a whole. With limited budgets and the need for cost-effective
solutions, all organisations need to ensure that the resources invested in training are targeted at
areas where training and development is needed and a positive return on the investment is
guaranteed. Effective TNA is particularly vital in today's changing workplace as new technologies
and flexible working practices are becoming widespread, leading to corresponding changes in the
skills and abilities needed.
Analyzing what the training needs are is a vital prerequisite for any effective training programme
or event. Simply throwing training at individuals may miss priority needs, or even cover areas that
are not essential. TNA enables organisations to channel resources into the areas where they will
contribute the most to employee development, enhancing morale and organisational performance.
TNA is a natural function of appraisal systems and is key requirement for the award of Investors
in People.
The analysis of training needs is not a task for specialists alone. Managers today are often
responsible for many forms of people management, including the training and development of
their team, and should therefore have an understanding of training needs analysis and be able to
implement it successfully. Effective TNA involves systematic planning, analysis and coordination
across the organisation, to ensure that organisational priorities are taken into account, that
duplication of effort is avoided and economies of scale are achieved. All potential trainees should
be included in the process, rather than rely on the subjective evaluation of managers. Ideally,
managers should also receive training in the process of TNA itself, to clarify what they are trying
to achieve and what their approach should be.
Definition
A training need is a shortage of skills or abilities, which could be reduced or eliminated by means
of training and development. Training needs hinder employees in the fulfilment of their job
responsibilities or prevent an organisation from achieving its objectives. They may be caused by a
lack of skills, knowledge or understanding, or arise from a change in the workplace.
Training needs analysis identifies training needs at employee, departmental or organisational level
in order to help the organisation to perform effectively. The aim of training needs analysis is to
ensure that training addresses existing problems, is tailored to organisational objectives, and is
delivered in an effective and cost-efficient manner.
Training needs analysis involves:
monitoring current performance using techniques such as observation, interviews and
questionnaires
anticipating future shortfalls or problems
identifying the type and level of training required and analyzing how this can best be provided.

Training needs analysis is the first stage in training process and involves a procedure to
determine whether training will indeed address the problem, which has been identified. Training
can be described as the acquisition of skills, concepts or attitudes that result in improved
performance within the job environment. Training analysis looks at each aspect of an operational
domain so that the initial skills, concepts and attitudes of the human elements of a system can be
effectively identified and appropriate training can be specified.

How to Conduct a Training Needs Analysis

Step 1: Determine the Desired Business Outcomes
Before a training needs analysis can begin, the employer needs to articulate the goal of the training.
That is, what are the expected business outcomes of the training?
The training goal should correspond to a business objective. This can be specific to an individual
employee, work unit, department or the entire organization.
The ultimate goal of the training should be clearly articulated and kept in the forefront to ensure
that the entire needs analysis process keeps the desired outcomes in sight. It is best for an employer
to answer the question: "How will we know that the training worked?"
Examples of ultimate goals are:

Improve customer service representatives' customer satisfaction ratings;

Increase the close rates on business proposals or bids by sales personnel;

Improve employee morale through better supervision by middle management; and

Improve the speed at which warehouse employees fill orders.

Step 2: Link Desired Business Outcomes with Employee Behavior
There are generally multiple behaviors that are associated with any desired business outcome.
These behaviors are a result of employees:

Knowing what to do;

Having the capability to do it; and

Having the motivation to do it.

At this step in the process, employers should identify the desired critical competencies, i.e.,
behaviors and associated knowledge, skills, abilities and personal characteristics that are linked to
desired business outcomes. This is usually done through collecting information from subject matter
experts.
Data collection may take the form of interviews, focus groups or surveys. Regardless of the method
used, the data should result in a clear understanding of how important each competency is to
achieving the desired business goal.
A rating scale example to assess the importance is one like the following:
How Important Is This for Successful Job Performance?
1 = Not at all
2 = A little
3 = Somewhat
4 = Considerable
5 = Extremely
To ensure that only the competencies that are deemed critical should be considered for inclusion
in other training needs analysis steps, rating averages should be at least a 4.0 on the five-point
rating scale.
Step 3: Identify Trainable Competencies
Not every competency can be improved through training. For example, a sales job may require
sales people to be outgoing and initiate conversations with total strangers. It is more effective,
then, for an employer to hire people that are already extroverts than to attempt to train introverts
to be more outgoing. Similarly, it may be more effective to hire people with specialized knowledge
than to educate and train them.
Employers should evaluate each critical competency from Step 2 and determine if each one is
something they expect employees to possess prior to job entry. Taken together, this should provide
employers with a list of critical competencies that are amenable to training.
Step 4: Evaluate Competencies
With a targeted list of competencies in hand, employers should determine the extent to which their
employees possess these. The most often used methods are:

Competency evaluations; and

Tests or assessments.

Performance evaluation surveys are best used to evaluate observable behaviors. This can be easily
accomplished by taking the critical competencies from Steps 2 and 3 and having knowledgeable
people rate the targeted employees' behaviors. Most often, supervisors perform this function.
However, multiple raters, including peers, subordinates and customers, are often used to evaluate
the performance of supervisors and executives. This approach is generally known as 360 degree
surveys.
Performance evaluation surveys become less effective the more raters have to infer unobservable
competencies such as ability, skills and personality. Evaluation of these competencies is better
accomplished through the use of professional tests and assessments. There are many tests available
on the market to measure specific skills, abilities and personality characteristics. However,
choosing the right test should be done in coordination with a testing professional, e.g., an
organizational psychologist. Care should be taken in selecting tests that are valid measures of the
targeted competency.
Custom-designed assessments are also appropriate, especially if the employer desires to measure
specialized knowledge or effectiveness in a major segment of the work. These can range from
multiple choice job knowledge tests to elaborate job simulations. For example, a very effective
approach to measuring the training needs of supervisors and leaders is using an assessment
center, which is comprised of different role-play exercises that parallel managerial situations.
Step 5: Determine Performance Gaps
Regardless of the methods used to evaluate competencies, individual employee results are then
combined to assess how many employees are in need of improvement in particular competencies.
To do this, the employer first needs to establish what constitutes a performance gap. That standard
will vary from employer to employer. Some employers will set higher standards than others.
Setting that standard will provide the employer with an understanding of how many employees
fall above or below that standard. Those falling below would be considered to be in need of
training.
Step 6: Prioritize Training Needs
Employers should aggregate the data in Step 6 with information on the performance gap
pervasiveness. That is, employers should total how many, or what percentage, of the targeted
workforce needs the training.
Employers should also consider the importance of the competency (see Step 2). Taken together,
pervasiveness and importance should result in a list of training priorities.
Step 7: Determine How to Train
Using the training priority list from Step 6, employers should now consider how best to train their
workforce. Typical training methods include:

On the job training (OJT);

Mentoring and coaching;

Classroom;

Web-based;

Books;

Conferences; and

University programs.
It is recommended that employers consult a professional who is well versed in adult learning to
help determine the best ways employees can acquire a particular competency.
Some learning methods will work better than others. Although no two people learn or retain
information in the same way, studies show that individuals retain information much better if they
actually perform the skill or task. This type of retention is about 75 percent.
Employers should keep this in mind and strive for the training method that will not only be suitable
for the material, but also have the best chance for retention by employees.
Step 8: Conduct a Cost Benefit Analysis
At this point, employers need to consider the costs associated with a particular training method
and the extent to which performance gaps can be combined into the same training experience.
Cost factors include:

Required training time;

Training content development if designed in-house;

Training evaluation and acquisition if purchased from vendor;

Training content delivery;

Lost productivity from time spent in training; and

Travel and logistical expenses.

On the benefit side, different training methods will have varying degrees of effectiveness (see Step
7). For example, while web-based training may be the least costly, this may not be the best way
for employees to develop a particular skill. Employers need to strike a balance between the cost of
a particular training method and its ability to achieve the desired results.
Step 9: Plan for Training Evaluation
The last step in this process is for employers to decide how they will know whether the training
worked. Training is only effective if the material is retained and used on the job. This step should
include an evaluation component similar to how the needs were assessed in Step 4.
Questions the evaluation process should answer are:

How much did the training improve the competencies targeted in the training?

How much did the training improve employees' actual job performance?

How much did the training improve the meeting of business objectives?

How much did the training result in a positive return on its investment?
The questions employers want answers to will determine the method and components of the
evaluation process.
ORGANIZATION ANALYSIS
Organizational analysis is the process of reviewing the development, work environment,
personnel and operation of a business or another type of association. This review is often
performed in response to crisis, but may also be carried out as part of a demonstration project, in
the process of taking a program to scale, or in the course of regular operations. Conducting a
periodic detailed organizational analysis can be a useful way for management to identify problems
or inefficiencies that have arisen in the organization but have yet to be addressed, and develop
strategies for resolving them.
Organizational analysis focuses on the structure and design of the organization and how the
organization's systems, capacity and functionality influence outputs. Additional internal and
external factors are also accounted for in assessing how to improve efficiency. Undertaking an
organizational analysis is helpful in assessing an organization's current well-being and capacity,
and deciding on a course of action to improve the organization's long-term sustainability. A
restructuring of an Organization may become necessary when either external or internal forces
have created a problem or opportunity for improvement in efficiency and effectiveness.
When performing an organizational analysis, many details emerge about the functions and capacity
of the organization. All of these details can make pinpointing what is efficient and inefficient
difficult. Using theoretical organizational models can help sort out the information, and make it
easier to draw connections. After working through these theoretical models, the organizations
present situation is more adequately addressed, and the trajectory of the organization can be more
fully determined.
Organizational Analysis Models
Strategic Triangle Model
This model relies on three key calculations to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of an
organization. First, is the value, or mission, that guides the organization. Second, is operational
capacity, the knowledge and capability to carry out the mission. Third, is legitimacy and support,
or the environment that authorize the value of the organization, and offer support, (specifically
financial support). Using this model, a strategy for an organization is considered good if these
three components are in alignment.
SWOT Model
A SWOT analysis (alternatively SWOT matrix) is a structured planning method used to evaluate
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or in a business venture.
A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a product, place, industry or person. It involves specifying
the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors
that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve that objective. The degree to which the internal
environment of the entity matches with the external environment is expressed by the concept
of strategic fit.

Strengths: characteristics of the business or project that give it an advantage over

others.
Weaknesses: characteristics that place the business or project at a disadvantage relative
to others
Opportunities: elements that the project could exploit to its advantage
Threats: elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business or
project

First, the decision makers should consider whether the objective is attainable, given the
SWOTs. If the objective is not attainable a different objective must be selected and the process
repeated. Users of SWOT analysis need to ask and answer questions that generate meaningful
information for each category (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) to make the
analysis useful and find their competitive advantage.
The McKinsey 7S Model

The McKinsey 7S Framework emphasizes balancing seven key aspects of an organization,

operating unit, or project. Three of the seven elementsstrategy, structure, and systemsare
considered "hard" elements, easily identified, described, and analyzed. The remaining four
elementsshared value, staff, skill, and styleare fluid, difficult to describe, and dependent
upon the actors within the organization at any given time. The 7S organizational analysis
framework is based on the premise that all seven elements are interdependent, and must be
mutually reinforcing in order to be successful. Changes in a single element can result in
misalignment and dysfunction throughout the organization, disrupting organizational
harmony.
Rational Model
The rational model stems from the Frederick W. Taylor's (1911) Structural Perspective. Taylor
was the father of time-and-motion studies and founded an approach he called "scientific
management." It was Taylor's stance that organizations should be as mechanistic and efficient
as possible. These Scientific Management principles served a valuable purpose for the Ford
Motor Company, where the first American, mass-produced automobiles were being created.
The rational model views organizations as a mechanism that is made up of various parts that

can be modified in order to create an output in the shortest amount of time and without
deviation.
Natural System Model
The natural system model is in many ways the opposite of the rational model in that it focuses
on the activities that may negatively impact the organization and therefore aims at maintaining
an equilibrium in order to meet its goals. The Natural System model views organizations as an
organic organism which is holistically interconnected. The parts of the organization are not
seen as independent units but rather as a whole that can orchestrate together to prepare for
inevitable change.
Sociotechnical Model
The sociotechnical model, also known as Sociotechnical Systems (STS), is an approach to
complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and
technology in workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex
infrastructures and human behavior. This model identifies the environment as a key factor that
interacts with the organization.
Cognitive Model
Behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors as well as environmental events, operate as
interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. Personal goals of the
managers and staff are seen as assisting in the effort toward organizational objective
attainment. Decision making processes are focused on and specialization is deemed as
important to the flow of information.
Meta Models
Attempts have also been made to put elements of the above models into a kind of meta-model.
Based on a theorized blindness of a single perspective, Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal have
designed a model that splits analysis into four distinct paradigms. These 'frames' are to be used
as a pluralistic model, and therefore allow analysts to change thinking by re-framing
understanding and points of reference.
1. Structural Frame Here organisations are to be understood by role definitions and
clear hierarchy. Problems come from overlapping responsibilities and unclear
instructions. The assumptions are similar to the rational model shown above
and Taylorism.
2. Human Resource Frame According to this frame organisations exist to serve society,
they are places for growth and development. Problems come from when people are
not motivated or trained sufficiently. This is Similar to the Sociotechnical model, or
the work of Daniel Pink.
3. Political Frame this frame posits that organisations are cutthroat jungles, where only
the strongest survive. Problems come from poor power coalitions or overly centralized
power.
4. Symbolic Frame This frame supposes that organisations are deeply symbolic and
successful business is about the representation genuine meaning. Problems occur when
actors fail to play their parts.

Bolman and Deal lay out these frames in their book Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice
and Leadership the authors also provide many examples of how best to apply their four frames
analysis.
PERSON ANALYSIS
Person Analysis is a phase of training needs analysis directed at identifying which individuals
within an organization should receive training.
Analysis dealing with potential participants and instructors involved in the process. The important
questions being answered by this analysis are who will receive the training and their level of
existing knowledge on the subject, what is their learning style, and who will conduct the training.
Do the employees have required skills? Are there changes to policies, procedures, software, or
equipment that require or necessitate training?
After information about the job has been collected, the analysis shifts to the person. A person needs
analysis identifies gaps between a person's current capabilities and those identified as necessary or
desirable. Person needs analysis can be either broad or narrow in scope. The broader approach
compares actual performance with the minimum acceptable standards of performance. The
narrower approach compares an evaluation of employee proficiency on each required skill
dimension with the proficiency level required for each skill. The first method is based on the actual,
current job performance of an employee; therefore, it can be used to determine training needs for
the current job. The second method, on the other hand, can be used to identify development needs
for future jobs.
Whether the focus is on performance of the job as a whole or on particular aspects of the job,
several approaches can be used to identify the training needs of individuals:
Output Measures: Performance data (e.g., productivity, accidents, customer complaints), as well
as performance appraisal ratings, can provide evidence of performance deficiencies. Person needs
analysis can also consist of work sample and job knowledge tests that measure performance
capability and knowledge.
Self-Assessed Training Needs. The self-assessment of training needs is growing in popularity.
Here top managers require the employee and his or her supervisor to identify what the business
needs are for the department and the business, as well as the skill needs and deficiencies of the
individual. Self-assessment is premised on the assumption that employees, more than anyone else,
are aware of their weaknesses and performance deficiencies. Therefore, they're in the best position
to identify their own training needs.
Attitude Surveys. Attitude surveys completed by a supervisor's subordinates or by customers or
by both also can provide information on training needs. For example, when one supervisor receives
low scores regarding her or his fairness in treating subordinates, compared with other supervisors
in the organization, the supervisor may need training in that area. Similarly, if the customers of a
particular unit seem to be particularly dissatisfied compared with other customers, training may be
needed in that unit. Thus, customer surveys can serve a dual role: providing information to
management about service and pinpointing employee deficiencies.

TASK ANALYSIS
Task analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished, including a detailed description of
both manual and mental activities, task and element durations, task frequency, task allocation, task
complexity, environmental conditions, necessary clothing and equipment, and any other unique
factors involved in or required for one or more people to perform a given task. Task analysis
emerged from research in applied behavior analysis and still has considerable research in that area.
Information from a task analysis can then be used for many purposes, such as personnel
selection and training, tool or equipment design, procedure design (e.g., design of
checklists or decision support systems) and automation. Though distinct, task analysis is related
to user analysis.
TRAINING NEED ASSESSMENT
Introduction
The purpose of a training needs assessment is to identify performance requirements and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed by an agency's workforce to achieve the requirements. An
effective training needs assessment will help direct resources to areas of greatest demand. The
assessment should address resources needed to fulfill organizational mission, improve
productivity, and provide quality products and services. A needs assessment is the process of
identifying the "gap" between performance required and current performance. When a difference
exists, it explores the causes and reasons for the gap and methods for closing or eliminating the
gap. A complete needs assessment also considers the consequences for ignoring the gaps.
Need assessment
A needs assessment is a process used by organizations to determine priorities, make organizational
improvements, or allocate resources. It involves determining the needs, or gaps, between where
the organization envisions itself in the future and the organization's current state. You then develop
a plan of action to address the needs (or closing the gaps) to bring the organization closer to its
desired future state.
Training needs assessment is a systematic inquiry of training needs within an organization for the
purposes of identifying priorities and making decisions, and allocating finite resources in a manner
consistent with identified program goals and objectives. Though beginning with training as the
desired solution, it has been argued, diminishes the value of the needs assessment, the popularity
of the term "training needs assessment" has made it part of the training and adult learning lexicon.
There are three levels of a training needs assessment:
Organizational assessment evaluates the level of organizational performance. An assessment of
this type will determine the skills, knowledge, and ability needs of an agency. It also identifies
what is required to alleviate the problems and weaknesses of the agency as well as to enhance
strengths and competencies. Organizational assessment takes into consideration factors such as
changing demographics, political trends, technology, and the economy.
Occupational assessment examines the skills, knowledge, and abilities required for affected
occupational groups. Occupational assessment identifies how and which occupational

discrepancies or gaps exist, as well as examining new ways to do work that could fix those
discrepancies or gaps.
Individual assessment analyzes how well an individual employee is doing a job and determines
the individual's capacity to do new or different work. Individual assessment provides information
on which employees need training and what kind.
The benefits of training needs assessments are:

Training needs are put in context of organizational needs (business drivers)

Validation and/or augmentation of sponsor's ideas about the need for training
Assurance that training design will respond to need
Identification of non-training issues influencing performance
Assurance of survival of training function
Establishment of a foundation for post-training evaluation

The Training Needs Assessment Process

1. Determine Agency Benefits of Needs Assessment- this part of the process will sell and help
the decision makers and stakeholders understand the concept of the needs assessment. Needs
assessment based on the alignment of critical behaviors with a clear agency mission will account
for critical occupational and performance requirements to help your agency: a) eliminate redundant
training efforts, b) substantially reduce the unnecessary expenditure of training dollars, and c)
assist managers in identifying performance requirements that can best be satisfied by training and
other developmental strategies. To go beyond learning and actually achieve critical behaviors the
agency will also need to consider how required drivers will sustain desired outcomes. Key steps
include:

Identify key stakeholders

Solicit support
Describe desired outcomes that will contribute to mission objectives
Clarify critical behaviors needed to achieve desired outcomes
Define required drivers essential to sustain the critical behaviors

2. Plan- The needs assessment is likely to be only as successful as the planning.

Set goals/objectives for the needs assessment

Evaluate organizational (agency) readiness and identify key roles
Evaluate prior/other needs assessments
Prepare project plan
Inventory the capacity of staff and technology to conduct a meaningful training skills
assessment and analysis
Clarify success measures and program milestones

3. Conduct Needs Assessment

Obtain needs assessment data (e.g., review strategic plans, assess HR metrics, review job
descriptions, conduct surveys, and review performance appraisals)
Analyze data
Define performance problems/issues: occupational group/individuals
Describe critical behaviors needed to affect problems/issues
Determine and clarify why critical behaviors do not currently exist
Research integrated performance solutions
If training is the best solution, determine best training and development approach(es)
Assess cost/benefit of training and development approach(es); build a "business case"
Include organizational drivers needed to reinforce the critical behaviors that will affect
problems/issues
Describe how the critical behaviors will be monitored and assessed after implementation
of the improvement plan

The results of the needs assessment allows the training manager to set the training objectives by
answering two very basic questions: what needs to be done, and why is it not being done now?
Then, it is more likely that an accurate identification of whom, if anyone, needs training and what
training is needed. Sometimes training is not the best solution, and it is virtually never the only
solution. Some performance gaps can be reduced or eliminated through other management
solutions, such as communicating expectations, providing a supportive work environment, and
checking job fit. These interventions also are needed if training is to result in sustained new
behaviors needed to achieve new performance levels, for an individual, an occupation, or an entire
organization.
Steps
General steps taken in needs assessment.
Exploration and identification. During the first phase of the needs assessment, you need to
determine what you already know about your organization's needs, whether it be additional
resources, new technologies, or market expansion. It's about figuring out where you are and where
you want to be. You also need to discover other undisclosed needs that may be hindering you from
moving from where you are to where you want to be. You will often rank these needs in order of
importance. You will then set the scope of your research. In other words, the needs you are going
to focus upon.
Data gathering and analysis. At this stage you are collecting the information you need to better
understand the gaps (needs) between where you are and where you want to be. Data may be
collected from internal company records or externally through market research techniques such as
surveys and analysis of secondary data including statistical data collected by the federal
government. After the data is collected, it is organized and analyzed.
Utilization. This is where the data you analyzed is used to create a plan of action and implement
it. You will set priorities, evaluate solutions, apply a cost-benefit analysis to determine which
solution is best in light of the relative costs and benefits of each, formulate a plan to implement

your solution, and then allocate the resources necessary for implementation. Again, the goal is to
develop a plan to close the gaps between the organization's desired future state and its current state.
Evaluation. While many organizations will not evaluate the results of their needs assessment,
smart organizations do. You will evaluate the results of the action plan against the results: has the
action plan placed you closer to where you want to be? Evaluation can help you determine what
made an action plan successful or find the errors in your needs assessment. For example, did you
miss an important gap, or were the resources you allocated insufficient to close the gap?
Several basic Needs Assessment techniques include:

Direct observation
Questionnaires
Consultation with persons in key positions, and/or with specific knowledge
Review of relevant literature
Interviews
Focus groups
Assessments/surveys
Records & report studies
Work samples

TRAINING DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Training design or instructional design is the process of creating a blueprint for the development
of instruction. Whether the training is to be conducted in a classroom, delivered using an electronic
format or using some combination of methods, the design process sets the stage for the
development of a program that produces results.
Elements

The design phase of developing training includes establishing learning objectives, planning the
steps to achieve those objectives, sequencing and structuring the steps to be taken including
projects, lectures, videos, assignments, presentations, readings or other activities, and determining
evaluation procedures.
Considerations
In designing a training program, the designer considers a variety of factors that will impact the
training, including the current knowledge level of the audience, availability of various
technologies, time frames, available resources and how the training may complement or conflict
with existing programs.
Benefits

The benefit of good design is effective training that engages learners with various methods, flows
logically for better learning, uses resources wisely and meets learning objectives
Model

ADDIE, a common model used by training professionals, includes the design step. Steps in the
model are analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation.

It determines:

Whether the training is to be conducted in a classroom,

Delivered using an electronic format or
Using some combination of methods,

The design process sets the stage for the development of a program that produces results.
Factors of Training Design

Viewpoint
Elements
Considerations
Benefits
Model

Basic principles of training design

The principles that constitute the field of human performance improvement, which help to
ensure that people achieve the best possible results on the job.
The principle that underpin adult learning
Design steps for a training program
Eight Steps
Step1. Define purpose of the training and target audience
Step2. Determine participants needs
Step3. Define training goals and objectives
Step4. Outline training content
Step5. Develop instructional activities
Step6. Prepare the written training design
Step7. Prepare participant evaluation form(s)
Step8. Determine follow-up activities for the event
Step1. Define Purpose of the Training and Target Audience

Clear training needs

Purpose & audience must be clear
Description to promote your program to prospective participants

Step2. Determine Participants Needs

Several ways to find out about the needs:

Written survey
Random sample
Review past training programmes

Step3. Define Training Goals and Objectives

Clarifying expected outcomes

Outlining training content
Planning specific training activities
Selecting/developing materials
Designing evaluation procedures
Communicating program intent to the training participants and others (such as program
administrators and supervisors)
Ensuring that the training is realistic and appropriate for the purpose intended

STEP4. Outline training content

Introduction
Learning components
Wrap up and evaluation component

Rules of thumb

Fill in known elements-such as meals and breaks.

Start with simple concepts and proceed to more complex.
Proceeds from less threatening to more sensitive topics.
Schedule activities which require the greatest concentration when people will be focused
and energetic.
Give yourself- and participants- a break.
Build in time for reflection, discussion and Q&A.
Introduce the days events in the beginning.
Schedule 8-10 minutes at the end of each day for feedback.
Review your plan with a critical eye.
Be flexible! Although your design is a detailed road map, you may encounter detours along
the way.

STEP5. Develop Instructional Activities

Participants learning style

Principles of adult learning
Group size
Prior experience and /or education level of participants
Type of skill or information to be presented
Trainers style

When deciding which activities to use, consider these questions:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Do we know that this activity us effective?

Have we used it before?
Are we comfortable with this technique?
Do we have the expertise to use it effectively?
Does the activity require prior knowledge or skill on the part of participants?
Will we have the time, space and resources needed to accomplish the activity?
Will the activity encourage learning without confusing participants?

STEP6. Prepare the Written Training Design

Written document: A detailed plan of the training session, including goals and objectives. It
consider:

The skill expertise, training style and comfort level of each of your trainers in making this
designation.
Also consider identifying specific trainer who will take the lead in fleshing out different
sections of the training and creating the necessary supporting materials.

Use your written training design to stay in track during the training events, make mid-course
corrections and document training details.
STEP7. Prepare Participant Evaluation Forms
Issues that the evaluation forms must addressed
1. Did the participants acquire the knowledge and skill that the trainer was supposed to
provide?
2. Were the trainers knowledgeable about training content?
3. Were the activities interesting and effective?
4. Was the training format appropriate?
5. Is more training on this or related topics needed to support participants in their work?
STEP8. Determine Follow-up Activities for the Event

Newsletters and web site posting

Per observation and coaching
Mentoring,
Study groups
Booster session
Ongoing communication between participants and
Trainers via phone or electronic mail

Principles Guiding Training Design

Although WLP professionals have a wide variety of learning solutions to choose from, one of the
first steps in the instructional design process includes conducting a needs analysis to ensure that
what is needed can in fact be remedied with training.
When new course designers and developers first start a project, many immediately rush to work
on slides, quizzes, student workbooks, and similar material. After all, sponsors often provide
course designers and developers with the particulars: the audience, the material that the course
needs to cover, and the completion date for the project.
Although sponsors provide this information about projects, it might not be complete enough for
instructional design purposes. It might be correct. However, it might reflect an incomplete
understanding of the learners or the content. When starting a learning project, the instructional
designers first task is to verify the information he or she has received and fill in any missing
pieces through analysis. To get started, instructional designers need to understand and know the
Sponsors request
Business need underlying the project
Desired performance

 Tasks involved in performance

Learners and the influences on them
Constraints on the project.
In addition, the designer needs to be aware of some fundamental principles that underpin the
design and development of learning.
Five Steps of the Design Training Process
The ADDIE method of instructional design consists of five phases:
A- Analyze
D- Design
D- Development
I- Implementation
E- Evaluation
The ADDIE model is a framework that lists generic processes that instructional
designers and training developers use. It represents a descriptive guideline for building effective
training and performance support tools in five phases.

Analysis
Design
Development
Implementation
Evaluation

ADDIE is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) framework. Most current ISD models are
variations of the ADDIE process. Other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp ISD
models. Rapid prototyping is a commonly used alternative to this approach; rapid prototyping is
the idea of reviewing continual or formative feedback while creating instructional materials. This
model strives to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. A more
recent expression of rapid prototyping is SAM (successive approximation model).
Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories
such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning, and cognitivism help shape and define the
outcome of instructional materials
Phases of ADDIE
Analysis phase
The analysis phase clarifies the instructional problems and objectives, and identifies the learning
environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills. Questions the analysis phase addresses
include:

Who are the learners and what are their characteristics?

What is the desired new behavior?

What types of learning constraints exist?

What are the delivery options?
What are the pedagogical considerations?
What adult learning theory considerations apply?
What is the timeline for project completion?
Design phase
The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content,
subject matter analysis, lesson planning, and media selection. The design phase should be
systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of identifying, developing
and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining the project's goals. Specific means
each element of the instructional design plan must be executed with attention to details.
Development phase
In the development phase, instructional designers and developers create and assemble content
assets blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, the designers create storyboards and graphics.
If e-learning is involved, programmers develop or integrate technologies. Testers debug materials
and procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to feedback.
Implementation phase
The implementation phase develops procedures for training facilitators and learners. Training
facilitators cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing
procedures. Preparation for learners includes training them on new tools (software or hardware)
and student registration. Implementation includes evaluation of the design.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that books, hands-on equipment, tools,
CD-ROMs, and software are in place, and that the learning application or website functions.
Evaluation phase
The evaluation phase consists of two aspects: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is
present in each stage of the ADDIE process, while summative evaluation is conducted on finished
instructional programs or products.

Ten Key components for Success in Training Design

1. Collaboration: Each member of the training development team brings valuable knowledge and
experience to our group. In order to ensure that all departments benefit from training, we must
pool our knowledge in designing an exemplary training program beneficial to all employees. New
ideas develop from collaboration; we can all learn from each other.
2. Starting with the end in mind/ backward design: Before we design a training program, we
must identify the desired outcomes of our training. What is it that we expect workers to take away
from these sessions? By starting with the end in mind, we will be able to formulate goal-based
training strategies that will increase the likelihood for success.
3. Awareness of learning styles: Everyone has a style or styles of learning that he or she is most
comfortable with. Some learn better as part of a team, while some learn best when working
individually. Some prefer hands-on practical experience, while others learn better when presented
with concepts and theories. We must have continued awareness of the various learning styles of
our staff when designing training.
4. Use of a variety of learning strategies: As we are mindful of the variety of learning styles that
individuals are comfortable with, it is only logical that we attempt to cater to as many styles as is
possible in the context of our training sessions. By providing a variety of learning strategies such
as small group activities, hands-on activities, and material for individual review, we are supporting
the various ways in which our employees learn best.
5. Awareness of audience/ Relevance: Adult learners are most receptive to learning when they
are confident that the material presented is directly applicable to their personal life situation.
Specific, relevant examples need to be incorporated in the training sessions and each session
should be tailored to the individual work-interests of the department(s) attending.
6. Facilitation of learning v. pure instruction: The individual guiding the training session needs
to be a facilitator of learning rather than a didactic instructor. Individuals will quickly lose interest
in a lecture-based format of training. A facilitator guides individuals through their own learning
process.
7. Creation of authentic learning: We want our employees to truly learn what we are presenting
in training and to be able to apply knowledge gained in training to new problems that arise later.
Training sessions that rely on memorization of information or do not show applicability to different
work scenarios are destined to fail.
8. Active participation: Promoting active participation in training workshops helps to keep
attendees focused and remain interested in the information presented. When participants are given
the opportunity to ask questions, share experiences and ideas and provide solutions to problems,
they become part of the training process rather than passive listeners.
9. Use of assessment tools: Assessment is highly valuable throughout the training process.
Assessment prior to training can help us understand the state of individuals information skills and
can help us tailor our training sessions to suit the needs of those attending. Assessment after
training can help us evaluate the training we provided did we succeed in our goals? What do we
need to improve upon?

10. Evaluation: We must continually evaluate our training throughout the design process. Without
continual evaluation, we cannot expect that out intended user outcomes will be supported. If we
wait until the end of our design process to evaluate what we have created, we may become
frustrated and lose valuable time in reworking what we thought was complete. By evaluating
throughout the design process, we will save time and minimize stress.
TYPES OF COST IN TRAINING PROGRAM
Training costs can be direct and indirect.
Direct costs include salaries and benefits for all employees involved in training, including trainees,
instructors, consultants, and employees who design the program; program material and supplies;
equipment or classroom rentals or purchases; and travel costs.
Indirect costs are not related directly to the design, development, or delivery of the training
program. They include general office supplies, facilities, equipment, and related expenses; travel
and expenses not directly billed to one program; training department management and staff salaries
not related to any one program; and administrative and staff support salaries.
LESSON PLANS
A lesson plan comprises of identification of objectives and selection of appropriate contents,
materials, training strategies and evaluation techniques. It is a systematic and elastic approach to
the development of scientific concepts and skills to realize both the general and specific objectives
of science of teaching. A lesson plan is also a plan of instruction for a single training session.
The development of a lesson plan must be related to a teaching unit plan and must focus on the
behavioral objectives, contents, instructional procedures, teaching aids, evaluation techniques etc.
It must be noted that the format of a lesson plan and the written material is not of great importance.
The most important factor is that lesson planning provides an opportunity to check which of the
instructional procedures are potentially most effective for achieving learning outcomes for a days
lesson. A well-planned lesson plan reduces the anxiety and reduces a trainers operational
problems.
General principles of lesson planning
The general principles of developing an effective lesson plan can be stated as under:
1. Objectives
2. Trainees background
3. The lesson itself
1. Objectives
The following points must be considered while formulating the objectives:
a) Clarity on behavioral objectives of a lesson.
b) Translation of general objectives into behavioral objectives.
c) Available time of instruction.
d) The importance of the objectives to be achieved (for both the trainee as well as the trainer
organization).
e) Possibility of achieving behavioural objectives in the light of a trainees characteristics and
available physical features.

2. Trainees background
The lesson has to be delivered to the trainees. So, they must be taken into consideration while
planning the lessons for them. If a trainer knows the trainees well, he can facilitate the delivery
and include demonstrations, discussions, anecdotes etc. at the proper places to make the instruction
process more lively and interactive. Some of the issues worth consideration are:
(a) Previous knowledge of the trainees.
(b) Their capacity to understand.
(c) Trainees attitude towards the contents.
(d) Heterogeneity in the trainee groups
3. The lesson itself
The lesson must be motivating and make the trainees to participate in the instructional process. A
sound teaching sequence and inclusion of a variety of activities in a lesson can make it more livelily
and interesting for the trainees.
Format of a lesson plan
There is no fixed format for a lesson plan, which has been agreed upon by the educators. It depends
upon a large number of factors such as the methodology of training, level of training,
understanding and problem solving. The lesson plan must have some degree of flexibility so that
the trainer can accommodate the situational factors, which may arise at the time of instruction.
Flexibility also brings about some artistic touch in teaching because effective delivery of
knowledge is not confined to scientific principles or the use of modern teaching aids.
A format can be based on several bases such as the lecture-demonstration method, understanding
level of teaching etc. The formats are likely to be different for computer-aided instruction or in
case of modular learning. Nowdays, online learning is also becoming very popular. The lesson
formats for this mode are also different.
A general lesson format, based upon the lecture-demonstration method is shown below
Format of a lesson plan
____________________________________________________
1. General Information
a. Trainees no.
b. Theme of training
c. Theme/Topic of the session
2. Specific behavioural objectives
3. Teaching aids
4. Assumed knowledge
5. Previous knowledge testing
6. Announcement of topic
7. Presentation

____________________________________________________
Teaching Behavioural Trainers Trainees Summery
Points objectives activities activities
____________________________________________________
1.
2.
3.
___________________________________________________
8. Generalization
9. Application
10. Recapitulation
11. Assignment

Essential of a good lesson plan

A good lesson plan must provide the following to the trainees as well as the trainers:
1. Clear guidelines, which make the trainees clear on what is expected out of them and why.
2. Real world, concrete experiences of the phenomenon concerned or best suitable example.
3. An opportunity to manipulate (play) with the observations and to discuss or write about
them.
4. A chance to think over explanations individually, talk over ideas with others, test ideas
experimentally and state conclusions.
5. An opportunity to apply what has been learnt into practice
6. Solve problems with what has been learnt.
7. Draw up a conclusion at the end of the lesson.

TRAINING IMPLEMENTATION
To put training program into effect according to definite plan or procedure is called training
implementation.
Training implementation is the hardest part of the system because one wrong step can lead to the
failure of whole training program. Even the best training program will fail due to one wrong action.
Training implementation can be segregated into:
Practical administrative arrangements
Carrying out of the training
Implementing Training
Once the staff, course, content, equipments, topics are ready, the training is implemented.
Completing training design does not mean that the work is done because implementation

Phase requires continual adjusting, redesigning, and refining. Preparation is the most important
factor to taste the success.
Therefore, following are the factors that are kept in mind while implementing training program:
The trainer: The trainer need to be prepared mentally before the delivery of content. Trainer
prepares materials and activities well in advance. The trainer also set grounds before meeting with
participants by making sure that he is comfortable with course content and is flexible in his
approach.
Physical set-up: Good physical set up is pre requisite for effective and successful training program
because it makes the first impression on participants. Classrooms should not be very small or big
but as nearly square as possible. This will bring people together both physically and
psychologically. Also, right amount of space should be allocated to every participant.
Establishing rapport with participants: There are various ways by which a trainer can establish
good rapport with trainees by:
Greeting participants simple way to ease those initial tense moments
Encouraging informal conversation
Remembering their first name
Pairing up the learners and have them familiarized with one another
Listening carefully to trainees comments and opinions
Telling the learners by what name the trainer wants to be addressed
Getting to class before the arrival of learners
Starting the class promptly at the scheduled time
Using familiar examples
Varying his instructional techniques
Using the alternate approach if one seems to bog down
Reviewing the agenda: At the beginning of the training program it is very important to review
the program objective. The trainer must tell the participants the goal of the program, what is
expected out of trainers to do at the end of the program, and how the program will run. The
following information needs to be included:
Kinds of training activities
Schedule
Setting group norms
Housekeeping arrangements
Flow of the program
Handling problematic situations
APPROACHES
There are three approaches to training:
The Traditional Approach
The Experiential Approach
The Performance based Approach

The Traditional Approach:

In the traditional approach, the training staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching techniques,
assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests and evaluation. The focus in this model is intervention
by the training staff. In the experiential approach, the trainer incorporates experiences where in the
learner becomes active and influences the training process.
The Experiential Approach:
Unlike the academic approach inherent in the traditional model, experiential training emphasizes
real or stimulated situations in which the trainees will eventually operate. In this model, the
objectives and other elements of training are jointly determined by the trainers and trainees.
Trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts or resource persons.
The Performance Based Approach:
In the performance based approach based to training, goals are measured through attainment of a
given level of proficiency instead of passing grades of the trainees. Emphasis is given to acquiring
specific observable skills for a task. This performance based teacher education (PBTE) model,
developed by Elam (1971), is mostly task or skill centered and is also applicable to nonformal
educational organizations such as extension.
SEATING ARRANGEMENTS
Even if the activities of the learning session do not require changing the seating rearrangements,
there are several reasons to do so:

Learners are given a new perspective on the activity by sitting in a different part of the
room.
They get better acquainted with their peers.
Learners are not consistently punished by being at greater distances from the screen or
speakers.
Small cliques do not arisethere is nothing wrong with cliques but in some cases they can
become a problem by forcing their norms or agendas upon the entire group.

The following seating designs list some of the pros and cons of different learning rooms :
Note: In the following seating arrangements, 0 = the learners, x = the trainer, and -- equals
a table.
Traditional Seating
x
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO

Best used for short lectures to large groups

Communication tends to be one way

Trainer cannot see the learners in the back

Modified Traditional
X
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OOOO
OOOO
OOOO
OOOO
OOOO
OOOO

There is more participation

Allows the trainer to see all the learners
Reduces space between trainer and learners as trainer can move up aisle
Best used for short lectures to large groups

Horseshoe

X
O
O
O
O
O
O
OOOOO

Non-verbally encourages participation by allowing eye contact between the trainer and all
the learners
The trainer is able to move closer to each learner
Works well when all learners must be able to see a demonstration
Works good when learners will be involved in large group discussions

Modular
O
O
---- ------O | | O | |O O | | O
O | | O | |O
| |O
---- ------0
X
---- ---O | |O O | | O
O| | O| |O
---- ---O

Learners can work in small groups on exercises and projects

Communication between trainer and learners is more difficult

Trainer must move between groups during lectures and activities
Good for courses that require a lot of group work

Circle
O O
O
X
O
O
O
O
O O
O O

Most democratic and unencumbered with no status symbol

With no table each person is "totally revealed"
Subtle nonverbal communications are possible
Good for T-groups and sensitivity training
There will be conversations, shorter inputs, and more members will participate when they
sit at a round table rather than at a square table

Square
Solid
OOOO
---------O|
|O
O|
|O
O|
|O
O|
|X
---------OOOO

Hole in middle
OXOO
---------O | ------ | O
O|| ||O
O|| ||O
O | ------ | O
---------OOOO

More formality than a circle

Nobody can see all the faces of the other participants
Depending where visual aids are placed, one side may become the "head of the table"
A solid table normally encourages more conversation
Tables with a hole in the middle tends to make some people less talkative, while
encouraging others to speak for longer periods of time

Rectangle
O O O O O
---------------O|
|O
O|
|O
---------------O O x O O

The seats at the short dimensions of the table are often seen as leadership positions
If used, the learners should be forced to take distinctly different positions every now and
then (i.e. randomly shift the name cards)
Fewer people can communicate face-to-face

Scatter-Shot
OO x
O
O
O OO
O OO
O
OO
O OO
OO

May appear haphazard but good for experiential training

Permits quick change of learner focus
Produces tremendous investments of learner energy
Works well with multiple role plays
Learners can quickly form into large groups
Bad for note taking

TRAINING AIDS
Training aids are an excellent tool for getting general staff involved in discussing and
understanding the, sometimes complex, issues affecting their work - and to do so in a low impact,
low pressure, fun way. Training aids convey complex messages and ideas in a way that allows
individuals and teams to grasp them more easily.IT Governance designs and sells training aids to
help organizations teach/learn about critical IT issues including cybersecurity, information
security and data protection.
Purpose of Training Aids
The very objective of training is to help people learn, i.e. assimilate new knowledge or modifying
existing knowledge. If the process of dissemination of knowledge is supported with the help of
training aids, then the training can become very effective. Well-chosen training aids, or
instructional materials, can enhance the effectiveness of the training/learning process.
The use of training aids in learning can achieve the following:
1. Add variety to the learning process and help to maintain involvement and motivation.
2. Benefit those learners whose learning style responds better to one type of approach than
another.
3. Provide certain stimuli not available without their use.
4. Encourage interaction between the tutor and the taught.
5. Act as a valuable lesson plan to the trainer, facilitating planning and preparation before
the training session.
These advantages can only be realized in practice if the aids are chosen and used paying due regard
to:

The objectives of training.

The characteristics of the learners.
The characteristics of the various aids available.
How the aids will be integrated with other facets of training.

Planning the training aids

Careful planning is very important to achieve the objectives of any learning activity. In order to
help ensure optimum use of training aids, it is often useful for the users to ask some basic questions
of themselves:
What am I trying to achieve?
Why am I trying to achieve this?
Who will use the aids?
What are the characteristics of the users?
What is the essential content of the aids?
How will concepts be developed?
How will the aids be used?
After having considered these, the use of training aids is decided.
Common Training Aids
There are many training aids available to help the trainer to deliver successful training. They can
be classified into a number of broad categories:
(i) Printed materials - all texts, handouts and the like.
(ii) Non-projected materials - a variety of visual display materials, for example models,
photographic printers, posters, flipcharts and marker-boards.
(iii) Still projected material - overhead projector transparencies (view-foils), slides and microfilm.
(iv) Video materials - video tape, video disc, broadcast television and film.
(v) Audio materials - audiotape, record, compact disc and broadcast radio.
(vi) Computer-based materials - these may involve the application of a computer alone or a
computer used in conjunction with other materials (for example compact disc, video disc,
audiotape) thus enabling multi-media training aids to be constructed.
Some of the most commonly used training aids are:
Overhead Projection
The overhead Projector (OHP) is one of the most versatile training aids available for mass
instruction and can also be useful for use in groups. The OHP is well proven, simple, versatile and
relatively cheap. It allows the trainer to project any prepared or impromptu image onto a screen.
The image is usually drawn on acetate view foil placed on the plate of the OHP. Even a model
or real object can also be placed instead of a transparent sheet. Images can be pre-prepared or
drawn in real time.

An OHP is particularly useful to display diagrams, charts and graphs and to display real objects
(for example, small items, models, experiments, e.g. magnetic fields). It is an effective tool to
focus the attention of learners.
Advantages / Strengths of OHP

Simple to use, versatile, relatively cheap; clean and quiet.

Can be used in much the same way as a marker-board, but with the advantages of greater
clarity and the ability for the user to maintain eye-contact with the learners.
Can show 'pre-prepared materials. This allows the use of high-quality images, enables the
trainer to build-up banks of notes, diagrams, etc; and helps give confidence to both trainer
and learners.
Can be used to reveal, or build up information.
Information is generally better understood and retained if it is seen as well as heard.
Can be used with or without blackout.

Limitations / Weaknesses of OHP

Can too easily be used in ways which hinder, rather than aid, learning (see below).
Needs an electricity supply and suitable screen.
Can become monotonous if used too extensively.

Tips for successful use

The full benefit of the OHP will only be realized if adequate attention is given to:

How its use will be integrated within the training session;

The design and preparation of transparency sheets.
The way the OHP is set-up in the training room.
The ways in which the OHP is actually used.

Paper-Based Material
Paper-based materials such as handouts, textbooks, charts, maps, diagrams, etc. are the most
commonly used training material for in training within mass, group and individual instruction.
However, little thought is sometimes given to their design, preparation and use. Printed materials
can serve a number of valuable purposes, for example:
1. As a complete learning medium (e.g. in some individualized training systems; the textbook);
2. To support other training aids (e.g. OHP, audio, tape-slide, the trainers verbal messages);
3. As a note-taking guide:
4. To encourage interaction;
5. To provide prescribed reading.
How the printed material is used is crucial. Distributing a handout which is subsequently not used
or referred to is less than useless! As with all training aids, the use of printed material must be
carefully planned and integrated into the training session.

Advantages of paper based material

1. It is simple to use, versatile, relatively cheap, clean and quiet.
2. It provides learners with information they can take away.
3. It can show pre-prepared materials; this allows the use of high quality images and enables
the trainer to build up banks of notes, diagrams, etc.
4. It can be used in a wide variety of ways to support mass, group and individual instruction.
5. It can be used to encourage interaction.
6. It can allow large amounts of information to be disseminated relatively quickly (this can
also be a severe disadvantage!).
7. It can be used to support the majority of other training aids.
Limitations of paper based material
1. It has the risk of hindering, rather than helping the learning.
2. Too much of the information can be a problem.
3. It can become monotonous if used extensively.
Tips for successful use
The full benefit of paper-based materials will only be realized if adequate attention is given to the
following issues:
1. It must be decided on how their use will be integrated within the training session;
2. Their layout and preparation must be planned carefully.
3. The ways in which these will actually be used must be specified.
Handouts
Handouts are one of the most commonly used paper based material. They can take many forms,
from straightforward blocks of text to mind-maps, information maps and interactive handouts.
Some types of the handouts are:
Mind-maps
Mind-maps, or spray diagrams, are an alternative to linear notes. They can be useful for both
presenting information and for note-taking by learners, having the advantage that connections and
links between parts of the information can be easily shown. To produce successful mind-maps
takes practice; their particular style also tends to be personal to the writer, what is optimum for
one may be less than so for another.
Information mapping
Information mapping is a way of structuring the presentation of information to make it more easily
comprehended by the reader. Each 'map' presents one idea or concept, is laid out in a particular
way and is cross-referenced to other maps or sources of information.
Interactive handouts
Many handouts tend to be purely presentational. However, the ones that encourage some
involvement on the part of the reader are likely to encourage more effective learning. The aims of
interactive handouts are to:
1. Encourage learners to become involved in their learning;
2. Help the reader learn; and

3. Help the reader retain information.

Evidence suggests that once the brain has become activated, it is more likely to retrieve not only
the information presented, but also the thought patterns, which led to it. To make a successful
transfer from short- to long-term memory requires reiteration by the learner (out loud, on paper, in
buzz groups, etc.) within about 30 minutes. By writing in his or her own words, the learner is more
likely to retain what has been learned.
Flipcharts
Flipcharts are the large sheets of paper hung from a support bar or easel so that they can be flipped
backward and forwards and can be used in a similar way to marker-boards and overhead projectors.
They can be used to display pre-prepared sheets or can be written on in real time. Some common
uses of the flipcharts are:
1. To show the structure and objectives of the training session so that the learners know where
they are going.
2. To list major points and to draw attention to key words, phrases, etc., to provide a focus
for what is being discussed.
3. To collect and display points and opinions from the learners (if using, for example buzzgroups or pyramiding, the learners can record feedback on flipchart paper which can be
immediately displayed).
4. To display diagrams, charts and graphs.
Advantages of flip charts
1. These are simple to use, versatile, cheap, clean and quiet.
2. The sheets can be removed and displayed around the room.
3. They can be used to reveal and build-up information in much the same way as an OHP.
4. These can be completed easily by learners themselves for later display (e.g. working in
groups).
5. Some people find it easier to write on paper than on OHP acetate. Flipcharts can provide a
useful alternative.
Limitations of flip charts
1. The size severely limits the amount of information, which can be put on one sheet.
2. They can encourage writing/diagrams too small to be clearly seen.
3. The presenter may need to turn away from the learners when writing.
4. Some people find it more difficult to write on flipcharts than on OHP acetate.
The full benefits of flipcharts will only be realized if adequate attention is given how their use will
be integrated within the training session; and also their design and layout of each sheet.
Marker Boards
The use of marker boards (whiteboards or chalkboards) is very common, particularly in mass /
group instruction. White-boards have the advantage of being cleaner and are generally clearer than
chalkboards. In addition, many whiteboards are metallic, allowing objects to be affixed with
magnets.

The majority of the applications of marker-boards can be fulfilled as successfully, and possibly
more conveniently, by the overhead projector. Much of the information previously given about the
OHP also applies to marker-boards.
Some typical uses of the marker-boards are:
1. To show the structure and objectives of the whole training session so that the learners know
the direction of the training.
2. To list major points and to draw attention to keywords, phrases, etc. and to provide a focus
for what is being discussed by the trainer.
3. To collect and display points and opinions from the learners.
4. To focus the attention of learners.
Advantages of marker boards
1. Simple to use, versatile, cheap, clean (whiteboards) and quiet.
2. Information is generally better understood and retained if it is seen as well as heard.
3. More clean to use as compared to blackboards.
Limitations of marker boards
1. If used improperly, there is a risk to hinder, rather than aid, learning.
2. They can easily become monotonous if used too extensively.
3. The user needs to turn away from the learners when writing and the speaking is hindered.
4. Some people find it difficult to write legibly on marker-boards.
5. It can be more time consuming as well.
As was in the case of other training aids, full benefit of a marker-board will only be realized if
adequate attention is given to how its use will be integrated within the training sessions; and the
ways in which the board is actually used.
Electronic marker-boards
Electronic marker-boards are generally small (A0 or A1size) with whiteboards, which can be
written on with pens just as on a normal board. However, the image can quickly be transferred to
paper so as to produce a permanent black and white record of what is written. Electronic markerboards are particularly useful in small group instruction where learners can be give instant copies
of the boards content; for example, when brainstorming or collecting feedback from buzz-groups.
Their main disadvantage is cost.
Audio
The use of audio devises as a training aid is increasingly becoming popular. Audio recordings can
be used in mass, group and individual instruction. Tape (both cassette and reel-to-reel), compact
disc and Vinyl records are all capable of good quality reproduction. The computer-based audio is
fast becoming very popular nowadays. Some typical uses for audio-based training aids are:
1. To bring real sounds into the training room e.g. music, conversation and discussion etc.,
sound of mechanical processes and the like can be invaluable to facilitate learning.
2. To replay off-air broadcasts. However, due care of the copyright laws must be taken.

3. To act as a vehicle for managing or guiding learning; for example guiding learners working
alone or in groups through specific tasks, in much the same way as a trainer would.
4. To recording interviews, discussions or role-play.
5. To play speech and record learner responses for later analysis, particularly in language
learning.
6. To record the trainer in his or her normal work, useful as an aid to evaluation.
Although the use of audio play-back is widespread in everyday life, in a training situation its full
potential will only be realized if adequate attention is given to how its use will be integrated within
the training; and the quality and audibility of the audio.
Advantages
1. Simple to use, relatively cheap.
2. In certain circumstances (for example, music) audio is the only appropriate medium to
convey the required information.
3. Can stimulate interest.
Limitations

It is useful only for presenting the audio information.

It requires appropriate ambience, equipment and an electricity supply.

Photographic Slides
Photographic slides are a useful method of providing visual illustrations to support mass group or
individual instruction. Slides are commercially available or can be produced specially by
photographing actual scenes, systems or material carried on other media (be aware of copyright
laws). Some uses for photographic slides are:
1. To provide illustrations where clarity and high quality are important; for example, in
photographs.
2. Where visual impact is important.
3. In professional presentations, quality slides generally impress.
Advantages
1. Once prepared, they are simple to use.
2. High quality and full colour slides are easy and relatively cheap to produce and can have a
high impact.
3. Can show complex diagrams. However care should be taken on not displaying too much
detail as this can distract the learners.
4. Can be used for mass instruction via a projector and group, or individualized instruction
via a viewer or back-projection unit.
Limitations
1. If using a projector (for example in mass-instruction) blackout may be necessary, thus
making it difficult for learners to take notes.
2. It can be less flexible than the overhead projector, because sequencing cannot easily be
changed on a majority of projectors.
3. Unless using equipment utilizing two or more projectors, the pauses between slides and
abrupt changes of visual images can be annoying; fades and build-up of information cannot
effectively be achieved.

Tips for successful use

The full benefit of slides will only be realized if adequate attention is given to:
1. How their use will be integrated within the training.
2. Their sequencing.
3. Their design, preparation and quality.
4. How they are actually used.
If slides are assembled for use in a carousel projector (or back-projector for small group viewing),
their sequence will be fixed unless a sophisticated random-access projector is available. Therefore,
even greater attention needs to be paid to sequencing and integration
Synchronized Audio and Slides
Synchronized audio and slide (or tape-slide) presentations involve the use of a slide projector
which is linked to a specially coded audio tape, the tape both presenting audio information and
controlling the automatic changing of slides. Alternatively, a computer can be used to control
sophisticated multi-projector audio-visual presentations. Tape-slide presentations can be useful in
all types of learning systems, a projector being used for mass instruction and groups, and a backprojector with an integrated audio-tape for small groups and individual instruction. Much of the
information presented under Photographic Slides and Audio is also applicable to tape-slide.
Advantages
1. Relatively straightforward to use.
2. High-quality full-colour slides can have a greater impact than video.
3. Can be used unattended at displays, exhibitions, etc.
Limitations
1. Time consuming if being self-prepared.
2. If using a projector (e.g. in mass instruction) blackout is necessary, thus making it difficult
for learners to take notes.
3. Less easy to set up than a video and TV.
4. Requires suitable equipment, including a synchronization unit to link the projector and
audio tape.
Planning and designing linked audio and slides
When planning to use multiple-media presentations, it is even more important to ensure that the
planning and design considerations noted at the start of this chapter are taken into account. Once
the objectives, characteristics of the intended learners, content, etc., has been decided, then the
basic steps in producing a simple tape-slide presentation are:
1. Produce a story-board for the presentation, both slides and audio.
2. Obtain the appropriate slides; if slides are to be taken, then always allow time to take more
than you plan to use, and to retake those that are not satisfactory.
3. Assemble the slides into the required sequence.
4. Script the audio, including the length of time each slide/associated audio will last, pauses,
etc.
5. Record the audio, including pauses, using the highest-quality equipment available; it is
helpful to view the slides as you are recording.
6. Add synchronizing pulses to the tape at the appropriate places where slide-change is
required.

Video
Video is a powerful training aid increasing in-popularity in all types of instruction. The production
of video material is beyond the scope of this chapter; some of the texts noted in the bibliography
give further details. However, the services of a knowledgeable person, or attendance on a course,
is recommended to anyone planning to produce video materials for the first time. Here, only the
use of pre-prepared video is considered.
The full benefit of video will only be realized if adequate attention is given to how its use will be
integrated within the training session; and the ways in which the video is actually used. Some uses
for video
1. To bring a wide range of concrete examples to the learners; particularly useful to stimulate
interest, provide an overview, present material for discussion, etc.
2. Can be used to display almost any visual messages (for example, computer-generated
graphics in place of the overhead projector).
3. To record, and later play back for analysis and discussion, a wide range of training activities;
for example, role-play, simulations, micro-teaching.
4. As a magnification medium to display small objects, processes, etc., to a large group; for
example, microscope work, chemical reactions, machinery.
5. Combined with a computer, interactive video opens a wide range of interactive training
possibilities.
Advantages
1. Versatile (within the obvious limits of the medium).
2. Excellent for displaying movement.
3. A wide variety of commercially available materials (if recording off air, consider
copyright).
4. Used appropriately, can provide an excellent stimulus to learning.
Limitations
1. Watching uninterrupted video generally becomes a passive activity with little learning
takes place.
2. Equipment can be expensive, particularly video projectors for use in mass instruction.
3. Video projectors require blackout.
Computer Based Aids
Computer based training aids are becoming very popular because of the versatility, economy, ease
of preparation etc. There are several software available, which can make the presentation process
very lively and interesting. For example, MS Office contains PowerPoint presentation software,
which allows the users to make the slides in which the text can be supplemented with the visuals
and pictures. It allows the use of multiple colours and also enables the special effects by way of
animation etc. The slides can be integrated with audio and other related tools to make them more
lively and interactive. The slides prepared on a computer can be projected to a large number of
audiences with the help of LCD projector. The only limitation of this is that LCD is an expensive
equipment and may not be available everywhere.

In addition to the presentation software, online learning is another very potent learning aid, which
enables the access of learning material to the audience, who are not even physically present at the
place of learning.
TEACHING AND FACILITATION SKILLS
According to Gage, "Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior
potential of another person."
Edmund Amidon defined it as-" Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room
talk which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity."
Brubacher," Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which an individual
will seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so."
Skinner- Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement."
Ryans- "Teaching is concerned with the activities which are concerned with the guidance or
direction of the learning of others."
General Principles of teaching
These are general in nature and have emerged from general experiences. Some of the general
principles are:
(i) Principle of definite aim: Training should start with a definite aim. It must be well planned
and should not be adhoc. There must be a high degree of coherence between the objectives and
methodology of teaching, only then will training become more effective.
(ii) Principle of activity: This means that training is effective only when the trainees are made to
do the task. Learning by doing brings about the desired behavioural modification easily and the
trainees also exhibit better recall of what has been taught to them. Hands on learning means more
participation of the trainees, at the level of cognitive domain as well as the activity domain. This
principle can be applied in all the settings and at all levels. Probably this is the reason why most
professional trainers make use of simulation, case study approach and other such techniques, where
there is a high involvement of the trainees.
(iii) Principle of correlation: This principle implies that the trainer must correlate the learning
with the actual life and also with other subjects. This gives an impression that the training has an
actual application and does not confine to the textbooks. This makes the training more practical in
its approach. Relating with real life experiences, which a trainee experiences daily in his/her life
makes him understand the concepts very easily. There is better recall of the learning activity.
(iv) Principle of planning. : The importance of planning has been discussed at length in many
other lessons. Planning involves selection, division and revision, as explained below:
Selection

Selection means that the teaching material and the teaching aids must be selected very carefully.
Their selection is usually based on the instructional objectives, a trainers ability to impart the
knowledge and a trainees capacity to understand and assimilate the subject matter.
Division
Division means breaking the chosen subject matter into convenient and meaningful units in order to make
it more understandable. This technique of dividing the subject matter into units and sub-units facilitates the
teaching-learning process. Without proper division, teaching may remain indefinite, incoherent, confused
and less comprehendible. The matter arranged and selected should be properly graded and divided
according to the trainees standard of attainment.

Revision
The assimilation of knowledge entails proper drill and practice. Revision helps in the assimilation
and helps the trainer to test the understanding of the trainees. Revision of recapitulation of the
subject matter is a continuous process and must be planned while planning how a training session
is to be conducted.
(v) Principle of flexibility and elasticity: Training cannot be a rigid and stereotype activity. It
must be flexible to accommodate the environmental stimuli. No two trainees or the trainers are not
the same, nor are tow training climates and setting the same. So, the training schedules must be
flexible enough to accommodate the resourcefulness, originality and creativity of the trainer.
(vi) Principle of experience: The past experiences of the trainees as well as the trainers provide
the necessary experience for better learning. The objectives can be set according to these
experiences.
(vii) Principle of trainee centeredness: The trainees are the core of any training exercise. So,
they must be studied while designing any training programme.
(viii) Principle of involvement: Training can become effective if there is a high involvement of
the trainees. The instructional material and all other facilities have to be designed to secure better
involvement of the trainees.
(ix) Principle of remedial training: Training can be diagnostic as well as remedial. It can suggest
remedies to various problems faced by the trainees. The trainer should remove the doubts of the
trainees. He should understand their difficulties and try to remove them.
(x) Principle of progressiveness: Training must be progressive. It shall be discussed later in the
lesson that training must move from simple to complex subject. This implies that there should be
a trend towards progressiveness. At the level of the trainees also, it must show a progressive
improvement in their performance. Slow and steady improvement is better than a rapid learning
and then forgetting everything at the end of the training session.
(xi) Principle of democracy: By virtue of position, trainer enjoys a superior position over the trainees,
but in order to have an effective training, proper democratic principles must be followed. There should be
a high degree of participation of everybody in the planning and conduct of a training programme. Proper
feedback must be taken objectively by the trainers. The trainers must treat all the trainees as equal and
should pay equal attention to all of them. There should be no biases of preferences to some individuals or
groups of individuals.

MAXIMS OF TEACHING
Besides the principles of good training, educators have formulated certain maxims, which can be
used for making the training more effective. These maxims guides on how to proceed while
imparting any training. The common maxims of teaching are:
(i) Proceed from known to unknown
(ii) Proceed from simple to complex
(iii) Proceed from concrete to abstract
(iv) Proceed from particular to general
(v) Proceed from analysis to synthesis
(vi) Proceed from whole to parts
(i) Proceed from known to unknown :The trainees should proceed progressively from known
to unknown. The law of working of the mind is that mind interprets new knowledge in terms of
the old. Hence, a trainer should not introduce the new topics suddenly. He should start from known
facts and then move towards the unknown or the new concepts. This maxim economizes the
trainers efforts and facilitates the learning process.
(ii) Proceed from simple to complex: Just as the above principle, a trainer should proceed from
simple to complex subjects progressively. Easy ideas are well understood and form the basis of
understanding. The difficult ideas can be understood in light of the easier concepts.
(iii) Proceed from concrete to abstract: The concrete or tangible facts are well under the
knowledge of the trainees. So, they are better understood by them. The abstract facts are relatively
more difficult to grasp. Hence, a progressive learning from concrete to abstract can make the entire
process of learning easier.
(iv) Proceed from particular to general: Trainees might have difficulty in understanding the
generalizations. So, the trainer can start with some case-studies of a few examples, which can be
extrapolated to become general theories or facts. Particular is an inductive method while general is a
deductive method and both have to go side by side. However, process of induction is easier and it is better
if it is used before the deductive approach.

(v) Proceed from analysis to synthesis: Analysis makes a trainee more competent in his work as
he is able to solve complexities of work place. Synthesis is a step higher to make the knowledge
more definite and fixed. Effective training starts from analysis and ends up enabling the trainees
to synthesize the whole knowledge in their minds.
(vi) Proceed from whole to parts: Understanding the whole system might become difficult for
the trainees. So, it is better that it is understood in parts. Parts have lesser complexities and can be
comprehended easily by the trainees.
From the above principles and maxims, it is clear that effective training is not a predesigned
prescription, but depends upon a large number of factors. The general principles and maxims do
provide guidelines for making learning easier, but these are not substitute to a trainers creativity,
ingenuity and skill of delivering the knowledge across to the trainees.

Facilitation
To facilitate, is to help something (usually a process) move along. The word derives from "facile"
which is French for "easy". To facilitate, then, is literally to make something easier. Through
facilitation, the instructor provides subtle "boosts" to help participants through a series of
experiences which combine to create a desired effect.
Facilitate does not mean "solving a problem" or "doing it for someone". It means doing something
that makes a process run a little better. When a situation is too difficult, a facilitator is there to
help. When a student or a group are having desirable experiences, the facilitator can be less
obtrusive. In general, the goals of facilitation often include participants analyzing and better
understanding their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. However, facilitation can also be understood
to mean all the behaviors and actions of a teacher, instructor, trainer, mentor, etc. which influence
the experience of the individuals and the group. This includes subtle, unconscious behaviors of
the instructor which can have profound influences on what unfolds.
FACILITATION SKILLS: One of the most important sets of skills for leaders and members are
facilitation skills. These are the "process" skills we use to guide and direct key parts of our
organizing work with groups of people such as meetings, planning sessions, and training of our
members and leaders.
Whether it's a meeting (big or small) or a training session, someone has to shape and guide the
process of working together so that you meet your goals and accomplish what you've set out to do.
While a group of people might set the agenda and figure out the goals, one person needs to
concentrate on how you are going to move through your agenda and meet those goals effectively.
This is the person we call the "facilitator."
Basic Skills

Making everyone feel comfortable and valued

Encouraging participation
Preventing and managing conflict
Listening and observing
Guiding the group
Ensuring quality decisions
Ensuring outcome-based meetings

Feel Comfortable: Make everyone feel comfortable and valued

Get to know them

Use body language
Thank the organization, then check understanding
Thank participants

Encourage participation:

Use open-ended questions

Divide into small groups.
Consult the group
Use visual aids
Encourage Silent members

Increase Understanding

Use team-building activities.

Set ground rules.
Search for agreement.
Agree to disagree.

Listen and observe:

Listen actively.
Scan the room.
Do not make assumption
Check for understanding
Rephrase their responses
Summary
Reap
Write it down

Guide the group:

Delegate a timekeeper.
Refer back to the meeting objectives and agenda.
Stray from the agenda when necessary.
Challenge their assumption
Encourage them to go beyond (creative tension)
Instill the concept of Effectiveness
Instill the concept of Initiative
Ask about Plan B and even Plan C
Ask them about short term, long term, milestone and continuity plan
Use a parking lot

Ensure quality decisions:

Remind the group of decision deadlines.

Review criteria and supporting information.
Review the decision-making process.
Poll the group before major decisions.
Review the decision.

Ensure Commitment to Action:

Review objectives for each agenda item.

Record decisions.
Develop an action plan.
Ensure the team leader follow up

Teaching vs. facilitation

Teaching

Facilitation

Teaching starts from teacher's own knowledge

Facilitator starts by assessing the knowledge of

the group

Teaching follows a pre-set curriculum

Facilitators addresses issues identified by the

group or their community and adopt new ideas to
the needs and culture of the group

Teachers delivers lectures to a group of students

usually from the front of the room.

Facilitators uses practical, participatory methods,

e.g. group discussions and activities in which all
members of the group participate

Information flows in just one direction, from teacher

to student

Information flows in many different directions

between the facilitator and individual group
members

Teachers are concerned with students understanding

the right answer

Facilitators encourage and value different views

Teachers have a formal relationship with students,

based on the status of a teacher

Facilitators are considered as an equal, and

develop relationships based on trust, respect and
a desire to serve