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Tonicity is measure of the osmotic pressure of two solutions separated by a semi permeable membrane.
Isotonic solutions:
Two solutions are said to be iso-osmotic or isotonic if they exert the same osmotic pressure when separated by a
semi permeable membrane.
Example: 0.9 % solutions of NaCl is said to be isotonic solutions.
Hypotonic solutions:
Solutions with osmotic pressure lower than that of the body fluids or of 0.9% NaCl solution are called hypotonic
solution.
Hypertonic solutions:
Those solutions having a higher osmotic pressure than the body fluids or of 0.9% NaCl solutions are called
hypertonic solution.
Interface:
The boundary between two phases is generally described as an interface.
Surface:
When one of the phases is a gas or a vapor and the other a liquid or solid, the outer space of the phases which is
contacted or exposed with the outer space of other phases is called surface of that phase.
Absorption:
Absorption is the incorporation of a substance in one state into another of a different state.
Adsorption:
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, biomolecules or molecules of gas, liquid, or dissolved solid particles to a
surface.
Surface tension:
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force.
Solubilization:
The process by which water insoluble or partly soluble substances are brought into aqueous solution by
incorporation into micelles is termed as solubilization.
Polymorphism:
Polymorphism is the ability of a compound(or element) to crystallize as more than one distinct crystalline species
with different internal lattices.
or
Polymorphism (or crystal polymorphism) is a phenomenon related to the solid state; it is the ability of a compound
in the solid state to exist in different crystalline forms having the same chemical composition. Substances that exist
in a non-crystalline solid state are said to be amorphous.
Rateofreaction,ZeroOrderReaction,Firstorderreaction,
Secondorderreaction
Rate of reaction:
The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the velocity with which a reactant or reactants undergo chemical
change.
Zero Order Reaction:
If the rate of a reaction is independent of the concentration of the reacting species, the reaction is said to be a zeroorder reaction.
First order reaction:
A first order reaction is one where the rate depends on the concentration of the species to the first power.
Second order reaction:
A second order reaction is one where the rate depends on the concentration of the species to the second power.
Buffersolutions,Bufferaction,Buffercapacity,Factors
affectingpHofBufferSolutions,Biologicalbuffers,
PharmaceuticalBuffers
Buffer solutions:
Buffer solutions are solutions of compounds or mixtures of compounds which resist change in their pH upon
addition of small quantities of an acid or alkali.
Buffer action:
The ability of certain solutions to resist change in their pH upon addition of an acid or a base is known as the
Buffer action
Buffer capacity:
The buffer capacity of a solution is a measure of its magnitude of resistance to change in pH on addition of an acid
or base. It is also referred to as buffer index, buffer efficiency, buffer coefficient or buffer value.
-------------pH
= Buffer Capacity
Pharmaceutical Buffers:
1. Buffers in tablet formulation: Sodium bicarbonate
Magnesium carbonate
Sodium citrate
2.
3.
4.
Rheology,Viscosity,ShearingStress,DispersedSystem,
ColloidalDispersion,Colloids&CoarseDispersion.
Rheology:
Rheology is the study of the flow and deformation properties of the matter.
Viscosity:
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to flow or movement.
1.
2.
1.
2.
According to flow, fluids are of two types. They are:Newtonian Fluids &
Non- Newtonian Fluids.
Newtonian Fluids:- Liquids which follow Newtons law of viscous flow are known as newtonians liquids.
Non-Newtonian Fluids:- Liquids which do not follow Newtons law are known as non-newtonian fluids.
Example: Colloidal dispersion, emulsions, suspensions and ointments.
Shearing Stress:
The force per unit area F/A required to bring about flow is called the Shearing Stress
The flow properties of Non-Newtonian Materials are three types. They are:-
1.
2.
3.
Plastic flow
Pseudo plastic flow
Dilatants flow.
Dispersed System:
A dispersed system is defined as a system in which one phase, the dispersed phase, is distributed uniformly as
particles throughout another phase, called the sispersion medium or continuous phase.
Colloidal Dispersion:
If the particles have a size ranging from 1 nm to 1 m, which is dispersed in the continuous phase, this system is
called colloidal dispersion.
Colloids:
The particles have a size ranging from 1 nm to 1 m is called colloids.
Because of their large surface area, colloids show greater efficiency for absorption or adsorption.
Coarse Dispersion:
The size of the dispersed particles ranging from 1 m to 100 m, which is dispersed in the continuous phase, this
system is called coarse dispersion.
Parts,Molarity,Molality,Normality,Moles,Molefraction,
Mill/equivalentsandnormalsolutions,Percent,ppm,ppb,ppt&
ppq.
Parts
Pharmacopoeias express some concentrations in terms of the number of 'parts' of solute
dissolved in a stated number of 'parts' of solution.
Molarity
[Example: Molecular weight of NaOH is 40 (Na=23; O=16; H=1). When the unit of this number
is expressed as gram and when this 40 gm of NaOH is dissolved in 1 liter solution this is called
1 molar NaOH Solution
Molality
[Example: Molecular weight of NaOH is 40 (Na=23; O=16; H=1). When the unit of this number
is expressed as gram and when this 40 gm of NaOH is dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent this is
called 1 molal NaOH Solution
Normality
[Example: Molecular weight H2SO4 is 98 (and equivalent weight of H2SO4 is 46. When the unit
of this number is expressed as gram and when this 46 gm of H 2SO4 is dissolved in 1 liter
solution this is called 1 normal H2SO4 Solution
Moles
: When the molecular weight of a compound expressed as mass and unit is gram, then
this amount is called as mole of that compound.
Mole fraction
This is often used in theoretical considerations and is defined as the number of moles of solute
divided by the total number of moles of solute and solvent, i.e.:
n1
mole fraction of solute ( x1 )
= ----------n1 + n2
where n\ and n2 are the numbers of moles of solute and solvent, respectively.
ionic weight in mg
1mEq = ---------------------------valency
Percent:
One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent (%) symbol and denotes one
part per 100 parts, one part in 102
ppm:
One part per moillion (ppm) denotes one part per 1,000,000 parts, one part in 10 6; One ppm
is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per liter of water (mg/l) or 1 milligram of
something per kilogram solid (mg/kg) (1/1,000,000)
ppb:
One part per billion (ppb) denotes one part per 1,000,000,000 parts, one part in 10 9, One
ppb represents one microgram of something per liter of water (ug/l), or one microgram of
something per kilogram of solid (ug/kg). (1/1,000,000,000)
ppt:
One part pertrillion (ppt) denotes one part per 1,000,000,000,000 parts, one part in 10 12
(1/1,000,000,000,000).
ppq:
One part per quadrillion (ppq) denotes one part per 1,000,000,000,000,000 parts, one part
in 1015 (1/1,000,000,000,000,000).
Dissolution,Factorsaffectingtherateofdissolution,Solubility
&TypesofSolubility.
Dissolution and Solubility:
Solution: Solution is the homogenous mixture of solute and solvent.
Generally the largest portion of the solution is called solvent and the smallest portion which
is dissolved is the solvent is called solute.
Dissolution: The transfer of molecules or ions from a solid state into solution is known as
dissolution.
Factors
2.
3.
4.
Temperature
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
pH
Solubility: The solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of that substance which
can dissolve in a certain amount of solvent definition
A good solvent is usually based on the 'like dissolves like' principle, that is, a solute dissolves
best in a solvent with similar chemical properties. The concept traditionally follows two rules:
1.
2.
2.
A saturated solution must be obtained before any solution is removed for analysis.
3.
The method of separating a sample of saturated solution from undissolved solute must be
satisfactory.
4.
5.
Types
of
Description
Approximate
weight of solvent
(ml) necessary to
Solubility:
dissolve
solute
of
<1
Freely soluble
Between 1 and 10
Solvent between 1 ml to 10
ml is required to dissolve 1
gm of solute
Soluble
Between 10 and 30
Solvent between 10 ml to 30
ml is required to dissolve 1
gm of solute
Sparingly
soluble
Slightly soluble
Between
1000
Very
soluble
> 10 000
Very soluble
slightly
Practically
insoluble
100
and
Dimensional Specification:
The following specifications apply to Capsugel hard gelatin capsules.
Weight:
The average capsule weight of an order is estimated by a representative sample average of 100 capsules falling
within the limits given bellow:
(values in mg for one capsules)
Size
Target (mg)
Limits (mg)
000
163
150 176
00
122
112 132
0 el
112
103 121
0
96
86 105
1
77
69 85
2
62
56 68
3
49
44 54
4
39
36 44
5
27
24 - 36
A moisture content of 14% to 14.5% is assumed upper and lower limits are given at the 99.9% confidence level.
In empty hard gelatin capsule production wall thickness is carefully monitored and controlled by the regulation of
gelatin solution viscosity. However, since the physical properties of raw gelatin are not constant. Solution density
may vary and affect the resultant capsule weight. Therefore the above target weight should not be used as tare
weights in capsule filling samples from the actual batch being filled should be taken as tare weights.
Capsule capacity:
The average capsule volume and filled capsule weight capacity for typical powder dose densities is as follows:
Capsule
Capsule
Capsule weight capacity in mg
Size
Volume ML
Powder dose density
of Water
0.6 g/cc
0.8 g/cc
1.0 g/cc
1.2 g/cc
000
1.37
822
1096
1370
1644
00
0.95
520
760
950
1140
0 el
0.78
458
624
780
936
0
0.68
408
544
680
816
1
0.50
300
400
500
600
2
0.37
222
296
370
444
3
0.30
180
240
300
360
4
0.21
126
168
210
252
5
0.13
78
104
130
156
The above data are to be considered as approximations since filling product variables and filling machine type can
significantly affect the capsule weight capacity.