Running head: CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

Case Studies for Successful Low Salinity Flooding

Name

Professors Name

Course

Date

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

Abstract
Many reservoir engineers are facing a major challenge in the best technique of producing
very large oil reserves. Some of the common techniques employed to effect high productivity are
the development and use of EOR methods and giant non-recoverable hydrocarbon resources.
These methods have been insignificant prompting engineers to device modern techniques such as
the low salinity water flooding process. Studies have, however, have shown uncertainty in the
mechanism of improving oil recovery because of limited knowledge in fluid-rock interaction
system. This work reviews various case studies that show success in oil field production through
the process of low salinity flooding. Different forms of flooding process like Pore volume
injection are considered, and results stipulated and hence behavior of the reservoirs.
Executive summary
In the past one decade, there has been an intensive study by different groups on the use of
low salinity waterflooding as an in-expensive technique in enhanced oil recovery (Webb et al.
2008). Research has, thus, hiked in the past five years as more researchers have shown interest in
related research. The use of water flooding as an improved oil recovery technique is widely
being used around the world. It has been deduced that injecting low-salinity water can improve
oil recovery than in high salinity injection. This new procedure is highly accepted due to its low
costs and simplicity. The case studies have either used synthetic brine or crude oil to determine
the efficiency of low salinity in both secondary and tertiary oil recovery levels (Alagic et al.
2011)
Key words: Low salinity, waterflooding, injection, enhanced oil recovery, wettability, water-wet,
oil-wet, saturated, aged and unaged cores.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

Literature review
There have been several publications on the consequence of low salinity water flooding
in oil field production. Most of these works are experimental with few related modeling works.
Many study cases have been conducted to establish the enhanced effect of oil production in lowsalinity flooding.
1.0 Case 1: Effect of crude oil aging on low salinity and low salinity surfactant flooding
1.1 Introduction
The work investigates the effect of joint low salinity water injection and flooding with
surfactant on the extent of recovering oil from Berea sandstones. Four sandstone cores were
subjected to core displacement tests. Two cores were tested in their natural state while the other
two were put under wide-ranging oil aging at high temperatures. The two cores were then
directed to different flooding steps and the results deduced in relation to oil recovery, ion
analysis, pH, and turbidity. The tests gave positive results in both cases of combined process
low-salinity injection with surfactant flooding and low salinity water injection.
1.2 Materials and methods
Sea water was initially used as high salinity water, and a 0.5 percent weight of NaCl used
as low salinity brine. The surfactant formulation used was an internal olefin sulfonate. The
surfactant and NaCl were mixed at a 1:1 ration alongside a co-solvent.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

1.2.1 Dynamic core displacement experiments

The four cores labeled B1 to B4 were dried at 700C to a given weight. The cores were
then mounted in holders with a confining pressure of 30bars, mixed with sea water to saturation,
then put to equilibrium at a medium temperature. The initial water saturation (connate water)
measurements were then recorded through consecutive injection of viscous mineral oil. It is then
noted that the pressure drops across the bars did not go beyond 20bars. The resultant solution
was then continuously flooded in the reverse direction for 5PV. The flooding was to help acquire
a homogeneous distribution of water in the cores. The oil was later replaced with crude oil. Cores
B3 and B1 were left to age for three weeks at 900C, then injected with fresh crude oil in either
direction. The other cores were not subjected to aging and were used in their natural form
(Alagic et al. 2011).
The two flooding operations were then performed on each core. Resultant oil saturation
after the flooding was determined when the values of water curves both stable and high over
time. With these results, a combined low salinity and surfactant flood was then adopted and
carried out through consecutive injections until stable and high water cuts were determined. In
the case of low salinity injection, an injection with monovalent ions only was chosen to
determine a maximum change in divalent ions concentration between seawater and the brine
with low salinity. Furthermore, for the collective low salinity and surfactant step, the salinity of
brine was lowered by adding a surfactant (sulfonate). It is deduced from other studies that
sulfonate surfactant solutions properties are highly enhanced in cases of no divalent cations,
favoring the use of NaCl as low salinity brine solute.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

Similar flooding environments like displacement of a stable environment, ambient

temperatures, and a stable flooding rate were maintained in all floods. Another regulated
condition was a 5bar backpressure applied to cub gas development in the light ends of the crude
oil. Pressure drop was closely observed in all experiments through pressure transducers ate the
inlet and outlets of the core. Other sampled properties were pH, inductively coupled plasma, UV
spectroscopy, and interfacial tension.

1.3 Results and discussions

i)

Low salinity water injections

The results for continuous LS water injection in the initial water saturation stages were a

total oil recovery 48% OOIP for B3 and 56.1% OOIP for B1 both of which were aged. Before
the breakthrough water stage, a considerable amount of oil of about 41.2% and 47.8% for B3 and
B1 respectively was produced, followed by a gradual increase in oil production for the next LS
water injections. Pressure change recordings across the two cores indicated a significant rise in
pressure just before water breakthrough, accompanied by a stable and constant pressure change.
For the unaged cores B2 and B4, total oil recoveries were 50.8% and 45.1% respectively.
It can be noted that oil recoveries from unaged core were quite lower than those of the aged ones
for a similar range of permeability. This change in results is due to a difference in core
sensitivities to low salinity waterflooding (Alagic et al. 2011).
Most studies have confirmed that the alteration of wettability with a related decrease in
crude oil water wetness can be improved in the aging process at high temperatures. There is a

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

systemic decrease in oil permeability through the initial water saturation, before and after aging
of the aged cores. The unaged cores indicate low end-point relative water permeability which is a
characteristic water-wet media. Caution should be exercised to determine the difference between
strongly water-wet system and not strongly water-wet systems since their feature are relatively
similar.
ii)

Combined low salinity water injection with surfactant flooding

Introducing a surfactant in the low salinity injection recovers a considerable amount of

oil. The selected surfactant is used in two concentrations to review its ability to produce the
resultant oil after the low salinity water injection. 0.1weight percentage of the surfactant was
used to flood B1 and B2 while 0.4 weight percentage of the surfactant was used to flood B3 and
B4 to enable oil cross-examination recoveries from different permeability cores and aged and
unaged cores. Both aged cores indicated a high oil recovery increase when subjected to
continuous injection of LS-S solution, that is, B1 having 79.1% and B3 having 47.0%. The
unaged cores registered lower recovery percentages of 60.8% from B2 and 39.3% from B4. An
overall analysis shows that B1 and B2, which had more surfactant, produced more oil. This can
be illustrated through the interaction of the rock surface and the surfactant solution referred to as
retention which is associated with the concentration of the surfactants. We can generally deduce
that the total mass of the surfactant in the slug reduces with retention (Alagic et al. 2011).
A regular close characteristic was recorded for the aged core pressure profile. The unaged
cores registered a highly fluctuating and irregular pressure pattern throughout the flashing
period. Ther is a pressure increase in the first phase of flooding followed by a spontaneous
decrease indicating remobilization of blockage in the construction of pores and their movement

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

back to the fluid in motion. Other important results are an increased pH due to the alkalinity of
the surfactant, presence of fine particles that are not essential in extra oil recovery and profile
effluents that appear to be identical in both types of cores but significantly different. It can be
noted that Mg2+ was greatly maintained in the aged cores while the Ca2+ was seen in both core
types.

1.4 Conclusion
We can be concluded that recovery of oil was high in both combined low-salinity
injection with surfactant flooding and simple low salinity water injection. The result verifies that
few water-wet cores can produce additional unsteady oil layers with greater amounts of
persistent oil recovery. The high recovery of oil by surfactants may be due to evading oil retrapping at low capillary pressure than the usual enlistment of oil resulting from a higher value of
capillary. These results are promising and demand further investigations. These are lab results
which may be tested in the field for related effects.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

2.0 Case 2: The Simulation of Low Salinity Water Flooding in Chemical Enhanced Oil
Recovery Processes in One of the Iranian Oil Reservoirs
2.1 Introduction
In this study, a simulated study of low-salinity water flooding methods in a given Iranian
Oil reservoir is analyzed by the ECLIPSE software. The sample oil has oil FVF of 1.009bbl/stb
and an API of 36. The divisions are numbered as 24 in the x-direction and 25 in the y-direction.
In the case of the high lithology changes variation, the experimental model was divided into 12
vertical direction layers. The improved limits on low salinity water were verified, and thus
behaviors in the reservoir in all methods were studied. The paper aimed at investigating the
importance of LSW in both secondary and tertiary modes of oil recovery and to expound on the
means of oil recovery by low-salinity water flooding. The work also evaluated the applicability
of LSW an improved oil recovery method in a given Iranian oil field.
2.2 Methods and procedure: Initial field characteristics
The sample study field was divided into four sections with each field having dimensions
of 150m thickness, 3.2km width and 3.5km in length. The given field had a 5300psi initial
pressure and a degree of 36 API oil. The field porosity was 18-23%, and permeability that varied
between 0.38 to 3 md. The field production was initially on an under saturated state followed by
a pressure downfall to below the bauble and low production. The field hence, changed to a
saturated state and gas build up was identified in the reservoir (Cheraghi & Maleki 2015).
2.2.1 Simulation procedure

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

The PVTi software was used to determine experimental fits and data calculation. The
output values were then fed to the Eclipse software. Flogrid software, an interstitial petroleum
and geological engineering software, was used to make the reservoir model static.
2.3 Results and Discussion
2.3.1 The effect of low salinity water injection
The effect of low-salinity water flooding was determined by examining five distinct
volumes of injection and tabulated. This study achieved two unique objectives. The first goal
was to establish the moderate volume of injection and the second goal was to evaluate the water
cut volume and the total resultant oil produced after the LSW injection in relation to fresh water
injection. This comparison was to help evaluate the impact of salinity on enhanced oil recovery
and production. Water with a low salinity of about 10lbm/STB was injected in the model
reservoir with an optimum injection volume of 0.3pv. Injecting low salinity water in the reservoir
considerably reduced the water cut level and equally delayed its occurrence period, thereby,
increasing the amount of oil produced. This is because of a change in the wettability of the model
from oil wet to water wet. This is one of the advantages of LSW in the EOR technique. The
technique enables separation of oil droplets from the pore throat and walls of the core, thus
increasing oil production results. The graph below shows the evaluation of water cut effect of
low salinity waterflooding (Cheraghi & Maleki 2015).

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

10

2.4 Conclusion
We can note that use of LSW flooding enhanced oil recovery is advantageous in the case
of oil-wet type rock reservoirs. Water injection process involves the use of a 5Spot-Dual Model
pattern. The low salinity water flooding technique has shown significant yield in oil recovery that
fresh water injection. It can thus be deduced that low salinity water flooding has a positive
impact on the overall oil production.
3.0 Case 3: Investigation of Low Salinity Waterflooding in Secondary and Tertiary
Enhanced Oil Recovery in Limestone Reservoirs
3.1 Introduction

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

11
Enhanced oil recovery from low-permeability oil-wet reservoir is a major challenge
through changing the rock wettability. This case study compared the effects of low salinity water
flooding in secondary and tertiary phases to lower the saturation of residual oil from limestone
reservoirs. Three limestone cores and stock tanks were put under study. Experiments on core
flooding were carried out at 2000psi pressure and 600C by injection of sea water. The brine
solution contained single-component salts like NaCl, MgCl2, MgSO4 and CaCl2 with a broad
range of salinity levels.
3.2 Materials and methods: Compatibility and Coreflooding tests
Several tests were undertaken to determine the compatibility of formation water with an
injection of low salinity. Test waters were filtered and put in tubes of different volumes. The
resultant clear water was then taken for inclusive plasma and chromatography verification after
24 hours (Gandomkar & Rahimpour 2015).
A high pressure and temperature core flooding apparatus were constructed. The end of
the apparatus was connected to a backpressure regulator to regulate the system pressure. Core
preparation helps in attaining the minimum core wettability and a connate water saturation state.
The core was cleaned and dried at 1200C as a change in weight is observed and documented.
Core plug permeability and porosity are also recorded. The core was then placed at room
temperatures and brine injected to saturate it at a pressure of 2000psi. Dead oil was added to the
core at high pressure to create residual water saturation in the core. Three distinct oil samples
were used to remove water brines and solid particles. Limestone cores consisting of anhydrite,
dolomite and calcite were used. The porosity and permeability of the core were to vary from

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

12
between 21 and 27 percent and 2 to 7 MD respectively. These tests were performed in all sample
cores in the same procedure.
3.3 Results and Discussions
The study aimed at determining the effect of low salinity water flooding in the overall oil
production process, final permeability and residual saturation in secondary and tertiary phases.
Brine, original seawater and formation water were used to represent high salinity, and highly
diluted formation water was used as a low salinity solution. The rate of oil and water production
were determined, as well as, periodic pressure. Parts of the effluent fluid were also collected and
taken for ICP and ion chromatography tests to determine limestone surface reactions. pH and
conductivity tests were equally taken in both the secondary and tertiary states.
Mixing low salinity formation water and brine with double salt components showed no
precipitation. However, when brine with a single component salt was mixed with high and low
salinity sea water and high salinity formation water, there was an immediate precipitation in all
test samples. The precipitation became clear in ten minutes and was a maximum in the sample 2
that had a proportionate volume of 25 to 25. The precipitation was tested and verified to be
calcium sulfate and sodium sulfate. Low salinity water was seen to be enriched in divalent ions
and depleted in monovalent ions which improved the overall process of oil recovery in limestone
cores. It can also be noted that when brine salinity was decreased, an electrical diffusion between
oil and rock particles expands thus, raising an electrostatic repulsion which in turn overrun the
rock-oil bond and hence release oil from the rock surface and pores thus changing the rock
wettability (Gandomkar & Rahimpour 2015).The results also indicated that brine with low

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

13
salinity water and a divalent cation produces extra oil in the secondary mode. Oil recovery after
breakthrough was also enhanced when brine of low salinity had a divalent cation than when it
had a monovalent cation.
A maximum drop in pressure was seen when the core was injected with 0.54pv and
stabilized to 62psi for both monovalent and divalent ions in the secondary mode. When salinity
was reduced in the formation water to around 1000pm, a significant increase in oil recovery was
recorded to reach 30% OOIP in the secondary mode. Consequently, there was a drop in stability
for high and low salinity at 20 and 38psi respectively. For the tertiary mode, the pressure drop
was about 14 and 34 for high and low salinity injection (Gandomkar & Rahimpour 2015).
Generally, it can be noted that there is no noteworthy increase in oil recovery in tertiary
mode due to lack of a continuous oil film that occurs from double layer expansion. The study
thus concludes that oil recovery is higher in secondary mode than in tertiary mode. We can also
note that optimum composition and salinity of smart water flooding can behave as a recovery
method for the tertiary mode. Furthermore, it should be noted that the composition of a reservoir
crude oil determines the effect of low salinity waterflooding and hence improved oil recovery.
These results confirm that since wettability changes oil-wet to neutral-wet, the level of oil
recovery rises to maximum for the study cases. The recovery also reduces with an increase in
water wetness that results from injection with brine solution (Gandomkar & Rahimpour 2015).
3.4 Conclusion
Limestone reservoirs have a high affinity for low salinity water flooding and will thus
produce more oil when injected with it than with high salinity water. This high production is only

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

14
effective in secondary mode and starts declining in the tertiary mode. This is mainly due to
leaching of calcium cation from the surface of limestone.
4.0 Case 4: The Low Salinity Waterflooding to enhance the Oil Recovery in Sandstone
Reservoir and Applicability in Oil Fields
4.1 Introduction
This research draws its information from both experimental and theoretical analyses on
the effect of low salinity waterflooding in enhanced oil recovery. The medium salinity levels
vary from 1000 to 2000ppm, and these improved effects can be seen up to 500ppm concentration
levels. Sea water is the main source of offshore low salinity water generation. A major challenge
in this generation is the incompatibility of the injected water, which contains a sulfate, and the
formation water which has a large amount of strontium and barium. The sea water can also be
desalinized to create a low salinity injection
There are several mechanisms that have been suggested by researchers to be involved in
low-salinity waterflooding. Some of these mechanisms are electrical double layers that result
from a potential difference between the low salinity solution and the rock surface and are known
as diffuse and stern layers respectively. Studies have shown that there is a potential zeta drop
over the diffuse layer and a linear drop in the Stern layer. Other mechanisms are multicomponent ion exchange, fines migration, pH variation and chemical mechanism (da Silva
2014).
4.2 Oil field applications: Materials, methods, and results

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

15

4.2.1 Endicott field

Initial trials of the effect of low-salinity water were conducted in the Endicott field.
Injecting the field with sea water resulted to 1Mpbd and 11Mpbd of oil in the present NGL and
oil productions respectively with an average water cut of about 94%. The proposed sample field
had a thickness of about 9 to 12m and was differentiated by a seal in the upper and lower region.
The region had a permeability of 100mD and a porosity of about 20%. The area had a large
amount of kaolinite clay which was estimated to 12%. This considerable amount of clay would
enhance tertiary oil recovery. Sea water and formation water were dilute to a relative salinity and
hardness. The study area was then flooded with high salinity water to a water cut level of 95%.
The reservoir was then floeded with low salinity water and then high salinity water.
The observed results were an increased rate in oil recovery. The water cut was also seen
to drop by 3% indicating higher volumes of the resultant oil. This examination consequently
showed that 55% of the resultant water was from the pilot well, and another 45% was from the
injector wells. This water cut percentage was, however, lower than the expected result. Another
related result was an increased ironic ion concentration, an inverse case for the other ions in the
solution. The ions were introduced into the low salinity solution that was injected into the
reservoir and rose to 5ppm. The presence of ironic ions in the solution confirmed the multicomponent ion replacement theory in the low salinityinjection process (da Silva 2014). The study
also identified an initial oil saturation of 95% which dropped to an average of 41% in the
secondary mode and a further decrease to 27% in the tertiary mode. The field hence approved the

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

16
enhanced recovery of oil through low salinity water flooding but mainly in the secondary phase
of production.
4.2.2 Omar field
The Syrian field was found to contain a wettable oil sandstone core and covered by light
oil with a viscosity of about 0.3cp. The Omar field contained many divalent ions and a salinity of
about 90000mg/l, as well as, kaolinite clay which made up to 4% of the reservoir core. The river
reached the reservoir bubble point quickly by 1989 prompting low-salinity water injection from
River Euphrates. The field had shown oil-wet characteristics and an initial saturation of 95% thus
favoring the use of low salinity waterflooding. After flooding, the saturation dropped to around
20% due to the uncertainty in the water salinity. Research by Vledder et al. (2010) on the Omar
wells indicated that in the reduced-salinity influx periods, the wells showed a two-step water cut
meaning that the reservoir had altered its wettability from oil-wet to water-wet.
A lower first water cut step indicated a greater alteration in the core wettability and
hence, an extra amount of oil produced. Additional low salinity brine after breakthrough
registered a gradual decrease in oil production, conforming to the low salinity influx
displacement assumption. The viscous force in the Omar reservoir was the main force that
prompted low salinity displacement thus, enhancing oil recovery. The oil production levels in
Omar reservoir thus, elevated leaving a 30% saturation of the residual oil.
4.2.3 The Varg field
The reservoir produces up to 30 million of barrels per annum. A group of researchers
conducted experiments on the sandstone cores found in the reservoir. The core was subjected to

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

17
aging for 14 days at 1300C with a close control in water formation. The sample wells had a
permeability of about 100mD and porosity of between 15 to 27%. The crude oil had a viscosity
of 0.5cP, 18.1 clay percentages and a 200ppm salinity of formation water. The reservoir was
maintained at low pH to initiate organic material absorption on the clay particles, as well as,
lower water wetness on the core surface. The rock acid and base numbers were determined and
found to be 0.11 and 0.82KOH/g respectively. Clay percentage was estimated to 15 much
emphases being on mica and illite clay particles with a large number of divalent ions (da Silva
2014).
The reservoirs were then flooded with LSW leading to an oil recovery of 43% in the
secondary mode and another 27% VOIP. An additional injection of sea water and low salinity
solution containing brought no additional recovery. Any further increase in the pH-value also
failed to produce positive results. Experiments conducted on other samples at high temperatures
of about 900C brought about a slight increase in the oil recovery process. Higher aging
temperatures of about 1300C showed no increase. This can be concluded by deducing that high
temperatures above 600C lower the possibility of polar compounds absorption since the divalent
cations in the core are highly absorbed on the clay surface leaving no room for rock-oil
separation.
4.3 Conclusion
Low salinity waterflooding technique is associated with various challenges which can be
reduced by membrane technologies. The optimal composition of a given field can be maintained
through monitoring and control of the membrane to avoid water cut mixtures. In most low

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

18
salinity waterflooding cases, there should be high contents of kaolinite clay, a considerable
amount of polar components and a formation that changes from oil-wet to mixed water-wet. The
pH was found to have no effect in the overall oil recovery process, and regulated temperatures
enabled easy monitoring of the effects of low salinity waterflooding. The technique is more
pronounced in the secondary mode than in the tertiary mode and is much effective in situations
of minimal alterations in the original rock-fluid balance. Many variables are hence, involved in
evaluating the applicability of low salinity waterflooding in enhanced oil recovery processes (da
Silva 2014)
5.0 Case 5: Low Salinity Waterflooding in a Low-permeability Carbonate Formation of a
Giant Middle East Field
5.1 Introduction
The study aimed at developing a moderate water salinity to enhance the recovery of oil
from the field, evaluate the vital mechanisms involved in low salinity and decide the intensity of
oil recovery percentage by low salinity waterflooding. Five different low salinity studies were
carried out on given reservoir cores at natural conditions. The experimental results were matched
to historical data by a one-dimensional Buckley-Leverett model. Sea water was flooded in
carbonate cores with low permeability one of which a surfactant was added. The flooding
procedures were flooding with sea water, two distinct amounts of low salinity waterfloods and in
one sample a combined surfactant with low salinity water.
The cores had a porosity of between 18 and 25% and permeability ranging from 0.5 to
1.5mD. The cores were subjected to an eight-week aging at normal temperature and pressure.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

19
The study aimed at enhancing the production of oil in the Shuaiba reservoir unit which had a
thickness of 43 feet. The entire reservoir unit produces around 560MSTB per day with a daily
water injection rate of 800MBW.
5.2 Materials and methods
Sample cores were cleaned and prepared for extraction by allowing imbibitions
occurrence and salt removal. The cores were then dried and porosity and permeability measured.
The cores were then saturated with brine for four days, tested for water content and then filtered
to recover oil and brine at 1950C. The viscosity of brine and oil were found to be o.535 and 3.0cp
respectively. Synthetic sea water was then prepared with CaCl2, MgCl2, Na2SO4, and NaCl as
shown in the table below.

The first cores were then aged for two weeks to restore wettability and the other three for
eight weeks to verify that wettability was restored. 4pv of oil was then injected in the core to
assume oil saturated condition in the reservoir. Sea water was then flooded to replace the oil and
determine relative permeability and oil recovery during waterflooding. Brine with varying
salinity was then injected into the reservoir to evaluate wettability alteration and the effect of low
salinity injection into enhanced oil recovery. Other recorded and analyzed data were pressure
drop, flow rate, and oil production. In one core a non-ionic surfactant was added to the low
salinity fluid (Alameri 2015). Experimental procedures of the study are summarized by the
following chart.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

20

5.3 Results and Discussions

Flooding the cores with sea water produced a 48.9% recovery factor. The cores were
mixed with low salinity water produced by mixing sea water in different proportions. The first
two cores registered and increased oil recovery by 6.2 and 1.1% respectively. The third low
salinity waterflooding recovered no oil. After adding a surfactant to the fifth core, an additional

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

21
4.9% of the oil was recovered. Both sea water and low salinity water flooding of the cores
recovered up to 56% of oil while an additional 5% was recovered by a combined surfactant and
low salinity water. When unaged carbonate cores were cleaned, their water-wet levels increased
with a decrease in salinity. When a surfactant of 1000ppm was added to aged carbonate cores,
the wettability of the core altered from oil-wet to water-wet. The water-wetness level achieved
by a surfactant depends on the level of salinity. The IFT of the oil brine was also seen to increase
with a reduction in water salinity in the availability of a surfactant (Alameri et al. 2007). A graph
of the Oil recovery factor and pressure change is shown below

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

22
The next table shows the measured IFT between variable salinity brines and oil droplets without
brine.

At a pH less than 9.5, the surface of a carbonate rock is always positively charged. When
the cores are waterflooded, the pH is measured in concentrations of OH- and H+ ions in brine.
The positive charge is always as a result of the dissolved carbonate in formation water. The water
and oil occupy pores in the core as the negatively charged components attract RCOO- molecules
to the surface of the carbonate rock making the core become oil-wet. The acid number also alters
the wettability of the rock surface. The wettability alteration process in low salinity injection
depends on temperature.
5.4 Conclusion

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

23
Experiments with NaCl not included in sea water projected a 8% increase in oil recovery
the relatively homogeneous cores. This was mainly due the expansion of the electrical double
layer. The vug-dominated core showed no increase in oil recovery when sea water was diluted by
a factor of two and four. It should also be noted that by diluting sea water in the same ratio in a
relatively homogeneous stacked core yielded up to 6.0% of oil (Alameri et al. 2007).
Effluent ionic concentrations were seen to decrease but mainly in SO42-, Na+, Mg2+, and
Ca2+. After verifying the results with an IFT apparatus, we can conclude that as salinity
decreases, the oil-brine in the company of a surfactant. It can also be deduced that cleaning
unaged carbonate made them water wet. When the salinity was decreased the degree of water
wetness increased. For the aged carbonates, wettability altered from oil-wet to water-wet as
salinity decreased with the addition of a surfactant. Surfactants have been seen to alter both aged
and unaged carbonate core wettability to water-wet. The level of getting water-wet relies on the
level of the salinity. The experiments thus, confirm that under controlled mechanisms, low
salinity waterflooding can improve the process of oil recovery in carbonate cores
6.0 Case 6: Low Salinity Waterflooding in Combination with Surfactant/Polymer: Effect of
Brine Composition
6.1 Introduction
The study compared the effect of Low salinity water in secondary and tertiary phases in
Berea cores. For the injection in the tertiary mode, the researchers conducted a low salinity
surfactant polymer flood. Other measurements taken were interfacial tension, viscosity, pH and

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

24
density. Both aged and unaged cores were used in the secondary mode for injection with diluted
and undiluted sea water (Seljeset 2014).
6.2 Methods and material
Berea sandstone cores were used as sample cores. The cores were divided as J1 to J4 and
C1 to C2. Brine was composed of sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chloride and sulfate
ions. High viscosity oil of 63cp was used to achieve low saturation water which would, in turn,
increase the alteration rate and determine effective oil permeability. The chosen also contained
either a high base or acid and not both to improve wettability. A polymer with NaCl solution was
prepared under controlled conditions. A surfactant on the hand was prepared by mixing 3000ppm
NaCl LSW brine with a percentage of 1wt surfactant. The mixtures were then left to equilibrate
for about two days. Viscosity measurements were then recorded. The cores were then prepared
under a confining pressure to the desired pressure content. Permeability and porosity measures
were carried out on the pores of the core and recorded. The core was then flooded with oil from
both sides to achieve an initial water saturation. This was followed by filtration and then the
displacement of the oil with crude oil. The displacement of oil with crude oil was to help raise
wettability alteration due to the presence of polar components in the crude oil. Cores J1 and J2
were then aged for four weeks as J3 and J4 were aged for the next three weeks (Seljeset 2014).
J1 and J2 were then flooded with high salinity water followed by low salinity
waterflooding in the tertiary mode. J3 and J4 were flooded with low salinity brine with similar
operations in the tertiary mode. Core C1 was injected with synthetic sea water followed by
diluted synthetic seawater at different levels. Measurements on differential pressure were taken

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

25
and recorded. C2 was flooded with 4.5 percent of diluted water with no oil recoveries. Injections
proceeded with an increase of 0.5 and 1ml per minute as differential pressure was recorded.
For the case of low salinity surfactant polymer water flood, C1 and C2 were injected
NaCl at 3000ppm before LSSP flooding.
6.3 Results and Discussions
C1 and C2 showed equal porosity. It was also observed that all the cores registered
different porosity and permeability values.

The following tables show the oil recovery levels from C1 to J4

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

26

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

27

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

28

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

29

Aged cores indicated higher oil recovery rates than the unaged ones. Aged cores flooded
with diluted sea water also showed high levels of oil recovery. There was increased water
permeability in aged cores than in unaged ones. Aged cores also showed a positive response in
cases of low salinity water injection than the unaged ones. pH values were seen to vary from 6.5
to 8 indicating no significance change in all the flooding processes. The production curves also
indicated an increase in differential pressure when injected with surfactants. The experiments
also failed to show the migration of fines or swelling in clay (Seljeset 2014).
6.4 Conclusion
Injection with low salinity oil indicated low production results in the unaged core and
significantly higher results for the aged cores. Reducing salinity or ion composition was seen to
increase production in the tertiary mode. When J1 was flooded with low salinity water which had

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

30
no divalent ion, pressure increase was observed hence higher oil recover. The use of a surfactant
produced a significant increase oil recovery by about 11 to 32% ROIP. It can also be noted that
water wet solutions have a higher affinity for LSSP than water-wet cores.
Nomenclature
SW

Sea Water

EOR

Enhanced Oil Recovery

LSW

Low Salinity Waterflooding

IFT

Interfacial tension

LSSP

Low Salinity with Surfactant of Polymer

ROIP

Chemical flooding recovery

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

31
References
Alagic, E., Spildo, K., Skauge, A. & Solbakken, J. (2011). Effect of Crude Oil Aging on Low
Salinity and Low Salinity Surfactant Flooding: Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering. Centre for Integrated Petroleum Research. Norway.
Alameri, W. (2015). Low-Salinity Waterflooding IN A Low-Permeability Carbonate Formation
of a Giant Middle East Field. Colorado School of Mines.
https://dspace.library.colostate.edu/bitstream/handle/11124/17088/Alameri_mines_0052E
_10674.pdf?sequence=1.
Alameri, W., Tadesse, W. T. Ramona M. G., Kazemi, H., AlSumati, A. M. (2007). Wettability
Alteration during Low-Salinity Waterflooding in Carbonate Reservoir Cores. Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Cheraghi, M. & Maleki, B. (2015). The Simulation of Low Salinity Water Flooding in Chemical
Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes in One of the Iranian Oil Reservoirs.
http://saussurea.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Sauss-March-11-2015.pdf
da Silva, Q. F. & Rodrigues, G. L. (2014). The Low Salinity Waterflooding to Enhance the Oil
Recovery in Sandstone Reservoir and Applicability in Oil Fields. Brazilian Petroleum, Gs
and Biofuels Institute.
https://www.academia.edu/11267046/THE_LOW_SALINITY_WATERFLOODING_TO
_ENHANCE_THE_OIL_RECOVERY_IN_SANDSTONE_RESERVOIR_AND_APPLI
CABILITY_IN_OIL_FIELDS

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

32
Gandomkar, A. & Rahimpour, M. R. (2015). Investigation of Low-Salinity Waterflooding in
Secondary and Tertiary Enhanced Oil Recovery in Limestone Reservoirs. School of
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering. Shiraz University.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284160310_Investigation_of_LowSalinity_Waterflooding_in_Secondary_and_Tertiary_Enhanced_Oil_Recovery_in_Limes
tone_Reservoirs.
Seljeset, J. E. M. (2014). Low Salinity Waterflooding in Combination with Surfactant/Polymer:
Effect of Brine Composition. Centre for Integrated Petroleum Research. Department of
Physics and Technology. University of Bergen.
http://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/8609/121809076.pdf?sequence=1.
Vledder, P et al. (2010). Low Salinity Waterflooding: Proof of Wettability Alteration on Field
Wide Scale. Tulsa
Webb, K., Lager, A., & Black, C., (2008). Comparison of high/low salinity water/oil relative
permeability. Abu Dhabi, UAE.

CASE STUDIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LOW SALINITY FLOODING

33