1.

b) The Literature Review On Major Types Of Curriculum

5 Types Of Curriculum (John Goodlad)
"Curriculum is often taken to mean a course of study. When we set our imaginations free
from the narrow notion that a course of study is a series of textbooks or specific outline of
topics to be covered and objectives to be attained, broader more meaningful notions emerge.
A curriculum can become one's life course of action. It can mean the paths we have followed
and the paths we intend to follow. In this broad sense, curriculum can be viewed as a
person's life experience." (Connelly and Clandinin, 1988). This definition provides a view
that is more consistent with curriculum that is more meaningful, relevant, interesting, and
engaging. Yet even these distinctions are not sufficiently precise to encompass the several
different types of curriculum. It is important to note that the word curriculum (as defined
from its early Latin origins) means literally to run a course. If students think of a marathon
with mile and direction markers, signposts, water stations, and officials and coaches along the
route, they can better understand the concept of types of curriculum (Wilson, 2005).
In addition to the above statement, John Goodlad and associates (1979) suggested several
key distinctions. As Goodlad

analysed curriculum, he determined that there were five

different forms of curriculum planning. The ideological curriculum is the ideal curriculum as
constructed by scholars and teachers. The formal curriculum is that officially approved by
state and local school boards. The perceived curriculum is the curriculum of the mind of
teachers, parents, and others think the curriculum to be. The operational curriculum is the
observed curriculum of what actually goes on hour after hour in the classroom. Finally, the
experiential curriculum is what the learners actually experience

According to Goodlad the ideal curriculum is defined as the beliefs, opinions, and values of
the scholars in the disciplines and in schooling regarding what ought to be included in the
curriculum and how it ought to be developed. It is an abstraction that may not exist with any
degree of consensus from subject area to subject area or from one specialist to another.
The formal curriculum also known as expectations for what should be done in the school
constitute the formal curriculum which is derived from sources outside the classroom and
consist of such things as state or district guidelines, school department syllabus, listings of
course offerings, legislative decrees, national curriculum projects, commercially prepared
learning materials, school board policies, district statements of philosophy, and even demands
by community groups or parents for the inclusion or exclusion of specific content. Based on
John Goodlad most often the formal curriculum consists of written statements about what
should be done. Also, parts of it reside in the more or less unspoken expectations of people
outside the classroom.
The instructional curriculum referred by Goodlad as the teachers bring their own values,
beliefs, and competencies to bear as they plan their teaching. Often they adapt the formal
curriculum because they perceive that their students have certain unique needs and/or
interests. On the other hand, sometimes they attempt to use a given curriculum without regard
for the individual differences that exist in their classrooms.
In additional, Goodlad define the operational curriculum as the aspect of curriculum as
"what actually goes on in the classroom." It takes into account the alterations made in the
instructional curriculum as teachers actually engage with students in the teaching-learning
process.

Finally, Goodlad stated the experiential curriculum. This perspective has two different
facts: 1) student perceptions of the curriculum that is offered to them, and
2) what is actually learned? student outcomes.
A study from November Kappan article addressed that,
"Once the contextual domain is sufficiently well described, the obvious next step is a
longitudinal study searching out the connections with achievement indicators. Such a study is
long overdue, but at present, in our view, it is premature.

7 types of curriculum (Glatthorn)

While those distinctions in general seem important, the terms are perhaps a bit cumbersome
and the classifications are not entirely useful to curriculum workers. It seems to be more
useful in the present context to use the following concepts with some slightly different
denotations: the recommended curriculum, the written curriculum, the supported curriculum,
the taught curriculum, the tested curriculum, and the learned curriculum and hidden
curriculum.
i)

The Recommended Curriculum

The recommended curriculum is that which is recommended by scholars and professional

organizations. The best source for the recommendations of professional organizations is
Kendall and Marzano (1997). According to Glathorn, the recommended curriculum is the one
recommended by the individual scholars, professional associations, and reform commissions;
it also encompasses the curriculum requirements of policymaking groups, such as federal and
state governments. Similar to Goodlads ideological curriculum, it is a curriculum that
stresses oughtness, identifying the skills and concepts that ought to be emphasized,
according to the perceptions and value systems of the sources.
According to . Dugger, Meade, Delany, & Nichols, 2003, citizens of today must have a basic
understanding of how technology affects their world and how they coexist with technology.
Attaining technological literacy is as fundamentally important to students as developing
knowledge and abilities in the traditional core subject areas. Students need and deserve the
opportunity to attain technological literacy through the educational process. So, the
advancements in technology also play a role. The widespread use of technology in the
nations schools has influenced several of the professional associations to include in their
recommendations aspects of technology across the curriculum.

The impact of technology is best evidenced by Monica Martinez (2010), president of New
Tech Network, who notes that with the advent of digital media, network teaching, and
learning platforms, we now have an unprecedented opportunity to reimagine teaching and
learning. In addition, based on Jim Cox, president of JK Educational Associates, Inc. in
Anaheim, California First,
We must define what we mean by standards. Second, we must create a set of standards that
are doable in the classroom. Finally, teachers must view standards as an important part of
their work. I call these the three Ds, definition, doability, and desirability.
Raising standards in the core curriculum subjects continues to gain momentum in states and
school districts across the country. In essence, the process of setting standards for state
assessments should follow the suggestions of many expertsgood judgment and pragmatism
must guide the final standard setting (Pellegrino, 2007, p. 541). In this regard, states have
begun to use academic standards to make clear what students should learn and what teachers
should teach. The curriculum recommended by state governments, as well as learned
societies, will help curriculum coordinators and teachers make decisions about developing
their instructional programs.
ii)

The Written Curriculum

The written curriculum, as the term is used here, is the curriculum that appears in state and
locally produced documents, such as state standards, district scope and sequence charts,
district

curriculum guides, teachers'

planning

documents, and curriculum units.

The written curriculum is found in the documents produced by the state, the school system, the
school, and the classroom teacher, specifying what is to be taught. At the district level, the documents
usually include a curriculum guide and a scope-and-sequence chart; many school systems make their

curriculum documents available though their databases and the Internet. The written curriculum also
includes materials developed by classroom teachers.

Glatthorn (1980) questioned such

comprehensiveness and recommended that the written curriculum be delivered to teachers as

a loose-leaf notebook, containing only a scope-and-sequence chart, a review of the research, a
list of course objectives, and a brief list of materials to be used. He believed, this simpler
format would make the written curriculum more likely to be used. As school administrators
and curriculum leaders, the authors believe that the written curriculum must be authentic.
Schmoker (2007) supports this belief by saying, There is every reason to believe that these
capacities [the ability to read, write, and think effectively], if acquired across the disciplines,
will change lives by the millions and will redefine the possibilities of public education (p.
488). Similarly, Steven Wolk (2010), associate professor at Northeastern Illinois University,
believes that we need visionary educators who see bold purposes for school and who
understand that what students read in school has profound, lifelong effects. As an aspect of
early authentic literacy discussions, Walker (1979) was one of the first to note that written
curriculum can be both generic and site specific.
In general, however, the guides seem to reflect the preferences and practices of a local group
of elites: a director of curriculum, a supervisor of that subject area, a principal with a strong
interest in curriculum, and experienced teachers. They, in turn, seem most influenced by the
practice of lighthouse districts. It is important to note that we are entering a new kind of
shared leadership in the 21st century. Teacher leadership continues to evolve as teachers gain
a global view of what affects their vision of good schools and good teaching (Hanson,
2010). The authors know that people will support what they help create and all stakeholders,
especially teachers, share the commitment of curriculum leadership.

Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) compiled more than three decades of research on the
effects of instruction and schooling on student achievement and found a substantial
relationship between leadership and student achievement. The results of this study continue to
provide practitioners with specific guidance on the curriculum instructional, and school
practices that, when applied appropriately, can result in increased achievement.
Walcott (1977), however, discovered in his ethnographic study of a district monitoring plan
that most teachers have historically viewed such attempts to control the curriculum as
intrusive and counterproductive and will work hard to subvert such plans. Popham (2009)
echoes Walcotts predictions, stating that teachers must understand that were talking about a
test-supported process instead of a test (p. 86). Moreover, these concerns about testing seem
to resonate with educators across the country. Predictably, written curriculum, especially sitespecific ones, are of uneven quality. The best of them seem to represent a useful synthesis of
recommended curriculum and local practice; they seem well conceptualized, carefully
developed, and easy to use. Thus, the written curriculum is the one usually meant by leaders who
say, "We're going to develop a mathematics curriculum."

iii)

The Supported Curriculum.

The supported curriculum includes those resources that support the curriculum-textbooks,
software, and other media. Stallings (1980) concluded that the body of knowledge
emanating from the research on teaching in the 1970s suggests that teachers should allocate
more time to academic subjects, keeping in mind ability levels, and students should be kept
engaged in the tasks (p. 12), which is relevant today as well.
During the 1980s, Berliner (1984) also cited examples of the dramatic differences in the way
time is allocated in elementary school classrooms. One fifth-grade teacher devoted only 68

minutes a day to reading and language arts; another teacher, 137 minutes. Karweit (1983),
however, questioned one aspect of this concern for time. In a review of the research on timeon-task, Karweit noted that, by a variety of criteria for the importance of an effect, the most
outstanding finding relating the effects of time-on-task to learning is that the effects are as
small as they are (p. 46). the concern over quality textbooks continues to grow. Dr. Gay Ivey
(2010), professor of Early, Elementary, and Reading Education at James Madison University,
notes, When it comes to subject-area reading materials, we are stuck in a rut . Further, to
create lifelong readers, we need to give them reading materials that leave them wanting to
know more. . . . Instead of focusing on how to get students to remember what they read, our
best bet is simply to provide texts that are more memorable
It should be noted that supportive curriculum involves aspects other than textbooks. It helps a
teacher to establish a definition of change, identify key principles related to change, and
introduce students to key skills as well as specify standards that need to be covered.
According to Glatthorn, the supported curriculum plays a central role at several stages of the
curriculum cycle. First, in developing curriculum, educators should focus specifically on the
supported curriculum, paying special attention to time allocations and the materials of
instruction. Second, in implementing the curriculum, administrators should be sure that
adequate support is provided.
iv)

The Taught Curriculum

The taught curriculum is that which teachers actually deliver day by day. Based on Gehrke,
Knapp, & Sirotnik, 1992, the taught curriculum is the one that teachers actually deliver.
Researchers have pointed out that there is enormous variation in the nature of what is actually
taught, despite the superficial appearance of uniformity. Statistical evidence provides a strong
warrant that how we organize and operate a school has a major effect on the instructional

exchanges in the classroom (Bryk, 2010). Bergman and Bergman (2010) agree, noting that
good teaching is like good writingthe principles of good writing can help teachers improve
their style.
v)

The Tested Curriculum

The tested curriculum is that which appears in tests and performance measures: state tests,
standardized tests, district tests, and teacher-made tests. The tested curriculum is the one
embodied in tests developed by the state, school system, and teachers. The term "test" is used
broadly here to include standardized tests, competency tests, and performance assessments.
Berliner did a survey in 1984 to point out that achievement was lower in schools where there
was not a close fit between what was taught and what was tested. Students were put at a
disadvantage when the teaching and testing did not match, and their grades and scores were
probably not a valid measure of what they had learned. Finally, there were serious legal
consequences when poorly fitting tests were used to make decisions about promotion and
graduation. The courts ruled that when tests were used for purposes that denied constitutional
guarantees of equal protection or due process (as in retention or denial of graduation), schools
needed to provide evidence that those tests assessed skills and concepts actually taught in the
classroom.
As noted author James Popham (2007) states,
If we plan to use tests for purposes of accountability, we need to know that they measure
traits that can be influenced by instruction. . . . Instructionally insensitive tests render
untenable the assumptions underlying a test-based strategy for educational accountability.
(p. 147)
Soon, educators began facing greater problems with local testing. Schools, under pressure,
then began to rely on strategies to get immediate but lacklustre results. According to

Chappuis, Chappuis, & Stiggins, 2009, this move often creates a dilemma of selecting an
assessment method that is incapable of reflecting intended learning, which then compromises
the accuracy of results. Hence, many teachers are now using state-approved, online-based
programs to ease the alignment of local testing to state and national standards. Teachers are
also using data analysis of student strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can also create preand post-tests online easily and quickly. Valid and reliable test questions aligned with state
and national standards are selected from large banks of test items. Online testing programs
also provide possible teaching strategies to address specific areas of need.
vi)

The Learned Curriculum

The learned curriculum is the bottom-line curriculum, what students learn. Clearly it is the
most important of all. according to Rutgers Professor William A. Firestone (2009), The
accountability culture is often not as effective as the student learning culture for promoting
achievement. Firestone adds, What takes a district from accountability to the student
learning culture is a mix of board and community support and leadership from the top .
Thus, students invent strategies for managing ambiguity and reducing risk to achieve success
in an accountability-oriented classroom,. They will restrict the output they provide teachers,
giving vague and limited answers to minimize the risk of making public mistakes. They also
attempt to increase the explicitness of a teachers instructions, asking the teacher for more
examples, hints, or rephrasing of the question. Furthermore, they pressure teachers to
simplify curriculum complexity, strongly resisting any curriculum that forces them to think,
inquire, and discover.

Other Types Of Curriculum

Wilson (1990) noted that,
Anything and everything that teaches a lesson, planned or otherwise. Humans are born
learning, thus the learned curriculum actually encompasses a combination of all of the below
-- the hidden, null, written, political and societal etc.. Since students learn all the time through
exposure and modeled behaviors, this means that they learn important social and emotional
lessons from everyone who inhabits a school -- from the janitorial staff, the secretary, the
cafeteria workers, their peers, as well as from the deportment, conduct and attitudes
expressed and modeled by their teachers. Many educators are unaware of the strong lessons
imparted to youth by these everyday contacts
Overt, explicit, or written curriculum simply that which is written as part of formal
instruction of schooling experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts,
films, and supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the
intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum is usually
confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated and
reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often collectively.
following represent the many different types of curricula used in schools today.
i)
ii)

Overt, explicit, or written curriculum

Societal curriculum

As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this societal curriculum as:

The

...[the] massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighborhoods,

churches organizations, occupations, mass, media and other socializing forces that "educate"
all of us throughout our lives.
iii)

The hidden or covert curriculum

That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves
around daily or established routines. Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted
definition for this term,
. . . the "hidden curriculum," which refers to the kinds of learnings children derive from the
very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and
attitudes of teachers and administrators.... "
Examples of the hidden curriculum might include the messages and lessons derived from the
mere organization of schools -- the emphasis on: sequential room arrangements; the cellular,
timed segments of formal instruction; an annual schedule that is still arranged to
accommodate an agrarian age; disciplined messages where concentration equates to student
behaviors were they are sitting up straight and are continually quiet; students getting in and
standing in line silently; students quietly raising their hands to be called on; the endless
competition for grades, and so on. The hidden curriculum may include both positive or
negative messages, depending on the models provided and the perspectives of the learner or
the observer.

iv)

The null curriculum

Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his discussion of the null curriculum. The
major point I have been trying to make thus far is that schools have consequences not only by
virtue of what they do teach, but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach. What students
cannot consider, what they dont processes they are unable to use, have consequences for the
kinds of lives they lead.
Eisner (1985, 1994) first described and defined aspects of this curriculum. He states:
There is something of a paradox involved in writing about a curriculum that does not exist.
Yet, if we are concerned with the consequences of school programs and the role of curriculum
in shaping those consequences, then it seems to me that we are well advised to consider not
only the explicit and implicit curricula of schools but also what schools do not teach. It is my
thesis that what schools do not teach may be as important as what they do teach. I argue this
position because ignorance is not simply a neutral void; it has important effects on the kinds
of options one is able to consider, the alternatives that one can examine, and the perspectives
from which one can view a situation or problems.
From Eisners perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools.
Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what
is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. Since it is
physically impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be
intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. But Eisners position on the null

curriculum is that when certain subjects or topics are left out of the overt curriculum, school
personnel are sending messages to students that certain content and processes are not
important enough to study. Unfortunately, without some level of awareness that there is also a
well-defined implicit agenda in schools, school personnel send this same type of message via
the hidden curriculum. These are important to consider when making choices. We teach about
wars but not peace, we teach about certain select cultures and histories but not about others.
Both our choices and our omissions send messages to students.
v)

Phantom curriculum

The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These components and
messages play a major part in the enculturation of students into the predominant metaculture, or in acculturating students into narrower or generational subcultures.
vi)

Rhetorical curriculum

Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by policymakers,
school officials, administrators, or politicians. This rhetorical curriculum may also come
from those professionals involved in concept formation and content changes; or from those
educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public
speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum
may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical knowledge.
vii)

The electronic curriculum

Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or through using eforms of communication. According to Wilson, (2004) this type of curriculum may be either
formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or
incorrect depending on ones views. Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for
recreational purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, list serves, through instant messenger,

on-line conversations, or through personal e-mails and sites like Twitter, Facebook, or
YouTube) and for personal online research and information gathering are bombarded with all
types of media and messages. Much of this information may be factually correct, informative,
or even entertaining or inspirational. But there is also a great deal of other e-information that
may be very incorrect, dated, pass, biased, perverse, or even manipulative. The implications
of the electronic curriculum for educational practices are that part of the overt curriculum
needs to include lessons on how to be wise consumers of information, how to critically
appraise the accuracy and correctness of e-information, as well as how to determine the
reliability of electronic sources. Also, students need to learn how to be artfully discerning
about the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of information. Like other forms of
social interaction, students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be learned about
appropriate and acceptable netiquette and online behaviours, to include the differences
between fair and legal usage, vs. plagiarism and information piracy.