Aircraft Operations Booklet

Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Principles offlight
Chapter1
Generalpresentationoftheaircraft
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Outlines
Mainstructuralcomponents
Controllingtheaircraft
Controllingthehelicopter
Airfoils
Wi
Wings
Main structural components

Mainstructuralcomponents
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FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE
WINGS
WINGS
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HIGH
WING
LOW
WING
www.airliners.net
www.airliners.net
ROTARYWING
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ENGINENACELLES
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NOSELANDING
GEAR
MAINLANDING
GEAR
VERTICALTAILPLANE
HORIZONTALTAILPLANE
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TTAIL
VTAIL
CANARD
Controlling
g theaircraft
f
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Movementsofaircraftinspace
Yaw
axis
Aircraftmovements:
Arounditscenterofgravity
A
d it
t
f
it
o Shortterm:pilotfunction
o Pitch,roll,yaw
o Angularmovements
CG
Roll
axis
Pitch
axis
Movementsinspaceofthecenterofgravity
o Midtolongterm:guidancefunction
o Latitude,longitude,altitude
o Flightpath
Movementsareobtainedthroughmodificationsoftheforcesof
equilibrium
Fromthepilottotheflightpath
Startingwithabalancedsituation
Pilotsaction
o Controlcolumn(orsidestick):pitch&roll
o Rudderpedals:yaw
o Throttlelevers:engine
Throughflightcontrols,ordertransmittedtocontrolsurfaces
o Pitch:elevator
o Roll:ailerons
o Yaw:rudder
Yaw : rudder
Modificationsofforces(aerodynamic&propulsion)andassociated
moments
A/cinitiatesangularmovements
Flightpathismodified
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Controlsurfaces
YAWAXIS
RUDDER
ROLLAXIS
AILERONS
PITCHAXIS
ELEVATORS
Controlsurfaces
Left aileron
Rudder
Elevators
Flaps
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Pitchcontrol
Pilotpullsthecontrolcolumn
El
Elevatordeflectedupward
d fl
d
d
Airresiststothesurfaceraisingtendency
Downwardforceonthehorizontaltail
Aircraftsnoseraises:noseuppitch
Elevator
Rollcontrol
Controlcolumntotheright
g
,
Rightaileronraised,leftaileronlowered
Airresiststothesurfacesmovements
Downwardforceontherightwing,upwardforceontheleft
wing
Theaircraftrollstotheright
Right aileron
Left aileron
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Yawcontrol
Pilotpushesrightpedal
Rudder deflected to the right
Rudderdeflectedtotheright
Airresiststothesurfacemovement
Lateralforcetotheleftonaircrafttail
Aircraftsnosesteerstotheright
Rudder
Controlling the helicopter

Controllingthehelicopter
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09/02/2015
Helicoptercontrols:4flightcontrols
Rudderpedals
p
Cyclicstick
Collectivepitchlever
Twistgripmountedonthecollectivecontrol
(throttle)
4flightcontrols
Verticalflight
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
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4flightcontrols:collective&cycliclevers,pedalsand
..throttle
Thetwin gripthrottleexists
mainlyonlighthelicopters
withpistonengines on
modernaircraft,mechanical
enginespeedregulation
(e.g.R22)orelectronic
regulation systems (e.g.
regulationsystems(e.g.
FADEConturbineaircraft)
correlatethecollectivepitch
withenginepower
automatically.
Openthrottle
Closethrottle
Increase
collectivepitch
Reducecollective
pitch
Ai f il
Airfoils
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Airfoil
Airfoil:acrosssectionofawing(oratailplane,oracontrol
surface,oranengineblade.)
Theairfoilistheelementarycomponentofawing
Definitionsrelativetoanairfoil
meancamberline
uppersurface
trailing
edge
leading
edge
chord line
chordline
lowersurface
f
Chordline:astraightlinefromleadingtotrailingedge
Meancamberline :linedrawnhalfwaybetweenupperand
lowersurfaces
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Chord
Chord(l):thestraightdistancebetweenleadingandtrailing
edge
Usedtodescribetheairfoilwithrelativedata
Relativethickness orthicknessratio
Relativecamber orcamberratio
Positionalongchordline,expressedin%ofchord
Mislocatedat22%ofthechordline
chordline
Thickness/Relativethickness
Thickness
Thickness(h):anywherealongthechordline,distance
(h) : anywhere along the chord line, distance
betweenupperandlowersurface
Relativethickness or thicknessratio(e) :maximum
thickness/referencechord
hmax
hmax
l
expressedin%(3%forConcorde;15%forAirbusA340)
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Relativecamber
Relativecamber or camberratio(c) :maximumdistancefrom
chordlinetomeancamberline/referencechord
ymax
ymax
l
expressedin%(around2%formostwings;10%forengineblades)
Wings
Wi
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Wingarea
Wingarea orreferencearea(S) :wingsurfaceprojectedona
planeperpendiculartotheaircraftsplaneofsymmetry
l
di l t th i
ft l
f
t
Mirage2000:S=41m/440ft
AirbusA310:S=219m/2,360ft
AirbusA380:S=845m/9,100ft
Wingspan
Wingspan(b)
Wing span (b) :distancefromonewingtiptotheother
: distance from one wingtip to the other
Mirage2000:b=9m
AirbusA380:b=80m
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Aspectratio
Aspectratio(AR) :spandividedbychord
Rectangularwing:constantchordAR=b/c
Otherplanforms:ifcave istheaveragechord AR=b/cave =b/S
cave
b
Concorde:AR=1.6AirbusA310:AR=8.8
Nimbus 4D(racingglider):AR=39
Sweepangle
Sweepangle( ) :anglebetweenleadingedge(orareference
tobespecified)andaperpendiculartotherootchord
X
Y
here,lineof25%
chords
Positivesweepanglefora
sweptbackwing
(around30 formostairliners;
55to76 forConcorde)
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Dihedralangle
Dihedralangle() :anglebetweenthehalfwing(frontview)
andtheperpendiculartothewingplaneofsymmetry
(
(positiveupwards)
d)
Y
Z
Wingsinclined
downwardsis
calledanhedral
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Chapter2
Airasenvironmentofflight
Outlines
Aflight:anaircraftandafluid
Definitionsrelativetothefluid
Mainequationsgoverningflows
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A fli h
Aflight:anaircraftandafluid
i
f
d fl id
Steadystateflight
Airplaneinsteadystateflight(
p
y
g ( cruise ):wingslevel,
)
g
constantspeed,constantaltitude
Newtonsfirstlawstatesthatallforcesactingontheairplane
sumuptozero
Lift
Lift=Weight
Lift
W i ht
Thrust=Drag
Thrust
Drag
Weight
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Aerodynamicforce
Lift&dragarethe2maincomponentsoftheaerodynamic
force
Anaerodynamicforceappearswhenmovingabody(the
airplane)insideafluid(theatmosphere)atagivenspeed
y
:thestudyofallparametersinfluencingthe
y
p
g
Aerodynamics
aerodynamicforce
Factorsinfluencingaerodynamicforces
2
2familiesofsignificantdata:
families of significant data :
Airplanerelateddata(shapeofwing,fuselage,surface
roughness)
Atmosphererelateddata(influenceofaltitude,
temperature)
Oncetheaerodynamicforceiscomputed(direction&
magnitude) you can study the movement of the aircraft
magnitude),youcanstudythemovementoftheaircraft
(cruise,climb,descent,constantspeed,accelerated)
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Airplanevelocity
Thefastertheairplane,thegreatertheaerodynamicforce
Relevantvelocity:thatoftheairplanerelativetothemassof
Relevant velocity : that of the airplane relative to the mass of
air (airspeed)
Fromanaerodynamicpointofview,the3followingcasesare
equivalent
Airplanemovingin
still air
Stillairplaneplacedina
movingflow
(windtunnel)
Airplanemovingina
movingflow
Notethatwhenitcomestonavigation(timetotravela
distance),these3caseshavetotallydifferentconsequences
Relativeairflow
Flightpath :vectordescribingthemagnitude&directionof
a/c movement through the mass of air (equal to the a/c
a/cmovementthroughthemassofair(equaltothea/c
velocityvector)
Relativeairflow :vectorrepresentingthespeed&direction
oftheairpassingoverthea/c(oppositeandequaltoflight
pathvector)
flightpathvector
relativeairflow
Note:thecaserepresentedaboveisadescendingflight
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Airflowdirectionrelativetoaircraft
D
Dependingontheaircraftpositioninsidetheflow,forceswill
di
th i
ft
iti i id th fl
f
ill
vary
Descriptionofaircraftpositionismadethrough2angles:
Angleofattack
Sideslipangle
g
p g
y
Aircraftangleofattackandsideslipanglearemonitoredby
thepilotanddeterminetheaircraftcapacitytofly
Angleofattack
Angleofattack( ) :theanglebetweenthechordlineandthe
relativeairflow
ea ea o
AOA
airflow
Note:forana/c,anglebetweencenterlineandrelativeairflow
Positivewhenthechordlineisabovetherelativeairflow
ThehighertheAOA,thegreaterthedisturbancecreatedby
theairfoil(orwing)
ThepilotajuststheAOAtoitsflightconfiguration
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Sideslipangle
Sideslipangle( ) :anglebetweenrelativeairflowandaircraft
centerline
X
airflow
Positivewhenrelativeairflowistotherightofthecenterline
Whenthereissideslip,theflowisnotsymmetricalonbothwings
Referenceaxissystem
G:centerofgravity
Gx carried by the a/c velocity vector
Gxcarriedbythea/cvelocityvector
Gx1 :rollaxis
sideslip
angle
speed
vector
angle of
attack
speed vector
Gx1y1z1 :aircraftaxissystem
Gxyz:airaxissystem
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Attitude/Angleofattack/Slope
Attitude
AttitudeorPitchangle(
or Pitch angle ( ) :anglebetweentheaircraftaxisof
: angle between the aircraft axis of
symmetry(rollaxis)andthehorizontal
(positiveiftheaxisisabovethehorizon)
Angleofattack( ) :fortheaircraft,anglebetweentheaxisof
symmetryandtheflightpath
(positiveiftheaxisisabovetheflightpath)
SlopeorClimb(ordescent)angle( ) :anglebetweenthe
flightpathandthehorizontal
(positiveiftheflightpathisascending)
Attitude/Angleofattack/Slope(1)
angle of
attack
attitude
slope
Vaircraft
Inthiscase: >0, >0, >0
Thea/cisclimbing(positiveslope )withapositiveattitude(noseup)
andapositiveangleofattack.
Inanalgebraicform: = +
pitchangle=AOA+climb/descentangle
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attitude
angle of
attack
slope
Vaircraft
Inthiscase: >0, <0, <0
Thea/cisdescending(negativeslope )withanegativeattitude(nose
down)andapositiveangleofattack.
Inanalgebraicform: = +
attitude
angle of
attack
slope
Vaircraft
Inthiscase: >0, >0, <0
Thea/cisdescending(negativeslope )withapositiveattitude(nose
up)andapositiveangleofattack.
Inanalgebraicform: =
+
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Definitionsrelativetothefluid
fi i i
l i
h fl id
Physicalquantitiescharacterizingafluid
A
Anyfluidisperfectlyidentifiedbytheknowledgeof3
fl id i
f tl id tifi d b th k
l d
f3
parameters:
itspressureP
itsdensity
itstemperatureT
InternationalSystem(S.I.)unitsmustbeusedinallequations
y
( )
q
relativetofluidbehavior
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Pressure
Theforceexertedbythefluidperunitsurface
Atmosphericpressureistheweightofthecolumnofairabove
a unit cross section
aunitcrosssection
InternationalSystem(S.I.)unit:N/malsocalledPascal(Pa)
1Pa=1N/m
1HectoPascal(Hpa)=100Pa
Aeronauticalunits:
millibar(mb):1mb=1Hpa=100Pa
inchesofmercury(inHg)
i h
f
(i H )
millimetersofmercury(mmHg)
Innormalconditionsatsealevel:
P=1,013.25Hpa=29.91inHg=760mmHg
Density
Density :themassperunitvolume
mass
density=
volume
InternationalSystem(S.I.)unit:kilogram/cubicmeter
(kg/m)
Airdensity =1.225kg/m
10
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Temperature
Aeronauticalunit:centigradeorcelsiusdegree(C)
AbsolutetemperatureT :
Unit:Kelvindegree(KorK)
TK =tC +273.15
absolutezero = 273.15C
Allrelationshipsrelativetogasbehaviorareexpressedusing
absolute temperature
absolutetemperature
T=15C=288.15K
Theactualatmosphere
A
Afluidinconstantevolution,whichcharacteristicsvary
fluid in constant evolution, which characteristics vary
throughspaceandtime
Acomplexmixofgases:mainly80%nitrogenand20%oxygen
Generaltendencies:
pressureanddensitydecreasewithaltitude
temperaturedecreaseswithaltitudeinaregionclosetotheEarth
(thetroposphere),thenstaysconstantabove,inthestratosphere
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Theactualatmosphere
STRATOSPHERE
36 000 ft
Thelevelofthetropopause
variesfromabout30,000ftat
thepolesto54,000ftatthe
Equator
Atthemiddlelatitudes,itisat
approximately 36 000 ft
approximately36,000ft
tropopause
TROPOSPHERE
EARTH
(reminder:1ft=0.3048m)
InternationalStandardAtmosphere
Modelofatmospheremadeofreferenceconditions,theso
called ISAconditions : mean atmosphere
correspondingtothemiddlelatitudes
di t th
iddl l tit d
Initialconditions+lawsofvariation
Standardconditionsatsealevel:
temperature:15Cor288K
pressure:1013.25Hpa
density : 1.225 kg/m3
density:1.225kg/m
gravityacceleration:g=9.81m/s2
speedofsound:340m/sor661kts
1 kt
1 Nm/h
1,852 m
3,600 s
0.5 m/s
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Standardatmosphere Lawsofvariation
20,000 m
STRATOSP
PHERE
65,600 ft
36,000 ft
PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
tropopause
TROPOSPHERE
11,000 m
-56.5C
227 HPa
15C
1013 HPa
Temperature:
decreasesby6.5C/1,000mor2C/1,000ftinsidethe
troposphere
t=56.5CorT=216.5Kinsidethestratosphere
Distributionofaircraftintheatmosphere
Supersonic
STRATOSPH
HERE
60,000 ft
41,000 ft
Subsonic jets
tropopause
TROPOSPHER
RE
36,000 ft
21,000 ft
25,000 ft
Conventional pressurized
Propellers
11 000 ft
13,000 ft
Conventional
7 000 ft
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Fundamentalgaslaw
Wewillassumeatmospheretobeaperfectgas
Insideaperfectgas,thereisarelationshipbetweenpressure,
temperatureanddensity
P= rT
whereP:pressureinPa
:densityinkg/m
T:temperatureinK
r = 287 Joule/(kg K)
r=287Joule/(kg
K)forair
for air
Densityvariesdirectlywithpressure,inverselywith
temperature
Speedofsound
Speedofsounda :thespeedatwhichpressuredisturbances
travelinsideafluidoncetheyhavebeenproduced
Insideair :
am / s
20.05
TK
aKt 39 T K
or
Speed of sound depends only on temperature
Speed of sound decreases when altitude increases
At sea level in standard atmosphere : a = 340 m/s = 661 Kt
Above FL360 : a = 573 Kt
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Machnumber
MachnumberM :ratioofflowspeed(oraircraftairspeed)to
the speed of sound
thespeedofsound
V
M=
a
M<1:subsonicflow
M>1:supersonicflow
M = 1 : sonic flow
M=1:sonicflow
Note:asonica/cisfasteratsealevel(661Kt)thanitisathigher
altitudes(forexample589KtatFL300)
M i
Mainequationsgoverningflows
ti
i fl
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Flowdisturbance
Aerodynamic
Aerodynamicforcesarecreatedfollowingdisturbancesinthe
forces are created following disturbances in the
flow:velocity,pressure,temperatureoftheflowarelocally
modifiedaroundtheaircraft
Reference flow:ambient/upstream/undisturbedflow
Variationsofairflowcharacteristicsfollowspecificrules
Massflowconservationrule
Bernoullisequation
SaintVenantsequation
Massflowconservationforsubsonic flows
Air
Airisacceleratedinaconvergentnozzle,sloweddownina
is accelerated in a convergent nozzle slowed down in a
divergentnozzle
S
V
Convergent
Convergent
nozzle
Divergent
Divergent
nozzle
Everytimeyouchangethesectionofastreamtube,theflowis
mechanicallyacceleratedorsloweddown
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Applicationtowindtunnels
EuropeanTransonicWindtunnelinCologne(Germany)
Testsection:2.4mx2mPressure:1.25to4.5bars
Machnumber:0.15to1.3Temperature:90to313K
( 183Cto+40C)
Bernoullisequation
Insideagivenflow,pressureandvelocityvaryinversely
Applied along a stream line :
Appliedalongastreamline:
Upstreamconditions
V0 P0
V
P
Stagnation
point
Acceleratingtheaircreatesalowpressurearea
g
p
Slowingdowntheaircreatesahighpressurearea
Highestpressureisencounteredwhereflowvelocityiszero:
stagnationpoint(pressureatstagnationpointiscalledtotalpressure
andmeasuredwithaPitottube)
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SaintVenantsequation
Insideagivenflow,temperatureandvelocityvary
i
inversely
l
Appliedalongastreamline:
Upstreamconditions
V0 P0
V
T
Stagnation
point
A
Acceleratingtheaircreatesalowtemperaturearea
l ti th i
t
l t
t
Slowingdowntheaircreatesahightemperaturearea
Highesttemperatureisencounteredatstagnationpointandcalled
totaltemperature
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Chapter3
Aerodynamicforces
Outlines
Pressureforces
Viscosityforces
Lift&drag
Highliftdevices/Airbrakes&spoilers
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Aerodynamicforce
Whenmovingthroughatmosphere,theaircraftcreatesan
aerodynamic force
aerodynamicforce
Theaerodynamicforceismadeof2differenttypesofforces:
Pressureforces
Viscosityforces
Pressureforcesareresponsibleforlift,andaretheuseful
consequenceofthismovement(assumingairfoilappropriate
shape)
Viscosityforcesareanegativeconsequenceofthis
movement,andshouldbereducedasmuchaspossible
P
Pressureforces
f
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Flowpatternaroundtheairfoil
Undisturbedflowaboveandbelowactsasawall
Crosssectionvariationsarecreatedbythepresenceofthe
airfoil
Theupstreamflowislocallyacceleratedordecelerated
aroundtheairfoil,thenitgetsbacktotheinitialconditions
downstream
Flowvelocitiesaccordingtotheposition
alongthechordline
0
(
(zeroorverysmallangleofattack)
ll
l f
k)
100%
upper surface
V0
lower surface
0
100 %
(x/l:positionalongchordline,
expressedin%ofchord)
x
l
Uppersurface:airis
acceleratednearleading
edge,thenslowsdownin
trailingedgearea
Lowersurface:airstopsat
stagnationpoint,then
acceleratesbacktoinitial
flowspeed
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09/02/2015
Pressuresaccordingtothepositionalong
thechordline
AccordingtoBernoullisequation,flowvelocitychangesare
associatedwithlocalpressurechanges
V
LOW PRESSURES
upper surface
V0
P0
lower surface
0
Pt
HIGH PRESSURES
Uppersurface:low
pressures
Lowersurface:high
pressures
x
l
Note:lowpressuremeanslowerthanambient(or
undisturbed,orupstream)pressure
Pressureforces
High
High(orlow)pressurescomparedtoambientpressureare
(or low) pressures compared to ambient pressure are
responsibleforelementarypressureforcesdFP
dFP isnormaltothesurface,directedtowardthesurfaceif
P>P0 ,awayfromthesurfaceifP<P0
dFp <0
P0
P< P0
dS
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Pressuredistribution
relativeairflow
V0
Pressuredistributionforatypicalpositively
camberedairfoil,atlowangleofattack
Lowpressuresonuppersurfacearemuchmoreimportantthan
highpressuresonlowersurface:uppersurfaceismoresucked
thanlowersurfaceispressed
Pressureforcesresultant
Thesumofallelementarypressureforcesaroundtheairfoilis
anupwardforceresponsibleforlift
Pressureforcesresultantforthewingisafunctionof:
flowcharacteristics(velocityanddensity)
wingareaS
pressureimbalancebetweenupperandlowersurface
Large
Largepressureimbalanceisobtainedmainlywithlow
pressure imbalance is obtained mainly with low
pressuresonuppersurface,nearleadingedge
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Angleofattackinfluence
WhenAOAincreases:
th
thegreatertheAOA,thegreaterthe
t th AOA th
t th
flowdisturbance
lowpressuresincreaseonuppersurface,
andmoveforwardtowardsleadingedge
theresultingpressureforceincreases
stagnationpointslidesunderthelower
surface
airflow
airflow
BUTincreasingAOApastacertain
valuewillintheendbecome
unfavorableforlift:stall
airflow
Stall
Piecesofwoolarestuck
tothewingatoneend,
andarefreetomove
withtheairflow
Onthelowerpicture
thewingisstalled,the
flow is turbulent and
flowisturbulentand
erratic
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Viscosityforces
f
Velocityprofilenearairfoilskin
Afluidismovingalongasurface
(from left to right)
(fromlefttoright)
Anelectricalimpulsegoes
throughatelluriumwire(left),
triggeringachemicalreaction
insidethefluid
Acloudprecipitates
Oncecreated,theclouddrifts
,
awaywiththeflowatdifferent
speedsdependingonthe
distancefromthesurface
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Viscousresistance
Whenanairfoilisplacedinanairflow,frictionforcesappear,
duetoviscousresistanceofflow
Airencountersresistancetoflowoverthesurfaceoftheairfoil
(skinfriction)
Farenoughfromtheairfoil,theairisnotaffected:friction
forces can be ignored
forcescanbeignored
Theflowneedsenergytofightviscousresistance
Pressuregradient
Pressuregradientonasurfacegreatlyinfluencesthewaythe
flowmoves
Favorablepressuregradient:pressuredecreasesinthe
directionofflow;airflowmovesfromhightolowpressures
andisassistedbypressuregradient
Adversepressuregradient:pressureincreasesinthedirection
of flow; the pressure gradient tends to prevent the flow from
offlow;thepressuregradienttendstopreventtheflowfrom
movingahead
Incaseofadversepressuregradient,theflowneedsmore
energytomoveforward
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Pressuregradient
Favorablepressure
gradient
Adversepressure
Ad
gradient
Favorableoradversepressuregradientismainlydetermined
byairfoilshape
Airflowseparation
Incaseofadversepressuregradient,andiftheflowdoesnot
p
g
,
haveenoughenergy,prematurestagnationoccurs:theflow
separatesfromthesurfaceandbecomesturbulent
turbulent
flow
airflow
separation
point
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Airflowseparationonacurvedwall
Wingairfoilpartialseparation
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Airflowseparation
Separationistheresultofprematurestagnationoftheflow
Anytimethereisseparation,thepressuresarelostonthe
A ti
th
i
ti
th
l t
th
separatedsurface,andconsequentlythepressureforces
Asevereseparationresultsinastall
whenincreasingAOA,theseparationpointmovesupstreamtowards
leadingedge
shockstall:thestrongincreaseofpressurethroughashockwave
cancauseseparation
Separationcanbedelayedoncriticalareasofwingbyusing
vortexgenerators(forexample,infrontofcontrolsurfacestoprevent
themfromseparating)
Lift&drag
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Aerodynamicforce
Whenanaicraftmovesthroughtheatmosphere,
pressureandviscosityforcesdevelop,creatingan
aerodynamic force
aerodynamicforce
Lift isthepartoftheaerodynamicforcedeveloped
perpendiculartotherelativeairflow
Dragisthepartoftheaerodynamicforcedeveloped
paralleltotherelativeairflow
Aerodynamic force
Lift
Drag
airflow
Caution!LiftisgenerallyNOTvertical(exceptinlevelflight)
Lift
Liftisthepartoftheaerodynamicforcedeveloped
perpendiculartotherelativeairflow
Itismainly madeupofpressureforces
Liftformula:L=1/2 VSCL
whereL=lift(unit:Newton)
=airdensity(unit:kg/m)
V = aircraft velocity (unit : m/s)
V=aircraftvelocity(unit:m/s)
S=wingarea(unit:m)
CL =liftcoefficient(dimensionless)
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LiftcoefficientCL
Consideringtheliftformula
L=1/2 VSCL
thefluid
theairfoil
thewing
LiftcoefficientCL representstheairfoiltrueliftcapacity,
regardless of speed density altitude wing area
regardlessofspeed,density,altitude,wingarea.
CL dependsmainlyontheshapeofairfoil(thickness,
camber.)andonAOA
LiftcoefficientvsAngleofattack
CL
1.4
CLmax
TypicalCLvs graphforapositively
camberedairfoil
auniquegraphforagivenairfoil
whateverthespeed(lowsubsonic)
CL increaseswithAOA
maximumliftcoefficientCLmax
a
obtainedforcriticalAOA crit
1.2
1.0
0.8
STALL
0.6
04
0.4
0.2
crit
-2
10 12
AOA
13
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Liftvsspeedanddensity
InordertokeepthesameliftL=1/2 VSCL :
Foragivendensity,eachspeedvariationhastobeassociated
For a given density each speed variation has to be associated
withaCL modification,i.e.anangleofattackmodification
whenaccelerating,youmustdecreaseAOA
whendecelerating,youmustincreaseAOA
ForagivenAOA, eachdensityvariationhastobeassociated
withaspeedvariation:whenairislessdense,youmustfly
faster
Foragivenspeed, eachdensityvariationhastobeassociated
withanAOAvariation:whenairislessdense,youmust
increaseAOA
MaximumliftcoefficientCLmax
CLmax representsthemaximumliftcapacityofairfoilorwing;it
is obtained at maximum AOA (also called critical AOA), just
isobtainedatmaximumAOA(alsocalledcriticalAOA),just
beforestall
ForAOAgreaterthan crit,theflowseparatesfromupper
surface,theairfoilisstalled
Foragivenaircraftconfiguration(clean,flaps,slats),stall
alwaysoccursatthesameAOAregardlessofweight,
altitude
li d
CurrentCLmax / crit values:
CLmax 1.to1.5incleanconfiguration;3.2withhighliftdevices
crit 10to12
14
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Stallspeed
Stallinghasnothingtodowiththespeedoftheaircraft;the
criticalangleofattackcanbeexceededatanyaircraftspeed
Stallspeed :theminimumspeedforwhichliftequationis
satisfied(minimumspeedatwhichanaircraftcanfly)
Stallspeedisafunctionofweight,altitude,bankangle,load
factor,CGlocation
Stallspeedinsteadystatelevelflight
Liftmustbalanceweight:1/2 VSCL =mg
2mg
StallspeedV
St ll
d VS : V
VS isanairspeed (TAS)
S
SCLmax
Caution!VS isexpressedinm/s
Stallspeed:
increaseswithweight
increases with weight
increaseswithaltitude
butalso
increaseswithloadfactor( Gmaneuvers ),increasesincase
ofcontaminatedairfoil(ice,frost,rain)
15
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Exercise
Anaircraftinhorizontalstabilizedflighthasastallspeedof
100KtsatapressurealtitudeZp=0( = 0 =1.225kg/m).
Whatisitsstallspeedat20,000ft( =0.6525kg/m)?
At40,000ft( =0.3019kg/m)?
Exercise
VS
2mg
SCLmax
at20,000ft:
Vs
100
1.225
0.6525
Vs=137kt
at40,000ft:
Vs
100
1.225
0.3019
Vs=201kt
16
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Drag
Dragisthepartoftheaerodynamicforcedevelopedparallel
totherelativeairflow;ittendstopreventtheaircraftfrom
movingforward
Dragformula:D=1/2 VSCD
whereD=drag(unit:Newton)
=airdensity(unit:kg/m)
y(
g/ )
V=aircraftvelocity(unit:m/s)
S=wingarea(unit:m)
CD =dragcoefficient(dimensionless)
DragcoefficientCD
Consideringthedragformula
g
g
D=1/2 VSCD
thefluid
thewing
theairfoil
DragcoefficientCD representstheairfoiltruedrag
characteristic,regardlessofspeed,density,altitude,wing
, g
p
,
y,
,
g
area.
CD dependsmainlyontheshapeofairfoil(thickness,
camber.)andonAOA
17
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
DragcoefficientvsAngleofattack
CD
0.14
TypicalCDvs graphforapositively
camberedairfoil
whateverthespeed(low
subsonic)
CD increaseswithAOA
increases with AOA
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
-2
10 12 14 16
AOA
Thepolarcurve
The polarcurve :liftvsdragasangleofattackvaries
TypicalCLvsCD graphforapositively
camberedairfoil
whateverthespeed(lowsubsonic)
eachpointofthegraphis
associatedwithasingleAOA
f
foreachAOA,thelifttodragratio
h AOA th lift t d
ti
L/D isanindicatorofwing
aerodynamicefficiency
highL/Dratio:thewingproduces
highliftwithlittledrag
CL
1.4
CLmax
=12
1.2
=10
1.0
=8
0.8
=6
0.6
=4
0.4
=2
0.2
=0
CDmin
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
CD
18
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Thelift/dragratio
CL
TTypicalC
i l CLvsC
CD graphfora
hf
positivelycamberedairfoil
maximumL/Dratiois
obtainedforlowtomedium
AOAvalues
L/Dratioisnotmaximumat
maximum CL (stallAOA),but
maximumC
(stall AOA), but
forasmallerAOA
14
1.4
CLmax
=12
1.2
=10
1.0
=8
0.8
=6
0.6
=4
0.4
=2
0.2
=0
CDmin
maximum
L/D AOA
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
CD
AdvantagesofagoodL/Dratio:cruise
Steadystatelevelflight:constantspeed&altitude
drag
drag
1
weight
lift
L/D
foragivenweight,dragisminimumwhenL/Dismaximum
Example:B747
mass:350tonsL/D:17.2
drag=weight/(L/D)=200,000N
Eachenginewillhavetodelivera50,000Nthrust(110,000lbs)
sinceLift=Weight,then
g ,
AbetterL/Dmakesitpossible:
foragivenweight,tohavealowerenginethrust(thereforelower
fuelconsumption)
foragivenenginethrust,tocarryaheavierweight
19
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
AdvantagesofagoodL/Dratio:poweroutglide
aerodynamic resultant
lift
t
tan
drag
weight
absolute
altitude H
W sin
W cos
H
tan
Dist
Di t
Dist
glide distance Dist
D
L
L
D
GlidedistanceisdirectlyrelatedtoL/D:bestglidedistancewill
beobtainedformaximumL/D
Notethatpoweroutglidedistanceisindependantfroma/cweight
Sometypicalvalues
AirbusA320 :
CL
CD
L/D
Cruise
0.5
0.03
16.7
Approach with
L/G extended
1.7
0.2
8.5
MaximumL/Dratio :supersonica/c:5to10
transonica/c:12to20
i / 12 20
competitiongliders:>55
lighta/c:10incruise
5inapproach
20
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Sometypicalvalues
MaximumL/Dratio :
A330: 22
A300-600: 18
A300-600ST: 13
A340-200: 20
A340-600: 20
A350: 18
A380
3 : 22
Ajet: 7
Dr400 : 9
B747: 17.2
B737-800: 14.6
B777-300ER: 19.7
B787-800: 21.7
CRJ900: 18
R22: 2.5
Paragliding:
a ag d g: 7 9
Hand-glider: 12 14
Highliftdevices
High
lift devices
Airbrakes&spoilers
21
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Principle
Airfoilshapeisoptimizedforcruise,andthepilotcanadapt
itsaerodynamiccharacteristicsbymodifyingitsAOA
Insomespecificcases,thesemodificationsarenotsufficient,
anotherairfoilshapewouldbeneeded
Thisisobtainedbyusingspecificdevices
highliftdevices(flaps,slats)
spoilers,airbrakes
spoilers airbrakes
Extendingone(orseveral)ofthesedevicesisequivalentto
havinganotherairfoil,i.e.otheraerodynamiccharacteristics,
polarcurve,L/Dratio
Flaps&slats
Insomeflightphases(takeoff,approach,landing),wewant
to fly at very low speeds, in order to reduce takeoff
toflyatverylowspeeds,inordertoreducetake
off&
&
landingdistances
InordertoachievethesameliftL=1/2 VSCL atalower
speed,wecan:
increaseAOAupto stall inordertogetcleanwingCLmax (the
minimumspeedallowedwillbeVS +mandatorymargins)
increasewingC
increase wing CLmax
increasewingarea
IncreaseinwingCLmax andareawillbeachievedusinghigh
liftdevices:flaps andslats
22
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Slats
Flaps&slats:
general view
generalview
Trailing edge flaps
Example:FowlerflapsonB747
23
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Example:FowlerflapsonB747
Philipsburg,StMaarten PrincessJulianaairport
24
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Example:slatsonA320
Jonathan Rankin www.airliners.net
Flaps&slats:consequencesonwingperformances
Use
Useofhighliftdevicesincreasesdrag:thewinghasalower
of high lift devices increases drag : the wing has a lower
L/Dratiothanacleanconfigurationwing
Useofslats&flapsisassociatedwithamodificationofpitching
moments
Whenperforminganabortedtakeoff,inordertooptimize
climbperformances(climbangle+rateofclimb),theslatsand
flapsmustbepartiallyretracted
25
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Airbrakes&spoilers
Insomespecificcases,wewanttoincreasedragand/or
decreaselift:
Onground,afterlanding,inordertoreducelandingdistance
Inflight,toincreasedescentangle
aerodynamicforce
lift
weight
i ht
drag
tan
D
L
IfL/Ddecreases,descentis
steeperanddistanceto
touchdownissmaller
Airbrakesincreasedragandhavelittleimpactonlift
Spoilersincreasedraganddecreaselift
Airbrakes
and spoilers:
andspoilers:
generalview
Spoilers and
airbrakes
26
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Example:spoilers(andslats)onA380
T. Laurent www.airliners.net
Example:tailairbrakesonBae146
Tommy Desmet
www.airliners.net
27
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Example:spoilersextendedongroundonA320
28
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Chapter4
Wingtipvortices
Waketurbulence
Finitespanwing
Whenconsideringawing,wecanseethattheflowpatternat
wingtipspresentsaveryspecificshape
g p p
y p
p
Becauseofpressuredifferencesbetweenupperandlower
surface,arotationalmovementofaircanbeobserved
Thisrotationalmovementiscalledawingtipvortex
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Wingtipvortices
In
Inordertohavepositivelift,
order to have positive lift
apressuredifferentialis
created(lowpressureson
uppersurface,high
pressuresonlowersurface)
Avortexdevelopsateach
wingtip,fromlowerto
uppersurface
Wingtipvortices
Direction of
the plane
Direction of the turbulence
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Wingtipvortices
Wingtipvortices
Project AWIATOR
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Wingtipvortices
Themagnitudeofthevortices:
iisduetothefactthewinghasafinite
d
h f
h i h
fi i
span(oraspectratio)
isdirectlyrelatedwiththepressure
differential,inotherwordswiththe
wingliftcapacityCL
Rotationspeedcanbemorethan100m/s
Dangerduration(approx 3min)
Wingtipvortices
The2counterrotatingvorticeshave
2 consequences
2consequences:
forthea/citself:additionaldrag
component,induceddrag
forallfollowinga/c:waketurbulence
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Wingtipvortices
Wingtipvortices
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Wingtipvortices
Waketurbulence
Oncecreatedbythewing,thevorticestravelbehindthe
aircraft : they tend to go down and outwards relative to a/c
aircraft:theytendtogodownandoutwardsrelativetoa/c
path
Downward
movement
200/300 ft/min
ft/min
Lateral movement 5 kt
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Waketurbulence
height
B757
200ft
Convective air
100ft
Calm air
t (sec)
20
40
60
120
Waketurbulence
Anaircraftencounteringtheturbulencewillbecaughtina
very strong rotating turbulence : very dangerous hazard !!!
verystrongrotatingturbulence:verydangeroushazard!!!
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Waketurbulence
Anaircraftencounteringtheturbulencewillbecaughtina
very strong rotating turbulence : very dangerous hazard !!!
verystrongrotatingturbulence:verydangeroushazard!!!
-Dangerous area extend to 1000 feets below
1000ft
Danger
Waketurbulence
Separationsareimplementedbetweenaircraft,inorderto
avoid this phenomenon; the separations depend on the pair
avoidthisphenomenon;theseparationsdependonthepair
(generatinga/c followinga/c)
SeparationsinNM(approach)
Separationsinminutes(runway)
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Waketurbulence
Following aircraft
Heavy
Medium size
Generating aircraft
Light
4nm
5nm
6nm
3nm
3nm
5nm
3nm
3nm
3nm
Heavy > 136T
7T<=Medium<=136T
7T< M di < 136T
Light< 7T
Waketurbulence
Ahelicoptergeneratesmorewaketurbulencethananaircraft
of the same weight (7 to 8 times)
ofthesameweight(7to8times)
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Waketurbulence
SA 330 Puma : mass 7400kg
Experiences the same turbulence as a B737-500

of 54T
Waketurbulence
CH-47 Chinook : mass 21000kg
Experiences 2/3 turbulence of a B747
10
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Waketurbulence
Sincetheturbulenceisrelatedtoliftcapacity,itwillbe
maximumforhighCL flightphases:
Heavyaircraft
Lowspeedphases(approach,takeoff&landing)
Itiscurrentlyadmittedthatanaircraftdoesnotgenerate
waketurbulenceaslongasithasnotleftthegroundorwhen
it has already landed
ithasalreadylanded.
Waketurbulence
Incaseofacrosswindonanairport,vorticesmayadversely
affectaparallelrunway
wind
11
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Takeoffpath
Inordertoavoidwaketurbulenceneartheground,some
prevention strategies can be adopted
preventionstrategiescanbeadopted
Makea shorter takeoffandtakeasteeperpaththan

theprecedingaircraft
Induceddrag
Wing
Wingtipvorticesareresponsibleforanadditionaldrag
tip vortices are responsible for an additional drag
component,induceddrag
Induceddragcanbeexpressedinthesamewayasother
aerodynamicforces
Di =1/2 VSCDi
whereCDi istheinduceddragcoefficient
12
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Induceddragcoefficient
InduceddragcoefficientC
g
Di :
increaseswhenCL increases(heavyweight,lowspeed)
increaseswhenARdecreases(lowARwingsproducemoreinduced
dragthanhighARwings)(ARaveragechord =b/S)
CDi
CL2
(AR)
Induceddragistheundesirableconsequenceofdeveloping
liftonafinitewing
Induceddragcoefficient
InduceddragcoefficientC
g
Di :
(ARaveragechord =b/S)
CDi
2
L
C
(AR)
AR:
A300:
7.7
B747-400:
7.7
A380:
7.8
B757:
7.8
B767-200:
7.99
B777-200:
8.6
A310:
8.8
A340-600:
9.1
B733:
9.16
A318:
9.5
A319:
9.5
A321:
9.5
13
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Devices
Somespecificdevicesarecommonlyinstalledinordertoreducethe
p
y
wingtipvortices:
winglets
wingtipfences
Winglets
Example :bizjets
Example:B747
14
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Winglets
Positive
lift
angle of
attack
Speed of the
turbulence
Previous
airflow
Speed of the
resulting
airflow
Wingtipfences
15
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Experimentalconcept
Groundeffect
The plane without ground effect
The plane with ground effect
16
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Groundeffect
Cl constant
Percent Reduction in Induced drag
coefficient
Ratio of Wing Height to Span
Totaldrag
Aircrafttotaldrag Dt (oftennotedD)isthesumofprofile
drag(i.e.pressuredragandfrictiondrag)andinduceddrag
Profiledrag
Induceddrag
A/cvelocity
ProfiledragvarieswithV
Essentiallyathighspeed
A/cvelocity
Induceddragvarieswith1/V
Essentiallyatlowspeed
17
Principlesofflight
12/02/2015
Totaldragvsaircraftvelocity
Total drag
Profile drag
Induced drag
(L/D)max
A/c velocity
TotaldragisminimumwhenflyingatL/Dmaxspeed&AOA
Accident
Accident of a A300 following a B747(Japan Airlines) in

october 2001
time interval between planes at departure 1min 45 s
vertical tail of the A300 destroyed
18
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Chapter5
Airspeedmeasurement
Outlines
Airspeedmeasurement
Thedifferentairspeeds
Displays
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Air speed measurement

Airspeedmeasurement
Airspeedorgroundspeed?
Airspeeddeterminesthevalueoftheaerodynamicforces
Air speed determines the value of the aerodynamic forces
Flyingtheaircraft(stayingairborneandsafe)requiresadequate
aerodynamicforces
TheAirSpeedindicatorcoverstheshorttermaspectofflight
Whenitcomestonavigation(timetogetfromoneplaceto
another), the relevant speed is ground speed
another),therelevantspeedisgroundspeed
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Bernoullisequation
Insideaflow,totalpressureremainsconstant
TotalpressurePt ismadeof:
StaticpressureP
Dynamicpressureq:duetothemovementandtothefluiddensity;
(ifthefluidisincompressible(slow:M<0.3)thenq=1/2 V)
Bernoullisequationmeansthatforagivenflow,thereisan
exchangebetweenstaticanddynamicpressure,inother
wordsbetweenpressureandvelocity
Pt =P+q
Flowaroundanaircraft
Upstreamconditions
V0 P0
V
P
Stagnation
point
Localconditions(V,P):theydeterminethelocalforcesand
explaintheoriginoflift
Upstreamconditions:
P0 :ambientpressure
V0 :aircraftvelocity(air speed)
Stagnationpoint:aspecificpointwhereV=0
atstagnationpoint,totalpressure=staticpressure
measuringpressureatstagnationpointisawayofknowingtheflow
totalpressure
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Measuringthepressures
Ambient
AmbientpressureP
pressure P0 :alongthesidesoftheaircraft,througha
: along the sides of the aircraft through a
staticport
Totalpressure:withaPitottube(artificialstagnationpoint)
Dynamicpressurecannotbemeasuredonitsown,itis
obtainedthankstothedifferencebetweentotalandstatic
pressure:q=Pt P
Airspeedwillthenbeobtained:
Ai
d ill th b bt i d
Fromanairspeedindicatoronsmallaircraft
Froman AirDataComputer(ADC)whichmanagesseveralsensors
(totalandstaticpressure,temperature,angleofattack.)onlarger
aircraft
Staticports
AirbusA330
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Pitottube
ADCprobes
Right
Left
Pitot probe n2
TAT n1
Pitot probe n1
AOA probe n1
static probes
AOA probe n2
AOA probe n3
TAT n2
Pitot probe n3
TAT : Total Air Temperature
ProbesonAirbusA330
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Airspeedindicatoronlightaircraft
stagnation
point
(total
pressure Pi)
static
pressure Ps
Pitot tube
Air speed indicator = pressure indicator

The gauge indicates the
difference between total&static
pressure, i.e. dynamic pressure q
Pi
Static port
Ps
Fromapressuretoanairspeed
W
Weareabletomeasureapressuredifferential
bl
diff
i l P,thatwe
P h
wanttodisplayundertheformofanairspeed
Severaldifficultiesmustbefaced:
Inincompressibleconditions, P=1/2 V:thesame Pcanbe
obtainedatdifferentspeeds,dependingonthedensity
Calibrationoftheairspeedindicatorrequirestochooseaunique
density:whichone?
Characteristicspeeds(stallspeed,maximumspeedforflap
extension)mustbedisplayed,buttheyvarywithaltitude :a
uniquesetofvaluesmustbedisplayed
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
The different air speeds

Whydoweneedtomonitortheairspeed?
The
Thecharacteristicspeedsareneededtomanagetheaircraft
characteristic speeds are needed to manage the aircraft
ontheshortterm,inotherwordstoflyit
Allthesespeedsaredeterminedbyaerodynamicforces(the
liftrequiredtobalanceweight,themaximumforcethe
landinggearortheaircraftcanwithstandwithoutbeing
damaged.)
Weactuallyneedtomonitortheaerodynamicforces
Dependingonthealtitude,thesameforcecanbeobtainedat
differentspeeds:infact,whatdeterminestheaerodynamic
forceisthevalueofdynamicpressure1/2 V
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
TrueAirSpeed(TAS)
Thisistheactualaircraftspeedrelativetothemassofair
TASisthevelocityVusedinallaerodynamicformulas
Associatedwiththerelevantairdensity,itdeterminesthe
aerodynamicforcesactingontheaircraft
TASmustbehigherthanstallspeedVs,lowerthanmaximum
b hi h h
ll
d
l
h
i
operatingspeedVMOcomputedattherelevantaltitude :
thisensuresthattheaerodynamicforceishighenoughnotto
stall,lowenoughnottodamagetheaircraftstructure.
ThereisnosimplewaytomeasureTAS
TrueAirSpeed(TAS)
18
V' > V
2. At a high altitude :
- air density decreases,
V has to increase in order
to maintain the same P
1. At a low altitude :
- air density increases:
the speed V corresponds to a
P
3
21
18
6
24
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
IndicatedAirSpeed(IAS)
Itisthespeeddisplayedontheairspeedindicator
Basedonthemeasuredpressuredifferential P
Airspeed
AirspeedindicatorsarecalibratedatISAsealeveldensity
indicators are calibrated at ISA sea level density
( 0 =1.225kg/m3)
Flyingat(TAS/altitudeZ)and(IAS/sealevelinstandard
atmosphere)producesthesameaerodynamicforce
IAS
TAS
IAS
TAS
Difference between IAS and TAS
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
500
IAS
(kt)
400
300
200
100
Pt - Ps (hPa)
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Subsonic anemometer
Advantage/disadvantageofIAS
All
AlllimitationsarecomputedanddisplayedinIASvalues(and
li it ti
t d d di l d i IAS l
( d
notTASvalues)
Instrumentscan be calibrated:
-atsealevel
at15
attheatmosphericpressureof1013.2hpa
inconditionsofairdensityof1.225kg/m3
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Advantage/disadvantageofIAS
C
ComparingyouractualIAStothesecharacteristicspeeds
i
t l IAS t th
h
t i ti
d
ensuresthatyouractualaerodynamicforceisadequatefor
flight
Maindisadvantage:yourindicatedairspeedcanbevery
differentfromyouractualairspeed
Ex1:anaircraftflyingatM=0.6atFL300hasaTAS=356ktsandan
IAS=225kts
k
Ex2:anaircraftflyingatIAS=120ktsat5,000fthasaTAS=129kts
FromTAStoIAS
3sourcesofcorrections
3 sources of corrections
Densityeffect :thelargestone;increaseswithaltitude
Compressibilityeffect:increaseswithMachnumber
CanbeneglectedifM<0.3
Errors:instrumenterror+positionerror(staticandPitotprobes
location)
Often neglected
Oftenneglected
Atlowspeedandlowaltitude,TASandIASareclose
Thedifferenceisallthehigherasaltitudeandspeedincrease
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
TAS : True Air Speed
Density effect
EAS : Equivalent Air Speed

Compressibility effect
CAS : Calibrated Air Speed

Instrument error + Position error
IAS : Indicated Air Speed
ApproximationoftheTAS
TAS=IAS +
Flight level
2
AnaircraftAisflyingatFL250withanIASof300kt.Whatisthevalueofthetrueair
speed?
Thetrueairspeedis425kt!
AnaircraftBisflyingatFl310withanIASof300kt.Whatisthevalueofthetrue
airspeed?
Thetrueairspeedis455kt!
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
ApproximationoftheTAS
Fl 300
IAS 290KT
TAS 440KT
5000FT
Fl 250
IAS 300KT
TAS 425KT
Machnumber
M=
TAS
a
a:speedofsounddependingonthe
temperature
ExampleatFL300
T=27345=228K
a 39T=600kt
a=39
600ktsoatM
so at M=1
1TAS
TAS
is600kt
TAS(kt)=M*600
TAS(N/min)=M*10
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Mach,TAS,CAS
altitude
( 100 ft)
400
Mach
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Tropopause
300
200
100
0
100
200
300
600
500
TAS (kt) ISA
400
Ground speed
Vground =TAS+Vw
Vw=speedofdisplacementoftheairmass
TAS
Ground speed
WIND
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Displays
Lightaircraftairspeedindicator
VFE
Stall speed flaps retracted
Maximum IAS flaps extended
VS clean
VS flaps
extended
Stall speed flaps extended
80 100
60
40
120
140
IAS
20 kt 160
VNE
VNO
Maximum IAS
in turbulence
Never exceed speed
Principles offlight
09/02/2015
Speedindicationonmodernaircraft
Speedindicationonmodernaircraft
Selected
speed
Selected
altitude
Vertical
speed
2000 ft/mn
IAS
Economic speed
range
Mach number
Altitude reference
Magnetic heading
Principles offlight
Instrumentpanelonmodernaircraft
PrimaryFlightDisplayPFD/NavigationDisplayND
09/02/2015
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Chapter6
Mainflightphases
Outlines
Cruise
Climb
Descent
Levelturn
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Cruise
General
Cruise:wingslevel,constantspeed,constantaltitudeflight
Cruise : wings level, constant speed, constant altitude flight
Newtonsfirstlaw:sumofallforcesiszero
Sinceflightpathishorizontal:
Liftisverticalandbalancesweight
Dragishorizontalandisopposedtomovement
Theaircraftenginehastoproducethrust(turbojetengine)
orpower(propeller)tofightdrag
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Cruiseequations
Liftequation:lift=weight1/2 VSCL =mg
Dragequation:drag=thrust1/2
Drag equation : drag = thrust
1/2 VSC
V SCD =T
=T
lift
drag
thrust
fli h path
flight
h
weight
Requiredthrust Availablethrust
Airplanedragdefinesthethrustrequired
p
g
q
(necessary)to
y
maintainspeed&altitude:Tn
Throttlepositiondefinesthethrustavailable (usable):Tu
Inordertoflystabilizedcruise,thepilotmustadjustitsengine
thrusttothedrag
ifnotenoughthrust,hewillslowdown
iftoomuchthrust,hewillaccelerate
if
h h
h ill
l
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Requiredthrustvsaircraftspeed
Required
thrust Tn
minimum thrust
required
AOA
Requiredthrustcanalsobe
expressed:
p
mgg
T
Tn
L/D
Requiredthrustisminimumat
(L/D)max speed
AOAincreasesasspeeddecreases
Foragivenweightandaltitude,
eachpointofthegraphisaunique
p
g p
q
AOA&speed
Note: thisgraphisalsothetotal
dragvsvelocitygraph
VS
V(L/D)max
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Effectofaltitudeonrequiredthrust
Tn
minimum
i i
required thrust
Z1
Z2 > Z1
A/c velocity
(TAS)
InordertomaintainagivenAOA,
analtitudeincreasewillrequire
thattheaircraftoperateata
higherspeed
Therequiredthrustatagiven
AOA isindependentfrom
altitude
mg
Tn2
Tn1
L/D
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
altitude
temperatu
ure
pressure
Tu
thrust settting
Availablethrust
Availablethrustforagiven
throttlepositionandagivenset
ofatmosphericconditionsis
independentfromaircraftspeed
Availablethrust:
A/c velocity
(TAS)
increaseswithahigherthrust
setting
increaseswhenpressure
increases
decreaseswhentemperature
increases
decreaseswhenaltitudeincreases
Availablethrust,operationalconsequences
An
Anengineislessefficientathighaltitudeandinhotweather
engine is less efficient at high altitude and in hot weather
conditions:
highertakeoffdistances
degradedclimbperformances
Example:takeoffrunwaylengthincreasesby
1%whenoutsidetemperatureincreasesby1C
7%whenrunwayaltitudeincreasesby1,000ft
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Normalcommand Reversedcommand
region of
reversed
command
Required
thrust
Tn
region of
normal
command
AOA
VS
VL/D max
minimum thrust
required
VL/Dmax splitsthegraphinto
2parts:
V>VL/Dmax :regionof
normalcommand
V<VL/Dmax :regionof
reversedcommand
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Cruisingwithagiventhrust
Required
thrust
Tn
AOA
V2
V1
Foragiventhrustsetting
(throttleleverposition),you
canflysteadyat2different
airspeeds
V1 :highspeed/lowAOA
V2 :lowspeed/highAOA
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Cruisingatahigherspeed
Regionofnormalcommand:
Required
thrust
Tn
increasethrust(throttle
f
forward)
d)
decreaseAOA(pushonthe
stick)
AOA
Regionofreversed
command:
V1
V2 V2
V1
decreasethrust(throttle
backward))
decreaseAOA(pushonthe
stick)
initially,asinkratemay
develop
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Absoluteceiling
Whenaltitudeincreases:
requiredthrustremainsconstant
foragivenAOA
availablethrustdecreases
available thrust decreases
Tn
Z1
Z2
Z3
Tu full throttle
Z1
Z2 > Z1
Z3 > Z2
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Thehigherthealtitude,the
smallertherangeofavailable
cruisingspeeds
Foragivenweight,thereisa
maximumaltitude,called
absoluteceiling,wherethea/c
isabletomaintainsteadystate
flight
Absoluteceilingisduetoa
limitationinengineperformance
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Climb
General
We
Wewillbeconsideringwingslevel,constantspeedclimb
will be considering wings level, constant speed climb
(resp.descent)
Climb(resp.descent)ischaracterizedbyaclimb(resp.
descent)angle(alsocalledslope)andarateofclimb(resp.
descent)
Newtonsfirstlaw:sumofallforcesiszero
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Climbequations
lift
flight
g p
path
climb angle
drag
thrust
mg cos
weight
mg sin
Dragisparalleltoflight
path,liftisperpendicular
toflightpath
Weighthas2components
greatestpartisopposedto
lift
smallpartisopposedto
thrust
L=mgcos
T=D+mgsin
Climbingprinciples
Inastabilizedclimb:
Partoftheweightactsinthesamedirectionasdrag,creating
anadditionalresistancetomovement;ithastobesupported
bythrust
Liftislessthanweight
Inordertoclimb,thepilothastoapplyexcessthrust
compared to drag
comparedtodrag
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Climbangle
Foragivenaircraftweight,theclimbangle dependsonthe
excessthrust,whichcanbeobtainedeither:
byathrustincrease(throttleforward)
byadragdecrease(changeinspeed)
sin
Tu Tn
mg
rad
whereTu=availablethrust
Tn=thrustrequiredfor
levelflight(i.e.drag)
Anaircraftcanclimbifitcandevelopanexcessthrust
comparedtothatnecessarytoholdconstantaltitudeatthe
samespeed
Bestclimbangle
Required thrust Tn
Available thrust Tu
Excess thrust
Maximum excess
thrust
speed for best

climb angle :
(L/D)max
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Thegreatertheexcessthrust,the
bettertheclimbangle
Noexcessthrustiscruise
Climbangleperformanceis
relatedtoobstacleclearance
Bestclimbangleisalways
obtainedatthespeedfor
minimumdrag,i.e.atthespeed
for(L/D)max
10
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Rateofclimb
RateofclimbVz:verticalcomponentofaircraftvelocity,i.e.
aircraft vertical speed
aircraftverticalspeed
V
Vz
Vz=Vsin
rad
Onaircraftinstruments,rateofclimbisgivenbythevertical
speedindicator,andusuallyratedinft/mn
p
,
y
/
Rateofclimbperformanceisrelatedtorapidlevelchange
Bestrateofclimbisobtainedforaspeeddependingon
availablepower,greaterthanthespeedfor(L/D)max
Bestclimbanglevsbestrateofclimb
Letusconsider2identicalaircraft(sameweight,same
aerodynamiccharacteristics)startingtoclimbtogethertoa
higherlevel
a/cAisclimbingatbestclimbangleandassociatedspeedVA
a/cBisclimbingatbestrateofclimbandassociatedspeedVB
VA
VB > VA
Aisclimbingsteeper,BUTBgetsontopfirst:Bhastofly
fasterthanA
11
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Descent
Descentequations
Dragisparalleltoflight
path lift is perpendicular
path,liftisperpendicular
toflightpath
Weighthas2components
lift
drag
thrust
descent angle
W cos
weight
flight path
W sin
greatestpartisopposedto
lift
smallpartisopposedto
drag
L=mgcos
T=D mgsin
12
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Descentprinciples
Inastabilizeddescent:
Partoftheweightactsinthesamedirectionasthrust,thus
helpingthrustinbalancingdrag
Liftislessthanweight
Inordertodescend,thepilothastocreateathrustdeficiency
comparedtodrag
Descentangle
Descentanglecanbeexpressedsimilarlytoclimbangle
sin
Tu Tn
mg
rad
whereTu=availablethrust
Tn=thrustrequiredfor
levelflight(i.e.drag)
Ifthereisathrustexcesscomparedtodrag,theaircraftcan
climb( >0)
Ifthereisathrustdeficiencycomparedtodrag,theaircraft
If there is a thrust deficiency compared to drag the aircraft
mustdescend( <0)
Note: itmaybenecessarytoseriouslyreducethrustinorderto
descendatreasonablespeeds(nottoofast)
13
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Minimumdescentangle
Required thrust Tn
Minimum
thrust
deficiency
V
speed for
minimum
descent angle :
(L/D)max
Thrust deficiency
Available thrust Tu
A/c velocity
(TAS)
Thesmallerthethrustdeficiency,
thesmallerthedescentangle
Incaseofenginefailureor
poweroffglide,obstacle
clearanceasksforminimum
descentangles
Minimumdescentangleis
always obtained at the speed for
alwaysobtainedatthespeedfor
minimumdrag,i.e.atthespeed
for(L/D)max
Rateofdescent
Rateofdescent:negativerateofclimb(verticalspeedVz)
Minimumrateofdescentisobtainedforaspeeddepending
onavailablepower,lowerthanthespeedfor(L/D)max
14
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Minimumdescentanglevsminimumrateofdescent
Letusconsider2identicalaircraft(sameweight,same
aerodynamiccharacteristics)startingtodescendtogetherto
alowerlevel
l
l l
a/cAisdescendingatminimumdescentangleandassociated
speedVA
a/cBisdescendingatminimumrateofdescentandassociated
speedVB
VB < VA
VA
Bisdescendingsteeper,BUTAgetsongroundfirst:Bhastoflyslower
thanA
Level turn
Levelturn
15
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
General
Wewillbeconsideringconstantspeed,constantaltitude,
stabilized turn (i e constant bank angle)
stabilizedturn(i.e.constantbankangle)
Wewillassumetheturniscoordinated(notslipping):afull
360 turnformsaperfectcircle
Turnischaracterizedbyabankangle,aturnradius,aturn
rate,aloadfactor
Newtonssfirstlaw:sumofallforcesiszero
first law : sum of all forces is zero
Newton
General
Lift
Centrifugal force
mg
g
16
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Forcesactingontheaircraft
lift
IntheYZplane,3forcesact
onthea/c:
h /
weight
lift
acentrifugalforcebecauseof
theturn
bank angle
centrifugal
force Fc
weight
Sumofforces=zero
Note: alongtheXaxis,thrust
mustbalancedrag
Rateofturn Turnradius
bank
angle
rad/s)
Fc
mg
Thea/cisturningaroundanaxis
locatedatadistanceR,calledturn
radius (unit:m)
Thea/cisturningatanangular
speed ,calledrateofturn (unit:
A/cvelocityVisrelatedtoturn
radiusandrateofturn
V=R
V=R
Therotationalmovementis
responsibleforthecentrifugal
force:
V
m 2R
Fc m
R
17
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Apparentweight Loadfactor
Thea/cexperiences2massrelated
forces:
itsweight(duetogravityg)
it
i ht (d t
it )
acentrifugalforce(duetoinertia)
Fc = m
mg
bank
angle
V
R
Itisasthough theweighthad
increased:duringaturn,youfeel
heavier,yourapparentweight
increases
Loadfactor isusedtointroducea
commonunit(gravityaccelerationg)
forallaccelerations:a 2g
maneuver isonewhereall
accelerations(gravity+inertia)add
upto2x9.81m/s
Normalloadfactor
Althoughloadfactorcanbeexperiencedinalldirections,the
normalloadfactorn
ll df
i h
f
Z isthemostfrequentone
Normalloadfactoristheonethat pushesyouintoyour
seat ;itseffectshavetobebalancedwithlift
Increasingnormalloadfactorhasthesameconsequencesas
increasingweightintermsoflift
Apparentweightn
Apparent weight nZmgisbalancedbylift:
mg is balanced by lift :
apparentweight
lift
nZ ==
weight
weight
18
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Consequencesofloadfactor
Normal situation:nZ =1
IfnZ increases:
Wingmustproducemoreliftandconsequentlysupportsgreater
loadsandhigherbendingmoments
Stallspeedincreases(inotherwords,duringagmaneuver,minimum
speedsareincreased)
VS(nZ )
2mg
SCLmax
nZ
nZ VS(1g)
Example: 2gconditionsincreasestallspeedby41%
Levelturnequations
R
L
L cos
L sin
Fc
mg
Z
Onlypartofa/cliftisusedto
g
balanceweight:Lcos
Theotherpart,Lsin ,isused
tobalancecentrifugalforce
Inasteadystatelevelturn,
lifthastobegreaterthan
weight
Normalloadfactor:
nZ
lift
weight
1
cos
19
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Loadfactorduringaturn
Loadfactorincreasesinaturn
If =30
If =60
nZ =1.15
nZ =2
Stallspeedincreasesinaturn
If =30
If =60
Vsisincreasedby7.5%
Vsisincreasedby41%
Turnradius
R
Sincemg=Lcos
and
andFc=Lsin
Fc = L sin
Turnradius:
L
L cos
L sin
V
gtan
Fc
Inordertomakeasharper
turn you can :
turn,youcan:
decreaseaircraftspeed
increasebankangle
mg
20
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Turnradius
Example:
CRJ700 FL230 ft , 300 kts IAS

Example of bank turn: 25.
tg 25= 0,466
TAS = 420 kts (216 m/s).
g= 9,81 m.s-2
V
gtan
Turn radius =10205m i.e. :5.5 NM
Turnradius
Turn radius, TAS, mach number
TAS (kt)
Bank turn 15
15
500
theoretical
Mach 0.84, 33000ft
pratical
460
300kt IAS at 25000ft or M 0.74, 30000ft
420
380
300kt IAS at 15000ft
340
290kt IAS at 5000ft
300
Turn radius
(NM)
250
220
3
10
11
12
13
14
15
21
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Turnradius
Turn radius, TAS, mach number
TAS (kt)
Bank turn 30
500
theoretical
450
pratical
400
350kt IAS at 10000 ft
350
300
250
Turn radius
(NM)
200
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
22
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Chapter7
Flightenvelopelimitations
General
Theflightenvelopeislimited,intermsofspeed(andMach
number),altitude,weight,loadfactor
Theaircraftperformancesarelimited(rateofclimb/descent,
climbangle.)
Theselimitationsareduetovariousfactors:
thewingcapacities
the engine capacities
theenginecapacities
theaircraftstructuralcapacities
themeteorologicalconditions
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Limitationsduetothewing
d
h
General
The
ThewingproducestheaircraftliftL=1/2
wing produces the aircraft lift L = 1/2 V
VSC
SCL
Lifthastobalanceweight,ormoregenerallyapparentweight
nZmg
Generalformofliftequation:nZmg=1/2 VSCL
SincethewingliftcoefficientCL islimited,thewingcan
p
producealimitedamountoflift
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Altitude,weight,loadfactorlimitations
Foragivenspeed,weightandloadfactor,aircraftaltitudeis
limited
Foragivenspeed,altitudeandloadfactor,aircraftweightis
limited
Foragivenspeed,altitudeandweight,loadfactor(i.e.
maneuveringcapacity)islimited
Example: letusconsideranaircraftwithS=120mandCLmax=1.3,flying
at200Kts
Maximumaltitudeat61.2tonsunder1gconditions:FL170
MaximummassatFL200under1gconditions:54.9tons
MaximumloadfactoratFL200and50tons:1.1(approx.25 bank)
Minimumspeed
Anaircraftcannotflytooslow,otherwiseitstalls
Example: S=120mCLmax =1.3m=58tFL150
StallspeedVs=189ktsTAS(150ktsIAS)
Aturn(ormoregenerallyanymaneuver)isresponsiblefora
loadfactorincrease,andthusastallspeedincrease
Stallspeedislowerwithhighliftdevicesandhigherwith
spoilers
Inicingconditions,stallspeedcanbedramaticallyincreased
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Highspeedflight
Ifanaircraftisfastenough(generallyfasterthanMach0.7),
acceleratedaironwinguppersurfacecanbecomesupersonic,
l t d i
i
f
b
i
althoughtheaircraftitselfisstillsubsonic
Supersonicflowisassociatedwithshockwaves,aspecific
phenomenonresponsibleforaCL decreaseandaCD increase
AthighMachnumbers,wingCLmax decreases
Reminder : an a/c flying at 470 kts has a Mach number of 0 71
Reminder:ana/cflyingat470ktshasaMachnumberof0.71
atsealeveland0.76atFL200
Consequence: athighspeed,Machnumbermustbe
monitoredinsteadofspeed
Alternativeformofliftequation
Liftequationcanalsobewritten:
nZmg=0.7PMSC
L
Ambientpressure
Fluid(ora/c)
Machnumber
Whena/creachescriticalMachnumberMc(usuallyaround
Mach 0 7) aerodynamic characteristics are dramatically
Mach0.7),aerodynamiccharacteristicsaredramatically
degraded
Thisdegradationexistswhateverthea/c,andisspecificallya
concernontransonica/c
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
EffectofMachincreaseonthepolarcurve
CL
0.7
Transonictypewing
yp
g
asinglecurvebelowMc
thenthepolarcurvecollapses
M = 0.75
M = 0.80
M = 0.82
dragincreases
liftdecreases
CLmax decreases
L/Ddecreases
M = 0.84
thewingbecomeslessandless
the ing becomes less and less
aerodynamicallyefficient
CD
Highspeedstall
Letusconsidertheliftequation: nZmg=0.7PMSCL
WhencruisingatagivenaltitudewithanincreasingMach
Wh
ii
i
li d ih i
i M h
number,lessandlessCL isneededfromthewing
BUTifthepolarcurvedeteriorationisfaster,thea/cwillstall
becauseitistoofast
Note: averypowerfulenginewouldbenohelp;Machnumberislimited
bylift inthiscase
Thisiscalledhighspeedshockstall,becauseitisduetothe
appearanceofshockwavesonthewing
Note: generaldefinitionforstall: youstallwhenyouhavereached

wingCLmax ,whetheryouaretooslowortoofast
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Speed/Machrange
For
Foragivenaltitude,weightandloadfactor,itispossibleto
a given altitude weight and load factor it is possible to
satisfytheliftequationinsidearangeofallowablespeeds/
Machnumbers
Whenflyinghigherorheavier(orwithhighloadfactors),
moreCL isneeded:theMachrangebecomesnarrower
Atveryhighaltitudeorweight,therecanbeaverysmall
rangeofacceptableMachnumbers
Otherlimitations
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Limitationsduetotheengine
Enginepurposeistoproducethrustrequiredtofightdrag,
climb,accelerate
li b
l
Thrustisreducedwhenaltitudeincreases
Foragivenweight,maximumaltitudeduetoenginecapacities:
absoluteceiling
Whenweightincreases,absoluteceilingislower
Thrustisreducedwhentemperatureincreases
p
Lowerabsoluteceilinginhotweather
Increasedtakeoffdistances
Structurallimitations
AerodynamicforcesvarywithV(orM):thefasterthea/c,
th
thegreatertheforcesappliedona/cstructure(wing,landing
t th f
li d
/ t t
( i l di
gear,flaps&slats)
Strengtheningthestructuremeansadditionalweight:thea/c
withitsassociatedconfigurationswillbedemonstratedupto
maximumspeeds/Machnumbers
VMO/MMO:maximumoperatingspeed/Machnumber
VLE:maximumspeedwithlandinggearextended
VFE:maximumspeedwithflaps/slatsextended
Flyingabovethesevaluesmaydamagethestructure
Principlesofflight
09/02/2015
Climbing performances
Climbingperformances
Climbingperformances
Climbangleandrateofclimbarerelatedtoaircraft
g
characteristics(wing,engine)andaffectedbymeteoconditions
mg
Tu Tn
Climbangle:withrequiredthrust
Tn
sin
rad
L/D
mg
Climbingperformancesareadverselyaffectedby:
weight
flaps/slats extension
flaps/slatsextension
landinggearextension
icingconditions(notethatheavyrainalsodegradesL/Dratio)
thrust,whichdecreasesathighaltitudeandhightemperature
Aircraft performance and limitations
12/02/2015
Aircraftperformance
andlimitations
Chapter 8
Take-off
12/02/2015
Take-off
-Introduction
-The take-off speeds (V1,Vr,Vlof,V2)
-Factors affecting performances
Takeoff
Introduction
During the take-off phase,the pilot must achieve
the sufficient speed and angle of attack conditions to
balance the aircrafts lift and weight forces.
At the end of the ground acceleration phase, the pilot
pulls the stick.
12/02/2015
Takeoff
The take-off speeds

V1,Vr,V2 are calculated
V2
V1
VR VLOF
35 ft
Takeoff
The take-off speeds

V1 : decision speed
V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to

reject the takeoff, and is ensured to stop the aeroplane within
the limits of the runway.
V2
V1
VR VLOF
35 ft
12/02/2015
Takeoff
The take-off speeds

V1 : decision speed
BR
VR
V1
VLOF
V2
35 ft
V1 : Take off decision speed chosen by the

applicant
In Operations,
Operations
if the pilot is aware of a failure :
before V1
V1
stop
after V1
continue
Takeoff
The take-off speeds

Vr : rotation speed
BR
V1
VR
VLOF
V2
35 ft
VR : the pilot pulls the stick to set the take off attitude.
12/02/2015
Takeoff
The take-off speeds

Vlof: V lift off
BR
V1
VR
VLOF
V2
35 ft
VLof : speed at which the aeroplane becomes airborne
Takeoff
The take-off speeds
V2 :take off climb speed

BR
V1
VR
VLOF
V2
35 ft
V2 : must be reached at least at 35 ft height.

g
12/02/2015
Takeoff
Factors affecting performances

-temperature
-pressure altitude
-wind
-runway condition
-runway slope
-aircraft
aircraft mass
-flaps
-air conditioning
Takeoff
A310
Temperature = +20C
Sea level
Mass = 140 t
V2/Vs = 1,25
No runway slope- wind calm
slats/flaps - 15/10
D(m)
( )
4000
DAA
DD
3500
3000
Lmini.
2500
2000
1500
0,84
0,92
V1/VR
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Temperature :
aerodynamics:
mg = V2 S Cl
If T ,
increase V
propulsion:
l i At
A constant Zp,
Z above
b
the
h reference
f
temperature, when T , thrust
Takeoff

Temperature:
If the temperature increases:
take-off distances
climb gradients
T
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Temperature:
Fixed mass :
B737-800
B737CFM56--7B
CFM56
Zp=0 ft
Mass:72t
Wind calm
Runway no
slope
flaps 10
10
L(m)
2400
2350
2300
2250
2200
2150
2100
tC
2050
2000
0
10
20
30
40
Takeoff

Temperature:
Fixed length of runway:
m(t)
82
B737-800
B737CFM56--7B
CFM56
Zp:0 ft
runway:2400m
Wind calm
Runway slope=0
flaps 10
10
80
78
76
72
70
68
66
64
tC
0
15
30
45
60
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Pressure altitude:
aerodynamics:
mg = V2 S Cl
If Zp ,
increase V
propulsion:
li
At a constant T, when
h Zp , thrust
h
Takeoff

Pressure altitude:
High altitude
take-off distance
climb gradient
Low altitude
Aerodrome elevation
take-off distance
climb gradient
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Pressure altitude:
Fixed mass:
L(m)
2700
2600
2500
B737-800
B737CFM56--7B
CFM56
tC = 20 C
Mass = 72 t
Wind calm
Runway slope=0
Flaps 10
10
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
0
(1013)
1000 2000 3000 4000

(942)
(875)
Zp(ft)
hPa
Takeoff

Pressure altitude:
M(t) 78
Fixed length of runway:

76
B737-800
B737CFM56--7B
CFM56
T =20
=20C
Runway = 2400m
Wind calm
Runway slope
slope=0
=0
Flaps=
Flaps
= 10
10
74
72
70
68
66
Zp(ft)
0
(1013)
1000 2000 3000 4000

(942)
(875)
hPa
10
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Wind :
head wind:
Airspeed
wind
Ground speed
take-off distance
Takeoff

Wind :
tail wind:
Airspeed
wind
Ground speed
take-off distance
11
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Wind :
cross wind:
maximum component indicated in the FM
(ex: 30 kt)
Takeoff

R
Runway
condition:
di i
Depending on the fact that the runway is dry, damp ,wet
or contaminated, it affects take-off performances.
12
12/02/2015
Takeoff

R
Runway
slope:
l
From a performance point of view , an upward slope
degrades the aircrafts acceleration capability and,
consequently , increases takeoff distance.
On th
O
the other
th hhand,
d the
th stopping
t
i distance
di t
is
i shortened
h t d in
i case
of a rejected takeoff.
Takeoff

Aircraft mass:
At constant flap angle and altitude , if the mass m is
high ,Vr must be higher :
Low mass
take-off distance
climb gradient
High mass
13
12/02/2015
Takeoff

Fl angle:
Flap
l
At constant mass m, if flap angle
Cl
take-off distance
max lift/drag ratio
climb gradient
Low flap angle
High flap angle
Takeoff

Ai conditioning:
Air
di i i
Using air conditioning affects take-off performances.
If necessary, it is possible to shut off air conditioning in
order to increase the takeoff thrust.
S att same mass, Z
So
Zp andd flaps
fl
extension
t i if
air conditioning
take-off distances
climb gradient
14
12/02/2015
Chapter 9
Climb
Climb
- Introduction
- Law of climb
- Factors affecting performances
12/02/2015
Climb
Introduction
RZ
lift
thrust
Tu
Slope
Tn
Tn
d
drag
weight
Rz = mg cos
Tn + mg sin = Tu
Climb with a low slope
cos
sin
Climb
Law of climb
Climb in 3 times with the maxi-climb thrust.
1. IAS inferior to 250kt until FL100
( ATC restriction)
Acceleration to the climbing speed

2. constant IAS
3. constant mach number
12/02/2015
Climb
Law of climb
Example : climb 250 / 300 / 0.80
Zp
250 / 300 / 0.80
(100 ft)
When the
mach
number :is 0.80
monte
IAS
constante
The
continues with
- laclimb
TAS augmente
constant
mach number :
- le Mach
augmente
-TAS decreases
(until the tropopause)
- IAS decreases
400
acceleration to 300 kt
100
Constant mach
0.80
tropopause
300
Constant IAS
300 kt
200
Constant IAS
250 kt
300
400
500
TAS (kt)
ISA
Climb
Law of climb
Example : climb 250 / 300 / 0.80
Zp
(100 ft)
400
Constant mach
0.80
tropopause
Cross over altitude
300
30500 ft
Mach = 0.80
IAS = 300 kt
Constant IAS
300 kt
200
100
Constant IAS
250 kt
300
400
500
TAS (kt)
ISA
12/02/2015
Climb

- type of engine
- speed of climb
-mass
-altitude
-temperature
-wind
-air bleed system
Climb

Type
yp of engine
g
Depending on the engine performances, the climb is different
regarding distance, time and fuel consumption.
Exemple:
A319-100 ,68t , law of climb 250/280/0,76 (ISA) to FL370:
distance(nm)
time(min)
consumption (tonnes)
CFM56
156
23.7
1.67
V2500
138
21.3
1.47
12/02/2015
Climb

Speed of climb
The choice of the law of climb:
-A law of climb with a lower speed induces a better rate of climb and a
better climb gradient.
Climb
FL/10
250/310/0.78
250/320/0.82
Distance(NM)
Distance(NM)
10
16
16
15
36
38
20
56
58
25
82
86
27
96
100
28
104
110
29
110
118
31
122
134
33
142
152
35
172
178
S
Speed
d off climb
li b
A340-500 climbing at
340T ( Trent 553), STD
12/02/2015
Climb
FL/10
250/310/0.78
250/320/0.82
Time (min)
Time (min)
1.4
1.4
10
3.6
3.6
15
6.8
7.2
20
9.8
10
25
13.6
14
27
15.4
15.8
28
16.4
16.8
29
1 2
17.2
18
31
19
20
33
21.4
22.2
35
25.4
25.8
S
Speed
d off climb
li b
A340-500 climbing at
340T ( Trent 553), STD
Climb

Mass
At Zp and T
fixed if mass
Rate of
climb
Zp fixed
maxi climb thrust
m2 < m1
climb gradient
rate of climb
vz
V
m1
climb
Speed
12/02/2015
Climb

Altitude
Altitude
climb gradient
rate of climb
When Zp
the thrust
At m fi
A
fixed,
d if Zp
Z
- rate of climb
- climb gradient
During the climb,
m
(fuel comsumption)
But the effect of Zp
is more important :
- rate of climb
- climb gradient
Climb

Altitude
Altitude
Rate of
climb
m fixed
maxi climb thrust
Zp2>Zp1
climb gradient
rate of climb
Zp
p2
Zp1
vz
Vclimb
speed
12/02/2015
Climb

Temperature
Above the reference temperature:
-the thrust decreases
-the performances of climb decrease
Climb
FL/10
STD
STD+15
Time(min)
Time(min)
1.4
1.6
10
3.6
4.2
15
6.8
7.8
20
9.8
11.4
25
13.6
16
27
15.4
18.2
28
16.4
19.4
29
1 2
17.2
20 4
20.4
31
19
22.8
33
21.4
26
Temperature
climb A340-500 at 340t
( Trent 553), law of
climb 250/310/0.78
12/02/2015
Climb
FL/10
STD
STD+15
Distance(NM)
Distance(NM)
10
16
20
15
36
42
20
56
66
25
82
100
27
96
118
28
104
128
29
110
134
31
124
154
33
142
178
Temperature
climb A340-500 at 340t
( Trent 553), law of
climb 250/310/0.78
Climb
12/02/2015
Climb

Wind
Headwind
H d i d
GS
TAS
g
RC
a
a
<
The rate of climb is constant.The climb gradient increases with headwind,

decreases with downwind.
Climb

Bleed air system
Used for air conditioning
and anti-icing :
Engine thrust
Rate of climb and climb gradient
10
09/02/2015
Chapter 10
Cruise
The cruise
Cruise
-Specific Range definition
-Flyable area
-Maximum
Maximum cruise altitude
09/02/2015
Cruise
Specific Range definition (Sr)

The specific range represents the number of NM that the aircraft is
able to perform by using 1 tonne of fuel (or 1000 lbs of fuel).
Example : B747 200

230 t at FL 350
Mach = 0
0.84
84
Sr = 52 NM/t
Dc=19kg/NM
Example : A320
62 t at FL 330
Mach =0
=0.80
80
Sr = 164 NM/t
Dc=6kg/NM
Cruise

It represents the number of NM that the aircraft is able to perform by
using 1 tonne of fuel (or 1000lbs of fuel).
It depends on:
-aerodynamics
-engine
-weight
09/02/2015
Cruise

-great aerodynamics
Sr
-engine performance
-low weight
Cruise
Flyable area
Stall
Pressure altitude
Given weight
Due to aerodynamics,there is
an area in which the aircraft
can be sustained in the air.
Flyable area
Mach number
09/02/2015
Cruise
Flyable area
Stall
At given
i
weight
i ht and
d
given altitude Zp1,flight
is only possible for a
limited range of mach
number ,between Mach
min and Mach max.
Given weight
P.A.
Zp1
Flyable area
lift range
M
Mmin
Mmax 1
Cruise
Maximum cruise altitude

For a given aircraft weight
weight, it is the maximum
altitude at maximum cruise thrust in level flight with
a given Mach number .
It depends on
temperature, weight, mach
09/02/2015
Cruise
Factors affecting
performances
-Cruise speeds
-Altitude
-Mass
-Temperature
-Wind
-Cabin pressurization
Cruise

Cruise speeds
Cruisespeeds
SR
specific Range as
a function of Mach
250
SR reaches a maximum
150
SR max
(NM/t)
Given :
- weight
- altitude
200
100
Mach
Maxi-range Mach
.70
.80
.90
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
p
SR
Maxi--Range :
Maxi
Given
altitude
maximum SR : trip fuel is minimum

but low speed :
time is quite long !
An alternative is to
increase cruise speed with
only
l a slight
li ht iincrease iin
fuel consumption
Mach
Long--Range
Long
Cruise

Cruise speeds
Cruisespeeds
SR
Long--Range :
Long
SR = 99% SRmax
-1%
On an economic point of view,

the 1% loss on SR is largely
compensated by the cruise
speed increase
(flatness of the curve)
-1%
-1%
MR
MR
Given
altitude
LR
LR
LR Mach decreases
the same way as MR Mach
Mach
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
SR
Constant Mach number :
MR
LR
-1%
Given
altitude
easier to remember ! (it -1%

is the same whatever
altitude and weight are) -1%
but doesn't follow the
optimum (especially
when there is no
change in altitude)
Mach
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
Titre du diagramme
Minimize
direct operating
costs
Fuel consumption related costs
Flight time related costs
Lower
fuel consumption
Lower
flight time
Compromise Time / Fuel
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
Direct Operating Costs are made of :
Fuel consumption related costs
Flight time related costs
hourly maintenance costs
crew costs
costs, function of flight time
Fixed costs
cyclic maintenance costs
fixed monthly crew costs
Cruise

Cruise speeds
Cruisespeeds
Economic Mach number
minimizing the DOC :
for a given trip :
Fuel consumption related costs : CF . TF
CF : Cost of fuel unit
TF : Trip fuel
09/02/2015
Cruise

C i
Cruisespeeds
d
for a given trip :
Flight time related costs :
CT . t
CT : time related costs per flight hour
hourly maintenance costs
crew wages
t : block time
Cruise

C i
Cruisespeeds
d
for a given trip :
Fixed costs :
cyclic maintenance costs
fixed crew costs
CT . t
CC
09/02/2015
Cruise

C i
Cruisespeeds
d
for a given trip :
Fixed costs :
CT . t
CC
DOC = CF . TF + CT . t + CC
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
p
Per nautical mile :
DOC1nm = CF .1 + CT . 1
SR
Fuel consumption Time

related costs
related costs
+ CC
D
Fixed costs
10
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
Costs
Given weight and altitude
DOC
ECON Mach is linked to MR Mach :

at constant altitude : weight
MECON
at constant weight : altitude
MECON
Cost of fuel
ECON
Cost of time
MR
LR
Fixed costs
Mach
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
The ECON Mach depends on the time and fuel
costs ratio, called COST INDEX :
C.I. =
Cost of time
Cost of fuel
Unit : kgg / mn
Range : 0 to 200
Example : CI = 50 kg/mn means that the cost of 1 flight minute
is the same as the cost of 50 kg of fuel.
11
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
Extreme
E t
values
l
off costt index
i d :
C.I. = 0
MR Mach
C.I. max
Maximum Mach Number

(generally
MMO--0.02)
MMO
Increase in cost index
Increase in Mach
Cruise

Cruisespeeds
If Mach number
Maximum cruise thrust limited

altitude
12
09/02/2015
Cruise

Altitude
At constant Mach number
P.A.
For a given weight,
SR increases with pressure altitude
and reaches a maximum :
optimum altitude
At this optimum altitude, the aircraft

flies at its maximum lift to drag ratio
corresponding to the selected M
SR
Cruise

Altitude
At given
i
weight,
i ht
When P.A.
increases)
range
ceiling
(altitude
the lift
lift
The minimum mach number increases

and the maximum mach number
decreases.
Level straight flight (load factor = 1)
P.A.
given weight
Lift ceiling
lift range
M
Mmin
Mmax 1
13
09/02/2015
Cruise

Mass
AtconstantMachnumberand
constantaltitude:
If mass
Sr
Sr
Zp fixed
m'< m
m
m
Mach
Cruise
Mass
AtconstantMachnumber
P.A.
Ifthemassdecreases,theoptimumaltitudeincreases
SR increases with burn off
Optimum altitude increases
SR
14
09/02/2015
Cruise
Mass
P.A.
P.A.
burn off
weight
SR
Cruise

Mass
Maximumcruisealtitude
If Mass
P.A.
ISA+10 or less
mass
15
09/02/2015
Cruise

Mass
At given
i
altitude,
ltit d ,
When mass
range
the lift
P.A.
m1 < m2
m1
m2
The minimum mach number increases

and
d th
the maximum
i
mach
h number
b
decreases.
Mmin1 Mmin2
Mmax2 M
max1
Cruise

Temperature
If temperature
Sr
Maximumcruisealtitude
l d
Zp
Zp fixed
Maximum cruise
altitude limit
m3
m2
m1
ISA + 20
ISA + 15
ISA + 10
or less
weight
16
09/02/2015
Cruise

Wind
Influence of the effective wind:
The difference between effective wind and wind at the optimum altitude
can compensate the decrease of the specific range at a lower altitude.
Indeed , a less unfavourable wind at a lower level, can provide
a more economic thrust..
Cruise

Cabinpressurization
As the cabin is pressurized, a cabin pressurization system adjusts cabin
altitude to provide passengers with a comfortable flight.
The cabin altitude is limited to a maximum value,which depends on the
aircraft type.The purpose of this is to limit differential pressure between the
inside and outside, to a maximum value.
This induces a maximum level due to pressurization
17
09/02/2015
Cruise

Cabinpressurization
For instance: A320 family: Max cabin altitude=8000 feet (753 hpa)
And
Pmax=556hpa
Maximum cruise level due to pressurization

= FL 390 (197hpa) (for A320 family)
Zp
Maximum altitude du to
pressurisation
18
09/02/2015
Chapter 11
Descent
Descent
-Introduction
-Gradient and rate

-Law of descent
-Pressurization: the cabin descent
09/02/2015
Descent
Introduction
Rz
Rz = mg cos
R
Tn = Tu - mg sin
Tn
slope
Tu
weight
Descent with low slope : cos

sin
1
(radians)
Descent
Gradient and rate

=
Tu - Tn
mg
= Tu
mg
1
(L/D)
If Tu = 0 (engines are set at idle)

Vz = TAS .
Vz in ft/mn
=-
1
(L/D)
Vz = - TAS
(L/D)
TAS in kt
in %
09/02/2015
Descent
Gradient and rate

T
Descent with minimum
TN levelled
descent gradient
mini
i i
mg|
mini
(L/D) max
= V
(L/D) max
VT u
V
(L/D) max
V (L/D) max
= V
=
(L/D) max
max climb
max climb
=V
=
min descent
min descent
Descent
Gradient and rate

Comparison between speed of minimum gradient
descent and speed of minimum rate of descent:
M and Zp fixed
thrust IDLE
Vz
Rate mini
VVz
V min
i < V
Descent gradient
mini
min
i
speed
VMO
Rate of descent maxi
Maxi lift-drag ratio
09/02/2015
Descent
Law of descent
Descent in 3 phases, engines are set at idle:
1.Constantmachnumber.
2.ConstantIASuntil10000ftthenreductionto250
kt.
3.Indicatedairspeedat250ktfromFL100to1500ft
(due to ATC).
(duetoATC).
Descent
Law of descent
Example : descent 0.80 / 300 / 250
Zp
0.80 / 300 / 250

Descent
at constant
mach 0.80
Descent
at constant
IAS
-TAS
increases
- TAS
decreases
(after
thenumber
tropopause)
- Mach
decreases
-IAS increases until
reaching 300 kt
(100 ft)
400
300
tropopause
Cross over altitude
30500 ft
Mach = 0.80
IAS = 300 kt
Constant IAS
300 kt
200
Decelaration to 250 kt
Constant mach
0.80
100
Constant IAS
250 kt
300
400
500
TAS (kt)
ISA
09/02/2015
Descent
Law of descent
Examples of law of descent
A319/320/321: 0.78/300/250 (medium range liner in Europe)
: 0.80/340/250 (shuttles)
A340 (200):
0.81/300/250
B737(300/500): 00.74/280/250
74/280/250
B747(400): 0.85/280/250
B777 (200): 0.84/310/250
Descent

-Speed
Speed
-Mass
-Altitude
-Temperature
-Wind
-Spoilers/airbrakes
-Thrust
-Bleed air system
09/02/2015
Descent

Speed
-If the pilot reduces the IAS, the descent gradient will be less steep.
-The air traffic controller can t require the pilot to reduce the speed and
increase the descent gradient at the same time.
Descent

Speed
Vz
M and Zp
p fixed
thrust IDLE
V1 V2 speed
VMO
Rate of descent maxi
09/02/2015
Descent

Mass
Same type
yp of aircraft
Same IAS, same altitude, same TAS, Tu = 0 et M2>M1
D2>D1
M1
?
M2
D1
D2
Descent

Mass
Cl
Cd
Consequence of the increase of the angle of attack
09/02/2015
Descent

Mass
Descent 2GTR
Anti-ice off
weight
time / consumption / distance
Parameters of descent
less affected by the mass
Descent

Mass
Zp fixed
thrust on IDLE
At fixed airspeed,
for a mass :
- the descent gradient
- the rate of descent
Speed
Heavy weight
Low weight
Rate of descent
The influence of the mass is less important

than it is for the climb.
09/02/2015
Descent

Altitude,, temperature,
p
, wind:
Zp and T :
littleinfluenceontheperformances
Wind:
noinfluenceontherateofdescent
thedescentgradient
withheadwind
withdownwind
air
ground
Vz
Vz
Wind
Descent

Spoilers airbrakes:
Spoilers,
withspoilers/airbrakes:rateofdescentanddescent
gradient
09/02/2015
Descent

T
Thrust
Tn,Tu
N levelled
withthrust>idle:rateofdescentand
descentgradient (airspeedfixed)
mg| 2 |
mg| 1 |
Tu2
Tu1
Descent

Bleed air system
y
Theuseoftheenginebleedair(antiicingforexample)
requiresahigherRPM
THRUST>idle rateofdescentand
gradientdescent
10
09/02/2015
Descent

Bleed air system
y
anti- icing:
Ex: A321 law of descent 0.78/340/250:
Influence of the anti-icing system on the law of descent
Time(min)
Consumption (kg)
Distance (NM)
ENG ANTI ICE
+10%
+40%
+10%
ENG+WING ANTI ICE
+10%
+50%
+10%
Descent

Pressurization : the cabin descent
At the top of descent (end of the cruise), Zp cabin < 10 000 ft
(approximativly 7 000 ft)
Pmaxstructural
Duringthedescent:
i
h d
Zpcabin
averagerateofdescent300ft/mn(maximum700ft/mn)forthe
comfortofthepassengers.
11
09/02/2015
Descent

Pressurization : the cabin descent
thecabindescenttimeislongerthantheaircraft
descenttime.
if pmax isreached reductionoftheaircraftvertical
speedtopermitcabinrepressurization.
12
09/02/2015
Chapter 12
Landing
Landing
Landing
- Reference speed
- Landing distance: LD
acto s affecting
a ect g performances
pe o a ces
- Factors
09/02/2015
Landing
Reference speed
VREF: reference speed for the appoach and

the landing.
This speed gives margin against the stall.
Landing
Landing distance: LD
The landing distance is the distance measured between a

point 50ft above the runway threshold ,and the point where
the aeroplane comes to a complete stop,as the aircraft
speed when it reaches 50ft is at least equal to Vref.
09/02/2015
Landing
Landing distance: LD
V >= VREF
50 ft
braking
V=0
LD
Landing

-temperature
-pressure altitude
-wind
-runway condition
-runway slope
-aircraft
aircraft mass
-flaps
-bleed air systems
-windshear
09/02/2015
Landing

Temperature
aerodynamics:
mg = V2 S Cl
If T ,
increase VREF.
propulsion:
At constant Zp, above the reference temperature, when T
, thrust .
Landing

Temperature
At a given mass, when T :

no modification of the LD determined in ISA conditions
only
Go Around gradients .
09/02/2015
Landing

Pressure altitude
aerodynamics:
mg = V2 S Cl.
If Zp ,
increase VREF
propulsion:
At constant T, when Zp , thrust
Landing

Pressure altitude
At a given mass, when Zp :

LD
Go Around gradients .
09/02/2015
Landing

head wind:
Wind
Airspeed
wind
Ground speed
LD
Landing

Wind
tail wind:
Airspeed
wind
Ground speed
LD
09/02/2015
Landing

Wind
Cross wind:
maximum component indicated in the FM (ex: 30 kt).
Landing

Runway condition
Downgraded performance depending on the type and
thickness of contamination.
Runway
y slope
p
Not taken into consideration for LD if between -2% and +2%.
09/02/2015
Landing

Aircraft mass
At a given Zp and flaps configuration, if the
aircraft mass is high:
Vref has to be high
landing distance
GA gradients
Landing

Flap angle
At a given aircraft mass, if flap angle is increased
Cl
landing distance
max. lift/drag ratio
GA gradient
09/02/2015
Landing

Bleed air systems
Anti-icing (wings and engines)
Air conditioning
Thrust
At a given mass, if air is taken from the engine
compressor
LD not affected
ff
d
GA gradients
Landing

Windshear
Sudden variations of the wind direction and/or speed in space
Becomes significant for a value greater than 4kt/100 ft
The aircraft weighing a certain mass has an inertia to a fast change in wind. It depends on aircraft
Sudden change of the aircraft trajectory

parameters.
Although it may be encountered at all levels, when it occurs below 1,600 feet
(500 m), the phenomenon is particularly significant for aircraft flying at critical speed
(reduced) and height (ground proximity).
09/02/2015
Chapter 13
Degradation
Degradation
-Engine failure
-Hydraulic failure
-Electrical failure
09/02/2015
Degradation
Engine failure
During take off
In case of engine failure during take off ,the pilot has to respect the speed V1
V1: Decision speed or critical speed during taketake-off

selected V1
Stop the take
take-off
off
if engine failure
detected before V1
Continue with the take

take-off
off
if engine failure
detected after V1
Degradation
Engine failure
If I detect a failure before V1
I can
...
... stop the take-off

take-offsafely safely
V1
Speed
09/02/2015
Degradation
Engine failure
Failure before V1
A
Accelerate-Stop:
l t St
action
ti b
by th
the pilot
il t
engines set to idle
airbrakes extended
use of reverse
braking
aircraft stops before the end of the
runway
Degradation
Engine failure
If I detect a failure after V1
I must continue the take-off with the failure
35 ft
From this point, I am certain

to reach 35 ft before
the end of the available
take-off distance.
V1
Speed
09/02/2015
Degradation
Engine failure
If I detect a failure after V1
I must continue the take-off with the failure
I am going too fast to
stop safely
in the AccelerateStop Distance
Available
V1
Speed
Degradation
Engine failure
Causes of failures
Example of causes:
- Rupture of a pipe supplying fuel to the engine. Pipes are in
stainless steel with a diameter of approx. 8 cm and pressurised to 20
bars.
(this rupture can be caused by metal fatigue)
- Jet engine
g
surge
g ((violent flash fire).
)
- Friction between the compressor and its carter.
09/02/2015
Degradation
Engine failure
Landing
Landing with m > MSLM possible in case of emergency
(structure guaranteed for an impact at -360 ft/min at MSTOM)
BUT: comply with go around gradients!
If the aeroplane cannot comply with these gradients in
any case (PA, Temp)
Fuel Jettison system : within 15 minutes, aeroplane
mass mustt be
b compatible
tibl with
ith required
i d gradients
di t
Example: dump rate for the A340 = 1000 kg/min.
Degradation
Engine failure
-During the cruise
-Maximum
M i
continuous
ti
power (max-co)
(
) for
f the
th remaining
i i
engines
- Natural reduction to the best glide speed by
maintaining level flight
- If Zp is high, power will be inadequate for level
flight
- Descent to critical altitude at the speed for
max. lift/drag ratio.
09/02/2015
Degradation
Tu,Tn
Engine failure
Tn
Engine failure on cruise

Mass, Zp
Zp,, T fixed
Tu N engines
cruise
Tu N-1 max-co
Tu NN-1 cruise
V max. lift/drag ratio
V cruise
V
V
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
The hydraulic fluid taken from a tank,

pressurised by pumps and then transferred
to pistons connected to actuators is used to
move some mobile components of the
aircraft:
ailerons
rudder (vertical stabiliser)
elevator (horizontal stabiliser)
fl
flaps
landing gear
spoilers
airbrakes
brakes
09/02/2015
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
Example:
Boeing 747 aircraft are equipped with 4
hydraulic systems:
Each system is managed by two pumps: EDP
(engine driven pump) and DEMAND PUMP
and the operation of the systems depend on
th jjett engines.
the
i
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
Hydraulic system indicators light up if:
- the system has failed
- the quantity of hydraulic fluid in the tank is
inadequate
- fluid temperature is too high.
09/02/2015
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
Controls and
displays
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
- Systems are multiple and redundant (3 or 4
systems exist) but two systems are strongly
interconnected:
So for instance, with the B747, the 4 hydraulic
systems
y
use only
y two tanks.
If a problem arises on a tank, two systems
fail.
09/02/2015
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
The main flight controls:
-ailerons,
-rudder (vertical stabiliser),
-elevator (horizontal stabiliser),
are actuated by the 4 hydraulic systems.
However, other secondary functionalities are
directly connected to specific systems.
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
Example B747
Hydraulic system 1:
Emergency brakes
Nose landing gear
Inner trailing edge flaps
Hydraulic system 4:
The 2 sets of wing landing gear
Main brakes
Outer trailing edge flaps
09/02/2015
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
C
Consequences
on fli
flight
ht control:
t l
- Ailerons, flaps, spoilers and landing gear may be
affected.
- Primary functions slow
- Some secondary functions lost or downgraded.
- Increased approach speed
- Increased landing distance.
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
C
Consequences
on fli
flight
ht control:
t l
Failure of one single system:
Little impact, however, for long haul flights:
- diversion,
- systematic return to the departure airfield.
Failure of two or more systems:
- diversion or return to the departure airfield irrespective
of the flight (short or long haul).
10
09/02/2015
Degradation
What to expect?
Hydraulic failure
- return to the nearest accessible aerodrome

- primary functions slow (ailerons)
- secondary functions lost or downgraded (spoilers,
flaps, etc.)
- manoeuvring restrictions
- flap extension restrictions
- possible bank angle restriction
- manual landing gear extension, retraction impossible
- increased approach speed (above 220 kt or no flaps)
- limited braking
- possible runway excursion (off the side or overrun)
- runway blocked after landing
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
Examples:
On the B747:
If systems 1 and 4 fail: no flaps
Electric motor used to extend flaps:
(slow operation)
On the A320:
3 systems (named with colors)

If green system lost:
systems lost: nose wheel steering, spoilers 1 and 5,
engine reverse1,landing gear retraction, normal and
auto brake.
11
09/02/2015
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
E
Examples:
l
On the A320:
If yellow system lost:
systems lost: spoilers 2 and 4,
engine reverse 2, ALTN brake.
If blue system lost:
systems lost: spoiler 3...
Degradation
Hydraulic failure
No brakes available
12
09/02/2015
Degradation
Electric failure
Which systems require electricity?
For safety:
Supply:
-On board instruments
-Radio navigation instruments
-Communications
-Computers
-Collection of information from different points of the
aircraft (engine control, fire detection, etc.)
Degradation
Electric failure
For Flight control :
-Flight control actuators
-Landing gear
-Slat/flat controls
-Propeller pitch controls
13
09/02/2015
Degradation
Electric failure
For Comfort:
Air conditioning
Occasional heating
Miscellaneous cabin lighting
Entertainment units
Kitchen areas
Degradation
Electric failure
S
Sources
off electricity?
l t i it ?
-The alternators driven by the engines
-The alternator driven by the APU (auxiliary power unit)
-The alternator driven by the RAT (ram air turbin)
(emergency wind turbine)
-The
The batteries
-Ground supply
14
09/02/2015
Degradation
Electric failure
Sources of electricity?
Example A320:
AVIONICS BAY
Batteries 1&2
Ground
connection
Alternator 2
Alternator 1
Backup (RAT)
APU
alternator
Degradation
Electric failure
Example
A320
A320:
Alternator
APU
RAT
15
09/02/2015
Degradation
Electric failure
The batteries
Ground
supply
Degradation
Electric failure
y
- Two 24V batteries are available
The batteries take over if the RAT is ineffective

They can be used to run critical electrical networks for 30
minutes
16
09/02/2015
Degradation
Electric failure
Case of failure
The probability of a catastrophic failure is equal to
<10-9/flying hour.
On modern aircraft, the total loss of electricity on
board is considered as a catastrophic failure thats
why multiple independent sources of energy are the
rule.
rule
Degradation
Electric failure
What to expect?
In case of electrical failure:
-systems lost
-short-circuits
-defects
-fires
-return to the nearest accessible aerodrome
17
09/02/2015
Chapter 14
Ecological
Factors
Ecological Factors
Fuel dumping
Noise abatement procedures
CDA:Continuous Descent Approach
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Why?
Aircraft are heavier at take-off than they are
supposed to be when landing.
Th difference
The
diff
iis compensated
t db
by b
burning
i
ffuell
during the flight to destination.
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Why?
In case of an emergency after take-off,the
aircraft has to return immediately.
It can only be landed safely when the maximum
landing weight is not exceeded.
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Why?
When the maximum take of mass ,less the
weight of fuel necessary for a 15 minutes
flight
g ((including
g take off ,,approach,and
pp
,
landing at the departure airport) is more than
the maximum go around weight (in order to
comply with GA gradients) a fuel jettisoning
system must be available.
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Why?
Comply with GA gradients
15 minutes flight
Emergency
RTOM
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Which aircraft?
Only long range aircraft like:
B747,B767,B777,MD11,A330,A340
,
,
,
,
,
or
A380 have a fuel jettisoning system .
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Where?
The choice of the dumping area is determined by
The urgency of the incident

The actual flight plan
Meteorological
g
conditions
General air traffic situation
Theaircraftisledtoaselectedareabytheairtrafficcontrol
todumpfuel.
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
How?
Aircraft have to dump fuel at the minimum
speed of 250kt and an minimum altitude of
6000ft.
(at this altitude the chance that even a small quantity of fuel
reaches the ground is estimated to be unlikely)
Usually they do it at high speed and between

FL140 and FL160.
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
How?
Fuel is dumped over two valves which are at
the wing edges.
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
How?
High Speed (at least 250kt)
Kerosene
Flight altitude 14000-16000 ft over ground

(at least 6000ft)
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Separation
-Horizontal separation :10 NM (if fuel dumping aircraft is
behind)
-Vertical separation (until 50 NM behind the fuel dumping
aircraft
i
ft and
d 10 NM ahead)
h d)
1000ft if the fuel dumping aircraft is lower
3000ft if the fuel dumping aircraft is higher
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Fuel dumping
Separation
at least
1000ft
at least
3000ft
50nm
10nm
Ecological
Factors
Consist in:
-Defined acceptable decibel levels (maximum thrust allowed)

-Hours
H
off curfew
f
-Power reduction on departure
-Specifics routing for departures
-Use of reverse prohibited
-Minimum altitude to be reached during the climb (special climb gradient)
-Minimum altitude below which aircraft must not descent at
-Fly over some areas prohibited
-Use of specific runway
-Limitation on the number of departures and arrivals during hours of restrictions
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors
Example: landing
During approach, the noise emission is mainly due to the

aerodynamic noise of the extended flaps and landing gear.The noise
abatement procedure consists in maintaining
as long as possible the aeroplane in clean configuration.
Ecological
Factors
Definition
Technical consisting in arriving with a continuous
descent (from 9000ft (or more)), using minimum engine
thrust in a low drag configuration.
The aircraft follows published procedures and ATC
requests, in order to avoid levelling phases.
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors

Aim:
-to minimize :
-noise
-pollution from engine
-fuel consumption
Examples:: Studies made in cities Marseille and Strasbourg (France) from the IAF to the runway
Examples
Type of aircraft
Fuel reduction
CO2 reduction
Ecological
Factors
Airports equipped
Orly (France),Marseille (France), Amsterdam-Schiphol
(Holland)
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors

T j t
Trajectory
Ecological
Factors

T j t
Trajectory
CDA begins at the IAF (before the top of descent (TOD) and ends
at the FAF/FAP; a level off (1.5 Nm to 2 Nm) is necessary
regarding the type of aircraft.
CDA
profiles
FAP
Non CDA
profiles
2NM
Area of maximum noise benefit
10
09/02/2015
Ecological
Factors

Phraseology: example
Cleared approach CDA ILS runway 31 R , report
ARLET
negative approach CDA,cleared approach ILS
runway 31R
Cancel CDA
11
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Chapter 15
Economic
Factors
Economic
factors
Economic Factors
-Taxiing
-Altitude
-Speed
-Routing
-Rates of climb
-Rates of descent
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
Usually ATC controlling ground traffic has to
organize the starting sequence in relation
with:
nature of departure
slots
l t (H
(H-5min
5 i ;H
H+10
10 min)
i )
wake turbulence categories (WTC)
aircraft performances
Economic
factors
Taxiing
If the aircraft has to taxi for a long distance
distance, time for
taxiing will be higher, so consumption will be
increased.
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
The runway capacity leads to calculate time between
2 arrivals, 2 departures or 1 arrival and 1 departure.
It is economically important to decrease this time.
This can be done with runways equipped with several
taxiways and high speed taxiways exits.
Economic
factors
Example
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
A fixed quantity of fuel is loaded (ex A320: 200kg of
fuel).
On some airports ( ex: CDG,ORLY, NICE in France) ,
a quantity of fuel for taxiing is calculated according to
a statistical duration of taxiing and the average fuel
flow consumption
p
.
Economic
factors
Taxiing
Exemple of average fuel flow consumption:
7 kg/min for ATR72-200
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
10 kg/min for A318 and A319
12 kg/min for A320
14 kg/min for A321
The APU consumption of these aircraft is about 130

kg/h.
Economic
factors
Taxiing
33 kg /min for B777
The APU consumption of a B777 is about 240 kg/h.

A fixed quantity of fuel is usualy loaded (ex B777:
600kg of fuel)
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
Average time for taxiing in CDG (Paris):
For middle range liners: 30 min
For long range liners: 36 min
Average time for taxiing in medium airports (France)

For middle range liners:22 min
For long range liners:30 min
Economic
factors
Taxiing
Taxiing time for AirFrance (HUB).
Average time for taxiing in case of low traffic: 15 min
Average time for taxiing in case of high traffic: 30 min
Costs induced for Air France

For middle range airliners: 75 to 95 euros/min
For heavy aircraft : 305 to 335 euros/min
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Taxiing
In case of delay on the ground,
ground there are economic
consequences.
Causes of delay (in 80% of cases, engines are shut off):
49% ATC
12 % Technical problem
13% Pax
11% Stopover
8 % Weather conditions
7% Others
Economic
factors
Altitude
In order to obtain the best specific range, the aircraft has to
follow the optimum altitude.
The optimum altitude increases with the mass decrease.
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Altitude
P.A.
burn off
weight
Economic
factors
Altitude
If the cruising altitude is not the optimum altitude, the fuel flow increases and the
specific range decreases.
difference with the optimum altitude
-2000ft
4000ft
-4000ft
-6000ft
-8000ft
fuel flow increase

+3%
+8%
+13%
+18%
specific range decrease

-3%
-7%
7%
-11%
-15%
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Altitude
Examples of fuel consumption in cruise phase
A340-600 :300T
Mach 0.83 :
FL 330:
consumption: 9 tonnes /hour
FL 350:
consumption: 8.8 tonnes /hour
A330-300:160T
Mach 0.84:
FL330:
consumption: 6.1 tonnes / hour
FL350:
consumption: 5.7 tonnes / hour
Economic
factors
Speed
The most economical mach number is the ECON mach
number.
It minimizes the DOC (direct operating costs)

(for a given trip :Fuel consumption related
costs, Flight time related costs, Fixed costs).
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Speed
If Mach
Consumption
Examples of fuel consumption

A340-600 :300Tonnes
Mach 0.82 :
FL350 consumption
ti : 8.6
8 6 tonnes
t
/hour
/h
Mach 0.83 :
FL 350 consumption: 8.8 tonnes / hour
Mach 0.84 :
FL 350 consumption :9.3 tonnes / hour
Economic
factors
Speed
If Mach
Consumption
A330-300 :160T
Mach 0.82
FL350 consumption 5.3 tonnes /hour
Mach 0.84
FL350 consumption 5.7 tonnes /hour
10
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Speed
If Mach
Consumption
A318 :57T
Mach 0.78 :
Fl 390 consumption 2.120 tonnes/hour
Mach 0.82 :
FL390 consumption 2.270 tonnes/hour
Economic
factors
Routing
If the lenght of
the route
Consumption
Thats why pilots request to proceed direct to the

nearest beacon (if possible).
Beacon B
Initial route
Beacon C
Beacon A
Direct to
11
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Ratesofclimb
Climb at minimum fuel cost:
To minimize overall fuel consumption during flight,a low cost index must be
used. As the climb phase is fuel consuming, it is advantageous to minimize
climb duration.This is achieved at the maximum rate of climb speed.
IAS econ= Maximum rate of climb speed
p
(CI=0)
(
)
Economic
factors
Ratesofclimb
Climb at minimum cost:
At a given cost index, an optimum climb speed (IAS econ)

and an optimum mach number (Mach ECON) are calculated by
the FMS as a function of the aircrafts mass.The climb is carried
out in managed mode, based on the following IAS/Mach law:
250kt/ IAS ECON/ Mach ECON
12
09/02/2015
Economic
factors
Ratesofdescent
Descent at minimum fuel cost:
To minimize overall fuel consumption during flight,a low cost index must be
used.As the descent phase is performed at idle thrust,it is advantageous to
maximize its duration,from fuel consumption standpoint.This is achieved at
low descent speed (close to L/Dmax speed)
IASecon=minimum descent speed (CI=0)
Economic
factors
Ratesofdescent
Descent at minimum cost:
At a given cost index,an optimum descent mach number

(MachECON) and an optimum speed (IASecon)
are calculated by the FMS as a function of the aircrafts

mass.The descent is carried out in managed mode,based on
th following
the
f ll i Mach/IAS
M h/IAS law:
l
Mach econ/IAS econ/250kt
13
09/02/2015
Chapter 16
Special
operations
Special operations
-Military aircraft
-Calibration
-Aerial
A i l photography
h t
h
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
-need coordinations with military ATC
-different performances and procedures
-military zone (block of airspace)
-temporary segregated area
-prevent direct routing for civil aircraft
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Runway circuits (ex: for E121, alpha-jet, C130)

Procedures (for TB30, E121)
Engine shut-off short landing
Transits
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Runway circuits (ex: E121, alpha-jet, C130)
Alpha-jet: touch and go (they rarely land)
E121,C130: they land in order to change crew
They announce their visit by phone
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Procedures (ex: E121, TB30, C130)
Types of procedures: ILS, VOR, NDB .They can announce
their visit by phone
They fill in flight plans
They are usually numerous: air traffic control can become
more and more complex to be managed
They land in order to change crew
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Engine shut-off short landing (ex:alpha-jet)

The aircraft climbs to FL60, then the pilot requests
descent and performs a touch and go.
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Transits (C130, Puma, Gazelles, mirage 2000)
They request to fly over the runway
They
Th requestt tto cross th
the axis
i off the
th runway
They can request to land
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Types of training
Transits (C130, Puma, Gazelles, mirage 2000)
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Example of type of aircraft used
E121:
maximum cruising speed : 243 Kt

landing speed : 94 Kt
maximum certified flight level : FL 260
range : 1270 Nm /1333 Kg
ma im m rate of climb : 1400 ft/min (above
maximum
(abo e sea le
level)
el)
takeoff length : 865 m
landing length : 850 m
maximum structural take off mass : 5670kg
wake turbulence : L
persons on board: 2 + 9 (maximum)
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
TB30:
maximum cruising speed :192 Kt

maximum certified flight level : FL 240
range : 702Nm
maximum take off mass : 1265kg
engine model
model: Lycoming
L coming AEIO-540-K
AEIO 540 K
wake turbulence : L
Special
operations
Military aircraft
-Alpha-jet:
maximum cruising speed : mach 0.81

maximum certified flight level : FL360
range : 1230 km
rate of climb : 3660 ft/min
t k ff length
takeoff
l
th : 340 m
landing length : 500 m
maximum structural take off mass : 7250 kg
wake turbulence : M
persons on board: 2
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Military aircraft
Air traffic control
Military aircraft fly faster than light touring aircraft.
They havent got priority regarding commercial aircraft and
medical evacuations.
Theyy use flight
g p
plans.
They follow orders (they are very respectful).
Special
operations
Calibration
Introduction
Aim: checking if navigational aids as ILS and VOR are working
properly
Frequency of the routine checks vary according to the type of
installation
Calibration flights
g
will be g
given p
priority
y
Example in France:
managed by DTI
Aicraft used: ATR42 and 2 Beech 200 (owner: DTI; managed
by SEFA)
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Example of type of aircraft used in France: ATR 42
ATR42
Special
operations
Calibration
Principle
Phase 1:
-use of a certified GPS on board
-comparison
p
by
y software between trajectories
j
g
given by
y the ILS
and the GPS.
- comparison of the error given by the curves.
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Computers and screens on board.
Special
operations
Calibration
Computers and screens on board.
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Principle
Phase 2:
-voluntary malfunction of the ILS.
-measure of the sensitivity of the alarm ( warning detection) .
Special
operations
Calibration
Frequency of the routine checks
-once each year ,for an airport located in France.
10
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Average duration of the routine checks
-several hours on small or middle sized airports.
-a few days on big airports
(example: Paris Charles de Gaulle: 3 days).
Special
operations
Calibration
Organization
-before each calibration:
-briefing with air traffic controllers:
-a schedule is given to the controllers indicating the
procedures ( names
names, types
types, altitudes,
altitudes distances) that will be
performed
-example: call sign of the aircraft used in France:
CALIBRA
11
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Examples of procedure
check
trajectory
NM
from
approach
f
from
to
to
50 ft or 200 ft
on runway axe
slope 3
threshold
or
on
runway axe
approach
slope 3 or
shifted path
Low/high (+/0.4))
0
from
from
to
to
to
50 ft or 200 ft
threshold
or
Shifted
approach
LEFT
height
from
to
(1.4to 3)
on the left of
the axe on the
slope
from
to
Special
operations
Calibration
Managing the calibrating aircraft
ATR Cruising speed during measures:
150kt
200kt if requested by the ATC
Do not interrupt measures unless there is an emergency
12
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Caution taken during measures:
No aircraft on approach at least 5 nm ahead
of the calibrating aircraft
Near the LOCALIZER:
No aircraft or metallic mass 1000m ahead
No fly over LOCALIZER antenna during take off or landing
ILS out of order during the LOCALIZER calibration
Special
operations
Calibration
Near the glide antenna:
No aircraft or metallic mass ahead of the
glide
lid antenna
t
( the
(on
th runway or on the
th taxiway)
t i
)
No restriction concerning the part of the runway behind the
glide antenna
ILS out of order during the glide antenna calibration
(localizer out of order)
13
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Calibration
Pilot experience is also important to appreciate the opportunity to
perform a procedure regarding the others aircraft (in order to avoid

holding pattern)
pattern).
Special
operations
Aerial photography
Aerial photography requires to follow fixed levels and
fixed tracks
An aircraft (called P in this course) can be used to take
photos of several aircraft during the flight.
They are flying together in one group (using only one
transponder).
(ex :in France: The corvette SN601 surrounded by the
A380)
14
09/02/2015
Special
operations
TheCorvetteSN601inFranceisusedtotake
photos.
Special
operations
Aerial photography
Pilots fill in IFR flight plans but they usually fly under
VMC conditions.
Start up must be approved by the air traffic controller
working in the tower.
A briefing is done on the frequency to explain the pilots
intentions.
Each center (Tower, APP, ACC) concerned receive
information about the aircraft P (strip).
15
09/02/2015
Special
operations
Aerial photography
The aircraft P is firstly on frequency with the air traffic

controller working in the tower and in the approach.
Then ,it is sent on frequency to an air traffic controller
(only) working for test and reception flights.This air
traffic controller manages to control the aircraft P and
provides separations with the other aircraft.
Special
operations
Aerial photography
The air traffic controller in the ACC has only the aircraft
P transponder on his radar .
The aircraft P flies usually between FL120 and FL180.
In the ACC the minimum vertical separation
p
must be
1000ft.
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Aircraft Operations Booklet

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Aircraft Operations Booklet

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Principlesofflight

Main structural components

Controlling the helicopter

Inthiscase: >0, <0, <0

Inthiscase: >0, >0, <0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

glide distance Dist

Trailing edge flaps

Jonathan Rankin www.airliners.net

Direction of the turbulence

Heavy > 136T

SA 330 Puma : mass 7400kg

Experiences the same turbulence as a B737-500

CH-47 Chinook : mass 21000kg

Experiences 2/3 turbulence of a B747

Makea shorter takeoffandtakeasteeperpaththan

The plane without ground effect

The plane with ground effect

Ratio of Wing Height to Span

Accident of a A300 following a B747(Japan Airlines) in

Air speed measurement

TAT : Total Air Temperature

Air speed indicator = pressure indicator

The different air speeds

Difference between IAS and TAS

EAS : Equivalent Air Speed

CAS : Calibrated Air Speed

IAS : Indicated Air Speed

Stall speed flaps retracted

Maximum IAS flaps extended

Never exceed speed

speed for best

CRJ700 FL230 ft , 300 kts IAS

Turn radius =10205m i.e. :5.5 NM

Mach 0.84, 33000ft

300kt IAS at 15000ft

350kt IAS at 10000 ft

300kt IAS at 10000 ft

220kt IAS at 5000 ft

Note: generaldefinitionforstall: youstallwhenyouhavereached

Aircraft performance and limitations

Aircraft performance and limitations

Aircraft performance and limitations

The take-off speeds

The take-off speeds

V1 is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to

Aircraft performance and limitations

The take-off speeds

V1 : Take off decision speed chosen by the

The take-off speeds

Aircraft performance and limitations

The take-off speeds

VLof : speed at which the aeroplane becomes airborne

The take-off speeds

V2 :take off climb speed

V2 : must be reached at least at 35 ft height.

Aircraft performance and limitations

Factors affecting performances

Aircraft performance and limitations

Factors affecting performances

Factors affecting performances

Aircraft performance and limitations

Factors affecting performances