Water Distribution Systems) ( 3rd Class

Dr. Sataa A. Al-Bayati(10-11)

Introduction:
Useful equations:
1. Hazen-Williams formula) ( ,
Q = 0.27853 C D2.63 S0.54
Where:
Q = capacity, m3/s
C = roughness constant) ( ,
D = pipe diameter, m
S = slope, or hydraulic gradient.
2. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is used for computing the head loss,
h = (L / D) (V2 / 2g)
3. Manning formula, (SI)
Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2
Where:
= friction coefficient
n = Manning roughness,
L = pipe length
A = pipe cross section
R = hydraulic radius
Water Quantity Requirements)(
Deficit) (in Baghdad City (1998) from water quantities is:
40% in Al-Rasafa, &
15% in Karkh.
Average daily consumption) ( :
Mean daily usage during a one-year period.
Max. daily consumption)( :
Can be obtained from,

i.
ii.
iii.

Greatest total amount of water used during any 24h period in the
past three years.
Estimated from use in other cities of similar character & climate.
Estimated from average daily consumption.

Peak hourly consumption)(

Peak hour usage.
Max. daily consumption > 1.5 average daily consumption.
Note: In Baghdad City, Mayoralty of Baghdad) ( use,
Max. daily demand = 1.41 average daily
Peak hourly demand = 2.25 average daily.

Water Allocation for Baghdad City, 2000.

Use
L/person/d
Domestic
340
Administrative 35
Industrial
40
Net allocation
415
Losses 20%
85
Cross allocation 500
Therefore, Baghdad Water Supply Administration(BWSA))(
uses 500L/person/d for Baghdad City in year 2000.
The total Baghdad potable water capacity = 2250MLD. This capacity comes
from 8 water treatment plants & 52 compact units.

Table (1): Variation in residential water consumption (L/person/d) in USA.

consumption
Range
Average
Yearly average
380 490
420
Mean winter
190 490
380
Mean summer
490 980
640
Maximum daily 600 1900
870
Maximum hourly 760 5000 1500
Average daily (New Zealand) = 250 300L/p/d.

 Intakes, transmission line, treatment plant, & pumping are designed

for; Maximum daily use. Hourly variations are handled by storage.
Distribution mains designed for; maximum daily use + fire flow.

Municipal Fire Protection Requirements)(

Min. = 30L/s
Max. = 760L/s (single fire)
Max. added (130 500) L/s for simultaneous fires)( .

Fire flow calculation:

Fire flow for a given area is,
__
F = 3.7C A

--- (1)

Where:
F = fire flow, L/s
C = coefficient of type of construction,
1.5 for wood frame)(
1.0
ordinary construction: brick & wood
0.8
noncombustible construction)(
e.g. Brick & Asbestos calcium silicate board, & other new
materials
0.6
fire-resistive construction) ( .
e.g. concrete buildings
A = total floor area including all stories without basements) (, m2
Max. fire flow for;
Wood frame & ordinary construction
Noncombustible construction & fire-resistive construction
Normal one story building of any type
Min. fire flow

500L/s
380L/s
380L/s
30L/s

Note:
a) Eq. (1) reduced up to 25% for light fire loading, e.g. housing, hospitals,
school, offices, & museums.
3

b) Eq. (1) increased up to 25% high fire loading, e.g. commercial &
industrial activities.
Table (2) Required fire flows for single family) & (two-family )(
residential areas. Not exceeding two stories in height.
Distance between dwelling units)(, Required fire flows,
m
L/s
> 30
30
9 30
45 60
39
60 95
<3
95 125
Continuous buildings
100
Duration)(
Table (3) Required duration for fire flow.
Required fire flow, L/s Required duration, h
610
10
580
9
550
9
520
8
490
8
460
7
430
7
400
6
370
6
340
5
310
5
280
4
250
4
220
3
190
3
160
2

Pressure
Min. pressure with pumpers = 140kPa
Without pumpers = 500kPa.
4

Note:
No hydrants on dead end of 150mm mains.
Table (4) Standard Hydrants Distribution) ( .
Fire flow, Min. average area/ Hydrants
( L/s)
(m2)
70
49,000
100
45,000
130
42,000
160
39,000
190
36,500
220
34,000
250
31,500
280
29,500
310
27,500
340
26,000
370
24,500
400
23,000
430
22,000
460
21,000
490
20,000
520
19,000
550
18,000
610
16,000
680
14,000
760
12,000

Design Example (1):

A three-story wood frame building with a ground floor area of 680m2 is
adjacent to a five-story building of ordinary construction with 900m2 per
floor. Determine the fire flow & duration required for each building & the
complex assuming the units are connected.
Solution:
Wood frame building:
C = 1.5
__
F = 3.7C A
5

______
F = (3.7 1.5) 3 680
= 251L/s < 500 OK
From Table (3) duration = 4h.
Ordinary building:
C = 1.0
______
F = 3.7 1.0 5 900
= 248L/s < 500 OK
Also duration = 4h.
The two building:
Total floor area = 3 680 + 5 900
= 6540m2
Area of wood frame building, % = (3 680) / 6540
= 31%
Area of ordinary building, % = (5 900) / 6540
= 69%
____
____
F = 3.7 (0.31 1.5 6540 + 0.69 1.0 6540 )
= 346L/s < 500L/s Ok
Duration = 5h.
Example (2):
Estimate the fire flow for a 60,000m2, single-story building of ordinary
construction.
Solution:
_____
F = 3.7 1.0 60,000
= 906L/s
900 > Max. fire flow for one story = 380L/s
Choose F = 380L/s.

Distribution Storage)(
Its purpose is to provide continuous water.
Water tanks are storage containers for water, these tanks are usually storing
water for human consumption. Water tanks exist in many forms and a
6

variety of materials. Water tanks provide for the storage of drinking water,
& fire fighting. The size of service reservoirs depend on the population
served, but they must provide storage for at least 24-36 h. Such tanks must
be watertight and sealed to ensure quality is protected. Each service
reservoir serves a water supply zone, which can supply a maximum of 50000
people.
Storage advantages
1. Demands on source, treatment, transmission & distribution are equal.
2. Reducing needed sizes & capacities.
3. Stabilized system pressure.
4. Control emergency, i.e. fire fighting & repairs.

Various materials have been used for constructing water tanks: concrete, &
steel (welded or bolted).
Types:
1. Elevated tanks) ( , Fig.(1)
Steel or concrete,
Capacity = 200 12,000m3.
Provide pressure
Steel tanks exterior painted & need cathodic protection)(
for interior.
Elevated tanks create a distribution pressure at the tank outlet of 1 psi
per 2.31ft (0.7m) of elevation, thus a tank elevated to 70ft (21m)
creates about 30 psi of discharge pressure, 30 psi is sufficient for most
house hold requirements.
2. Stand pipes) ( , Fig.(2)
Steel
Above ground
Capacity 20,000m3
Height > diameter.
3. Underground or above ground basins) ( , Fig.(3)
Concrete
Diameter > height.

Fig.(1) Elevated tank (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1998)

Fig.(2) Stand pipe

Fig.(3) Underground basin

Choice between elevated & ground storage

1. topography
2. community size
3. Economics.
Ground storage + booster pumping large water system
Elevated tanks small water system.
Factors of storage design )( :
The type of material used and the design of the tank will be dictated by the
following variables:
1. Location of the water tank (elevated or underground)
Inside the city elevated
Outside the city above ground
2. What the water will be used for? e.g.
Drinking need large storage
Gardens irrigation needs small storage.
3. How is the water to be delivered to the water tank? e.g. by gravity or
pump.
4. Wind and Earthquake design considerations allow water tanks to
survive seismic events) ( .
e.g. High wind ground type
Earthquake zone small volume & ground type
5. Volume of water tank will need to hold
e.g. Large volume ground
Small volume elevated

From experience, capacity= 15-20% of average daily consumption.

For moderate size systems take 30 40%.
Note: Several smaller storage units are better than one central site;
Smaller distribution pipes.
Uniform water pressure.

Fig. (4) Components of a Storage Tank

Operation

Fig. (5) How water tower works:

1. Pump station
2. Reservoir
3. Water user
10

Design of storage capacity

Example (3):
Hourly demands on the day of maximum water consumption are given in
Table below (cols.1 & 2). Fire flow requirements are 190L/s for duration of
3h. Plot the hourly water consumption rates. Calculate the distribution
storage needed for both equalizing demand & fire reserve.

Table (5): Peak water consumption data on day of maximum water usage.
Time
Hourly Consumption Cumulative Consumption
L/s
L
L
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Midnight
0
0
0
1
14.4
52000
52 000
2
14.4
52 000
104 000
3
10.0
36 000
140 000
4
10.6
38 000
178 000
5
16.7
60 000
238 000
6
22.2
80 000
318 000
7
30.5
110 000
428 000
8
42.8
154 000
582 000
9
41.7
150 000
732 000
10
35.7
128 000
860 000
11
34.7
125 000
985 000
Noon
36.2
130 000
1 115 000
13
35.5
128 000
1 243 000
14
36.2
130 000
1 373 000
15
38.8
140 000
1 513 000
16
38.3
138 000
1 651 000
17
45.7
164 000
1 815 000
18
51.2
184 000
1 999 000
19
55.5
200 000
2 199 000
20
44.5
160 000
2 359 000
21
33.3
120 000
2 479 000
22
22.2
80 000
2 559 000
23
19.5
70 000
2 629 000
24
15.6
56 000
2 685 000
Average = 31L/s

11

Solution:
From the Table (Col.1-Col.2) Plot Fig.(5), Time-consumption.
Average hourly consumption
Pumping rate = 31L/s
If consumption < 31L/s reservoir is filling
> 31L/s
emptying.
Storage volume with 31L/s pump rate = Area under the emptying or filling
curve.
These areas are difficult to measure, so a mass diagram is used.
Make Col.3& Col.4
From Table (Col.1-Col.4) Plot Fig.(6) Cumulative flow.
Plot a straight line connecting the origin & final point (cumulative
pumpage).
Construct lines parallel to cumulative pumping rate tangent to mass curve at
high & low point.
Any vertical distance between these two parallel = storage capacity = 500m3.
Fire storage = 190L/s 3h * (3600s/1h) (m3/1000L) = 2050m3.
Total storage capacity (24h pumping) = 500 + 2050 = 2550m3.
Note:
It is not economic to pump water at a constant rate 24h.
Example:
If a treatment plant operation 24h & to operate pumps during lowest power
rates during the 8h period (midnight-0800), Fig.(6).
- Draw a line from origin to intersection point between horizontal line from
2400 & vertical line at 0800.
- Storage required = vertical distance at 0800 between accumulated demand
line & max. daily pumpage = 2110m3.
With pumpage rate = 93L/s.
Note:
If other start than midnight, the data in the table must be shifted to the
selected time.
Total storage capacity (8h pumping) = 2110 + 2050 = 4160m3.
Note: Average 8h pumping rate = 2685m3/8h = 93L/s.
12

Operating Pressure of System:

Excellent flow to a 3 story building requires 290 kPa
Adequate flow for residential areas requires 240 kPa
A minimum hydraulic head of 30 m is required for fire fighting.
In practice the maximum head permitted is 70 m, as above this the loss of
water via leaks is very high. Such high pressure also causes excessive wear
on household equipment (e.g. taps, stop valves, washing machine valves,
ball valves, etc.) and may even prevent some stop valves from shutting off.

Pipe Material)(
In UK, All underground pipes are now color coded to prevent accidents.
Water is blue, gas is yellow, electricity is black and telephone is grey.
What types of pipe you has been seen?
1. Cast Iron pipes
They used in the following conditions:
a. High crushing strength is required.
b. Inverted siphons & pumping mains due to pressure.
c. When the pipe is above the ground on supports.
2. Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride pipes (uPVC) (
)
They are resisted chemical attack, light weight & cheap. Their
expected designed period is > 50years.
They are not suitable for hot climates, as their max. working pressure
reduces by 2%per 1C above 20 oC. They must be stored away from
sunlight.
They produced in diameters between 110 1200mm.
3. Polyethylene pipes, PE)(
Medium density PE piping is also used due to their cost.

Table (6) Characteristics of pipe material

Material
uP.V.C A.C. D.I. Steel
& P.E.
lined unlined
parameter
Cost of pipe
+
+
Availability) (of
++
+
large diameter
Mechanical strength
+
+
++
++
Resistance against
+
++
++

13

Steel
lined
+
++
++

Burst when illegally

tapped
Corrosion resistance
A.C. = asbestos cement
D.I. = ductile iron
++ = very well suited
+ = well suited
+ - = suitable
- = less suitable.

++

+-

Plastic pressure pipe systems (ref. 8)

This is dependent upon the medium, temperature, chemical consistency,
pressure and type of plastic pressure pipe system selected.
The most common Plastic Pressure Pipe Systems are:
ABS Pipe Systems
PVC Pipe Systems uPVC Pipe Systems PVCu Pipe Systems or PVCU Pipe Systems
PVC-C Pipe Systems
PP Pipe Systems
PE Pipe Systems or MDPE Pipe Systems
Materials used
ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
PVC-U (Polyvinyl chloride, unplasticized) also known as PVCu or
uPVC
PVC-C (Polyvinyl chloride, post chlorinated) also known as PVCc or
cPVC
PP (Polypropylene)
PE (Polyethylene) also known as LDPE, MDPE and HDPE (see note)
Note: LDPE, MDPE and HDPE = low, medium, and high density
Polyethylene.
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)
ABS is suitable for the conveyance of potable water, slurries & chemicals.
Being non toxic ABS complies with the toxicological requirements of the
standards.
Good chemical resistance
Good abrasion resistance
Good material strength and high impact resistance

14

Operating temperature range -40C to +80C

Solvent welding

PVC-U (Polyvinyl Chloride, Unplasticized)

Environmental resistance to aggressive caustic and acidic fluids
Good abrasion resistance
Operating temperature range 0C to +60C
Bell-and-Spigot gasket-sealed joint
Solvent cement joint
fusion welding
PVC-C (Polyvinyl Chloride, Post Chlorinated)
Environmental resistance to aggressive caustic and acidic fluids
Good abrasion resistance
Operating temperature range 0C to +90C
Solvent welding
PP (Polypropylene)
Polypropylene is adversely affected by UV radiation and requires insulation
or a protective coating if installed outside.
Environmental resistance to most organic and inorganic chemicals
Good material strength and fatigue resistance
Operating temperature range -10C to +110C
Fusion Welding
PE (Polyethylene)
Resistance to acids, caustic substances, organic and inorganic solvents
Good material strength and fatigue resistance
Operating temperature range -40C to +65C
Mechanical compression joint up to 125mm or Fusion Welded
Components of Plastic Pressure Pipe Systems
Pipes
Fittings
Valves
Accessories
The range of pipe diameters for each pipe system does vary. However, the
size ranges from 12mm to 400mm and 1/2" to 16".
Pipes
15

Pipes are extruded and are generally available in:

3m straight lengths
5m straight lengths
6m straight lengths
25m, 50m,100m, and 200m coils are used for LDPE and MDPE (See
note below)
Note: Coils are only used up to 90mm in LDPE and MDPE byond this 6m
straight lengths are the norm.
Pipe fittings
Tee 90 equal
Tee 90 reducing
Tee 45
Cross equal
Elbow 90
Elbow 45
Valves
Ball Valve
Butterfly valve
Spring Check Non Return Valve
Knife Gate Valve
Globe Valves
Pressure Relief Valves
Pressure Reducing Valves
Accessories
Accessories are available as:
Solvent Cement Glue
Cleaner
Brushes
Gaskets (EPDM and FPM)

Layout of Distribution Systems

1. Dead-end system)( ( tree system), (Fig. 6)
Old system, now it is avoided. This system is suitable to old towns &
cities. It contains a supply main starting from the service reservoir &

16

laid along the main road, with submains running at right angles to it in
both direction & lay along other roads joining the main road.
Characteristics:
i.
Due to stagnation of water, some lines have tastes & odors.
This system requiring blow-off or drain valves to remove the
settled soil.
ii.
When pipe break occurs, large area may be without water.
iii. Insufficient water pressure if additional areas are connected.
iv.
Simple & cheap.

Fig.(6) Dead-End System

2. Gridiron system) ( , (Fig. 7)
This system treats the problems of the previous system. All main
pipes are looped, no dead ends.
Characteristics:
i.
Permitting water circulation, & no water stagnation.
ii.
When repairs are necessary, the area removed from service can
be reduced to one block.
iii. Complicated & costly, needs more pipe lengths, & valves.

17

Fig.(7) Gridiron System

3. Combination system)(
Mixed between system (1) & (2). Used in old city with new sectors.
4. Circle or ring system) ( , Fig. (8)
The entire area is cutting into circular or rectangular blocks & then
laying the mains all along the peripheral) (roads with submains
branching out from the mains & running on the inner roads.
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.

18

Fig.8 Circle or Ring System

5. Radial system) ( , (Fig. 9)
This system is the reverse of the ring system, water flowing towards
the outer periphery instead of from it. The entire area is divided into a
number of distribution zones, & a distribution reservoir is placed in
the center of each zone. The supply pipes are laid radially away
towards the periphery.

Fig. 9 Radial System

19

Fig. (10) Schematic diagram showing that water distribution networks are
broken down into operational zones each supplied by a service reservoir
(Gray, N.F., 2005).

System Evaluation)(
Quantity
Evaluation of water usage required the following data for the past 10years:
Average daily
Max. daily
Peak hourly.
Available water:
a) Surface supplies:
River: available water at intake > max. daily use 10years future.
Lake: Storage capacity of a reservoir 30max. daily
b) Well supplies: no drawdown in groundwater level for 5years in future.
Pumping
a) Surface supply:
Low-lift pumps: draw water from source to treatment plant.
High-lift pumps: deliver water from storage of water treatment plant
to the distribution system.
b) Well supply: well pumps.

20

Booster pumps used for: a) large city (head problem).

b) area with wide vary in topography.
For maintenance requirements, max. pumping capacity should be obtained
with two largest pumps out of service.
If there is pump station with 6-pumps: 1, 2, & 3 are large; 4, 5, & 6 are
small. Then the design capacity must be satisfied with pumps no. 3, 4, 5, & 6
only. See this figure:
P
1

P
2

P
3

Piping network
Type
Secondary
Main

P
4

P
5

min. diameter, mm
150 200
300

P
6

service life, year

40
50 100

Evaluation of a main pipe in network

Introduction:
What is H.G.L.?
What is headloss?
Load center
Q & S relationship
Q & V, A relationship

Design Example (4):

Consider a water supply system serving a city with:
Average daily demand = 180L/s
Max. daily demand = 270L/s
Peak hourly demand = 405L/s.
Required fire flow 320L/s resulting in a max. 5h rate of 590L/s (max. daily
demand + fire flow). The required min. pressure in the main city center is
21

35m (343kPa) except during fire flow & peak hourly. The
diameter is 600mm with Hazen Williams coefficient, C =
between pumping station and city center is 8.8km.
Take range of velocity, v = 0.6 2m/s.
a) Consider the system without storage and
b) With storage beyond load center. Use storage =
elevation = 36.5m, at 3km beyond load center &
pumping station.
Solution:
Plot the following Fig. (11)

Fig. (11) illustrative layout

Without storage:
To find headloss in a pipe use Hazen-Williams formula,
Q = 0.27853 C D2.63 S0.54
Or use Fig.(4-6) Nomograph for Hazen Williams Formula,
How you can use Fig.(4-6)?
With Q & dia. head loss.
- At average daily demand (180L/s)
Pumping head = 35 + (1.1 8.8)
= 44m.
- At max. daily demand (270L/s)
Pumping head = 35 + (2.3 8.8)
= 55m.
- At peak hourly demand (405L/s)
Pumping head = 35 + (4.8 8.8)
= 77m.
- At max. daily demand + fire flow (590L/s)
22

piping system
100. Distance

3800m3, with
11.8km from

Pumping head = 35 + (9.6 8.8)

= 120m.
These results are plotted in the following Fig.(12)
If we design the system without storage, this means that the pumping rate
must be 590L/s. But this is not economical as max. fire flow (if happen) is
for 5h only. Therefore, we need to use storage.

Pumping station

Fig.(12) heads for pumping without storage

With storage beyond load center:
When no water is taken from storage:
Pumping head = head at tank + head losses between pump & center.
When water is taken from storage:
Pumping head = head at load center + head losses between pump & center.
- Average daily demand (180L/s)
Pumping rate = 180L/s with no water from storage
H.G.L at load center = H.G.L. at storage
= 36.5m.
23

Pumping head = H.G.L. at load center + head losses in 8.8km

= 36.5 + (1.1 8.8)
= 45m.
- Max. day (270L/s) with no water from storage
Pumping head = H.G.L. at load center + head losses in 8.8km
= 36.5 + (2.3 8.8)
= 57m.
- Peak hourly demand (405L/s) > max. daily demand
Pumps design on max. day = 270L/s.
Pump rate = 270L/s.
405 270 = 135L/s, taken from storage.
H.G.L. at load center
= H.G.L. at tank head losses in 3km pipe with Q = 135L/s.
= 35 (0.6 3)
= 33.2m < 35m (only during peak hourly).
Pumping head = 33.2 + (2.3 8.8)
= 53m.
Note: How to not be lower than 35m always?
- In case of fire (max. daily + fire flow) > max. daily demand
Discharge from storage = (3800m3 / 5h)( 1h/3600s)(1000L/m3)
= 210L/s.
H.G.L. at load center = 35 (1.4 3)
= 30.8m < 35m (only during max. day + fire)
Pump rate = 590 210
= 380L/s > 270L/s.
Therefore increases pump capacity to 380L/s.
Pumping head = 30.8 + 4.3 8.8
= 68m.
Or increase storage capacity to get 320L/s from storage.
Plot Fig.(13) for this case.
Discussion: if we did not use storage, then high pumping head (120m) is
required. Therefore, storage is used.

24

35m

33.2m
30.8m

Fig.(13) heads for pumping with storage

Design of a Main water distribution system

- Surveying of length of pipes & elevations must be done.
25

- Flow in pipes is calculated depending on estimation of population.

- Determine the center of area.
- Calculate the diameter of pipes & check the heads to satisfy the
requirements.
- Used equations
Hydraulic radius for pipe, R = A/P = d/4
Manning formula,
Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2
nQ
S
2/3
AR

What is piezometric head?

Example(5):
Water is supplied from a reservoir, R at an elevation of 200m, see Fig.(14)
The elevations of various points in the pipeline are given in brackets. Design
the pipelines RA, AA1, AA2, AB, BC, & CD. Assume the minimum pressure
in pipes in residential areas must be 35m of water & in center area 50m of
water. Use Mannings roughness, n = 0.013. Design this water distribution
network (find diameters & check head). You can use the Manning equation
or the following nomogram.

26

Nomogram for solving the Manning formula for circular pipes flowing full
and n = 0.013.
27

A (100m)
B (70m)
C (55m)
D (54m)

R, (200m)
Q = 1m3/s
L = 4000m
Q = 0.2m3/s
L = 2000m

Q= 0.18m3/s
L = 1200m
(90m)
A2

Q = 0.62m3/s
L = 2000m

(95m)
A1

Q = 0.1m3/s

Q = 0.09m3/s
B2

Q = 0.43m3/s
L = 2000m

B1

Center area

C1

C2
3

Q = 0.1m /s
Q = 0.15m3/s
L = 2000m

Q = 0.18m /s

D2

D1
3

Q = 0.08m /s

Q = 0.07m /s

Fig. (14) network layout

28

Solution:
Minimum pressure at each point:
Pressure in pipe + elevation at A = 35 + 100 = 135m
Pressure in pipe + elevation at B = 35 + 70 = 105m
Pressure in pipe + elevation at C = 50 + 55 = 105m
Pressure in pipe + elevation at D = 35 + 54 = 89m
Design of pipeline RA:
Total available head = 200 135 = 65m
Allowable loss of head /100m = 100 (65/4000) = 1.63m
Flow in the pipe RA, QRA = 1m3/s
Assume diameter, dRA = 750mm
Using Manning formula,

0.013 1

S
2/3
2
0.75 0.75

4
4

= 0.008 = 0.8/100 < 1.63/100 OK

Total head loss = 0.8 (4000/100) = 32m

Piezometric head at A = 200 32 = 168m > 135m OK, another check
If we select the next standard size pipe of smaller diameter, then we would
have resulted in too great a head loss, e.g.
If d = 600mm

0.013 1

S
2/3
2
0.6 0.6

4 4

= 0.027 = 2.7/100 > 1.63/100 not OK

Design of pipelines AA1 & AA2:

At A1 the available head = 168 (95 + 35) = 38m
Head loss /100m = 100 (38/2000) = 1.9m
Flow in pipe AA1 , QAA1 = 0.2m3/s
Assume dAA1 = 350mm
Using Manning formula,

29

 S AA1

0.013 0.2

2
/
3
2
0.35 0.35

4
4

= 0.019 = 1.9/100 = 1.9/100 OK

At A2, the available head = 168 (90 + 35) = 43m

Head loss available /100 = 100 (43/1200) = 3.6m
Flow in pipe AA2, QAA2 = 0.18m3/s
Assume dAA2 = 300mm
Using Manning formula,

S AA2

0.013 0.18

2/3
2
0.3 0.3

4 4

= 0.035 = 3.5/100 < 3.6/100 OK

Design of pipeline AB:

At B available head = 168 (70 + 35) = 60m
Allowable head loss /100 = 100 (60/2000) = 3m
Flow in pipe AB, QAB = 0.62m3/s
Assume dAB = 600mm
Using Manning formula,

S AB

0.013 0.62

2/3
2
0.6 0.6

4 4

= 0.01 = 1/100 < 3/100 OK

Why 1/100 < 3/100?

Total head loss in AB = 1 (2000/100) = 20m
Piezometric head at B = 168 20 = 148m > 105m OK

Design of pipeline BC:

At C, the available head = 148 (55 + 50) = 43m
Head loss available /100 = 100 (43/2000) = 2.15m

30

Flow in pipe BC, QBC = 0.43m3/s

Assume d = 500mm
Using Manning formula,

S BC

0.013 0.43

2/3
2
0.5 0.5

4 4

= 0.013 = 1.3/100 < 2.15/100 OK

Total head loss in BC = 1.3 (2000/100) = 26m

Piezometric head at C = 148 26 = 122m > 105m OK

Design of pipeline CD:

At D, the available head = 122 (54 + 35) = 33m
Head loss available /100 = 100 (33/2000) = 1.65m
Flow in pipe CD, QCD = 0.15m3/s
Assume d = 400mm
Using Manning formula,

S CD

0.013 0.15

2/3
2
0.4 0.4

4 4

= 0.005 = 0.5/100 < 1.65/100 OK

Total head loss in CD = 0.5 (2000/100) = 10m

Piezometric head at D = 122 10 = 112m > 89m OK

Why we do not check piezometric head at A1 & A2?

The designed network is as follows, Fig.(15).

31

R, (200m)
d = 750mm
L = 4000m

d = 300mm
L = 1200m

(90m)
A2

d = 600mm
L = 2000m

(95m)
A1

d = 350mm
L = 2000m

B2

d = 500mm
L = 2000m

B1

C2

d = 400mm
L = 2000m

C1

D2

D1

Fig. (15) design network

32

Appurtenances of Water Distribution System )(

Fire Hydrants,
They provide access to water mains for the purposes of,
a) extinguishing fires,
b) washing down streets,
c) flushing out water mains, & dead ends if any,
d) providing a temporary water source for construction projects.

Fig.(16) Hydrant details (City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004)

Valves) (:
Valves are used to keep the flow of water under control. They help maintain
pressure, prevent back flow, conserve water & isolate segments of pipeline
for maintenance & construction.
1. Gate valves
These valves permitting free flow of water through their openings.
They used to control the flow & shut off the water for repairing. It
placed at lines intersect, so that only one block would be cut. Used
widely.
Operation: A gate valve consists of a sliding, flat, metal disk that is
moved at right angles to the flow direction by a screw-operated
33

Stem).
Need large space, low head loss, & high cost.

Fig.(17) Gate Valve

Washing out valve (drain valve)
It is gate valve type. Used to facilitate emptying of pipeline where repair is
required, or for removing stagnant or dirty water. Size between 100
400mm, & spaced from 2km to 5km. it located at lowest point of pipeline.
Isolating valves:
They enable pipeline section to be isolated for inspection & repair. When
twin or more mains are used, they must be connected at intervals this
arrangement is called crossing or bypass. In the event of leakage or pipe
burst, only one section of these twin main needs to be taken out of operation
whereas the other section of the main & the entire other main can still be
used. These valves should be installed at intervals of 1 to 5km.

2. Butterfly valves
Used for control flow. Not used for sewage. Why?
Operation: A butterfly valve has a movable disk that rotates on a
spindle or axle set in the shell. The circular disk rotates in only one
direction from full closed to full open.

34

Fig. (18) A butterfly valve

Uses:
i.

ii.
iii.

A rate of flow controller to regulate the rate of discharge

from sand filters (need low pressure) in a water treatment
plant.
Used in high pressure systems 860kPa (125psi).
In large sizes, rubber-seated butterfly valves are being
used in distribution systems. They are used with very high
velocity 20m/s or more.

Advantages:
Ease of operation,
low head loss,
small space requirement, &
throttling capabilities.
Disadvantage:
i. The disk always being in the flow stream, restricting the use of pipe
cleaning tools.
ii. Difficult to tight fit.
3. Check valves

35

Fig. (19) Check valves

A check valve is a semiautomatic device designed to permit flow in
only one direction. It opens under the influence of pressure & closes
automatically when flow ceases.
Uses:
They used in the discharge piping of centrifugal pumps to prevent
backflow (water hammer) when the pump is shutoff.
Foot valves: they are check valves installed at the end of a suction
line & prevent draining of the suction when the pump stops.

Fig. (20) A Foot Valve

4. AIR- &-VACUUM (Double) and AIR-RELIEF (Single) Valves

36

Fig. (21) Air Double Valve

In long pipe lines, air will accumulate in the high points of the line &
may interfere with the flow. Therefore, air valves are placed at those
points. Each valve is provided with an isolating valve for maintenance.
Types:
a) Double orifice : its duties are,
i.
Automatic air venting as main is filled with water.
ii.
Rapid air ingress when the main empties, to avoid vacuums
conditions.
b) Single orifice: It permits air to escape from pipes.
Pressure measuring in a pipeline:
By placing the Bourdon gage inside the air valve, which gives the pressure
at that point. The test should be repeated at least three times.
Location requirements:
i.
Double orifice is fitted every 0.5 to 2km, it depends on air
valves capacity & area topography.
ii.
Single orifice is fitted at 0.5km interval downward legs of
pumping & in horizontal main at 1 to 2km.
iii. For large main > 10km length the filling time 3h.
For small shorter length< 10km the filling time = 1h.
The minimum pressure is in the empty pipeline. The
emptying & filling must be gradually.
iv.
These valves should be placed at highest point. The flat
pipelines gradient (slope) should be prevented & by laying
these pipes with,
maximum descending gradient 6mm/m, &
37

maximum ascending gradient = 3mm/m. as shown in the Fig.

Fig. (22) Layout of pipeline in flat ground.

5. Globe valves

Fig. (23) A Globe Valve

They used to control flow.
Not used in water distribution systems, because of their high headloss.
Used in household plumbing because of their low cost even poor hydraulics.
Angle valves:
They are special case of globe valves with 90o.

Fig. (24)Angle globe valve

6. Altitude Valves
38

These are used to close automatically a supply line to an elevated tank

where the tank is full.

Fig. (25) Altitude Valve operation

7. Pressure Regulating Valves
These automatically reduce pressure on the downstream side to any desired
magnitude. They used on branches entering low areas of a city & tall
building.
8. Meters
They used to control the consumption.
Factories & hotels are metered.
They tested (1-5) years or each 3000m3, or when fluctuations in readings.

Fig. (26) Meter

9. Ball Valve(quarter turn valve)
It is opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside the valve. The
ball has a hole, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both

39

ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is
perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked.

Fig. (27) Ball Valve

10.Chambers: They are provided for valves. They give access for
maintenance.

Fig. (28) Chamber for a valve

40

Fig. (29) Chamber for air relief valve (City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004)

11.Many other types of valves with less using.

Note: almost all types of valve can be used for sewerage system.

Fig. (30) Actual using of accessories.

41

Construction Arrangements
1. Pipe Testing

2. Disinfection

42

3. Service connection(City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004)

Unlike the other utilities (i.e. gas, telephone and electricity) that take
responsibility to connect their supply within the house, this is not the
case with water. The household plumbing is connected to the mains
by means of a service pipe. For a single dwelling this pipe is <25 mm
43

diameter (usually 13 mm), while if it serves several dwellings then a

larger diameter pipe is required (>25mm). The service pipe is
separated by a boundary stop tap into the communication and supply
pipes. The communication pipe goes from the main to boundary stop
tap and is owned and maintained by the water company. The supply
pipe, which is owned and maintained by the owner of the property,
runs from the boundary stop tap into the house where there is another
stop tap inside the building. Communication pipes are usually short.

4. Water pipe-sewer crossing(CITY OF PETALUMA, 2000)

44

5. Thrust block (City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004)

45

6. Meter location

7. Pipe structure crossing(CITY OF PETALUMA, 2000)

46

8. Force main bedding (City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004)

9. CLEANING PIPELINES
Clean the pipelines installed using foam pigs, or swabs, whenever
normal flushing will not sufficiently remove dirt and debris that was
introduced during construction. Notify the authority and the
following prior to flushing, or cleaning:
a. Fire Department
b. Other utilities, such as gas, electric and telephone companies,
who may have underground facilities in the area.
c. Customers who may be inconvenienced by reduced pressure or
dirty water.
Coordinate with the authority to isolate the section to be flushed
from the operating distribution system. Close valves slowly to
prevent water hammer& other requirements.

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition, SCADA

It is an advance management system. Remote control of the water
distribution system operations through a SCADA system significantly
improves the ability of the operators to monitor and take appropriate
action to ensure optimal operation of the system.
47

Discharge Measurements in Pipes

1. Electromagnetic flow meter

2. Venturi Meter

48

3. Turbine meter

4. Orifice plate & nozzle

5. Ultrasonic meter

6. Measurement by laser

49

How to improve water service in Baghdad City?

1. Many new treatment plants to be constructed, e.g. Al-Rasafa Water
Project) ( .
2. Good design, execution) & (supervision of the distribution
systems according to specifications) (.
3. Rehabilitating) (the existing water treatment plants & water
distribution systems for additional capacity.
4. Reducing the waste in water due to leakage from water distribution
systems & treatment plants.
5. People education about water conservation.
Dictionary:
1. Allocation) (,Adjacent, hydrant) ( , complex() ,
stabilization(), emergency)(, earthquake) ( ,
dictated)(, stagnation)(, circulation)(, drawdown)(,
filling )(, emptying )(, cumulative )(, burst )(,
asbestos )(, suitable ) (, conveyance(), toxicological(),
abrasion(), solvent((, aggressive(), fusion(),
fatigue(),
peripheral(),
load
center)
(,
piezometric(), extinguishing(), gate valve(( , stem
)( , facilitate ) (, isolate(( , drain() ,
axle)(, disk) (, butterfly valve (( , Check valve (
) , air valve () , Altitude valve )( ,
Ball Valve )( , flushing)(, influence )(, cease )(,
suction )(, interfere )(, ingress )(, throttling) (,
orifice) (,descending )(, ascending )(, force main
pipe(
),
execution(),
rehabilitation(),
specification(), compact unit ) ( ,.
References:
1. Mayoralty of Baghdad, Iraq.
2. Al-Layla, M.A., Water Supply Engineering.
3. City of Perry, Georgia, US, 2004, "Water and Sanitary Sewer Standard
Specifications"
4. CITY OF PETALUMA, US, 2000, "SEWER DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS"
5. Fair, G. M., et. al., Elements of Water Supply & Wastewater Disposal.
6. Gray, N.F., 2005, "Water Technology", 2nd Ed, Elsevier.

50

7. Hammer, M.J. ,Water & Waste-water Technology, John Wiley& Sons,

Inc., New York.

8. Pipestock Limited. Installing Plastic Pressure Pipe Systems.

9. US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984, Water Supply, Water Distribution,
Engineering & Design, EM 1110-3-164, Washington, DC.
10. US Army Corps of Engineers, 1994, Water Supply: Pumping Stations,
Technical Manual, TM 813-9, Washington, DC.
11. US Army Corps of Engineers, 1998, Water Distribution, Technical
Instructions, TI 814-03, Washington, DC.

51