4.

Collection and Distribution of Water

Deals with the collection and transport of water from the
source through the treatment plant to the consumers.
Water collection implies methods of abstracting raw water
from the source.

The objective of WDS is to deliver water to individual

consumers with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure.
The distribution system describes collectively the facilities
used to supply water from its source to the point of
usage. These are-pipes, storage reservoirs, pumps and
related appurtenances.

Contd
Collection and distribution requires:
Storage Structures
Intake structures
Transmission lines
Distribution pipe networks and
Other essential accessories.

Intakes
An intake is a structure in a surface water source required to
withdraw water from a river, lake or reservoir. The primary
functions of an intakes is to:
-To supply highest quantity of water from the sources

-To protect pipes and pumps from damage or clogging as a

result of floating and submerged debris.
An intake consists of:
-The opening, strainer, or grating through which the water
enters, and
-The conduit conveying the water, usually by gravity, to a
well or sump.

Contd
The following must be considered in designing and locating
intakes:
oThe source of supply, whether impounding reservoirs, lakes,
or rivers (including the possibility of wide fluctuation in
water level).
oThe character of the intake surroundings;
-Depth of water
-Character of bottom
-Navigation requirement
-The effect of currents floods and storms up on the
structure and in scouring the bottom.

Contd
oThe location with respect to sources of pollution; and
oThe prevalence of floating materials such as ice, and
vegetation
In general, the following notations may be considered
in locating intakes:

River intakes should not be on curved reach of the river.

The intake should be able to draw water at all levels.
The site for intakes should be as near as possible
to treatment plant.
The intake should be located at a place where it
can draw water even during the driest periods of
the year.

Types of Intakes
There are different types of intakes, such as:
Reservoir intakes

River intakes and

Canal intake

Intakes from Impounding Reservoirs.

They are subject to wide variation in depths,
Require intake structures that will permit withdrawal over
a wide range of elevations.
The quality is best close to the surface.

Tower water intake for

a lake or reservoir
water supply

River Intakes
River intake is located inside the river so as to get adequate
supply in all seasons.
Water is drawn from the upstream side of the river, where it
is comparatively of better quality.

Canal Intakes
As the full supply level in the canal is, fairly constant, inlets
at different depths are not necessary.

Design Criteria for intake structures

Design capacity = Q max-day
Intake velocity should be 8 cm/s

Vertical positions intake ports should be such that good

quality water is withdrawn.
Locate the top intake port at a distance not less than 2 m
from the normal water level and the bottom port at least 1 m
above the bottom.

Methods of Distribution
Water is distributed to consumers in several different ways,
as local conditions or other considerations may dictate. These
methods are:
Gravity Distribution
Distribution by means of pumps with storage (Pumping +
Gravity )
Use of Pumps with out storage ( Direct Pumping)

Gravitational system
This is possible when the source of supply is a lake or
impounding reservoir at some elevation above the city so that
sufficient pressure can be maintained in the mains for
domestic and fire service.

Distribution by means of pumps with storage/ Dual

System of Distribution
In this method the excess water pumped during periods of low
consumption is stored in elevated tanks or reservoirs

Use of Pumps with out storage

Treated water is directly pumped into the distribution mains
without storing
High lift pumps operate at variable speeds to match
variable water demand
Disadvantageous (power failure) no reserve flow

Pressure in the Distribution system

There are wide differences in the pressures maintained in
distribution systems in various Cities. For ordinary service they
range from 150KPa to 300KPa in residential districts having
houses not over four stories in height.
About 400KPa in residential districts where direct hose streams
are used for fire fighting to 500KPa for commercial districts.

Contd
The American Water Works Association recommends a normal
static pressure of 400 to 500KPa as presenting the following
advantage:
It will supply ordinary consumption for buildings up to 10
stories in height
Effective automatic sprinkler service is possible in four and
five story buildings
It permits direct hydrant service for a few fire-hose streams,
thus insuring quick action by the fire department
A large margin is allowed in fluctuations of local pressures to
meet sudden drafts and to offset losses due to partial clogging
or excessive length of service pipes

Service Reservoirs
A service reservoir has four main functions:
To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution
system, permitting the source to give steady or differently
phased output.

Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of

treatment plant, pumps or trunk main leading to the
reservoir.
To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system
and reduce pressure fluctuations therein.
To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other
emergency demands.

Position and Elevation of Reservoirs

If the service reservoir is to be of maximum value as a
safeguarded against break down of the supply to consumers
then it should be positioned as near as possible to the area
of demand.
If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be
necessary to use two more service reservoirs at different
levels, so that the lower area do not receive an unduly high
pressure.

Types of Service Reservoirs

There are two types of service reservoirs:
Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Nonelevated)

Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)

Accessories of Service Reservoirs

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following
accessories:
1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to
the bottom of the reservoir, for inspection and
cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs
for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of
reservoir for inspection and cleaning

Contd
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply
level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the
reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside
the tank from outside.

Contd
LIGHTENING CONDUCTOR

MANHOLE
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR

LADDER

OVER FLOW PIPE

WASH OUT PIPE

INFLOW PIPE

OUTLET PIPE

DITCH

Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

The three major components of service storage are:
Equalizing or operating storage
Fire reserve
Emergency reserve
Equalizing or operating capacity can be obtained from a
mass curve of water consumption rates and pumping supply
rates.
The capacity can be analytically determined by finding out
maximum cumulative surplus during the stage when
pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate

Example
A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be
supplied water at 150liters per capita per day. The demand
of water during different periods is given in the following
table:
Time (hr) 0- 3-6
3
Demand( 2 25
1000lite 0
rs)

6-9
30

9 -12 12 - 15
15
18
50
35
30

18 - 21
21
24
25
25

Determine the capacity of a service reservoir if pumping is

done 24 hours at constant rate.

Solution
Water supply = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 =
240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr =
30,000lit/3hr
Time
Pumping
0-3
30,000
3. - 6.
30,000
6. - 9
30,000
9. - 12
30,000
12. - 15
30,000
15. -18
30,000
18. - 21
30,000
21. -24
30,000

Demand
20,000
25,000
30,000
50,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
25,000

Surplus
10000
5000
0
0
0
0
5000
5000

Deficit
0
0
0
-20000
-5000
0
0
0

Cummulative
10000
15000
15000
-5000
-10000
-10000
-5000
0

Contd
Maximum cumulative surplus
= 15,000 liters
Maximum cumulative deficit
= 10,000 liters
Total 25,000lit = 25 m3
If the reservoir is circular with depth

h = 3.0 m

25 * 4
d
3.4m
3

Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

A. Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any
given site
For a given quantity of water either a shallow reservoir
having long walls and a large floor area may be
constructed or alternatively

A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining

walls and a smaller floor area

Contd
Factors influencing depth for a given storage are:
Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are
encountered
Depth at which the out let main must be laid, slope of
ground, nature and type of back fill
The need to make the quantity of excavated material
approximately equal to the amount required for backing,
so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material to
tip.

The shape and size of land available

Contd
B. Shape
Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape,
giving the least amount of walling for a given volume and
depth
It is unsuitable for division in to two compartments, which
would allow one half to be drained for maintenance without
taking the whole reservoir out of service.

Contd
A rectangular reservoir with a length to width ratio 1.2 to 1.5
Usually proves most economical when division walls
are incorporated
Floors and roof should be sloped to not flatter than
1:250 for drainage ( such slopes should be parallel to
maintain uniform column and wall heights)
The total depth of the reservoir must be sufficient to
allow the maximum inflow assumed in the design
calculation to pass over the over flow weir, with a safety
margin of at least 150mm below the under side of
roofing beam.

Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System

Pipe Materials
For use in transmission and distribution systems, pipe materials
must have the following characteristics:
Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to
withstand external loads.
High bursting strength to withstand internal water
pressure
Ability to resist impact loads to water flow suitable
for handling and joining facilities
Resistance to both internal and external corrosion

The Pipe System

The Primary Feeders (Mains)

These are sometimes called the arterial main, they form the
skeleton of the distribution system.
They are so located that they will carry quantities of water
from the pumping plant, to and from the storage tanks and
to the various parts of the area to be served.

Pipeline for the conveyance of water over long or short

distances for the distribution of water through towns and in
general large sized pipeline.

Contd
Secondary Feeders (Services Pipes)
They carry large quantities of water from the primary feeder
to the various areas to care for normal supply and fire
fighting.

They form smaller loops within the loops of the primary mains by
running from one primary feeder to another.
They should be only a few blocks apart and thus serve to allow
concentration of large amounts of water for fire fighting without
excessive head loss and resulting, low pressure.

Contd
Secondary Feeders (Services Pipes)
They carry large quantities of water from the primary feeder
to the various areas to care for normal supply and fire
fighting.

They form smaller loops within the loops of the primary mains by
running from one primary feeder to another.
They should be only a few blocks apart and thus serve to allow
concentration of large amounts of water for fire fighting without
excessive head loss and resulting, low pressure.

Contd
Small Distribution Mains
They form a grid over the area to be served and supply water
to the fire hydrants and service pipes of the residence and
other buildings.
Their sizes will usually be determined by fire flow requirements.
In residential areas however, particularly where there are
heavy water uses for lawn sprinkling, it may be necessary to
determine the maximum customer demand.

Contd
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:

Cast iron pipe

Steel pipe
Concrete pipe
Plastic pipe
Asbestos cement pipe
Copper pipe
Lead pipe

Contd
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:

Carrying capacity
Strength
Ease of transportation and handling
Availability
Quality of water
Cost (initial and maintenance)

Contd
Cast iron pipes:
Highly resistant to corrosion, strong but brittle,
Easy jointing, withstanding high internal pressure, long life
Very heavy and difficult to transport

Contd
Advantage
The cost is moderate
The pipes are easily
joined
The pipes are not
subjected to corrosion
The pipes are strong
and durable
Service connections can
be made easily

Disadvantage
The breakage of this pipe is large
Carrying capacity decreases with
increase in life
The pipes become heavy and
uneconomical when their sizes
increase
(especially
beyond
1200mm)

Contd
Steel pipe:
Strong, very light weight and can withstand higher
pressure than cast iron pipes.
Cheap, easy to construct and can be easily transported
Cannot withstand external loads, affected by corrosion
and are costly to maintain.

Contd
Cement-lined cast iron pipes:
Cement protect against corrosion
Very small coefficient of friction than unlined cast
iron pipes.

Contd
Plastic pipes
Corrosion resistant , light weight and economical.
Rigid (unplasticized) uPVC is stronger and can withstand
much higher pressure for a given wall thickness.

Determination of Pipe Sizes

The size of the pipe is determined by considering the
discharge through the pipe and permissible velocity of the
flow in the pipe.
Q = A*V
Where, Q = discharge (m3/s)
V = permissible velocity (0.6 to 1.50m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)

The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system can
be determined by one of the following formulas:
1. Darcy Weisbach formula

fLV 2
hf
2 gD

Contd
2. Hazen-Williams formula

3. Mannings Formula

Q 0.278CD

2.63

0.54

,S

hf
L

AR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q
n

The most common pipe flow formula used in design and

evaluation of a water distribution system is the HazenWilliams formula.

Example
The water supply pipes sizes available are given in the
following table:
Metric 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 10
sizes
0
(mm)
English 1/ 3/ 1 11 11 2 21 3 4
(In)
2 4
/4 /4
/2

Metric sizes 675

(mm)
English (In)
27

15
0

20
0

25
0

30
0

35
0

37
5

40
0

45
0

50
0

52
5

60
0

10

12

14

15

16

18

20

21

24

750

900

950

1050

30

36

38

42

Given
Total population of a town = 80,000
Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day
If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake 1.5 m/s,
Determine the diameter of the outlet pipe.

Solution
Total flow, Q = Demand* Population = 150*80,000 =
12x106 lit/day
6
12
X
10
Required pipe area,
3

0
.
1389
m
/ sec
3
(24 * 60 * 60 *10 )

Q
D 2 Q
4Q
0.1389 * 4
A
D

343mm
V
4
V
4V
1.5 *

But the pipe size available on the market is 300mm &

350mm, then take D = 350mm

Pipelines Appurtenances
Valves:
To isolate segments of a pipeline, to regulate rate of flow,
to control pressure, and to allow release or entry of air
from pipe system.

Factors considered in the selection of valves:

Include purpose and operation,
Capacity required,
Head loss and rate of flow,
Cost,
Availability, etc.

Contd
Shutoff valves:
To stop the flow of water through a
pipeline
Spacing from 150 to 370m
A minimum of three of the four pipes
connected at a junction are provided
with a valve
Fire hydrant, in inlet, outlet, and
bypass lines
Gate valves and butterfly valves

Contd
Check valves:
Semiautomatic device and
permits water flow only in one
direction.
In the discharge pipes of
centrifugal pumps prevent
Backflow

In conjunction with altitude

valves

Contd
Altitude valves :
To automatically control the flow into and out of an
elevated storage tank or standpipe to maintain desired water
level elevations.
Include double-acting sequence valve, single-acting type, or
differential altitude valve

Contd
Air-release and vacuum valves :
Air-release valves installed at high
points of distribution piping, in
valve domes, and fittings, and in
discharge lines from pump to
discharge the trapped air.
Vacuum valves are used to protect
pipelines from collapse as they are
emptied, by allowing air to enter
the pipes.

Contd
Pressure Regulating Valves:
These automatically reduce pressure on the downstream side
to any desired magnitude and are used on lines entering low
areas of a city where, without such reduction, pressures would
be too high.
They function by using the upstream pressure to throttle the
flow through an opening similar to that in a globe valve. An
adjustable control permits setting the downstream pressure at
the desired level and the valve will throttle itself until that
pressure is attained.

Fittings
Changes in direction of flow are made by means of fittings,
they are obtainable as bell-and spigot or all bell or with
flanged ends or, as specials, with bell and flange or flange
and spigot

Joints
Bell (Socket) and Spigot Joint
This is used for both cast iron and steel pipes.
The spigot end of the pipe is pushed into the bell end, a
tarred gasket made of cotton yarn, or jute is packed into the
open space between the bell and spigot.

A strap is placed around the joint and molten lead is poured

in and tampered.

Contd
Threaded Joints

A rubber gasket is used to make the joint water tight. The

bell end is threaded on the inside to fit with an outside
threaded ring.
This ring presses against the rubber gasket making the joint
water tight.

Contd
Mechanical Joint

A rubber gasket of trapezoidal cross section is pressed

against the spigot and. A cast iron follower ring is connected
to the bell making the joint water tight.

Contd
Flange Joint
This is suitable for pipes under high pressure and for pipes
subjected to variations in temperature.
Rubber of similar material gasket 3- 5mm thick are placed
between flanges which are connected by bolts and nuts.

Contd
Flexible Joint
The direction and the slope of pipes connected by a flexible
joint can be varied up to a maximum of 20o. This joint is
especially suitable for pipes being under water.

Contd
Welded Joint
Large and small diameter steel pipes are generally and
frequently welded together. Welded joint require greater
skill than the ones mentioned above and careful quality
control in required.
Concrete Pipe Joint
Concrete pipes with bell and spigot joints. Are generally
used with a rubber ring to make the joints water tight. Such
joints are used for water pipes not under pressure.

Standard Bedding Conditions for Laying of Pipes

Type-1 -Flat bottom trench. Loose backfill.

Type-2 -Flat bottom trench. Back fill lightly consolidated to

centerline of the pipe

Contd
Type-3 Pipe bedded in 100mm minimum loose soil. Backfill
lightly consolidated to top of pipe.

Type-4 -Pipe bedded in sand, gravel or crushed stone to a

depth of 1/8 pipe diameter, 100mm minimum. Back fill
compacted to top of pipe.

Contd
Type-5 -Pipe bedded to its centerline in compacted granular
material. 100mm min. under pipe compacted granular or select
material to top of pipe.

Water Transmission Lines

Transmission lines are long pipes with no withdrawals
Gravity main
Pumping main
Gravity main
ho + Zo ZL = H (Head loss + residual pressure)

Contd
Pumping main

ho = H + ZL Zo + Head loss

Layout of distribution systems

Pipe networks
Primary or arterial mains
From the pumping stations and from storage facilities
to the various districts of the city.
valved at intervals of not 1.5 km
Secondary lines or Sub-mains
Run from one primary main to another
Located at spacing of 2-4 blocks
Small distribution mains or branches
Supply water to every consumer and to the fire
hydrants

Contd
layout of distribution pipes generally follows the road
pattern

Four types of pipe network layouts

Dead end system or branch system,

Gridiron system
Ring system
Radial system

Dead end system/Branched Pattern

Solved easily
Lesser number of shut-off valves
Shorter pipe lengths and easy to lay pipes
Cheap and simple and expanded easily
Dead ends prevent circulation of water
Problematic if a pipe is damaged
BRANCH

DEAD-END
MAIN

SUB-MAIN

Grid iron systems

Discharge, friction loss and pipe size is less

Not problematic if a pipe is damaged
No dead ends allows circulation of water
Good for fire fighting
More pipelines and shut-off valves
High cost of construction
Design is difficult and expensive

Ring systems

Closed ring, circular or rectangular

Suitable for well-planned towns and cities
Generally at high demand areas
Not problematic if a pipe is damaged
No dead ends-allows circulation of water
Good for fire fighting
More pipelines and shut-off valves
High cost of construction
Design is difficult and expensive

Radial systems
For city or a town having a system of radial roads
emerging from different centers
Distribution reservoirs at these centers
From mains --pumped into the DRs placed at different
centers and then to the service areas.
Ensures high pressure and efficient water distribution

Design of Distribution Systems

Design flow: Max (Peak hour demand or maximum day
demand + Fire demand)
Minimum main sizes: generally:150mm (6 in); high value
districts: 200mm (8 in); major streets: 305mm (12 in);
domestic flows only: 100mm (4 in); small communities: 5075 mm
Velocity: typical values minimum = 0.6 - 1 m/s;
maximum = 2.5 m/s
Pressure: typical minimum value is 140 kPa (14 m) and
maximum not to exceed 410 kPa (42 m). But mainly
depends on pressure ratings of the pipes and
appurtenances used and regulatory requirements.

Pressure zones

Pipe Network Geometry

Contd

Contd

Contd

Hydraulic Analysis
Includes determination of the following:

Discharges/pipe flow rates

Head loss
Pressure head
Pipe network analysis should satisfy the continuity and
energy conservation equations. These may be stated as
follows:
A1V1=A2V2
2

V1
V2
Z1 h1
Z 2 h2
hL
2g
2g
hL h f hm

Major loss/Friction Losses

A1V1=A2V2

Minor Losses
Minor losses are due to bends, elbows, valves, enlargers,
reducers

V
hf K f
2g

Hydraulic Analysis of Pipe network

Pipe network analysis involves the determination of the pipe
flow rates and pressure heads at the outflows points of
the network.
The flow rate and pressure heads must satisfy the continuity
and energy equations.
The outflows from the system is generally assumed to occur
at the nodes( junctions); this assumption results in uniform flows in
the pipelines, which simplifies the analysis.

Hardy Cross Method of Pipe network Analysis

The earliest systematic method of network analysis (HardyCross Method) is known as the head balance or closed loop
method./RELAXATION
This method is applicable to system in which pipes form
closed loops. The outflows from the system are generally
assumed to occur at the nodes junction.
For a given pipe system with known junction outflows, the
head balance method is an iterative procedure based on
initially estimated flows in the pipes

Conditions in the Loop Method

According to the principle of continuity the flow into the
junction must be equal to the flow out of the Junction(Incoming
discharge is positive and outflow as negative).
In each loop, the loss of head due to flow in clock wise
direction must be equal to the loss of head due to flow in anticlock wise direction.(Net head loss is zero in a loop)
Discharge and related head loss in the clockwise direction is
positive and negative in the anticlockwise direction

Application of Hardy cross Method

From the HazenWilliams equation for circular pipes,
Q 0.278Cd

2.63

hf

0.54

10.7 L
h f 1.85 4.87 Q1.85
C d
hf equations can be expressed in the general form

h f KQ

Contd
K is given in Table below and n is 2.0 for the DarcyWeisbach
equation and 1.85 for the HazenWilliams equation.
Equivalent Resistance, K, for the pipe
Formula
Hazan Williams

Unit of Measurement
K
Q, m3/s, L, m, d, m, hf, m

Darcy-Weisbach

Q, m3/s, L, m, d, m, hf, m

10.7 L
C 1.85 d 4.87
fL
12.1d 5

Contd
The sum of head losses around any closed loop is zero (energy
conservation), that is,

For any pipe if Qo is the assumed discharge and Q is the

corrected discharge, then:
Q Qo Q

Head loss for each pipe is

H L KQ K (Qo Q)
n

For a complete loop:

H L KQ n K (Qo Q) n

Contd
By expanding the terms the terms in the brackets:

KQ n K (Qon nQon1Q ...)

If Q is small, compared with Qo, all terms of the series after

the second one may be dropped.

KQ n KQo n KnQo n1Q

For the correct distribution, the loop is balanced and hence

KQ n 0

KQo n Q KnQo n1 0

Contd
Q

n
KQo

n 1
KnQo

Q
h
n
Q
L

In the above expression for the correction the denominator is

the sum of absolute terms and hence it has no sign.
Further if the head losses due to flow in the clock wise
direction are more than the head losses due to flow in the
anti-clock wise direction, then according to the sign convention
adopted, Q will be negative and hence it should be added
to the flow in the anti-clock wise direction and subtracted
from the flow in the clock wise direction.

Contd
For pipes common to two loops a correction from both the
loops will be required to be applied.
With the corrected flow in all the pipes, a second trial
calculation is made for all the loops and the process is
repeated till the correction becomes negligible.

Contd
Procedures can be expressed as follows:
1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The
sum of the flows entering any junction must equal the sum
of the flows leaving

2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an

equation or diagram. Conventionally, clockwise flows are
positive and produce positive head losses.
3. With due attention to sign, compute the total head loss
around each loop: hL = KQn
4. Compute, with out regard to sign, for the same loop, the
sum of: KnQn-1.

Contd
The nomogram in the figure is
based on the coefficient C=
100. For pipes of a different
coefficient, the adjustment is
made as follows:
Adjusted Discharge: Q Q100

100

Adjusted Diameter

100
d d100

0.38

Adjusted Friction Slope

100
S S100

1.85

Contd
Hazan Williams coefficient for Various Pipe Materials
Description of the Pipe
Values of C
Extremely Smooth and Straight
140
Cast Iron
New
130
5 years old
120
10 years old
110
20 years old
90-100
30 years old
75-90
Concrete or cement lined
120-140
Welded steel, as for cast iron pipe, 5
years old
Riveted steel, as for cast iron pipe, 10
years older
Plastic
150
Asbestos Cement
120-140

General Steps to Follow

1. Assign the required demand at each node
2. Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
3. Assume possible pipe diameters
4. Calculate the head loss through the pipes

5. Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.

6. Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum
and maximum pressures.
7. If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat
steps (ii) through (vi) until the required conditions are met.

Example
Find the flow distribution in the gravity supply system through
the following pipe network shown below. Use Hazen Williams
formula (C= 100) . If the pressure at point A is 490.5 KPa, find
the pressures at points B & C. Assume all pipe junctions are at
the same elevation

Solution
Assume the best distribution of flow that satisfies continuity by careful
examination of the network.
250l/s
F

A
B
75l/s

45 l/s

45 l/s

75l/s

30l/s
100l/s
LOOP II

LOOP I

10l/s

10l/s
E

D
80 l/s

40 l/s

C
40l/s

Contd
Hazen- Williamss formula,

Q 0.278CD 2.63S 0.54

Q
S
2.63
(
0
.
278
CD
)

hL S L

1 / .54

Solution

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd