FROM VIU'S DEEDS TO VIU'S PLAY, OR OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATRA AS

A DESIGNATION FOR THE MANIFESTATIONS OF VIU

Author(s): ANDR COUTURE
Source: Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 29, No. 3 (June 2001), pp. 313-326
Published by: Springer
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ANDR COUTURE

FROM VISNU'S DEEDS TO VISNU'S PLAY,

OR OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATRA

AS A DESIGNATION FOR THE MANIFESTATIONS OF VISNU1

In an important article entitled "Zur Entwicklung der Avatralehre"

published in 1960, Paul Hacker contends that the term avatara appears
on the scene relatively late. He assumes that Visnu's manifestations in
the human world were first presented simply as discrete births, which
emphasized the use he made of his prakrti and maya (cf. BhG 4.5-9).
Hacker's views may be summerized in the following way.
When the Vaisnava Paurnikas first began to shape the mythology and doctrine of
Visnu's manifestations in this world - using materials from different sources and
ascribing to Visnu, features that originally belonged to other deities - they used the
terms rupa, vapus, and tanu to refer to these manifestations; later, prdurbhva came
into common use as a general term to express the idea of an appearance of Visnu in
the world. This development is recognizable in several passages in the Mahbhrata

and in the Puranas [...] New terms (such as avatara) for expressing the idea of
Visnu's appearance in this world were likely invented as a way of emphasizing the
uniqueness of his coming into existence and as a means of differentiating Visnu's
manifestations from rebirth by metempsychosis. (Adapted from the English summary,

p. 68.)

I believe that Hacker is right when he says that the word avatara

gradually replaced prdurbhva as the designation for Visnu's

manifestations.2 Although he makes valuable observations with an
argument based on important Epic and Purnic passages, Hacker not
only fails to deal adequately with the original context of the word
avatara but also misses its connection with the world of theatre. I

began research for this study by conducting a careful survey of all of

the occurrences of the verb avatr (and its derivations such as avatarana

or avatra) in the Mahbhrata [MBh]3 and the Harivamsa [HV], My

results will be presented in such a way as to respect the entire constel
lation of concepts which emerges from the various contexts in which
avatr is used. When referring to the "descent" of the gods upon the
earth (ams'vatarana), these terms evoke also the idea of a performance
on a stage (ragvatarana). Visnu may have been born upon earth to
carry out a mission (karman), but the earth also serves as the stage
upon which he performs as the greatest of all actors.
Journal of Indian Philosophy 29: 313-326, 2001.
2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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1. THE AMSAVATARANA IN THE MAHABHRATA AND THE HARIVAMSA

To the best of my knowledge, the term avatra appears only once in

MBh 3.146.33 (cr. ed.) where it means "a new descent of beauty, or a
new way of making beauty visible [on earth]" (navvatram rpasy).
Elsewhere in the Critical Edition of the MBh and the HV, other than the
verb avatr, only the substantive form avatarana (and once avatarana,

in MBh 1.2.34) is to be found. The Brahma-Purna [BrP] and Visnu

Purna [ViP] appear to be the first texts to have regularly used the
terms avatara or avatarana. The derivation from the causative form of

the verb is probably meant simply to stress Visnu's absolute lordship

without any other perceptible shift in meaning (Hacker, 64-65). The
term amsvatara, which refers to the descent of that portion of Visnu

born into the Yadu family in ViP 5.1.2 (cf. BrP 72.19), replaces the
term amsvatarana which appeared at the beginning of the MBh and

the HV (see quotations below). Instead of using bhrvatra (ViP

5.1.28,56; BrP 72.15,23) or even bhrvatrana (ViP 5.1.27; 5.12.7;
BrP 72.14), two possible terms for referring to the removal of the load
which caused the Earth to sink into the waters, the Epic texts always

use the compound bhrvatarana. While the ViP speaks of the avatra
of god Visnu (avatram te, 5.3.13; cf. BrP 73.17; etad artham nrloke
'sminn avatro maya krtah, 5.7.9; cf. BrP 77.9), the HV prefers to speak

about the avatarana (tavvatarane, 44.82). Examples of this sort are

easily found. It seems clear to me, therefore, that the term avatarana
predates the word avatra, which is regularly used in texts such as the
ViP and the BhP. In order to appreciate why avatra may have been
used to refer to Visnu's manifestations, we will need to return to the
MBh and the HV in order to get a feel for the nuances in usages of
such words as avatr and avatarana in this earlier context.4

The sixth section of the MBh (1.54-61) is called divamsvatarana

parvan (cf. 1.2.34: divamsvatarana), a phrase that van Buitenen
translates as "The Descent of the First Generations". Summarizing
the content of this section, MBh 1.2.75-77 says: "The various births

(,sambhava) of the kinds as well as those of Dvaipyana and other

Brahmins are related in The Book of the Origins (sambhavaparvan).
The amsvatarana of the Gods, of the Daityas, the Dnavas, and the
mighty Yaksas is narrated, as well as the births (samudbhava) of the
Ngas, the Sarpas, the Gandharvas, the Birds, and all kinds of other
beings." Answering Earth who complains that she lives under the
tyranny of the great Asuras, Brahma gives the following order to the
gods: [He says:] "To throw off the burden of Earth (bhmer nirasitum
bhram), you must each be born with a part of yourselves (bhdgaih

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATARA

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... prasyadhvam) ..(1.58.46). Likewise he summons the hosts of

Gandharvas and Apsaras, and tells them: "Be born among men with
parts of yourselves (svair amsaih samprasyadhvam), in whatever way

that pleases you" (1.58.47). All the gods from Indra onward, upon
hearing Brahma's words, were impatient to go to earth and "be reborn
one way or another with portions of themselves (sarvaso 'msaih svair
gantum bhmim)" (1.58.49). They go to Hari Naryana and, there,
Indra speaks to the Supreme Person: '"Descend with a part of thyself

(amsendvatarasva)V And Hari says, 'So shall it be!'" (1.58.51). Indra

then comes to an agreement with Naryana. "Together with the gods
he should descend from heaven to earth using a portion of himself"
(iavatartum mahm svargad amsatah sahitah suraih, 1.59.1). Following
this, the Brahmin Vaisampyana explains to King Janamejaya how
Gods, Dnavas, and ancient kings were born (sambh, jan, as, bh)
into the human world; or seen from the point of view of those entities
who descend upon the earth, how King Yudhisthira was a portion
(iamsa) of Dharma; Vasudeva, a portion (amsa) of Naryana; Balarma,

a portion (amsa) of the Snake Sesa. He concludes: "Thus is described

the amsavatarana of the Gods, Asuras, Gandharvas, and Apsaras, as
well as the Raksasas, those who were born (samudbhutah) on earth as
kings drunk with war; and the great-spirited scions in the vast line of
the Yadus" (1.61.99-100; cf. v. 101-102; 1.62.1).

The HV presents Visnu's incarnation as Krsna with more precise

wording, using the same vocabulary but adding some very informative
paraphrases. Just as the Dvapara-yuga is coming to a close, Visnu arises
from his cosmic sleep. He sees all the gods assembled, presided over
by Brahma, who have come to implore him to act. Brahm explains
the paradoxical predicament in which Earth finds herself; she is being
trampled down and crushed by the many kings who are building cities
and carrying out their royal obligations. Visnu himself goes to the
summit of Mount Meru and listens to Earth who recalls those times

when, in former manifestations, god Visnu has intervened on her behalf.

The gods support Earth's cause, and ask Brahma to tell them what each

of them should do (yat ... karyam) to relieve her pain. "[Please tell
us], O omnipresent [Brahma], how [each] portion will act (katham
ams'ah prayujyatm), as you work in favour of Earth during this war
opposing kings. [Tell us,] O Brahma, how we are to proceed for the
amsavatarana, whether we reside in the sky or are [former] kings
on earth. Let us also create bodies without passing through an uterus
(ayonijds cpi tanh srjdma) [and be born] into families of sadasya
Brahmins or kings" (43.8-10). Brahma congratulates the gods: "I am

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pleased with your decision, O excellent deities; through your tejas,

generate portions of your own body similar to yourselves upon the
earth (srjadhvam svasarrmsms tejastmasamn bhuv). O excellent
deities, since all of you take into account the marvellous prosperity of
the triple world, descend upon the earth with your tejas, promoting the

welfare of Earth (tejobhir avarohata bhvayanto bhuvam)" (43.12-13).

These parts of yourselves will be divided into opposite factions (atra vo
'ms vibhajyantam vipaksah paksa eva ca) and will fight against one
another (43.53), Brahma remarks. Having offered further explanations,
he concludes that his decision is perfectly justified and orders the gods
to proceed immediately to the amsdvatarana" (43.62). Earth resumes
her own place. Brahmin Vaisampyana notes that all these gods have
seen to it that portions [of themselves] descend upon the earth" (tato

'ms'n avanim devh sarva evvatrayan, 43.69).

Nevertheless, Visnu has not yet made up his mind and the narrator
Vaisampyana tells King Janamejaya: "Now hear how the powerful
Visnu ... descended upon the earth (yath visnur avatrno mahtalam)
for the welfare of creatures, and how ... he was born into the family of

Vasudeva (vasudevasya ... kule ... jaje)" (43.76-77). Vaisampyana

then explains how parts (bhaga, and once bhgmsa) of the various
gods descended upon earth (44.2-5). Finally, "when these portions
have descended from heaven to earth, Nrada appears standing in
a portion of Nryana (bhgesv etesu gagand avatrnesu medinm
/ tisthan nryanasydmse nradah pratyadrsyata //" (44.6). As an
expert in music (and theatre) (gndharvavedavid) and one who likes to
watch combat, Nrada said to Visnu in the middle of the sabha with
wrath in his voice: "Visnu, the Thirty deities have proceeded to the
amsdvatarana, but this is not sufficient for the destruction of kings"
(44.13). He continues: "Seeing that portions of gods have gone [to earth],
and since you are a powerful god who always precedes them, why don't
you join your own portion to assist the Earth. These portions of gods
recognize you as their master. They consist of you, they are under your
command (devabhgn gatan drstvd kirn tvam sarvdgrago vibhuh /
vasumdharayah shyrtham ams'am svam nanuyujase // tvay santh
devmsas tvanmayds tvatpracodith / 44.17-18)." These gods, Nrada
tells Visnu, must first fight Kamsa at Mathur where they will have need
of you. "Therefore, come personaly, O Visnu; let us go [together] on
earth. Through yourself generate your own self (visrjatmanam atmana)
for the destruction of the Dnavas" (44.80). Visnu answers: "When
these great-spirited Suras, Devarsis and Gandharvas generate a portion
[of themselves] (krto yo 'yam amsotsargo) for the benefit of Earth,

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATARA

317

this happens with my agreement. I have already made up my mind, O

Nrada, but Brahma has not yet assigned me any residence (nivasam),
he did not tell me either the place (yatra dese) or the cast where I will
be born (yatra jto), or the garment I must don (yena vesena) to defeat
my enemies" (45.14-16). Then Brahma speaks to Nryana, explaining
the means (upya) he has provided for a successful operation. Please
go down (avatara, 45.37) to a place near Mathur where a portion of

Kasyapa has already been born as Vasudeva (cf. 45.32) accompanied

by two spouses, Surabhi who will become RohinT and Aditi who will
be born as DevakT. "Once you have caused yourself to descend upon
the earth by your own agency, grace DevakT and RohinI with children
(tmnam tman hi tvam avatrya mahtalam / devakm rohinm caiva
garbhbhym paritosaya II 45.38). Then Visnu greeted the gods, set aside
his ancient body [purnam tatra vinyasya deham, 45.49) and joined

himself to Vasudeva's family (tmnam yojaym sa vasudevagrhe

prabhuh, 45.49).
The information we have been able to glean from these two
amsvataranas of the gods, the first found at the beginning of the
MBh and the second which precedes Visnu's manifestation at Mathur
in the HV, may be summarized in the following five points:
A. The verb avatr (and its derivations) appears as a general term
used for all entities coming upon the earth from higher worlds (Devas,

Asuras, Gandharvas, Yaksas ...) These stories of amsvatarana clearly

show that this sort of "descent" is not reserved to Visnu the Purusottama.

Of course, Visnu precedes all other gods (sarvgraga, HV 44.17); all

gods consist of Visnu and are under his command (cf. 44.18). Still he
has to "descend" from the heavens upon the earth, just like any other
entity leaving its own sphere of existence.
B. As it is regularly used in the MBh and the HV, the verb avatr, in
addition to the idea of departing from a starting-point ["having quitted
the world of gods, he arrived ... or is born ..." (devalokam samutsrjya
martyalokam ihgatah, HV 30.4; or devalokam samutsrjya vasudevakule
'bhavat, HV 1.41.12, vulg.], also denotes movement from a higher to a
lower place, implying a difference of level ["to descend from heaven to
earth" (avatartum mahm svargd, MBh 1.59.1; or gaganad avatTrnesu
medinm, HV 44.6)]. One descends from heaven to earth, as one descends
(avatr) from a chariot to the ground (numerous examples), or from a
tree (MBh 1.140.1), the top of a mountain (MBh 12.315.8,10), a horse

(MBh 5.180.12; 6.93.33), an elephant (MBh 4.60.11; HV 91.30), or

from the riverside into the waters (MBh 1.206.11,19; 3.114.13; etc.).

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C. Even though the two are closely related, the action underscored
by the term avatr differs from the action immediately following it.
The second step in the overall process is referred to with verbs such as
prdurbh (to manifest), samudbh (to appear), sambh, bh, jan (to be
born), gam (to arrive). Visnu must first descend from heaven to earth
and then be born into a family or a particular womb. The prdurbhva or
samudbhava follows the avatarana. "Visnu has descended (avatrna)

upon the earth ... and its born (jta) in Vasudeva's family" (HV
111.71-73; cf. 43.76-77; MBh 1.2.75-77; 1.61.99-100). The descent
(iavatarana) from heaven remains separate from the birth (janman)
upon the earth. Moreover, the gods, including Visnu, seem to be able to
descend upon the earth by themselves, but Brahma's mediation appears
necessary when specific problems need to be solved, for example things
related to the place and family where the god will descend or to the
disguise to be used. Brahma acts as a director (dhtr) and at least in
the HV, implements Visnu's decision to descend upon the earth.
D. The compound amsavatarana refers to a regular process in Indian
myths, i.e., the emission of a divine substance. The process being referred
to here is the same as the one mentioned in Chndogya Upanisad 6.2.3:
"And it [the Supreme Existent] thought to itself: 'Let me become many.

Let me propagate myself. It emitted tejas ..." (tadaiksata bahu sydm

prajyeyeti / tat tejo 'srjata). "Through your tejas, says Brahma to the
gods in HV 43.12, generate portions of your own body that are similar to
yourselves upon the earth" (srjadhvam svasarrmstns tejastmasamn
bhuvi). In this context, tejas appears to be a procreative substance which
higher beings (such as gods and ascetics) possess and which gives them
the capacity of occupying a womb in order to create a duplicate of
themselves. When Brahma orders Ocean to enter a human body, he

tells him: "Using your own tejas, place your own body in a lineage
..." (vamse svadeham svena tejas / ddhatsva, HV 43.38). When the
Brahmarsis encouraged the ascetic rva to have a son, they told him:
"Take care of your lineage. Through yourself, increase your own self;
lay your powerful tejas [in a womb] and generate a second body (i.e.,

a son)" (tat pravartasva vamsya vardhaytmnam tman / dadhat

svorjitam tejo dvitym kuru vai tanum // HV 35.30; cf. also 2.42-43,
45). In the context of the amsavatarana, the compound amsotsarga (cf.
HV 45.14) refers precisely to the "emission of a portion" of the same
tejas. And when Nrada says to Visnu: "Through yourself, generate your

own self" (visrjtmnam tman, HV 44.80), he tells him to use his

own tejas to duplicate himself. The usual translation of amsvatarana
as "partial incarnation" proves, therefore, somewhat misleading.5 Krsna

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATARA

319

is not a fragment of Visnu, but the embodiment (rpa, etc.) of the whole

deity. Tejas is, as it were, a divine seed (bija), or a spark, a medium

which allows the gods to descend upon the earth. The gods need only
a portion or a fragment (ams'a or bhga) of their unlimited tejas in
order to generate (srj, visrj, utsrj) duplicates of themselves and appear
in the human world.6

E. Note that the term avatarana is also used to express a particular

aim of Visnu's manifestation in the human world. Bharvatarana

refers to the action of taking down a load, of removing a burden. As

Earth is said to bend under the heavy burden caused by all the kings
who walk or drive on her surface, Visnu manifests himself in order

to remove (avatarana) her burden. In the MBh and the HV, I found
only the following four occurrences: MBh 12.326.92 (cf. 16.9.29):
krtv bhrvataranam vasudhyh (having removed the burden of the
Earth); 12.328.33: bhrvataranrtham hi pravistau manusTm tanum
(we have both assumed human bodies in order to lighten the burden
of the Earth); HV 41.27: bhrvataranrtham hi mantraymas tvay
saha (we are going to deliberate with you to remove the burden of
the Earth).7 Other formulas such as bhmer nirasitum bhram (MBh
1.58.46), dharany bhranirnaye (HV 41.31), bhro yady avaroptavyo
(HV 42.53) express exactly the same idea. The ancient authors were
likely aware of the play on words which immediately springs to mind
when the compounds bharvatarana and amsvatarana are used in
conjonction. These factors go a long way to explaining the ever more
common use of the term avatra as a designation for the manifestations
of Visnu. Another factor must be taken into account, however, if we are

to disentangle the many shades of meaning of this term and to show

its special connection with Krsna.

2. THE RAGVATARANA OF THE DEITIES

Showering favours upon the earth, Visnu and other supernatural entities
can generate sons (putra) who have the same characteristics as them
selves and demonstrate their capacity to become many while still
remaining the same. But the word avatf may be used to designate
more than the amsvatarana with its descent of entities from heaven

to earth. The gods, and particularly Visnu, are regularly shown playing

on the cosmic scene disguised in various costumes (vesa, rpa). In

theatrical language, the word avatarana (or the verb avatf) is a precise
technical term used to describe that movement performed by actors
who move from the stage wings onto the stage itself.8 The expression

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ragavatarana (entering on the stage) is found in MBh 12.283.4, but in

a context where it is considered as a reprehensible activity.9 Neverthe
less, the MBh presents two episodes which take place on a ranga and
in which the use of the word avatr is quite predictable, viz., the show
of weapons presented by Drona (MBh 1.124-125) and the marriage of

Draupad (MBh 1.174-185).

DraupadT's choice of a bridegroom takes place on a ranga, a large
arena which is carefully described in 1.176.15-25. All the seers, kings,
and people assemble there to watch the show. "Carrying the champion's
goblet, which was made of gold and finely wrought, Draupad descended

[or came into] the arena (avatrn tato ragam draupad)" (1.176.30).
The arrival of the kings is described as follows: "Their limbs besieged
by the arrows of Love, Hearts gone to Krsna, the kings of men, Came
on the stage (rahgavatirnah) for DraupadT's sake, Made even their old
friends there their foes" (1.178.5; van Buitenen's translation, modified).
The ranga is a place where magnificent characters come from afar to
be watched by spectators. These actors, whoever they are, rather than
descend, simply appear on stage. It would seem that, given the theatrical
dimensions of the episode, the use of the term avatr was necessary.

The second episode confirms these impressions. The Brahmin

Drona has been selected by Bhsma to initiate the Pndavas and the
Kauravas into the "secret of weapons" (1.122.39 sq.). The Vrsnis and
the Andhakas, as well as Kama, are listed among his students (122.47).
At the end of their initiation, Drona assembles his students to test
their knowledge and Arjuna proves to be the best one. Then, Drona
proposes to Dhrtarstra the arrangement of a display of the students'
skills (124.3). Once Dhrtarstra has accepted the suggestion, an arena
(ranga) is constructed. When the day comes, all assemble in the magnifi
cent building to watch the show. Drona arrives and comes to the centre of
the arena (rangamadhyam ... pravivesa, 124.18). He makes an offering
0bali) with appropriate mantras. The powerful Bharatas enter (vivisur,
124.21) with their bows. Suyodhana (i.e., Duryodhana) and Vrkodara

(i.e., Bhlma) also enter (avatrnau, 124.130), clubs in hand. The spec
tators split into two factions. Drona, surveying the arena which looks like
a stormy sea (ksubdhrnavavibham ragam lokya, 125.3), asks his son
Asvatthman to stop both champions. Drona calms the spectators. A cry
goes up from the crowd, and Vidura explains that Prtha (i.e., Arjuna)
has entered (avatlrnah, 125.16). Arjuna displays his skills thus attracting

the applause of the onlookers. Finally Karna, looking like a walking

mountain, enters the great arena (vives'a ragam vistrnam, 126.1) and
repeats all of Arjuna's feats before the dumbfounded spectators. "This

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATAR A

321

stage is open to all" (rango 'yam sarvasmnyah, 126.19),10 said Karna,

defending his right to take part in the show. The main combatants from
both sides of the imminent war enter the stage, creating the impression
that the show is some sort of rehearsal for the entire Bharata war."

On the day of the royal consecration (abhiseka), Nrada watches the

vast assembly of kings and recalls a tale that he had heard long ago in
the dwelling of Brahma at the time of the amsavatarana. As it begins
to dawn on him that this human assembly was in fact an assembly of
gods, Nrada's mind turns to the lotus-eyed Hari who had ordered the
birth of these many gods upon earth (cf. 2.33.13-20). Nrada reacts
this way because he understands that the earth has now become a
gigantic stage. No amsavatarana is possible without a ragvatarana.
The Kuruksetra itself, the battlefield on which the war takes place,
looks like a mythic rahgabhmi where Devas as well as Asuras come
to fight. Moreover, on several occasions the MBh, in addition to the
more common verbs it uses to describe the entry of warriors onto the
battlefield - for example gam, abhigam, yd, prayd, prapad, etc. -, also
uses five times the expression "to descend (avatr) on the Kuruksetra"

(MBh 6.1.3; 12.48.2-3; 12.53.23; 15.30.16; 16.8^65). In this same vein,

it is worth noting that the uncommon use of the verb avatr in this
context produces a very precise effect in the mind of the reader: it
transforms the battlefield into a stage.12
Whatever might be said of the general interpretation of the MBh
as a whole, a clear link between Visnu's action and the idea of a

ragvatarana can be found in the episode which takes place at the

end of Krsna's childhood when, in the arena (ranga) of Mathur, Krsna

deprives King Kamsa of life. When Kamsa decided to hold a great

festival in honour of the royal Bow (dhanurmaha), he asked that a
marvellous ranga be built in the city. During the festival, wrestlers
entered the arena (tatah pravivisur malla ragam, 74.20). "After having
killed these [wrestlers], both [Samkarsana and Krsna] entered (vis)
the middle of the arena as they wished, looking like the two Asvins
Nsatyas descended (avatTrnau) from heaven" (tarns ca hatvd vivisatur
madhyam rahgasya tv ubhau / nsatyv asvinau svargd avatrnv

ivecchay II cf. ed. 74.38, 833*, 3-4 / vulg. 2.29.41). Having killed
the furious elephant Kuvalaypda, Krsna appeared (avatrna) in this
assembly which had the appearance of an ocean (avatirno 'rnavakdram

samjam, 74.39; a parallel verse in 96.61 expresses it in this way:

samajam ... vivisatur virau). As expected, Krsna enters (vis, pravis)
the stage or descends (avatr) upon the stage, just as the Asvins or
any other god who had descended upon the earth. When a character

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322

ANDR COUTURE

appears on the stage as Krsna does, it seems normal to speak of his

avatarana. The use of the term avatarana in this context is anything
but haphazard. When, in the introduction to the childhood episodes,
Nrada explains the content of his Mathur mission to Visnu, he used
this very term: "At the moment of your descent (or entrance) [on the

stage at Mathur], Kamsa will perish" (tavvatarane visno kamsah sa

vinasisyati, 44.82).
The method Krsna uses to slay Kamsa on stage proves even more
revealing then the use of the term avatr. First of all, we read in HV
3.82.33 vulg. (cr. ed. App. I, no. 31, 776-779) that Krsna frightened
Kamsa by performing a terrifying dance. "Having killed the tall and
terrible elephant, the powerful (ugravryah) Lord Kesava seized one of
his tusks and danced on the stage in a number of ways (nanarta range
bahurpam), thus putting fear into Kamsa." Krsna is explicitly presented
as a master of the stage. The full description given in Chapter 76 of
the Critical Edition (v. 25-40) depicts how he springs from the centre
of the stage to the royal box, seizes the king by the hair, and drags him
onto the stage. He then proceeds to toy with the corpse of the dead
king for some time before dropping it ignominiously nearby. Kamsa

was vanquished by a dancer and a magician who seems to know every

trick in the book. He dies "without being wounded by arrows" and is
therefore excluded from the "path of heroes". Kamsa seems to suspect
that he is dealing with a virtuoso of the stage. Still not knowing the
actual identity of the child who opposed him in the cowherd-settlement,
Kamsa wonders who this god might be, who dons a wretched garb in
order to conceal his own form (ncena vapus chdayitvtmano vapuh,
65.35). His behaviour reminded him of Visnu or Siva who, in the past,
had assumed various forms (rpa, 65.36-44) in order to rid themselves
of their adversaries. Visnu is a cosmic cowherd who plays the part of

a simple cowherd (HV 30.7) to kill Kamsa and who certainly knows
that appropriate disguise is the basic condition for any appearance on

a stage (cf. Bansat-Boudon, 395, passim).

When Krsna answered his elder brother Samkarsana and encouraged
him to kill the Dnava Pralamba, he said: "The deities in heaven do not
see your self-existing form (atmajam te vapur ... tmasambhavam), they
worship only your fictitious form (krtrimam rpam)" (HV 58.42). The
parallel text in the ViP (5.9.28) opposes Visnu's divine form (divyam
rpam), one that is known to this elder brother Samkarsana alone,
to his avatrarpam, which is worshipped by all the gods (divyam
hi rpam tava vetti ncinyo devair asesair avatrarpam / tavrcyate
.. .).13 Similarly, before presenting Visnu's manifestation as a Boar,

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATARA

323

Brahmin Vaisampyana says in the HV: "The gods do not see his
supreme form, they only worship the form that appears during his
manifestations" (yad asya paramam rpam tan na pasyanti devath
/ prdurbhvesu sambhtam yat tad arcanti devath, App. 1, no. 42,
83-84; vulg. 3.33.42-43). Prdurbhva, krtrima rpa, or avatara-rupa
clearly refers to the disguises Visnu assumes when he plays on the
terrestrial stage. As any actor, he puts on various costumes (vesa) or
outward appearances (rpa, vapuh), or bodies (tanu), human, as well
as animal. No existing being can see Visnu's encompassing form as
the supreme Person or Purusottama. The only way to catch a glimpse
of him is to watch as he appears on the terrestrial stage, mixing in the
vicissitudes of human existence.14

3. CONCLUSION

As a cowherd who "descends onto the stage" in order to force the

unwilling Kamsa to take part in the play, Visnu becomes an actor
making an entrance, an avatarana. Of all the prdurbhvas of Visnu,
the cowherd Krsna is certainly the one most properly referred to as an
avatara, since, in addition to "descending" onto the earth, he "walks
onto the stage" to kill Kamsa. The word avatarana (and avatara which
simply replaces it) is a general term that came to be used especially in
connection with Visnu who descends upon the earth in order to carry
out a specific mission (karman), but whose action takes the form of a
play on a stage (lila, krdana, etc.).15 In referring to the movement of a
god who descends from heaven to earth and to a play involving a divine
actor who "descends upon the stage", the term avatr alerts the audience
listening to the great Epics to the extended slesa (or double entendre)
that runs throughout the entire text. Not only does Visnu descend
upon the earth (avatarana) to remove its burden (bhrvatarana), but

he is also a nata or a rangvatraka who dons the most unexpected

disguises.16
NOTES

1 A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the XXXVIth International

Congress of Asian and North African Studies (ICANAS) held at the Universit de
Montral (Canada) on August 31, 2000. This article forms part of a research project
on the Harivamsa funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
of Canada.

2 For the word prdurbhva (or the corresponding verb) used to designate the
manifestations of Visnu, see the articles by P. Hacker and H. Brinkhaus; also Jaiswal,

p. 130.

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ANDR COUTURE

3 This study was greatly facilitated by the digitized form of the MBh created by
Muneo Tokunaga and produced by Mrs. Mizue Sugita, Machine-readable Text of the
Mahabhaarata: Based on the Poona Critical Edition, Kyoto, 1966 (ftp://ccftp.kyoto
su.ac.jp/pub/doc/sanskrit/mahabharata).

4 The problem under study here was briefly addressed in an earlier publication
(Couture, 1991, pp. 83 n. 2, 170 n. 1, 177 n. 13).
5 Although from a different point of view, one can find a similar remark by M.
Biardeau in Etudes de mythologie hindoue II. Bhakti et avatra, Paris / Pondichry,
Ecole franaise d'Extrme-Orient, 1994, pp. 36-37.
6 Compare with BhagavadgTt 4.7: tadtmnam srjdmy aham, then do I generate
myself [on earth] (trans. Zaehner). - Brian K. Smith (1989, praes. ch. 4). notes that
this Brahmanical vision of reproduction as a duplication of the father is viewed as
problematic, since, after his birth, the human being must also be purified and ritually
constructed through a series of samskaras. Though being born from a part of Visnu

and conceived as his duplication, Krsna has nevertheless to receive various samskaras
from the Brahmin Garga or Grgya.

7 See also HV 42.13, 542*, 8 (vulg. 1.52.17); App. I, no. 29, 548 (vulg. 2.69.43);
no. 42,140-142 (vulg. 3.34.22).
8 Actually, in the Ntyasstra [NS] as in the Epic texts, two different uses of the
verb avatr (and its derivations) are found that eventually overlap. At the end of the
NS, the dramatic performance (ntya) is said to descend from heaven to earth because

of an ancient curse (36.31 and 36.13; 37.23). This natyvatarana is similar to the
devvatarana already mentioned, or the gahgavatarana (HV App. 1, no. 29F, 278-285
/ vulg. 2.93.2427; cf. MBh 3.106.38; 3.108.13; 13.27.87), or the plaksvatarana, the
descent of a Plaksa tree (MBh 3.88,3; 3.129.13), or the yudhvatarana (HV 83.12;
cf. 81.55-65), or the stavarjvatarana (cf. MBh 13.17.21-22, where it is said that
the "king of all hymns" was first conveyed - avataritah - from the Brahmaloka).
The avatarana supposes that a reality, first existing in heaven, is brought down to the
earth. The NS 5.26 gives this same meaning: "The rangadvra (the door of the stage,
a part of the prvaraga) is so called because from this point on the performance
with words and gestures is made to descend (avataryate) [on the stage]." The same
term can also be used to speak of the entrance onto the stage itself. In NS 5.17,
the term avatarana is said to refer specifically to the entrance of the musicians and
the instrumentalists onto the stage (tathvataranam proktam gayikanm nivesanam).
In his commentary to the compound ragvatarana, Nlakantha echoes this second
meaning: "is is the descent on the stage with the garments of a wife, etc." (range
strydivesanvataranam, ad MBh 12.283.4 vulg.).
9 Cf. also the rpopajTvana, which refers to "living by [assuming various] forms
or disguises". Compare with ViP 2.6.20-21, where public performers (rangopajvin)
are condemned to the Rudhirndha hell.

10 A sentence such as this echoes what Bharatamuni declared in the NS: "the
theatre must be in conformity with the states of mind of the whole triple world"
(trailokasysya sarvasya natyam bhvnukrtanam, 1.107) or it is "an imitation of
everything taking place in the world and its seven continents" (saptadvipanukaranam
natyam etad bhavisyati, 1.117); cf. Bansat-Boudon, p. 125. - Bharata was an ancient

king who gave his name to the people called Bharatas; but bharata can also mean
"actor" and one wonders whether or not this double reference may be something

more than a mere coincidence.

" During the fourth month of the Pandavas thirteenth year of exile, the celebration
of a brahmotsava (a festival in honor of Brahm) takes place (MBh 4.12). On the
ranga built for the occasion, Virata, the King of the Matsyas, orders his cook Ballava
(who, in reality, is no other than BhTma) to take on with an undefeated wrestler
named Jmflta. Ballava enters the stage (pravives'a maharagam, 4.12.18) and defeats

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE WORD AVATARA

his opponent. He also subdues powerful lions, which pleases the king and those
assembled there. Nakula and Sahadeva also take part in the show. The word avatr is
not used in this context, but from a theatrical point of view, this thirteenth year of
exile, as strange it may appear, happens to be very important. After having suffered
during twelve years, the Pndavas along with their common wife Draupadi lay down
their weapons, hiding them in a s'amT tree. One after the other, they enter this "stage"

which is the city of King Virata and are observed in their various disguises (vesa,
rpa) by the King himself. During that year, the Pndavas act out, as it were, the
essentials of the actions they will perform on the Kuruksetra battle-field. This combat
of wrestlers on a ranga looks like a theatre in a theatre, zeroing in on the real impact
of the action which will take place later.

12 The idea conveyed by words such as avatr or avatarana seems to be linked to the
appearance of an outsider in the middle of a place, a group or even a region, a place
from which he can be seen by everybody. The MBh and HV provide the following
examples: (1) Yudhisthira seeks Krsna's help, but tells Krsna not to approach the
Kurus, since Duryodhana will not accept his advice. All the kings of the earth are
assembled there under Duryodhana's command, and he says, "I don't want you to
appear among them" (tesm madhyavataranam tava krsna na rocaye, 5.70.83). (2)
Vidura warned Krsna against Duryodhana: "It does not seem right to me, Krsna, for
you to appear among all those villians where they are huddling together" (tesm
samupavistnm sarvesm papacetasm / tava madhyavataranam mama krsna na
rocate II (5.90.15). (3) King Lomapda had forced the Brahmins to leave his country.
Rains suddenly stopped. An eminent hermit gave him this advice: "If the great seer
(Rsyasrtiga) appears in your realm, Parjanya will at once rain forth" (sa ced avatared

rajan visayam te ... , 3.110.26). (4) Ghatotkaca, the son of Bhma and Hidimb,
is a Raksasa able to use all kinds of ruses (mydhara). During his combat against
Asvatthman he appeared (or came down from heaven) on a golden-decked car (jo
'vatXrya punas tasthau rathe hemapariskrte, 7.131.52); he used the same stratagem
when facing Drona, 7.150.61). (5) In 14.76.2, knowing that Arjuna of white steeds
had appeared in their territory (te 'vatrnam upasrutya visayam svetavhanam), the
Saindhu people rose up against him. (6) In HV 110.33, 1307* line 7 (vulg. 2.122.44),
Krsna answered Nrada who had explained that the city of Sonitapura belonged
to Rudra and Guha: "If Rudra appears to protect Bna, we will fight ..(yadi
vavatared rudro bnasamraksanam prati). In all these cases, avatr or avatarana
connote the general idea of an appearance on some kind of stage rather than a mere
descent from a higher to a lower place.
13 Also ViP 1.4.17: bhavato yat param tattvam tan na jnti kas'cana / avataresu
yad rpam tad arcanti divaukasah II.
14 The title of Raganatha ("stage master") given to Visnu in South India ought to
be reassessed in light of these considerations.
15 Note that the NS also defines the theatre as an object of play, a krdanyaka,
1.11; cf. Bansat-Boudon, 57.

16 In the Bhgavata-Purna, the whole vraja is treated as a ragahhmi where

Samkarsana and Krsna perform dressed like actors (nata), playing the flute, etc.
(cf. 10.23.22; 10.21.5,8). Bala and Krsna are not alone in the cowherd-settlement
(vraja)', the gods hid their true nature and appeared as cowherds applauding them
like actors praising the performance of another actor (Tdire krsnarmau ca nata iva
natam, 10.18.11).

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Facult de thologie et de sciences religieuses

Universit Laval
Cit Universitaire

Qubec, Canada G1K 7P4

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