ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

AN INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

VIBRATION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

The overall objective of this part of the course is to introduce vibration as a

tool for machinery condition monitoring. However, we need to begin by
revising a few basic ideas. We will begin by discussing the basic principles of
vibration and vibration measurement. The material covered should remove
uncertainties about units of measurement and the meaning of some of the
terminology used. The use of spectrum analysis is central to much of
machinery vibration monitoring, so we need to spend some time discussing
this topic.
At the end of this session, we should be fully equipped to start discussing the
main features of the machinery vibration characteristics used in condition
monitoring.

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

DESCRIBING VIBRATION

Consider a block suspended from a spring as illustrated in the above diagram.

If this is disturbed, it will oscillate around its mean position, in other words it
will vibrate. This simple example is analogous to the motion of a bearing
housing on a machine which is vibrating, although the frequency of vibration
is much lower and the magnitude greater. However, it is helpful to us in
defining the terms used to describe vibration.
If a graph showing the position of the block as a function of time were drawn,
it could appear as a sine wave as illustrated. In order to fully describe the
vibration, we need to refer to its:
Amplitude -

Amount it moves.

Period

Time taken to complete one cycle of vibration.

In practice, it is more usual to speak of the frequency of vibration rather than

the period, where:

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Frequency -

number of cycles completed in a given period of

time. This can be expressed in cycles per second
(Hertz) or cycles per minute (cpm). Within DEI Hz is
the most common. In the example above if the period
is 0,1 s then the frequency would be 1/0.1 or 10 Hz.
Multiplying this by 60 gives 600 cpm

There are three ways in which the motion can be described.

The Displacement is the distance through which the vibrating component
moves. This could be measured in mm, although in practical machinery
vibration it is more typically expressed in thou.s or mils (mil is American
usage for thou).
Alternatively the vibration Velocity is the speed at which the vibrating
component moves. This could be expressed in mm/sec, inch/sec etc.
Finally, vibration amplitude is sometimes expressed as Acceleration.
Acceleration is formally defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration is usually quoted in m/sec2 or "g" where 1g is the acceleration of
an object falling freely under the earth's gravity and 1g = 9.81 m/sec2.
The displacement of the block is straightforward to visualise ranging from a
positive (upward value) to a negative (downward value). Its velocity similarly
varies from a maximum as the block moves upward through its rest position to
zero as the block stops instantaneously at the maximum deflection to a
maximum negative value as it moves downward.
It is perhaps harder to form a mental picture of Acceleration but it can be
represented by a similar type of wave. The main reason that acceleration is
used to describe machinery vibration is that accelerometers (which measure
acceleration) are very convenient and widely used.

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

The amplitude can be presented in a number of ways as illustrated in the above

diagram. The peak amplitude is self explanatory - the maximum amplitude of
vibration during the cycle.
Similarly, the peak to peak amplitude is twice the peak amplitude, being a
measure of the total movement from one extreme to the other.
The Root Mean Square (RMS) amplitude is the most commonly used form,
probably because most vibration instruments actually measure RMS. It is a
measure of the energy involved in the vibration. In a pure sine wave vibration,
the rms and peak values are related by:
Peak

=
=

Pk-Pk =

2 x RMS
1.414 x RMS
2 x Peak = 22 x RMS

This formula only applies to sinusoidal motion. The relationship between

peak and RMS is quite different in more complex vibration patterns. This is
often a source of confusion and we will return to this later in this section.

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VELOCITY, ACCELERATION AND

DISPLACEMENT
There is a relationship between velocity, acceleration and displacement which
is frequently useful.
Mathematically:
Velocity
=
Acceleration =

rate of change of displacement

rate of change of velocity

These relationships are quite exact and always apply. For this reason, a
common way of obtaining vibration velocity measurements is to use an
accelerometer and process the signal electronically to obtain velocity.
Further relationships can be used sometimes in hand calculations.
sinusoidal vibration it can be shown that:
Velocity

For

displacement x 2 f

where f is the frequency of vibration, and:

Acceleration =

velocity x 2 f

Combining these:
Acceleration =

displacement x (2 f)2

It should be emphasised that these formulas only apply to pure sinusoidal

vibration. Real machinery vibration signals are rarely sinusoidal (as we shall
see shortly), so these formulas are less useful than they appear at first sight.
This section is concluded with a few examples to illustrate the application of
these formulas.

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

EXAMPLES
(1)

Vibration is measured as being 1g RMS at 50Hz.

equivalent velocity and displacement?

Acceleration of 1g RMS

What is the

9.81 m/sec2 RMS

0.031 m/sec RMS

at a frequency of 50 Hz:
Velocity

9.81
2 x 50

change units to mm/sec gives:

Velocity

Displacement =

(2)

31 mm/sec RMS
31
2 x 50

=
=

0.0986 mm RMS
3.88 thou RMS

A shaft undergoes vibration at 30 Hz. If the amplitude is quoted 3 mils

peak to peak, what is the peak-to-peak and rms velocity of the shaft,
assuming the vibration to be sinusoidal? If the vibration is in the form
of a sharp spike, can we calculate the peak to peak or rms velocity?

Change Units

3 mils p-p

=
=

3 x 25.4
1000
0.0762 mm p-p
0.0762 x 2 x 30
14.36 mm/sec p-p

Integrate to Velocity

Velocity

=
=

Change to RMS

RMS

=
=

14.36
2 2
5.07 mm/sec RMS

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

THE VIBRATION SPECTRUM

Real machinery vibration signals are rarely sinusoidal, but are composed of
vibration at various frequencies superimposed. We would therefore expect to
get a graph similar to the one above. Note that in this graph the pk-pk value is
not twice the peak. Similarly the peak height is not 2* RMS. We could of
course examine a vibration signal simply by viewing it on an oscilloscope or
storing it on a chart recording. Alternatively we could trend an overall
measurement such as peak height over a period of time to detect deterioration.
However, we can gain a better insight into the behaviour of the machine by
examining how the vibration signal is built up from components at different
frequencies. Consider the two graphs below and over page.

1.5
1
0.5
Series1

0
-0.5
-1
-1.5

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

1.5
1
0.5
0
80
12
0
16
0
20
0
24
0
28
0
32
0
36
0
40
0
44
0
48
0
52
0
56
0
60
0
64
0
68
0

-0.5

40

Series1

-1
-1.5

By examining the two graphs looking in particular at the peak level we can
easily see that the amplitude is higher in the second graph. What we cannot
tell is why the amplitude has gone higher. Lets look at the first waveform in
more detail. Adding together a number of sign waves as shown below
produces the square waveform.

1.5

1
0.5

-0.5
-1

-1.5

Any point on the waveform is the arithmetic sum of The Sign wave at 10Hz
with a maximum peak amplitude of 1, plus the sign wave at 30 Hz with a peak
amplitude of 0.33 and the sign wave at 50 Hz with a peak amplitude of 0.25
give the original wave form..

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

96

92

88

84

80

76

72

68

64

60

56

52

48

44

36

40

32

28

24

20

16

12

This is normally presented as a vibration spectrum as illustrated in the example

above. What it shows is that the complex vibration waveform can be broken
down into 5 components as illustrated. Each can then be considered separately.
The vibration spectrum of a machine contains a great deal of information in a
single plot. It shows each frequency, which is present, and the vibration
amplitude at that frequency.
Often the vibration of a machine comprises components at the running speed
and multiples of the running speed. The running speed is sometimes referred to
as the Fundamental component and exact multiples of the running speeds are
known as Harmonics. Thus, vibration at running speed is referred to the
fundamental component, at 2x running speed the 2nd Harmonic, at 3x running
speed the 3rd harmonic etc.
The second waveform is also the arithmetic sum of sine waves as shown overpage. We still have 3 sine waves adding together to produce the waveform. Now
though the sine wave at 30hz has twice the amplitude of before.

10

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

1.744444444 3.488888889 5.233333333 6.977777778 8.722222222 10.46666667 12.21111111

-0.5 0
100

200

300

400

500

600

700

-1
-1.5

By comparing the spectra for this below with the earlier one we can easily see
that not only has the vibration got worse but also that it has increased at 30hz.
It is by comparing the changes in the spectra in terms of amplitude and
frequency that we can relate to the geometry of the machine to determine the
cause of the vibration and hence the solution. In the example shown for
example if this was from a 3 bladed fan running at 10hz(600 rpm) then the
30Hz could be a blade pass component and an aerodynamic fault in the fan
might be suspected.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

A more complex vibration pattern containing several frequencies would give

several spikes as illustrated. The diagram overleaf shows a number of
important vibration signals and their corresponding spectrum.

11

SK F S erv ice

t im
e

12

c o m p lex t im e w av ef o rm

ov e ra l l v ib ra tio n
lo

f re

nc

gh

in d ivi d ua l vi br ati on sig n al s

co m b in e to fo rm a co m pl ex
tim e w avefo r m sh ow in g o ver al l
vi br ati on

q
f re

e
qu

hi

q
fre

T im e W av eform A naly sis

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

SKF S erv ice

c
show s component
e n vibration
u
q
signals at their
f re respective
frequencies

F FT Spectrum

t im
e

13

amplitude

low

q.
fre

f re

n
ue

fr equency

cy

.
r eq
f
h
hig

FFT Spectrum Analysis

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

14

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

DEFINING FFT SPECTRAL PARAMETERS

Anytime an FFT is to be taken, whether for a detailed analysis or for routine
predictive maintenance checks, it is necessary to define or specify the FFT spectral
parameters. These parameters include:
1.

Amplitude units: displacement, velocity or acceleration

2.

Fmax: the range of vibration frequencies to be analysed

3.

Frequency units: CPM or Hz

4.

Number of lines of resolution: the accuracy of displayed vibration

frequencies

5.

Number of spectral averages: how many FFTs are taken and amplitudeaveraged to minimise random and transient events

The choice of selecting vibration displacement, velocity or acceleration for

measurement, based on the vibration frequencies anticipated, as well as the selection
of frequency units (CPM versus Hz) have already been covered. However, the choice
of Fmax along with the number of lines of resolution and the number of spectral
averages have not been covered and are discussed in the sections to follow.
Selecting Fmax
The first, and perhaps most important decision that must be made in obtaining an FFT
is the Fmax or maximum range of frequencies that will be analysed and displayed. Of
course, the selected Fmax must be high enough to include all significant, problemrelated frequencies; however, the higher the Fmax, the lower the accuracy or clarity of
measured frequencies. Therefore, the Fmax selected should be no higher than needed
to detect problem-related vibration frequencies.
Figure 1 shows a comparison of FFTs taken on a 1740 RPM motor driving a
reciprocating compressor. One FFT was taken with an Fmax of 0-600,000 CPM, and
shows only two vibration peaks on the far left side of the frequency scale. The second
FFT was taken with a much lower 0-24,000 CPM Fmax and clearly shows that there
are considerably more than two significant frequencies of vibration present.
15

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Figure 1. A comparison of FFTs with high and low Fmax.

Most FFT analysers and data collectors provide a very wide range of Fmax choices,
typically ranging from 0-600 CPM up to several million CPM with numerous
selections in between. While it would not be possible to provide exact guidelines for
each and every type of machine to be analysed, the following paragraphs offer some
general guidelines.

16

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

SELECTING THE NUMBER OF LINES OF RESOLUTION

The next important decision that must be made when taking an FFT is selecting the
number of lines of resolution. This is similar to selecting the broad or sharp filter
used in analogue or swept-filter frequency analysers. The decision will not only
determine the accuracy of frequency data presented, but will also determine the
amount of time required to perform the analysis as well as the amount of instrument
and computer storage required to store the data.
Unlike swept-filter analysers that may offer a choice of only two or three filter
bandwidths, most FFT frequency analysers and data collectors offer a much larger
choice of lines of resolution. Typical FFT analysers may offer 25, 50, 100, 200, 400,
800, 1600 and 3200 lines of resolution. Future designs will likely include 6400 and
possibly 12,800 lines. Most FFTs taken for predictive maintenance checks and
general machinery analysis are taken using 400 or more lines of resolution.
Figure 2 illustrates the concept of lines of resolution. When the choice of Fmax and
lines of resolution has been made, the selected frequency range will then be divided
into the selected number of lines. For example, assume that 400 lines of resolution
was chosen for an FFT with an Fmax of 120,000 CPM. This means that the entire
frequency range from 0 - 120,000 CPM will be divided into 400 lines, sometimes
called frequency cells or bins.
The concept of lines of resolution can be compared to the swept-filter of an
analogue frequency analyser.

Where the analogue swept-filter analyser has one filter that can be moved or tuned
over the frequency range, the FFT analyser uses many filters (lines) stacked side-byside to cover the selected frequency range. In the example above, there would
effectively be 400 individual filters, each with a certain frequency (CPM or Hz) width
to cover the selected Fmax. Each vibration frequency would then be placed within
the line of resolution that included that particular frequency.
The significance of the number of lines of resolution selected, is that it along with the
selected Fmax, determines the accuracy or resolution of the frequency data
presented in the FFT. To illustrate, in the example given above, an Fmax of 20,000
CPM was chosen along with 400 lines of resolution. The frequency width of each
17

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

line of resolution can easily be determined by simply dividing the Fmax by the
number of lines of resolution. In this case:
Fmax
Frequency Resolution = ___________________
Lines of Resolution

120,000
___________________
400 Lines
300 CPM

Figure 2. FFT lines or resolution.

In other words, in this example, each of the 400 lines of resolution would be 300 CPM
wide. And, since each line of resolution is 300 CPM wide, it is quite possible that
more than one vibration frequency could be present within a single line. However, on
the FFT display it would appear as a single peak or as a single vibration frequency.
The importance of understanding the relationship between Fmax, lines of resolution
and frequency accuracy can best be illustrated by a practical example. Assume that a
motor driving a pump is operating at 3550 RPM. Of course, mechanical problems
such as unbalance, misalignment, looseness etc, will result in vibration frequencies
that are exactly 1 x and 2 x RPM or 3550 CPM and 7100 CPM in this case. In
addition, motors, such as this 2-pole induction motor, may also have electrical
problems such as open or shorted windings, unequal air gap or broken rotor bars that
cause vibration because of unbalanced magnetic forces between the motor armature
and field (stator). These and other electrical problems will result in vibration
frequencies that are exactly related to the AC electrical frequency powering the
motor. In this case, since the motor is a 2-pole motor, the rotating speed of the
magnetic field in the stator will be 1 x line frequency or exactly 3600 CPM (assuming
AC line frequency is 60 Hz or 3600 CPM). In this case, it is possible to have a
mechanical and/or electrical problem and the representative vibration frequencies are
separated by only 50 CPM (3600 CPM - 3550 CPM = 50 CPM). An FFT with an
Fmax of 120,000 CPM taken with 400 lines of resolution would not be able to
distinguish between or separate these two problem-related frequencies since they
would most likely fall within the same (300 CPM wide) line of resolution.

18

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Many times misalignment will result in a vibration with a frequency of 2 x RPM. In

the above example, this would be 7100 CPM (2 x 3550 RPM = 7100 CPM).
However, 2 x AC line frequency or 7200 CPM is also a very common frequency
caused by electrical problems. Here the difference between the mechanical frequency
(7100 CPM) and the electrical frequency (7200 CPM) is only 100 CPM. These two
problem-related frequencies could not be distinguished or separated where each line
of FFT resolution is 300 CPM wide.
From the induction motor example given above, it should be apparent that close
attention must be paid to the specific machine being analysed and the possibility of
problems that can cause very close vibration frequencies when selecting t he FFT
parameters of Fmax and lines of resolution. In fact, because the electrical and
mechanical vibration frequencies found on induction motors are so close, it is
recommended that at least one additional FFT be taken on induction motors, using an
Fmax of 12,000 CPM and using 3200 lines of resolution. Each line of resolution of
this FFT will be slightly smaller than 4 CPM and this will clearly separate and
individually display mechanical and electrical vibration frequencies.
SELECTING THE NUMBER OF SPECTRAL AVERAGES
As mentioned previously, when an FFT is performed, the instrument must first collect
a sample of the analogue vibration waveform called a data set (a collection of
related records), which hopefully represents the true vibration behavior of the
machine. Unfortunately, transient conditions can occur during the time the data is
being collected, which do not represent the machines actual vibration characteristics.
For this reason, whenever FFTs are obtained for predictive maintenance or analysis
applications, the normal procedure is to collect and average the data from more than
one data set. This is called spectral averaging and is done to minimise the influence
of transient conditions such as bumping the machine, start up or shut down of nearby
machines and other sources that may confuse the analysis data. Figure 3 shows
comparative FFTs taken on a motor direct coupled to a reciprocating compressor.

19

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Figure 3 Limiting the effects of transients

One FFT was taken using a single data set or a one sample average. The second
FFT was taken using 64 data sets and averaging the frequency and amplitude
characteristics from the 64 samples taken. Considerable differences can be seen in the
comparative data, not only in the amplitudes of certain frequencies, but the actual
frequencies displayed.
For example, in the FFT from the single sample, a significant vibration component
can be seen at a frequency of approximately 5 x RPM. However, the frequency
component is virtually non-existent in the FFT displayed after averaging 64 samples
of data. The component at 5 x RPM that appeared in the single sample average was
apparently a transient vibration and only there during the time the data set was
collected. Obviously, this vibration component is not representative of the machines
normal vibration characteristics and could confuse the analysis process.
The obvious question is: How many samples (data sets) of data are needed for a
spectral average? While no absolute answer can be given to this question, some
reasonable guidelines can be offered based on experience.
First, the number of spectral averages is a compromise between the accuracy and
validity of analysis data and data collection time. It should be obvious that it will take
more time to perform an 8 average FFT than a 4 average FFT. Fortunately, the
20

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

number of averages does not affect the amount of instrument and computer storage
required. This is governed only by the number of lines of resolution selected for the
FFT.
The following are some general guidelines that may be helpful in selecting the
number of spectral averages for FFTs obtained for predictive maintenance and
detailed machinery analysis:
1.
For general machines included in a predictive maintenance programme, such
as fans, blowers, pumps, motors etc., FFTs using 2 to 4 sample averages are normally
adequate. Although there may be some affects from transient conditions, the ultimate
goal of routine vibration checks in a predictive maintenance programme is to detect
potential problems. Once the possibility of a developing problem has been detected, a
thorough follow-up analysis should be carried out to verify and identify the problem.
If periodic checks reveal a potential problem, which is actually the result of a
momentary or transient condition, a detailed analysis will so indicate.
2.
When dealing with very high frequencies of vibration such as gear-mesh
frequencies and those from defective rolling element bearings, a higher number of
spectral averages, typically 4 to 8 is usually recommended.
Sources of high
frequency vibration tend to be somewhat more erratic and variable than problems that
cause lower frequencies such as unbalance and misalignment. Since higher Fmax
FFTs take less time, there is no significant increase in data collection time using a
slightly higher number of spectral averages.
3.
When performing a detailed analysis of a machines vibration, analysis time is
rarely a major concern. In other words, whether it takes 5 minutes or 10 minutes to
collect the detailed data needed to analyse the problem is of little concern. Therefore,
when performing a detailed analysis, a minimum of 4 to 8 averages are
recommended for general types of machines. When dealing with high frequencies of
vibration, such as gear-mesh frequencies a minimum of 8 averages is recommended.
4.
Where the appropriate number of spectral averages is not known, a simple
comparison can be performed to determine the number best suited for data collection
and analysis on a specific machine. Simply take and observe an FFT taken with 2
averages and compare it to an FFT taken with 4 averages. If the 2 and 4 average
FFTs appear different, taken an FFT with 8 averages and compare it to the one
taken with 4 averages. If the 4 and 8 sample averages are nearly the same in
appearance, then a 4 sample
21

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

SYNCHRONOUS TIME AVERAGING

The capability to perform Synchronous Time Averaging with the end result being that
all frequencies, which are not exact multiples of a designated frequency, are
eliminated. Amplitudes of the corresponding time domain samples are algebraically
added for each record, and then divided by the number of records.
EXPONENTIAL AVERAGING
The capability to weight the FFTs with an exponentially increasing function, thereby
weighting the signal in favour of the most recently recorded data. This technique is
often used for studies of transient vibration in which the amplitudes are exponentially
decreasing. (Weighting. A factor by which some quantity is multiplied in order to
make it comparable with others)
PEAK HOLD
This finds the maximum amplitude during a given time period of all the FFTs in each
of the frequency bins and displays those peaks. Note that each peak is the average
amplitude within its own time record.
DYNAMIC RANGE
The dynamic range is the ratio between the largest and smallest amplitude signals that
a particular analyser can accommodate simultaneously. The amplitudes of the signals
are proportional to the output voltages of the transducers, usually in millivolts.
The dynamic range in analogue systems is usually limited by electrical noise. This is
usually not a concern with respect to the transducer itself, but filters, amplifiers,
recorders, etc. all add to the noise level and the result may be surprisingly high.
In digital systems, the dynamic range is dependant on the sampling accuracy and the
sampling rate shall be adequate for the frequencies of concern. The relationship
between the number of bits used to sample an analogue signal and the dynamic range
(if one bit is used for the sign) is as follows:
6 x (number of bits 1) = dynamic range (db)
Therefore, a dynamic signal analyser (DSA) with 16 bits of resolution will have a
dynamic range of 90 db, but any inaccuracies will reduce the dynamic range.

22

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

TYPES OF VIBRATION ALARMS

Overall vibration limits

Spectrum enveloping
Spectrum bands
Percentage change, statistical, and forecast alarms

Alarm methods and settings must be consistent to detect key events, yet be forgiving
enough to permit normal operating transients associated with normal machinery
operation. As the successful predictive maintenance program matures, more systemic
screening techniques develop, allowing more selective data screening and alarm
settings, which indicate specific mechanical events of interest.
ISO Guidelines

Evaluating the Vibration Measurement

Four general principles are commonly used to evaluate overall vibration measurement
values:
ISO 10816-1 Standard Comparison
Compare values to the limits established in the ISO 2372 Standard. Use the SKF
Vibcard (Figure 22) for this comparison.
Trend Comparison
Compare current values with values obtained over a period of time.
analysis software provides trending features for automatic trend plotting.
Baseline Comparison

Vibration

Comparison with Similar Machinery

Measure several machines of a similar type under the same conditions and judge the
results by mutual comparison.

23

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

If possible, use all four comparisons to evaluate your machinery's condition. Trend
comparisons should always be used.
ISO 10816-1 Standard Comparison
The SKF Vibcard provides quick reference for ISO 10816-1 Standard comparisons.
The ISO 10816-1Standards provide guidance for evaluating vibration severity in
machines operating in the 10 to 200 Hz (600 to 12,000 RPM) frequency range.
Examples of these types of machines are small, direct coupled, electric motors and
pumps, production motors, medium motors, generators, steam and gas turbines, turbo
compressors, turbo pumps and fans. Some of these machines can be coupled rigidly
or flexibly, or connected through gears. The axis of the rotating shaft may be
horizontal, vertical or inclined at any angle.
ASSESSING OVERALL VIBRATION SEVERITY

Trend Comparison
One of the most efficient and reliable methods of evaluating vibration severity is to
compare the most recent reading against previous readings for the same measurement
point, allowing you to see how the vibration values are "trending" over time. This
trend comparison between present and past readings is easier to analyze when the
values are plotted in a trend plot".

24

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Baseline Comparison & Acceptance Testing

Measurement records should include a baseline (known good) reading. Machinery
baseline measurements are usually established on applicable machines during
acceptance testing following construction or machine overhaul. Where there is no
previous machine history or machine type knowledge acceptance should be base upon
the relevant standards for that class / type of machinery. Baselines are usually
recorded in velocity (in/sec or mm/sec) typically using a 100 mV/g accelerometer
electronically integrated to produce a velocity measurement, over a minimum
frequency range 120 CPM, to a maximum frequency of interest, depending upon
machine rotating speed, as outlined in Table 1. Note that velocity best quantifies low
ordered mechanical anomalies, such as imbalance, mechanical looseness,
misalignment, and bearing defects in final stages of failure.
Shaft speed

Set Velocity

in RPM

fmax (Hz)

< or = 1200

100

1200 - 2400

200

> 2400

500

Table 1. Shaft Speed and Velocity Settings.

The baseline value may be acquired after an overhaul or when other indicators show
that the machine is running well. Subsequent measurements are compared to the
baseline to determine machinery changes.
Statistical analysis is very effective on mature databases. Simplified, any trended
parameter characteristic may be considered abnormal when it is two times the
standard deviation of its historical trend, and/or critical when the data is four times the
standard deviation of its historical trend.
Comparison with Other Machinery
When several identical machines are used under the same operating conditions,
evaluation can be carried out by comparing amplitudes from readings taken at the
same location and direction on each machine.
The above general severity chart provides general velocity and acceleration
measurement guidelines for determining machinery condition on typical machinery
with casing/rotor weight ratios around 5:1 (T.C. Rathbone, John Mitchell,
Machinery Analysis and Monitoring, Penwell Publishing Company, 1981). Note
that other standards and guidelines may be more appropriate to industry specific
25

ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

applications (for example, petrochemical processes typically

specifications, military applications use military standards, etc.).

utilize

API

OVERALL VIBRATION
Overall measurements are the mainstay of inexpensive hand-held vibration
monitoring tools (vibration pens, portable data collectors).

Overall vibration is the total vibration energy measured within a specific frequency
range. Measured numerically, a higher than normal overall value provides a quick
indication that "something" is causing the machine or component to vibrate more.
The frequency range for which the overall vibration reading is performed is
determined by the monitoring equipment. Some data collectors have their own
predefined frequency range for performing overall vibration measurements. Other
data collectors allow the user to select the overall measurement's frequency range.
When comparing overall values, it is important that both overall values be obtained
from the same frequency range.
Most portable instruments (with a fixed monitoring frequency band) measure velocity
over a frequency range of 10 Hz to 1 kHz, as this is considered the best range for
judging rotational and structural problems like unbalance, misalignment, looseness,
and stress applied to components (by far the most common causes of excessive
machinery vibration).
Typically, alert levels are difficult to determine when setting up a new database due to
variations in machine characteristics, mounting, loading, etc. Therefore, the
predictive maintenance analyst often elects to use industry guidelines. There are two
areas of consideration in applying these guidelines:

Guidelines may be frequency dependent, as opposed to designed for overall

applications
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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

Guidelines are applied for specific classifications of machinery

It is most desirable to specify an alert threshold high enough to minimize extraneous

alarms, yet conservative enough to not miss a critical excursion in machine condition.
It must be stressed that one must exercise caution when using overall vibration
measurements for machinery as the speed of the machine can adversely affect the
values for acceleration, velocity and displacement.
Most database software offers several variants of triggering an alarm using exception
criteria.
Exception criteria can also provide these additional alarms:
Alarm Forecast - An alarm may be configured for exception if a projected overall
value crosses the measurements overall alarm setpoints within a specified time
period.
Statistic Alarm - For a specified range of recent overall values for a measurement,
the mean (average) is calculated along with the standard deviation from the mean.
The standard deviation value is then multiplied a specified number of times (i.e., 3).
The sum of the mean value plus the multiplied standard deviation value is considered
the statistic alarm setpoint. If the current overall value crosses this setpoint, the
measurement is considered in exception.
Percent Change Alarm - A percent change alarm may be configured for exception if
the percentage of change between the last two overall values for a measurement is in
excess of a specified percentage, or if the most recent overall value is in excess of the
specified percentage of the measurements full scale value.
More advanced fixed band monitoring instruments provide multiple overall
measurement types, each monitoring a specific frequency range. For example, a
vibration pen might allow you to monitor overall velocity between 10 Hz and 1 kHz,
and overall acceleration between 10 kHz and 30 kHz. This allows you to focus on
either low frequency rotational and structural vibrations, or on vibrations occurring at
higher frequencies (for example, rolling element bearing or gearmesh vibrations).
In summary, monitoring overall vibration is a good detection tool for components
generating signals within the monitoring instruments frequency range. Note however
that some machinery (i.e., low speed heavily loaded equipment like paper machine
bearings) requires additional information to adequately monitor (information that is
frequency specific). Also, note that detection is not analysis. If a measurements
overall value increases, more extensive monitoring and analysis are typically
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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

performed to determine the cause of the increased vibration, and to determine the best
time for repair actions.
SPECTRUM ENVELOPING

Another method of screening involves spectral enveloping (this should not be

confused with acceleration enveloping). In this method, a representative spectrum is
identified, and a "form-fitting" envelope is attached to that spectrum, which permits a
small percentage of frequency drift due to speed and loading variations, and a present
amplitude allowance. An example would be an envelope assigned which allows a 5%
speed (frequency) variation, and a 3% gain in the amplitude of a discrete Frequency
before a component from the spectrum pierces the established envelope, and an alert
condition is printed. This particular method requires a reasonably mature machine
historical database, and relies heavily on the experience of the operator. This
alarming method is easily assigned to measurement points with a minimum of time
and effort and does not rely on "generic" alarm methods such as Spectrum Bands.

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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

SPECTRUM BANDS

Spectrum band analysis (banding) is used in applications such as quality assurance

screening, or condition monitoring of variable speed machinery. Spectrum band
alarms allow you to isolate specific frequencies for detection of expected faults.
There are two types of spectrum alarm bands:
Absolute Threshold - Enables you to specify the maximum allowable amplitude of
any peak within each designated band (if any peak equals or exceeds this threshold,
the band alarms).
Power Bands - Calculate the total energy (or "power") within each band generated by
all of the peaks within the band (using the same calculation base as calculating the
overall level of an entire spectrum).
Minimum and maximum frequencies that define each band are set within the
predictive maintenance software, or the band can be defined as a function of rotational
speed (for example, 1xRPM to 5xRPM). If minimum and maximum frequencies are
set as multiples of rotational speed, the resulting spectrum alarm band shifts up or
down on the frequency scale proportional to changes in machine speed. This is
essential for monitoring specific frequency ranges of interest (for example, bearing
defect frequencies, gear mesh frequencies, etc.) on variable speed machinery.
One advantage of spectrum banding is that this technique has been tried and proven
for many years the world over. A plant with no prior experience can establish
banding alarms prior to taking baseline measurements thus implementing a vibration
program with a minimum of machinery history information. proportional to changes
in machine speed. This is essential for monitoring specific frequency ranges of
interest (for example, bearing defect frequencies, gear mesh frequencies, etc.) on
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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

variable speed machinery. One advantage of spectrum banding is that this technique
has been tried and proven for many years the world over. A plant with no prior
experience can establish banding alarms prior to taking baseline measurements thus
implementing a vibration program with a minimum of machinery history information.

RESONANCE

Although there is no need to discuss vibration theory at length, it is worth

spending a little time on a topic which affects almost every aspect of vibration
measurement and analysis - resonance.
Consider again the simple block-spring arrangement. If the block is displaced
and released, it will undergo a decaying oscillation as illustrated. The
frequency of this oscillation is known as the natural frequency and its value
depends on the stiffness of the spring and the magnitude of the mass.

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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

If a sinusoidal force is now applied to the block at a low frequency, the block
will move in response to the force. Provided that the frequency is sufficiently
low, the block itself will have little effect on the amplitude of vibration, which
will be controlled simply by the presence of the spring. In other words the
displacement will be equal to the compression and extension of the spring
caused by the applied force.
At the opposite extreme, if the block is driven with a very high frequency
force, its amplitude will be controlled by the inertia of the block, and the effect
of the spring will be negligible.
In between these two extremes there exists a critical frequency where the
amplitude of vibration is magnified by a factor which can be anything between
50 and 1000. This phenomenon is known as "resonance" and occurs if the
frequency of a fluctuating force is equal to the natural frequency of the
structure. As noted earlier, this phenomenon is fundamental to all aspects of
vibration analysis.
It accounts for the critical speeds of a machine.
It can introduce major errors in vibration measurement (for example if
an accelerometer is fitted to a resonant bracket).
It is the basis of design of machinery isolation mounts.

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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

We will return to the subject of resonance on a number of occasions during the

course.

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ISO18436 Level 1 Module 2

MACHINERY VIBRATION - UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

DISPLACEMENT mils (Thou) or microns

pk to pk

VELOCITY

mm/sec rms

ACCELERATION

g rms

To conclude this session we will summarise the important features, but paying
particular attention to the common practice in machinery vibration
measurement.
Vibration can be measured in displacement, velocity or acceleration, in peak,
peak to peak or rms. However, there are preferred combinations and units
which tend to crop up most often:
Displacement

is usually quoted either in mils (thou) or microns.

Scaling will be either peak to peak or peak..
(1 micron = 10-3 mm = 0.04 mils)

Velocity

the preferred unit is mm/sec rms, although equipment of

American origin may quote inch/sec rms or inch/sec
peak.

Acceleration

is almost always quoted in "g" rms.

Frequencies can be quoted in Hz or Cycles/minute. In this course, we will use

Hz.

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