31295013710842

DYNAMIC TESTING OF AIRBAG FABRIC PERMEABILITY
AND EXTENSIBILITY FOR DEPOWERED AIRBAGS

by
ANAND NARAYANAN, B.Tech.
A THESIS
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
August, iyy
T3
/vo
(
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I) (
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Richard Wm. Tock, my advisor, for
giving me an opportunity to work on this research. I appreciate the freedom he gave and
confidence he had on me during all stages of this research. The physical interpretations
of the theoretical concepts he provided during the discussions helped me gain new
perspectives. As a professor, academician, inventor and a person, he remains an
inspiration to me. I would like to thank him for his help in providing all the resources
and for his repeated reviews of my work. "It could not have been better than this for me.
Dr. Tock".
My sincere thanks to Professor Farley, for the keen interest he showed on this
work and for his continued support at various stages of the research. I wish to thank
Dr. Ramesh Keshavaraj for providing the fabric samples. His research work on airbag
fabrics and his publications along with Dr. Tock helped me gain better understanding and
knowledge of the research.
I should thank my committee members. Dr. Ramesh Krishnan and
Dr. S. Ramkumar for their suggestions. My regards go to the professors at Chemical
Engineering Department, Texas Tech for their sincere teaching efforts and the staff
members for all their help. I would like to extend my appreciation for the Chrysler
Challenge Fund for thefinancialsupport.
11
I extend my sincere thanks to Quamrul for all his help. 1 would like to thank
Vasuki, for her patient review of my work and timely help, and my friends Agie,
Meiyappan, and Kannan for all their help.
Most of all, I like to thank a great friend, Lekha, for her continued moral support
and encouragement. Even in her busy days, she showed priority in helping my thesis
work. "I really appreciate it, Lekha."
Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my parents for their
constant and repeated encouragement, persuations and support throughout my life.
Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
ABSTRACT
viii
LIST OF TABLES
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION
n.
RESEARCH PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND
2.1
The research problem
2.2
Inflatable restraint systems - Airbags
2.3
Overviewof events after a crash
2.4
Airbag material of construction and selection
2.4.1
First-generation airbag fabrics
2.4.2
Second-generation airbag fabrics
2.4.3
Third-generation airbag fabrics
2.5
Performance comparison of polyamide and polyester fabrics
10
2.6
Functional parts in the airbag system
12
2.7
Airbag pressure time history
14
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
21
3.1
Estimation of energy adsorbed by a fabric
21
3.2
Biaxial stretching of woven fabrics
22
3.3
23
3.4
Theory of Blister Inflation
23
iv
3.4.1
3.5
IV
Mathematical expressions for stress-strain.
24
Kinetic energy adsorption by the airbag fabric
25
3.5.1 Mathematical expression for impact energy released by occupant
26
3.5.2 Energy dissipation by viscous airflow through the fabric
27
3.5.3 Energy adsorbed by biaxial stretching of the fabric
28
3.5.4 Energy dissipated through vents and seams
29
3.5.5 Total energy adsorbed by the airbag
31
EXPERIMENT
33
4.1
BHster-inflation Technique
33
4.2
Blister-inflation Apparatus
34
4.3
Fabric Materials
34
4.4
Test Plan
35
4.4.1 Estimation of permeability and biaxial Stress-strain for the airbag

fabrics
35
V
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1
Estimation of permeability and biaxial stress-strain characteristics of

the air-bag fabrics
40
5.2
Permeability and biaxial deformation at room temperature
40
5.3
Permeability and biaxial deformation at-40 C
41
5.4
Comparison of biaxial deformation of fabrics woven from different

Polymeric fibers
43
5.4.1
420-D Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave
44
5.4.1.1 Permeability at Room Temperature
44
5.4.1.2 Permeability at -40 ^C
45
5.4.1.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 420-D Fabric

5.4.2 630-D Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.5
45
46
46
5.4.2.2 Permeability at -40 C
47
48
48
49
5.4.3.2 Permeability at -40 X
49
50
50
51
5.4.4.2 Permeability at -*0 C
41
52
G166247Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave
53
53
5.4.5.2 Permeability at -40 C
53
5.4.5.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of G166247 Fabric
54
Analysis of Permeability/Pressure Drop Values of the Airbag Fabrics

Using Neural Networks.
55
5.5.1 Blister Inflation Technique
55
5.5.2 The data elimination problem
56
5.5.3 Method of Solution
56
5.5.4 Limitations of this Method of solution

vi
57
VI
5.6 Noise reduction on the raw data.
57
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
85
6.1 Conclusions
85
6.2 Recommendations for future research
86
BIBLIOGRAPHY
87
vii
ABSTRACT
Woven textile fabrics are used in airbags to adsorb the kinetic energy that
is dissipated during an automotive crash. Energy dissipation is achieved through viscous
airflow through the fabric pores and by biaxial stretching of the fabric. The synergistic
effects of temperature, pressure, fabric weave, fabric finish and fabric denier is difficuh
to determine a priori. This study was proposed to gain better understanding of the
performance of the airbag fabric and its properties under the hostile conditions of its
deployment. Since airbag fabrics are being manufactured wdth different properties, it is
important that these fabrics are evaluated before they are used for passenger restraint.
Before this research effort, these fabrics were not tested at extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure. The novel blister-inflation technique was used to evaluate the
properties of these fabrics under biaxially stretching conditions.
It was used to
investigate the permeability-temperature-pressure drop relationship and biaxial stressstrain behavior of the fabrics.
Vlll
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Properties of fibers used in airbag application
18
4.1 Properties of fabrics tested
37
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1
Functional parts of an airbag system
19
2.2
Airbag pressure time history in Isolation and with dummy
20
3.1
32
4.1
Schematic diagram of blister inflation apparatus
38
51
Permeability behavior of fabrics at room temperature.
59
5.2
Permeability behavior of fabrics at -40 C
60
5.3
Permeability behavior of 420 - D fabric
61
5.4
Permeability behavior of 630-D - D fabric
62
5.5
Permeability behavior of 650-D - D fabric
63
5.6
Permeability behavior of 840-D fabric
64
5.7
Permeability behavior of G166247 fabric
65
5.8
Biaxial behavior of 420-D fabric at room temperature
66
5.9
Biaxial behavior of 420-D fabric at -40 C
67
5.10
68
5.11
69
5.12
70
5.13
71
5.14
72
5.15
73
.X
5.16
Biaxial behavior of 0166247 fabric at room temperature
74
5.17
Biaxial behavior of G166247 fabric at -40 C
75
5.18
Initial least squares fit
76
5.19
Second least squares fit
11
5.20
Final least squares fit
78
5.21
Schematic diagram of blister inflation apparatus
79
5.22
Pressure Vs time before noise reduction
80
5.23
Pressure Vs time after noise reduction
81
5.24
A typical displacement Vs time curve
82
5.25
A typical permeability behavior of the airbag fabric
83
5.26
A typical biaxial stress-strain behavior of the airbag fabric
84
XI
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
All the cars manufactured in the U.S. since 1994 have come equipped with
automotive inflatable restraint technology commonly referred as airbags. Recent
reports show that the global airbag fabric sales have risen fi-om 30 million lbs. in
1994 to more than 100 million lbs. in 1998. Another study predicts that by 2005, the
global airbag industry will produce more than 180.2 million airbag modules
annually, more than doubling the 81.1 million produced during the 1999 calendar
year. Statistical studies cite that the airbags help to reduce driver deaths by 14
percent while passenger bags reduce deaths by 11 percent. These facts indicate that
airbags are one of the important safety restraint systems in the 90's. However some
controversy arose in 1998 over the legalities of the use of airbags due to some deaths
caused by sudden inflation of these safety systems with children.
In 1998, Mercedes-Benz and Volvo introduced side window air bag curtains
that drop down fi-om the roofline. At the Airbag 2000+ Symposium in Germany,
TRW Inc. displayed dual-stage inflators, with two new air bag sensors to enhance
sensing in frontal crashes of varying speeds, occupant positions and crash
characteristics and pyrotechnic seat belt pretensioners as part of advanced restraint
systems. Honda Inc. and Ford motor Co. are also involved in the dual inflator
research. BMW 5 and 7 Series are being equipped with roofbags (Sausage Shaped
airbags in the roof) to prevent head injuries, while the U.S. Department of
Transportation is involved in the development of "Smart Air Bag" technology.
The airbag is typically constructed from a woven nylon 66 fabric. Initially,

uncoated fabrics were used in airbag manufacture. The Stem & Stem patent [14]
revealed the use of permeable fabrics for this specific applicafion. Takata of Japan
exposed the use of Silicone-coated fabrics, which initiated the use of coated fabrics.
The PFG (Precision Fabric Group) demonstrated that low-denier fabrics are best
suited for the airbag applications.
Passenger restraint depends on two mechanisms: Viscous airflow through the
vents of the airbag fabric and the biaxial stretching of the fabric. However, energy
dissipation is mainly achieved by viscous airflow through the vents rather than by
stretching.
In general, the existing ASTM standards do not match the hostile
environmental conditions faced by the airbag. However, recent controversies in

airbag use have forced legislators to impose stringent test conditions and standards.
The airbag is inflated at speeds of around 210 mph. No technique has been
developed to test the biaxial stress-strain behavior of the fabric released at such high
speeds. The blister inflation technique (BIT) is only one of its kind developed for
the aforementioned application. In fact, BIT simulates the actual inflation of the
airbag during the automobile crash, since, the fabrics could be tested under biaxially
stretched condition. Also, the technique permits synergistic testing of temperature
and pressure effects on the permeability and stretching behavior of the fabric.
In the prior research efforts the fabrics were tested at high temperatures and
low pressure drop. In this study, the tests were conducted at a comparatively high
pressure at both room temperature and at -40''C. In most automobiles, the inflating
air, which passes through the airbag are, hot and at elevated temperatures. Cold
inflation techniques are being developed but are not in wide use. Hence, in the low
temperature tests in this study, only the fabric and fabric holder were maintained at
-40C, while the inflating air was taken from the reservoir maintained at room
temperature. The research effort reported in this thesis also involves the elimination
of unnecessary data points using a neural network approach and other statistical
measurements that will be discussed in later chapters.
The research efforts in the field of automotive restraint technology will be
reviewed in Chapter n, while Chapter IE presents the theoretical background. The
procedural detail of the experiments that were performed will be is discussed in
Chapter FV. Chapter V will cover the experimental results with a discussion about
the neural network approach and other statistical methods used in producing the
results.
Chapter VI contains the conclusions of the research effort and
recommendations of future work
Chapter II
RESEARCH PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND
2.1 The research problem

Woven textile fabrics are used in airbags to adsorb the kinetic
energy that is dissipated during an automotive crash. This research was proposed to gain
better understanding of the performance of the airbag fabric and its properties under the
hostile conditions of its deployment. The demands of quality and reliability of the airbag
fabric are high because of the safety device nature of the airbag. ASTM [15], which is
active in the standardization of test methods and practices for the fabric and occupant
safety industries had failed to recognize the factors that affect the performance of airbag
fabrics. The ASTM standards for measuring permeability specify a very low pressure
drop, a controlled room temperature and humidity [16]. However, the airbag fabric
encounters much more hostile conditions than these specifications. Since airbag fabrics
are being manufactured with different properties, it is important that these fabrics are
evaluated before they are used for passenger restraint. It has to be noted that before this
research effort, these fabrics were not tested at extreme conditions of temperature and
pressure. The novel blister-inflation technique was used to evaluate the properties of
these fabrics under biaxially stretching conditions. It was used to investigate the
permeability-temperature-pressure drop relationship and biaxial stress-strain behavior of
the fabrics. The role played by the airbag fabrics in the dissipation of impact energy was
studied. Nylon and polyester fabrics of different weave and denier were investigated.
2.2 Inflatable restraint svstems-Airbags

An airbag system for either the driver or passenger consists of an airbag module,
crash sensors, a diagnostic monitor unit, steering wheel connector coil and an indicator
lamp. All these components are interconnected by a wiring harness and powered by the
vehicle's battery. Other safety components that function in conjunction with the
components of airbag system includes the airbag steering wheel, energy absorbing
steering column, seat, seat belt, and knee bolster. When a crash occurs the driver and
passenger side airbag systems are deployed simultaneously. A schematic of these
components is shown in Figure 2.1
2.3 Overview of events after a crash

A frontal crash that exceeds a predetermined severity level of 16-19 km/h causes
a sequence of events to occur in a typical airbag system. Crash sensors are triggered
which respond by sending impulses to an electronic control module (ECM). This module
may also include a safe sensor, which is intended to avoid false deployments. The ECM
evaluates the situation before triggering an electrical impulse. The impulse causes a
central igniter to fire and penetrate the propellant chamber. The propellant ignites and
produces hot but harmless nitrogenous gas. The gas passes through a filter and enters the
system's nylon bag through inflator ports. The pressurized gases cause the bag to inflate
and depending on the type, the bag emerges through the cover on the steering column or
passenger dash panel. Once deployed, the bag cushions the occupant's impact via
pneumatic damping effects produced by the airbag fabric and any specially constructed
vents in the airbag.
The airbag on the driver's side is constructed of a light weight fabric, which when
inflated occupies a volume of 65 L. Passenger-side airbags may be several times larger,
and when inflated may contain 100-250 L of gas. A typical Driver-side airbag will inflate
more quickly than a passenger-side airbag This quicker inflation time is required due to
the shorter time to secondary impact, since the distance between the driver and the airbag
is about 20 inches at maximum. The fabric used on the front surface of the drivers side
airbag is typically coated to increase the fabric slip, facilitate deployment, protect the
nylon fabric from hot gases, and precisely control gas escape during deployment.
Passenger-side airbags are usually not coated because they do not need to inflate as
rapidly as the driver-side airbags and the bag's inner surface does not experience the high
temperatures, pressures, and hot-particulate exposure due to their larger volume and
greater distance from the inflator.
2.4 Airbag material of construction and selection

The standard airbag is constructed of fabric woven from nylon 66 fibers because
of their high specific strength. The overall fabric requirements for airbag applications are
(1) a high strength-to-weight ratio and good elongation properties, (2) minimal weight for
minimal space/thickness, (3) insensitivity to temperature, (4) high cover factor and (5)
capability of being coated as in the case of the drivers side application.
Our investigations on the traditional nylon 6,6 fabrics were extended to two other
fabrics, (1) another polyamide, nylon 6, and (2) a high strength polyester fabric. The
following fabric construction parameters should be considered in any type of fabric used
for airbag application.
Yam- Yams are of spun and filament yams with or without twist. Filament yams were
selected for airbag application because of their greater tensile strength in relation to bulk
and weight. Physical properties vary with degree of twist and so the twist of yam fiber is
of some importance. For example, a yarn's tensile strength depends not only on the
constituent fiber strength, but also on frictional forces imparted by between fibers in a
yarn. However, low twist yarns provide a smooth coating surface and offer good cover
for coating, which in tum contributes to high tear strength of a coated fabric. In most
cases the control of coating penetration is critical to maintaining tear strength since,
substantial penetration leads to resistance to fabric distortion. Correlation of low tear to
increasing penetration for nylon is excellent. It was theorized by early investigators that
the base fiber must exhibit as high a tensile strength as possible, together with as high an
elongation as practical, in order to resist the rapid thmst during inflation. Under these
conditions, nylon fabrics, either wet or dry, appeared to have the best overall tenacity
properties. This coupled with the low specific gravity of nylon gave a very desirable high
strength to weight ratio. Finally, the maximum operating temperatures created by gas
generation should give an indication of the thermal resistance needed by the fabric when
it is packed tightly in the appropriate compartment in the car.
Comparison of the basic properties of fabrics made from different fibers is
presented in Table 2.1
Weave- Weave is another factor to be considered in the selection of the fabric. The three
basic weaves are plain, twill and satin. However in addition to these basic other weaves.
such as ripstop, dobby-dot, fancy, paradym and paradox have also been investigated for
airbag application. A study of the theory of tear strength indicates the importance of both
the yam's tensile strength and of maximizing this strength by increasing the number of
warp and fill threads. In airbag applications the weave type plays an important role on
the biaxial properties of the fabric.
Weave count- Weave count is indicative of the number of yarns per inch. It affects the
fabric's permeability, strength, weight, biaxial properties and bulk. Prior investigations
have shown that the effect of weave and count, and their relation under biaxial stretching
conditions is very complex. The complexity is such that many synergetic effects cannot
be determined a priori.
Finish- Finish may include appearance, bleaching, and sizing.
It may also include
scouring and heat setting. Calendering can play a cmcial role with polyester fabrics.
Other finishing operations were found not to be significant for airbag applications. The
most significant items under finish appear to be (1) sizing which affects fiber-fiber
adhesion, (2) scouring, which affects adhesion and tear strength, and (3) heat setting
which affects permeability and fabric stability during and after processing.
2.4.1 First-generation airbag fabrics

The fabrics used for airbags during the 1970's by General Motors (GM) were
woven from 840 denier nylon and had a neoprene coating. The higher the denier numbers
the thicker the yam and the coarser the woven fabric. By today's standards this initial
fabric was coarse and heavy. A relatively heavy neoprene coating was required to cover
and protect the airbag's surface. Moreover, coated surface was necessarily heavily coated
8
with talc to facilitate handling and packing as well as to prevent the possibility of
adhesion between fabric layers during folded storage in the module. Therefore, a very
large module was required to accommodate these early airbags. From today's perspective
these units have both material and design shortcomings, even though they saved lives and
reduced head and chest injuries.
2.4.2
Second-generation airbag fabrics

This generation also featured a neoprene coating, but was woven from a 420-
denier nylon. Even though the weave density of this fabric was nearly doubled to
maintain strength, a noticeable weight and thickness improvement was possible. This
was due to reduced fabric coarseness and a corresponding decrease in the amount of
coating required to fill this texture of fabric.
2.4.3
Third-generation airbag fabrics

There was further improvement with the introduction of higher strength,
lightweight 420 denier nylon fabrics. Pioneered in the Japanese market and later
transferred to the U.S., the new higher strength nylon 6,6 yam resulted in higher
performance in a 181x181 square fabric design versus the conventional 420 denier
standard of 193 yams/dm. Higher fabric strength was achieved with loose-weave fabrics
which were correspondingly lighter and softer. Packing operations were facilitated with
mass saving and the resultant reduction in stiffness of the fabric. Airbags packed with this
new design used less space, and the deployed airbag reduced abrasions when in contact
with human skin.
A major change in airbag designs came with the introduction of internal tether
systems for improved deployment control. The addition of tethers inside the airbag
provided two key objectives. First, tethers limited the intrusion of the airbag into the
normal driver and passenger spaces during deployment. This characteristic reduced the
risk of inflation-induced injuries to the passenger. The limitation on intmsion is
significant, since the peak velocity of an untethered airbag during deployment may reach
280m/h. This speed is an order of magnitude higher than the velocity at which a driver
might be expected to impact the airbag after deployment during a 30m/hfrontalcollision.
Specifically, the intmsion of a tethered bag is limited to 12-14 inches compared to a 1520 inches in untethered bag. Secondly, the tether was designed to speed up the airbag's
internal expansion and increase the effectiveness of out-of-position driver protection.
Vent holes on the side of the airbags away from the passenger were also used to lessen
chances of bums to the passengers from escaping hot inflation gases.
2.5
Performance comparison of polyamide and polyester fabrics
One recent topic of discussion has been the possibility of replacing nylon with
high strength polyester. Some of the properties of polyesters that make them a more
appropriate choice for seatbelt applications are less appropriate for airbags.
This is
because the polyesters are not as hygroscopic as nylon and they do not exhibit the
dimensional changes during temperature and humidity cycling that are characteristic of
nylon. Polymer or fabric swelling is not conducive to smooth uptake and pullout from
small spools and reels in the seat-belt tensioning mechanism. Also, the greater degree of
elongation that nylon can exhibit under high loading can lead to stretching of behs, which
10
is a potential problem during impact situafions. While polyesters offer clear advantages
over nylon for seat-belt application, the normal operating conditions for airbag fabrics
represent a very different and much more hostile environment than seat belts are likely to
encounter. Under these conditions nylon appears to be superior.
Nylon's greater elongation provides a uniform biaxial stress distribution along
perimeter seams in an airbag. As the airbag deploys and the seams come under stress,
nylon's elongation allows the force to be widely distributed, thereby enhancing fracture
resistance at the highest stress points. For a given amount of biaxial strain, the polyesters
experience a higher magnitude of biaxial stress indicative of their higher stiffness. Nylon
exhibits a higher melting point than polyesters, and also a greater heat of fusion. Nylon
provides an additional quenching property because nylons typically absorb 2-4% water
by weight [14], thereby helping to prevent bum-through from hot particulates that
potentially can break free from the inflator and travel into the inflating airbag. Thus
when compared to polyesters, nylons require more heat before they begin to lose their
properties. This makes nylon better suited for the blast of hot gases during deployment.
The fabric on the front contact surface of the driver-side airbag has an elastomeric
coating that enhances the fabric's slip coefficient and provides for smooth and rapid
deployment. The mbber coating must flex and stretch as the fabric is inflated in three
dimensions. At the same time the coating provides some heat shielding and ablative
protection to the fabric by sealing fabric pores and the coating prevents gases from
escaping prematurely.
11
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2.6 Functional parts in the airbag system

To understand the working of the airbag system, some knowledge of the
important functional parts of the system is necessary. The following section focuses on
the functional parts of the airbag system.
Inflator-The inflator is a complex dynamic system that includes simultaneous operation
of heat transfer, filtration, combustion, and compressible two-phase
flow.
The
pyrotechnic airbag inflator generates gas to inflate and pressurize an airbag within a time
period on the order of 10 milliseconds. An airbag inflator must provide a time-dependent
profile of gas flow suited to the crash characteristics of a particular vehicle, and it must
also remove a high percentage of the particulates that are a byproduct of the combustion
of the pyrotechnic material. To achieve a proper sequencing of the combustion process,
the two pyrotechnic materials are contained in separate chambers. Orifices at the exits of
each of these chambers, together with yet a third chamber, control the respective flow
rates. The third chamber, or the filtration chamber, also contains both a slag trap and a
filter. The fiher consists of one or more sizes of wire mesh, screens or fibrous material,
through which all of the gases are forced to flow so that the slag and other condensed
particulates from the gas stream do not enter the airbag. In the process, the fiher also
removes heat from the gas stream.
The crash sensor-The fiinctioning of the airbag system is usually the same for all cars.
The sensor system however may be the only significant difference from one system to
another. There are currently several theories of sensor design and placement. Improper
design, location or calibration of a sensor can resuh in premature inflation, late
deployment, or even worse, the failure of the bag to deploy when needed. The three
12
distinct types of sensors in use today are electro-mechanical, electronic, and mechanical.
These sensors function to deploy the airbag when the vehicle experiences a change in
velocity that is characteristic of afrontalcollision.
Electro-mechanical sensors are located in either the front of the car, the cmsh
zone, and/or in the passenger compartment, depending on the system design All electromechanical sensors rely on the relative movement of an inertial mass that closes an
electric circuit if the deceleration pulse is of sufficient magnitude and direction. The two
designs currently in use are generically referred to as the "ball-in-tube design" and the
"spring-mass design."
During collision the electronic sensor systems use an accelerometer which
measures the deceleration experienced by the car. A computer algorithm processes this
deceleration pulse and a decision is made based on certain criteria as to whether or not to
deploy the airbag.
An electronic sensor is usually chosen when a single passenger
compartment discriminating sensor is used along with an arming censor. Electronic

censors have an advantage over most other sensors since they are insensitive to vertical
and lateral vibrations.
A single discriminating sensor system has the additional
advantage in that it will trigger later on some crashes. This is of less importance if the
occupants are wearing seat belts and, therefore, are somewhat restrained until the airbag
deploys.
A mechanical airbag system relies on a mechanical trigger that is located inside
and adjacent to the inflator within the airbag module. The electrical components found in
more conventional airbag systems are not required in this system.
13
The associated
components of the system i.e., steering wheel, energy absorbing steering column, knee
bolster, and seat belt, however are required.
The two operating categories that sensors fall into are: discriminating and safing
sensors. The discriminating sensors are the primary decision components of a system.
They can be mounted in the passenger compartment, or mounted forward in the cmsh
zone of the vehicle, in which case they are designed to trigger on a constant velocity
change.
Several discriminating sensors are provided for redundancy, and these are
typically calibrated to deploy the system upon experiencing a change in the vehicle speed
of 16-19 km/h. The safing sensor is usually mounted in the passenger compartment of
the automobile and is in series with the discriminating sensor. It is calibrated to fiinction
upon experiencing a sudden change in vehicle speed of approximately 1-4 km/h. This
sensor reduces the possibility of an accidental deployment of the system.
2.7 Airbag pressure time history

The airbag pressure-time history is the basis for the occupant restraint provided by
an airbag, and, hence it influences the level of restraint performance. Many researchers
have attempted to simulate airbag inflation, including the airbag waveform by using the
airbag models constmcted around thermodynamic and hydrodynamic theories. However,
most of these airbag models employ complicated theoretical equations and are based on a
large number of assumptions. Consequently, even though these simulation programs
may compute an airbag pressure waveform that corresponds reasonably well with
specific experimental results, performance of the fabric material during deployment is
usually completely ignored.
14
A typical airbag pressure waveform comparison between inflation in isolation and

inflation followed by interaction with an impactor or a dummy is shown in Figure 2.2
This figure indicates that when the airbag is inflated in isolation. Then an initial peak
bag-pressure is reached and a momentary vacuum occurs in the bag because of the
turbulence of gases inside the bag immediately after the cover breaks. This is followed
by subsequent normal represurization. Before the failure of the airbag-door, the pressure
inside the compartment may reach as high as 400kPa. During the repressurization, a
second peak is attained within approximately 30ms, after which the pressure again
decreases gradually until it reaches atmospheric pressure. In comparison, the inflation
behavior followed by an impactor or a dummy causes the bag to be compressed by
contact, producing an increase in the bag pressure. This contact with the deflating airbag
causes an acceleration of gaseous outflow producing the viscous dissipation of the kinetic
energy of the passenger. The resulting mechanical stretching of the fabric's fibers will
also absorb a fraction of this energy. However, it is the fabric's permeability and vent
system, which are of primary importance to energy dissipation. In practice the bagpressure increase during repressurization is typically in the range of 20-35 kPa depending
on the volume. Hence, the permeability and biaxial performance of the pressure drop
across the fabric are important (Figure 2.2).
Such permeability data were used to
estimate the viscous energy dissipation at a 34 kPa pressure drop.

The energy dissipation on a typical driver's side airbag where the top surface of
the bag is coated with mbber was also considered. The permeability of the seams was
measured in the blister-inflation apparatus by inserting a sample of the fabric from an
actual airbag containing a seam in the sample-jig. Thus, the permeability through this
15
sample would be a composite of both the seam and the fabric. The effect of the fabric
was factored out and permeability of the seam based on the area of the seam was
estimated.
The permeability of the seam was corrected for the area that was assumed to be in
the shape of toms across the airbag. The sample- jig exposes a cross section of fabric
with a seam to a pressure drop created by the inflating gas.
If the seam is assumed to
transverse the sample on a diagonal, the following equations can be used to calculate
permeability of a seam as a function of the area.
For uncoated fabric:
QS=(QC-QF)AS
For coated fabric
/As\
Qs= Q C - A S - Q F - I 2
3/2,
where Qs = volumetric flow rate through the seam (ft /m /msec)

Qc = the composite volumetric flow rate through the seam and fabric in the sample
(ftVmVmsec)
3/2i
QF = volumetric flow rate through the fabric alone (ft /m /msec)

3/2y
As = area of the sample in the sample-jig (ft /m /msec)
16
The seam permeability was variable with respect to the pressure drop across the
coated fabric seams and exhibited less volumetric flow rate than the uncoated fabric. The
biaxial stress-strain behavior was also found to be quite different for both the coated and
uncoated fabrics.
The two different terms for energy dissipation through biaxial
stretching were used in the energy dissipation model.

The permeability of the expansible fabric was correlated with the biaxial stressstrain behavior of the fabric in order to quantify the contribution to energy dissipation due
to the fabric. Measurement of this relationship was accomplished by the blister-inflation
technique. When an expansible fabric is stretched biaxially by inflation into a spherical
segment or "blister," the fabric's stmcture may open up and becomes more permeable,
just as it does when an airbag is inflated.
17
Table 2.1 Properties of fibers used in airbag application
Property
Cotton
Nylon
Polyester
Elongation
Low
Medium
Medium
Tensile Strength
Medium
High
High
Resistance to Aging
Good
Good
Good
Moisture
Fair
Very Good
Very Good
Flammability
Poor
Fair
Fair
Heat Degradation
Good
Very Good
Excellent
Mildew
Poor
Good
Good
18
Figure 2.1 Functional Parts of an Airbag System.
19
Alrlmc
Pressure
(Relative
Maenttnde)
Peak Bag Pressure (1)
Normal Repressurization (3)
Second peak (4)

Repressurization
on Contact
Onset of Contact
Atmospheric
Pressure
Level (5)
50
100
Time (msec)
Momentary Vacuum (2)
Airbag inflated in isolation

Airbag inflated with impactor / dummy
Figure 2.2
Airbag pressure-time history in isolation and with a dummy

20
Chapter III
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Inflatable safety airbags are now a standard feature of every car. The technology
behind this restraint system, however, has been used for many years by theatrical stunt
men. Only in recent years, have engineers adopted it into automotive industry as one of
the safety restraint technology and automobile airbags are expected to be small, inflate
with less amount of air and yet be reliable under various adverse conditions. In fact,
airbags operate with a reliability of better than six nines or less than one failure in one
million.
Amongst the various factors that must be considered, like the design of the
airbag, inflation techniques, etc., the fabric that is used in airbag construction plays a
pivotal role.
The principal material of construction of an airbag is a woven fabric.
Conventionally, nylon 66 is the textile used in airbag application. Upon impact in an
accident, gases are generated nearly instantaneously and the airbag is inflated.
The
airbag fabric stretches biaxially following deployment and also following passenger
impact. The kinetic energy fi-om the passenger is adsorbed not only by the gaseous
outflow through the fabric, seams, and special vents constructed for this purpose, but also
by fabric stretching. The extent and nature of fabric stretching, a characteristic of each
fabric, determines to a limited extent, the airbag's energy adsorption capacity.
21
31 Estimation of energy adsorbed by a fabric

Kinetic energy considerations are used in the estimation of maximum energy
adsorption capability of an airbag fabric. A typical passenger of known mass, whose
velocity must be reduced from the vehicle's velocity at the start of the crash to zero,
typically represents the kinetic energy adsorbed by the fabric. The two basic mechanisms
by which this energy is adsorbed are, (1) Viscous energy dissipation by the air being
forced to flow through designed orifices or through porous fabric itself and (2) Elastic
and inelastic stretching of the fibers [7]. In the fabric energy dissipation by viscous
airflow predominates over biaxial stretching mechanisms.
Typically, in a nylon 66
fabric, 80 % to 95 % of the total energy adsorbed can be attributed to viscous airflow

through vents of the fabric.
As the size of the airbag is decreased, biaxial fabric
stretching becomes more important. That is, more energy is dissipated through fabric
stretching.
For both viscous flow and fabric stretching mechanisms, the important
variables are the pressure drop across the fabric that creates flow and the absolute
pressure on the high side of the fabric. The absolute pressure indicates the amount of air
that is available for flow through the fabric.
3.2. Biaxial stretching of woven fabrics

When inflated, airbag fabrics are stretched biaxially. The biaxial behavior and
performance of the fabric under these stretching conditions have not been
comprehensively reported in the literature.
Biaxial stretching of any fabric should
typically contribute more to the openness of the fabric. The extent to which woven
22
fabrics open up, changes with temperature, pressure drop, fabric weave and denier of the
fabric. It is difficuh to accurately predict these changes a priori.
It should be noted that all fabrics lack in bending strength Hence fabrics exhibit
an inability to support loads on the fabric plane unless they are under tension. The initial
unidirectional fiber resistance is due to the reluctance of the fibers to straighten in the
direction of the stress field. This resistance is due to the fact that theflexuralrigidityof
the threads under tension as they are forced to become less undulated. Under uniaxial
tension, most of the nonlinear response can be attributed to kinematic interaction between
warp and weft threads and their undulation in the unstressed state.
3.3 Airbag pressure time history

Passenger restraint by an airbag is based on the airbag pressure time history that
greatly influences the level of restraint performance. Many researchers have attempted to
simulate airbag inflation including the airbag pressure waveform using dynamic models.
A schematic comparison for airbag inflation in isolation and that with a dummy occupant
is shown in Figure 3.1. Once the airbag is suddenly pressurized with gases, an initial
peak (1) that typically is the global maxima is reached after which a momentary vacuum
(2) occurs in the bag. Following this is the subsequent secondary pressurization (3) and a
secondary peak that indicates that airbag is inflated. After this the airbag is fiilly deflated
to atmospheric pressure. The pressure waveform in the vicinity of the secondary peak is
indicative of the passenger restraint forces.
Hence, pressure waveform after the
momentary vacuum has to be considered to arrive at the energy dissipation capacity of

the airbag.
23
3.4. Theory of Blister Inflation

Under biaxial stretching forces, an expansible fabric becomes more permeable.
The openness produced due to these stretching forces is a strong ftinction of fiber
diameter, fabric finish, yam twist and crimp employed. Prediction of the permeability of
the fabric under these stretching conditions is very difficuh.
fabric samples is determined experimentally.
Hence, the permeability of
This experimental characterization of
permeability determination was carried out using a biaxial stretching technique referred
to as the "Bhster Inflation Technique" . It was developed by Tock et al.
In this
technique, the sample fabric is distended into a blister by pressurized air on one side of
the fabric. This technique actually simulates the stress fields in the fabric during of
deployment of an airbag. It can also be used in the determination of biaxial stress-strain
relationship that quantifies fabric's permeability performance. An estimate of the amount
of energy dissipated by viscous airflow through fabric and from biaxial stretching can
also be estimated using this technique.
3.4.1
Mathematical expressions for stress-strain

The mathematical expressions needed to reduce the raw data to meaningftil stress-
strain relationships have been reported extensively in the literature. The biaxial tensile
stress with respect to fiber stretching used for calculation in the approach adopted by
Tock et al is given by [14],
PD
^b=:i- 4(X)'-h2(X)+(ij-L
\4/ Y
(3.1)
While the corresponding amount of biaxial strain is given by.
24
Su=
.-1
COS
1 - 4<xy
X^(-^)-l
l-t-4-(X)^
4/ X
(3.2)
In these equations, the variables are:

a b = biaxial tensile stress in the fabric,
P = pressure drop across the fabric,
do = the original fabric thickness,
X = dimensionless ratio of {WD),
h = height of the blister,
D = blister diameter,
8b = biaxial strain in the fabric.
It was assumed that during the tests that a constant volume of woven airbag fabric
is deformed from a flat configuration to a spherical segment.
3.5 Kinetic energy adsorption by the airbag fabric

Airbags can adsorb impact energy by four different mechanisms.
Of these,
energy dissipation by viscous flow of gases through the fabric predominates. Adsorption
by biaxial or visco-elastic fabric stretching is not well defined. Differential pressure
across the fabric is a key parameter. On impact, the inflators create an initial pressure by
generating gases.
The differential pressure across the fabric is created by unique
combination of collisions between passenger and airbag, and by the airbag permeability.
Hence, the specific knowledge of fabric's overall permeability characteristics as a
25
ftinction of the pressure drop is required. This relationship between permeability and
pressure drop must then be coupled with the desired pressure profile that occurs during
the crash, if energy adsorption is to be quantified. The derived expressions for energy
adsorption have been well documented in the literature. However, the manipulation of
these equations to accurately predict a crash scenario with an airbag deployment usually
requires that a number of simplifying assumptions be made.
3.51 Mathematical expression for impact energy released by occupant

As noted earlier in this chapter, kinetic energy considerations are used to estimate
the amount of energy adsorbed by the airbag fabric. With an assumption that a passenger
of known mass travels at the same speed as the automobile and comes to rest, then the
amount of energy released by the occupant is given by [14],
AE KE=
AMU^
2gc
(3.3)
where,
AEK.E
= Kinetic energy dissipated by the occupant while going from a velocity U
to zero velocity. It is assumed that some or all of the kinetic energy is dissipated.
M = mass of the occupant (kg)
U = velocity (m/s)
gc = gravitational constant (9.806 kgm/kg.fs ).
Substitution of assumed values to the above equation yields a maximum value for
the energy that must be adsorbed by the airbag.
26
3.5.2 Energy dissipation bv viscous airflow through the fabric

Most shock absorbing devices adsorb kinetic energy through viscous effects. In
airbags viscous energy dissipation is the mechanism through which most of the passenger
impact energy is adsorbed. This energy can be estimated as the product of total volume
of air that is forced to flow through the fabric and the differential pressure across the
fabric that causes the flow. All flows were corrected to STP conditions to highlight the
effects of temperature.
EVF=QF(AP).ATA
(3.4)
where,
Ev.F= energy dissipated through the viscous flow of the fluid.
QF = volumetric flow rate of the fluid through the fabric, m /s
AP = pressure drop across the fabric. Pa
AT.A=
total area of the permeable fabric.
Equation 3.4 can be used to estimate the rate of energy dissipation, if the
volumetric flow rate for a given differential pressure is knovm. This relationship was
determined using the blister inflation technique. Equations 3.3 and 3.4 can be used to
determine the volume of the airbag necessary for dissipating a known value of kinetic
energy.
3.5.3 Energy adsorbed by biaxial stretching of the fabric

Energy can be stored at the molecular level for polymers, especially rubbery
polymers, by elastic deformations. This phenomenon was initially known in metals. But
27
unlike metals, the modulus of the polymer decreases with deformation. The amount of
energy dissipated or stored in a unit volume of polymer material can be estimated by
integrating the area under the stress-strain curve for that material. This area is also
referred to as the material's toughness when the stress fixed extends to fracture.
There are complexities induced in the calculation of energy dissipated by
stretching of the fabric. These are due to the fact that fabrics, unlike metals, are unable to
support comprehensive loads on their own plane. This inability induces a strong nonlinearity in an attempt to approximate fabrics to isotropic or orthotropic continua. Also,
the complex interaction of the fibers in a fabric makes this kind of approximation
inappropriate. In an unstressed state, the non-linearity is due to kinematic interaction
between warp and weft threads and their undulation. These effects are negligible under a
biaxial stress. The energy adsorbed due to elastic stretching of the fabric is given by,
EB.S=0.5.
(ab.Sb).VTv
(3.5)
where,
EBS = energy dissipated through biaxial stretching
Gh = biaxial stress
Sb = biaxial strain
Stretching rates are different for coated and uncoated fabrics. For coated fabrics,
the stress strain relationship is non-linear. It can be arrived at by using,
EB.S
= sof CJb. f(8).
(3.5.1)
28
The biaxial stress strain curve was generated for each of the fabric tested using
blister inflation technique. Actually, the adsorbed energy is never stored fiilly in the
fabric material. The visco-elastic effects due to the molecular motions convert a fraction
of the energy released as heat energy. Due to these effects, a plastic flow is generated
and the fabric material is either permanently deformed or it takes an extended duration to
recover its original form.
Since there is an elastic component in this visco-elastic
behavior, a fraction of the kinetic energy released by the passenger impact on the airbag
is adsorbed by the elastic component. This fraction of energy stored due to elasticity is
used to push the passenger back towards the seat once the forward motion due to inertial
forces is stopped. Though even human tissues can bring about the same effect, it has
been assumed here that only airbag fabrics adsorb energy using the visco-elastic effects.
To proceed with the calculations of energy dissipated by viscous airflow and by
biaxial stretching, the volume of the airbag should be known
It was assumed that the
airbag adopts a spherical shape, and, hence the fabric's thickness and airbag's volume can
be estimated which are then used in the energy estimations.
3.5.4. Energy dissipated through vents and seams

The blister inflation technique can also be used to estimate the energy dissipated
through seams of the fabric and through the specially constructed vents that are meant to
dissipate energy. It is assumed that the seams are in the shape of a ring. The energy
dissipated can be estimated using the volumetric flow rate through the fabric, the pressure
gradient that causes the flow and torus of the inner and outer radius of the airbag system.
29
Es =(AP.Qs).As
(3.6)
where,
Es = energy dissipated through seam
AP = pressure across the airbag.
Qs = permeability of the seam.
As = area of the seam in the airbag.
Though the total area of the vents is small, the energy adsorbed by the vents is
relatively large as compared to the whole fabric. Thus, the vents can be visualized as the
orifices through which the air passes. The amount of energy dissipated through the vents
can be calculated using the volumetric flow rate of the air through the vents and the
pressure gradient across the fabric.
Ev = (Qv.AP). Av
(3.7)
where,
Ev = energy dissipated through the vent
Qv = volumetric flow rate through the vent of area Av.
AP = pressure drop across the airbag.
Av = area of the vent.
30
3.5.5 Total energy adsorbed by the airbag

The total energy adsorbed by the fabric is the combination of all these four
mechanisms. The energy adsorbed through the vents is neglected because the same
amount of energy can be dissipated using proper fabric design. The energy dissipated by
biaxial stretching is divided into two components. (l)Energy dissipated through the
coated fabric on the top surface and (2) Energy dissipated through the uncoated fabric in
the bottom surface. Thus, the energy adsorbing capacity of the airbag is given by.
ETOTAL
Ev.F + EB.S(Coated) +
EB.S
(uncoated) "'"Es.
(3.8)
Where, ETOTAL is the total energy dissipated by a given airbag.
31
AirlMc
Pressure
(Relative
MaenttQde)
Peak Bag Pressure (1)
Normal Repressurization (3)
Second peak (4)

Repressurization
on Contact
Atmospheric
Pressure
Level (5)
50
100
Time (msec)
Momentary Vacuum (2)
Airbag inflated in isolation

Airbag inflated with impactor / dummy
Figure 3.1
Airbag pressure-time history.

32
Chapter IV
EXPERIMENT
The principle material of construction used in safety restraint technology is the

woven textile fabric. These fabrics stretch biaxially when deployed. On an impact, gases
are generated instantaneously and the airbag is inflated. The biaxial stretching of the
airbag occurs when the pressure within the airbag increases during deployment and later
during passenger contact. Passenger contact also hastens the gaseous outflow through the
fabric, seams and vents. Although biaxial stretching adsorbs a fraction of the energy,
energy adsorption is predominantly through viscous airflow. A unique blister inflation
technique was used to evaluate the airbag characteristics that effect this energy adsorption
capability of the airbag.
41 BHster-inflation Technique
The blister inflation is a novel technique with which it is possible to measure the
permeability, biaxial behavior and other characteristics of the fabric that affect the energy
adsorption capability of the fabric. One important feature of this technique is that these
measurements can be taken under varying conditions of pressure, temperature and biaxial
extension that are encountered by the airbag in actual conditions. The characteristics of
the fabric were not studied until fabric rupture, deformation of the fabric remained in the
elastic region.
33
4.2 Blister-inflation Apparatus

In this experiment, the extended fabric is distended by compressed air to form a
blister. The schematic diagram of the apparatus is shown infigure4.1. The fabric is held
between two metal plates in the blister-jig assembly. It is to be noted that the fabric is
just held tightly as a flat sheet between the two metal plates and that it is not stretched in
anyway. Stretching the fabric initially will affect the energy adsorption capacity of the
fabric. There are two tanks, tank 1 is a storage tank with the pressure gage to measure the
initial pressure. Compressed air from tank 1 is let into tank 2 through the inlet valve. A
pressure transducer (0 to 30 psi) is used to measure the tank pressure. Another pressure
transducer (0 to 15 psi) is used to measure the cloth pressure. The displacement of the
airbag fabric, i.e., the height of the blister, h, is also measured. It has to be noted that the
whole experimental setup has been automated and is capable of handling thousands of
readings per second.
4.3 Fabric Materials

Woven textile fabrics have been used conventionally for the construction of safety
restraint systems. This study involves the experimental determination of performance of
various weaves of high tensile strength polymers namely nylon 6, nylon 6,6 and
polyester. These fabrics must be compatible with the design constraints required in the
construction and performance at extremes of temperature apart from good engineering
properties.
The performance of the fabrics at these hostile conditions was assessed
experimentally. The characteristics of the fabrics that were tested are listed in table 4.1.
34
4.4 Test Plan

Various fabric specifications mentioned in table 4.1 were investigated and the
characteristics analyzed are reported. The performance of the airbag fabric under the
actual deployment conditions were studied in order to gain a better understanding. The
fabrics were investigated in the pressure drop range of 10 psi. to 40 psi. and two
temperature ranges of ^ 0 degree C and 30 degree C. The fabrics permeability and the
biaxial stress -strain behavior were determined. These fabric characters were analyzed
for the specific period when the airbag was inflated in the formation of the blister. A
computer code was written to perform the calculations.
4.5 Estimation of permeability and biaxial Stress-strain for the airbag fabrics
The permeability, biaxial stress-strain of the fabric at various stretching and
temperature conditions were determined using the blister inflation technique. A fabric
sample of about 8 cm X 15 cm was sandwiched between the two metal plates in the
blister-jig. The fabric was tightly secured in order to prevent any pressure loss between
the blister-jig and the fabric itself The fabric was not stretched initially, which would
have ahered the permeability and biaxial stress-strain characteristics of the fabric. A
differential pressure is maintained by creating a blister in the fabric sample. This is a
quasi-steady state measurement in which the blister was maintained for a certain time
until the permeability and blister height for a certain pressure using equations 3.1 and 3.2
which were presented in Chapter IE.
Some driver side airbags are coated with isoprene or silicone to prevent the high
temperature exposure of the occupant.
The coated fabric, seam and vent are also

35
investigated using the blister inflation technique. Determination of the permeability and
blister height for a coated fabric is similar to that of the uncoated fabric.
The sample jig exposes a circular cross-section of the fabric with seam to
pressure created by the inflating gas. The seam is assumed to traverse the sample on a
diagonal. The equations used to calculate permeability of a seam as a fiinction of the
seam length can be written as follows for the passenger side airbag (no coated fabrics are
used this application).
Q=iQs-QF)^
(4.1)
In contrast, the driver side airbag consisted of two different fabrics; the top surface coated
and the bottom surface is a permeable fabric. Hence, a permeability through this sample
should be corrected for the area of the coated fabric (coated fabrics are impermeable until
a threshold pressure).
QsA-Qp.(A
Q=L
(4.2)
In equations 4.1 and 4.2,

Qs = composite volumetric flow rate of the seam and the fabric (ft /ft /mm)
QF = volumetric flow rate through the fabric (ft^/ftVmin).
A= surface area of the fabric sample (ft ).
d = length of the seam (ft)
36
Table 4 1 Properties of the Fabrics Tested
Material
Denier
Weave Count
Weave Type
Nylon 6
420-D
49X49
Plain
Nylon 6,6
840-D
25X25
Plain
Polyester
650-D
42X42
Calendered
Nylon 66
630-D
41X41
Plain
Gl66247
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
37
Computer
Analog to
Digital
Aiibag Fabric
Blister jig
Assembly
1 - Pressure Gauge
2 -InletValve
3,4 - Pressure Transducers
5 - Displacement Measurement
Figure 4.1. Schematic Diagram of Blister Inflation Apparatus

38
Chapter V
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The purpose of the airbag in an automobile is to protect the occupant against

sudden high impact 'G' loads. For such safety applications reliability and repeatability
are of prime concern. These airbags must be deployed at a very rapid rate at extremes of
temperatures even after been highly compressed for long periods of dormancy. The
foremost requirement is to control the gas permeability of the airbag fabric to a desired
level. Hence, the gas retention should be controlled during the extremely rapid gas
pressure build up and the following controlled gas release. The deployment process
consumes about 150 msec. The pressurization of the airbag takes about 30 msec while
the gas release takes about 120 msec.
The laboratory tests were run for 0.8 seconds
however, to ensure the complete release of the airfi-omthe fabric. The airbag inflation
process is tuned in such a way so that the occupant comes in contact with the airbag only
after a complete inflation of the airbag. The energy dissipation achieved through the
airbag fabric is thus converted to the permeability of the airbag. The blister inflation
technique was used to evaluate these permeability values of the fabric under biaxial
stretching conditions.
This chapter covers the evaluation procedure of the airbag permeability and
biaxial stress strain characteristics of the commercial and experimental fabrics.
Comparison of these characteristics experimentally determined for the tested fabrics
tested are discussed.
Discussions are also presented with respect to the problems
encountered during the evaluation and the solution procedures, which were investigated.
39
5.1. Estimation of permeability and biaxial stress-strain characteristics

of the airbag fabrics
Viscous gas flow through the permeable fabric or specially constructed vents and
the viscoelastic, biaxial stretching of the fabric are the primary mechanisms of dissipation
of the impact energy. The novel laboratory blister inflation approach is used to estimate
the viscous airflow and the fabrics' biaxial stretching characteristics Permeabilities of the
fabrics for different pressure drops and different isothermal temperatures were
experimentally evaluated for the fabrics Hsted in Table 4.1 using the blister inflation
approach. Blister inflation is an unsteady state measurement in which a blister is created
by a differential pressure across the fabric. While a characteristic pressure drop was
established across the fabric, the amount of airflow was continuously recorded using the
pressure transducers. The height of the blister is also recorded continuously.
5.2 Permeability and biaxial deformation at room temperature.

In permeabilities of the fabrics named in Table 4.1 were evaluated at room
temperature over a pressure range of 10 to 50 psi. These fabrics cover a wide range of
properties that are of interest for passive restraint airbag applications. Each fabric was
tested at room temperature through variations in the initial tank pressure. The tank
pressures at which the fabric was tested were 50, 40, 30, 15 and 10 psi. The experiment
was repeated five times at each pressure drop. The height of the blister, pressure drops in
the tank and near the cloth were obtained at a sampling rate of 1000 data points per
second (once every millisecond) for a period of 0.8 second. The permeability values at
each point were calculated and plotted against pressure drop. During pressurization of
40
the airbag, i e., for about 150 msec initially, the fabric fibers exhibited fairiy linear
permeability isotherms. Hence the slope of this line, which gives the permeability per
unit pressure drop during the initial pressurization period, is calculated The average of
these values for the five runs was plotted against their respective initial tank pressure.
The permeability per unit pressure drop values that were extremely high was considered
oufliners and was eliminated using statistical methods.
Permeability isotherms at room temperature for the five fabrics are shown in
Figure 5.1. The fabrics with extreme permeabilityfluctuationswere eliminated using the
permeability evaluations. It is obvious from the Figure 5.1 that the 840-denier fabric has
a much lower permeability per unit pressure drop in comparison with the other fabrics
Although the permeability values of the 840-D fabric were expected to be higher than the
permeability of the other fabrics, it was actually lower. The 840-D fabric was found to be
of a much tighter construction weave than the other fabrics.
The increases in the
permeability of the high denier fabrics like 650-D, 630-D was very steep after a pressure
drop of 15 psi.
5.3 Permeability and biaxial deformation at -^0 C

The fabrics named in Table 5.1 were tested at an extreme temperature of-40 C.
These fabrics were tested at this temperature to evaluate the permeability and biaxial
behavior at extreme hostile conditions that might be faced by the airbag fabric in practice.
A dry ice jacket was used to reduce the temperature of the blister jig to -40 C. The
compressed air used for blister inflation was, however, maintained at room temperature.
41
This is actually concurrent with the real worid conditions where the outer temperature
conditions are not transmitted into the airbag chamber.
The permeability characteristics of the fabrics were evaluated at five different
pressure ranges of 40, 30, 20, 15 and 10 psi each of which is repeated for five times.
These tests used the same sampling rate of 1000 readings per second for a sampling
period of 0.8 second. The permeability values at each point were calculated and plotted
against pressure drop. The slope of the permeability isotherm that is fairly linear during
the initial pressurization period, was calculated to evaluate the permeability per unit
pressure drop. The average of these values for the five runs was plotted against their
respective initial tank pressures. The permeability per unit pressure drop values that were
extremely high was eliminated using statistical methods and classified as outliners.
Permeability isotherms at - 40 C for the five fabrics are shown in Figure 5.2.
The fabrics with extreme permeability were eliminated using the permeability
evaluations. The 840-denier fabric, which exhibited lower permeability per unit pressure
drop at room temperature, showed a relatively higher value in comparison with the other
fabrics at -40 C. The new Gl 66247 fabric exhibited a much lower permeability per unit
pressure drop at this temperature. But the increase in the permeability was steeper
between the pressure range of 15 psi to 40 psi than the increase for the other fabrics in the
same pressure range at this temperature. Low denier fabrics like 420-D exhibit very high
permeability per unit pressure drop after the pressure drop of 15 psi, while the other
fabrics follow a relatively linear curve.
42
5.4.Comparison of biaxial deformation of fabrics woven from

different polymeric fibers
Fabrics woven from nylon 6,6, nylon 6, and polyester fibers, which had similar
physical characteristics (i.e., weave count, weave type, and the denier of constituent
fibers) were tested and their permeability and biaxial stress strain characteristics were
compared. The permeability of these fabrics manufactured from stiffer fibers would be
expected to be less sensitive to the pressure drop changes in comparison to the fabrics
manufactured from fibers that are more flexible. Thus, as the pressure drop is increased,
the stiffer fibers should exhibit less tendency to stretch and become permeable in a
biaxial stress field.
The experimental data for each sample at various initial tank pressure ranges were
obtained.
Since the blister inflation apparatus uses pressure transducers, the data
obtained were in voltage units. These millivolt readings were calibrated to give the
actual pressure units, and the permeability and the biaxial stress strain relationship were
then obtained. The permeability of all the three fabrics remained essentially linear over a
pressure drop range of 10 to 40 psi. Moreover, the predictability of this linear behavior is
especially desirable for airbag design, particularly in the re-pressurization region of the
bag's pressure-time history curve. Ideally, the passenger comes in contact with the
airbag during this stage of its deployment. All of these fibers were woven with ordinary
orthogonal alignment. Hence, the fiber bundles in the plane of the fabric are either
parallel or perpendicular to one another. Biaxial strain implies simuhaneous strain in the
orthogonal directions.
However for a single fiber and for a given strain, the total
elongation will be the greatest in the direction of the fibers axis. Based on this behavior
43
any biaxial stress should tend to open up the fabric and produce a higher permeability,
unless the fibers in the fiber bundle are free to shift their locations.
5.4.1 420-D Fabric with a 49 x 49 weave count and plain weave.

This is one of the standard fabrics used in the construction of the driver's side
airbags. The 420-D fabric is attractive because of its high specific strength over different
constraints encountered in this driver's side restraint application.
The permeability
performance of this fabric at -40 C and room temperature is presented in Figure 5.3

The permeability per unit pressure drop for the 420-D fabrics was relatively high
compared with the other fabrics. It exhibited a jump in permeability at a pressure drop of
15 psi. However, there was considerable significant increase in permeability between
pressure range of 20 psi to 30 psi, after which there was another slight increase. The least
squares fit of these data points was performed the linear correlation equation of which
was found to be
y = 2.8493x+153.97
R^ = 0.8061
Where y = permeability/pressure drop (ft /ft /min)
X = Initial tank pressure (psi).
The slope of 2.8493ft^/ftVmin/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per
unit pressure drop values with the initial tank pressure. The intercept value of 154
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero.
44

The permeability for the 420-D fabric at -40 C exhibited a steep increase after a
pressure range of 15 psi to 30 psi after which the permeability of this isotherm was
invariant. The isotherm was, however, relatively linear as compared to the isotherm at
room temperature. A least squares fit on the permeability values exhibited the equation
y = 3.2781x+118.32
R^ = 0.9205
Where y = permeability/pressure drop (ft^/ftVmin)
The slope of 3.2781 ft /ft /min/psi represents the gradient in the permeability per
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero.
Although the gradient of the fit is higher than the gradient of linear fit at room
temperature, the intercept is 20% lower. This is because the fabric bundles tend to open
up at higher temperatures and hence the fabric exhibits a higher permeabiHty even as
pressure gradient approaches zero. The effect of pressure drop on permeability at room
temperature is comparatively lower than at -40 C.
5.4.1.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 420-D fabric

The biaxial behavior of the fabric at room temperature and -40 C is shown in
Figures 5.8 and 5.9, respecfively. It should be noted that the fabrics undergo realignment
at a pressure drop of about 5 psi. The synergistic effect of temperature and pressure drop
45
is very complicated and is dependent upon various fiber and fabric properties. An
understanding of these properties is necessary to correlate the observed permeability
behavior and biaxial behavior of the fabric. The 420-D fabric exhibited a much stiffer
behavior compared to the other fabrics. It can be observed from Figures 5.8 and 5.9 that
with the increase in the temperature, the fabric exhibited higher biaxial strain
development for a given biaxial stress. This represents a decrease in the inplane, tensile
modulus of the fabric.
5.4.2 630-D Fabric with a 41 x 41 weave count and plain weave

The 630-D fabrics are being considered for possible replacement of 840-D fabrics
because of their low specific weight. But these fabrics have less specific strength in
comparison with the 420-D and 840-D fabrics. The permeability performance of this
fabric is presented in Figure 5.4
5.4.2.1 Permeability at room temperature

The 630-D fabric exhibits a permeability value that is 20 % lesser than the 420-D
fabric at the initial tank pressure of zero psi. This is because of its high denier strength.
Unlike 420-D fabric at room temperature, the 630-D fabric shows a decrease is
permeability at a pressure drop of 15 psi, after which the permeability of the fabric
increases steeply. The equation of the linear fit on these permeability values is given by
y = 3.3837x +93.614
R2 = 0.8272
46
X = Initial tank pressure (psi)

The slope of 3.3837ft^/ftVmin/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per
unit pressure drop values with the initial tank pressure.
The intercept value of 93
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero

In contrast to the expected permeability at lower pressure drops, the observed
permeability of the fabric at -40 X was higher than the observed permeability at room
temperature.
However, the rate of increase in the permeability was lower.
The
regression analysis was performed and a least squares fit was obtained. The equation of
the least squares fit was y = 1.0846x +145.71
R^ = 0.7149
The slope of 1.0846 ft /ft /min/psi represents the gradient in the permeability per
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero. There
is a 200% decrease in the permeability per unit pressure at -40 ^'C when compared with
the permeability at room temperature. However, the intercept value increased by 50 %.
The gradient represents the effect of the initial tank pressure while the intercept is the
ftinction of temperature at the initial tank pressure of zero psi. Thus, pressure drop has a
more predominant effect on the permeability of the 630-D fabric than does temperature.
47
5.4.2.3 Biaxial stress strain behavior of the 630-D fabric

The biaxial behavior of the fabric at room temperature and -40 X is shown in
Figures 5.10 and 5.11, respectively. It can be observedfromthe Figure 5.10 that there is a
steeper increase in biaxial strain per unit biaxial strain after a pressure drop of 30 psi. At
-40 C , the biaxial strain peaked for the pressure drop of 15 psi and a steady increase in
this value was found after the pressure drop of 20 psi. It should be observed from these
figures that there is a decrease in the modulus of the fabric with temperature. This is due
to the fact that with the increase in the temperature, the fabric exhibited higher biaxial
strain development for a given biaxial stress.
5.4.3 840-D fabric with a 25 x 25 weave count and plain weave

840-D fabrics are usually used for passenger's side applications because of their
high permeability. With the passenger's side airbags there are fewer design constraints
than there are for the driver's side airbags. The distance between the occupant and the
passenger side airbag module and the volume of the passenger's side airbag is nearly
double that of the driver's side airbag. Also the 840-D fabrics that are much heavier can
be used for driver's side applications. The passenger's side airbags are not coated on the
top surface because no heat shielding is required for this application due to significant
cooling achieved during expansion of the gas into the airbag.
This plain weave 840-D fabric is typically used as a fabric for coating
applications. This fabric had the low fiber concentration per unit area encountered in this
study because of the low weave count. The permeability performance of this fabric is
presented in Figure 5.6
48

The 840-D fabric exhibited a much lower permeability as compared to the other
fabrics. This was due to the fact that the 840-D fabric had a higher denier strength than
the other fabrics. There was a steady increase in the permeability of the fabric with the
pressure drop. However, a slight decrease in this gradient was observed at a pressure
range of 20 psi to 30 psi.
The equation of the least squares fit obtained on these
permeability values at room temperature was found to be y = 2.7229x + 84.392

R^ = 0.9569
Where y = permeability/pressure drop (ftVft^/min)
The slope of 2.7229ftVftVmin/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per
unit pressure drop values with the initial tank pressure.
The intercept value of 84
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero

In contrast to the other fabrics, the permeability of the 840-D fabric at -40 X
appeared to be higher than the permeability at room temperature. The gradient, which
represents the increase in the permeability however, was lower as expected.
The
permeability values were fairly linear and the least squares fit gave a straight line with the
resulting equation y = 2.2621x + 126.12
R2 = 0.9754
Where y = permeability/pressure drop (ft^/ft^/min)
49
The slope of 2.2621 ftW/min/psi represents the gradient in the permeability per
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeabilhy at pressure drop approaching zero. At
-40 C, there was a 50% decrease in the gradient value as compared to the value at room
temperature. However a 50 % increase in the intercept value was observed. The gradient
represents the effect of the initial tank pressure while the intercept represents the effect of
temperature at the initial tank pressure of zero psi. Since the fiber bundles are closer
together and due to the swelling of the fiber bundles, there is an increase in the cover
factor of the fabric. This synergistic effect of the temperature and pressure may be a
factor for the decrease in the permeability of the fabric at higher temperature.
5.4.3.3 Biaxial stress strain behavior of the 840-D fabric

The biaxial behavior of the fabric at room temperature and -40 X is shown in
Figures 5.12 and 5.13 respectively. Since the 840-D fabric was stiffer than the other
fabrics were, it exhibited comparatively high biaxial strain -stress ratio. It can be
observed from the Figure 5.12 that there is a steeper increase in biaxial strain per unit
biaxial strain after a pressure drop of 40 psi. At the temperature of-40 X, the increase in
the biaxial strain -stress ratio was steeper at the pressure range of 15 psi to 20 psi after
which it exhibited relatively lower gradient. With the increase in the temperature, the
fabric exhibited higher biaxial strain development for a given biaxial stress, which
symbolized the decrease in the modulus of the fabric.
50
5.4.4 650-D fabric with a 42 x 42 weave count and plain weave.

This was the only polyester calendered fabric investigated in this study.
Calendering has an effect on the permeability of the fabric.
It actually causes a
permanentflatteningof thefiberbundles which increases the cover factors. This increase

in the cover factor decreases the initial permeability of the fabric.

The permeability of 650-D fabric plotted against the pressure drop exhibits a
curve that is upward concave. There is a decline in the permeability values after 10 psi.
The permeability value remains constant at a pressure range of 15 psi to 20 psi after
which there is a steady increase. The linear fit obtained on these values exhibit a first
order equation of the form y = 1.9004x + 129.94
R^ = 0.7679
Where y = permeability/pressure drop (ft /ft /min)
The slope of 1.9004ft^/ft^/min/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero. The
gradient represents the effect of increase in the initial tank pressure.
51
54.4.2 Permeability at -^0 X

The decrease in the overall permeability of the 650-D febric due to the decrease in
the temperature was not significant as in the case of other fabrics. However, the effect of
pressure drop on the permeability of the fabric was considerable.
The increase
permeability per unit pressure drop was found to be higher at -40 X. A least squares fit
on these values that were fairiy linear was obtained. The equation of the line was found
tobey = 2.1964x+115.4
R^ = 0.9876
The slope of 2.1964ftVftVmin/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per
ft3/ft2/min represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero. There
was a 15 % increase in the gradient and a 15% decrease in the intercept at -40 X as
compared to the values at room temperature. It can be observed from Figure 5.5 that due
to this canceling effect of temperature and pressure, the permeability isotherms remained
nearly the same.
5.4.4.3 Biaxial stress strain behavior of the 650 -D fabric

The biaxial behavior of the fabric at room temperature and -40 "C are shown in
Figures 5.14 and 5.15 respectively. It can be observed from the Figure 5.14 that after a
steady increase, there is a steeper rise in biaxial strain per unit biaxial strain after a
pressure drop of 40 psi. At the temperature of-40 oC however, there was a decrease in
52
the gradient of strain-stress ratio at 40 psi. Also, the modulus of the fabric was found to
decrease with the increase in the temperature.
5.4.5 G166247 fabric

The permeability and biaxial behavior of this fabric was evaluated with the help
of the blister inflation apparatus. The permeability behavior of the fabric is shown in
Figure 5.7. The suppUers did not provide the characteristics of this fabric. Hence, the
Denier, weave type weave count etc., were unknown

A steady increase in the permeability of the fabric was observed until the pressure
drop of 20 psi, after which a decline at a pressure drop of about 30 psi was observed.
There was a steeper increase above the 30 psi pressure drop. Regression analysis was
performed on these permeability values. A least squares fit with afirstorder equation of
y = 2.8228X + 100.68 was obtained where,
R^ = 0.864
y = permeability/pressure drop (ft^/ft^/min)
X = initial tank pressure (psi).
The slope of 2.8228 ftVftVmin/psi represents the gradient in the permeability per unit
pressure drop values with the initial tank pressure. The intercept value of 101 ft3/ft2/min
represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero
53
5.4.5.2 Penneability at -40 X

The permeability of the fabric at this extreme temperature was the lower
than the other fabrics. There was a decline in the fabric's permeability at a pressure drop
of 15 psi after which the permeability increased steadily with the pressure drop. Another
decline in the permeability of the fabric at the pressure range of 30 psi to 40 psi was
observed. A linear fit was obtained on these permeability values, which had a equation
of y = 2.2914X + 82.91 where,
R^ = 0.7277
y = permeability/pressure drop (ft^/ftVmin)
X = pressure drop (psi).
The slope of 2.2914ft^/ftVmin/psirepresents the gradient in the permeability per unit
pressure drop values with the initial tank pressure. The intercept value of 83 ft3/ft2/min
represents the fabric's permeability at pressure drop approaching zero. There was a 20%
decrease in the gradient at -40 X. There was also a 20% increase in the permeability of
the fabric with the temperature. This is thought to be due to the fact that thefiberbundles
loosen up with the increase in temperature.
5.4.5.3 Biaxial stress strain behavior of the Gl 66247 fabric

The biaxial behavior of the fabric at room temperature and -40 X are shown in
Figures 5.16 and 5.17, respectively. This fabric was found to be much stiffer than the
other fabrics. This is reflected by a biaxial strain-stress ratio that was much higher than
the other fabrics. It can be observed from the Figure 5.16 that there is a steeper increase
in biaxial strain per unit biaxial strain after a pressure drop of 40 psi. With the increase in
54
the temperature, the fabric exhibited higher biaxial strain development for a given biaxial
stress, which symbolized the decrease in the modulus of the fabric. The modulus of this
fabric was found to higher in comparison with the other fabrics.
5.5.
Analysis of Permeability/Pressure Drop Values of the

Airbag Fabrics Using Neural Networks
Woven textile fabrics are used in airbags to adsorb the kinetic energy that is
dissipated during an automotive crash. Permeability per unit pressure drop of the airbag
fabric can be used to quantify the energy adsorption capabilities of the fabric. The
permeability pressure drop values are calculated using a novel BUster-Inflation technique.
Due to some residual pressure, permeability values higher than the actual values were
obtained. These values have to be eliminated and the actual values have to be arrived-at.
5.5.1 Bhster Inflation Technique

This Technique, developed at the Chemical Engineering Department, Texas Tech
University is unique in its ability to measure the permeability, biaxial behavior and other
characteristics of the fabric that quantify the energy adsorption capability of the fabric.
These characteristics are obtained for varying pressure and temperature ranges. The
blister inflation apparatus, shown in Figure 5.21, consists of a pressure jig assembly
which is used to distend the fabric, two serially connected tanks pressurized with air, and
pressure transducers that measure the pressure at different stages of the test. The
pressurized air is passed through the fabric. The process actually mimics the actual
inflation of the airbag. The whole process can be visualized using the airbag pressure
time history shown in Figure 5.26. The tests were conducted at 40, 30, 20, 15 and 10 psi
55
ranges and at different temperature ranges and the permeability values at these pressure
drops were plotted. A least squares fit was obtained for this plot, the slope of which
gives the permeability/pressure drop.
5.5.2 The data ehmination problem

Since the tests were conducted initially at high-pressure drops and then at the
lower pressure drops, there was always some residual pressure in tank 2. This residual
pressure causes an abrupt increase in the permeability of the fabric at the initial phase of
the test. The increase may also have been contributed by the inelasticity of the fabric,
since the fabric may not have regained its original composure. These high permeability
values cause an increase in the slope, which is the permeability/pressure drop - the
desired characteristic of the airbag fabric. Hence, these values have to be eliminated and
the new least squares fit has to be obtained.
5.5.3 Method of Solution

The unnecessary data points were eliminated using the two-layer perceptron
model. The Data elimination problem encountered here is similar to the XOR problem.
Figure 5.18 shows the initial least squares fit on the data that also includes the
unnecessary data points.
The intercept is the hard limit, which is determined
statistically. Typically, for such applications, 3*(standard deviation) is used as the limit.
The data points above and below this 3 standard deviation hmit are considered as Class B
points which are to be eliminated. The data points that are within this limit are called as
Class-A points. A least square fit is obtained for these points again and the same data
56
elimination procedure is repeated again until none of data points eliminated. The number
of data points deleted at each iteration is stored.
A snap shot of this procedure is shown in Figure 5.19 and the final least squares
fit is shown in Figure 5.20, the slope of which gives the actual permeability/pressure drop
value. This procedure actually mimics the manual elimination of the high permeability
values.
The resuhs shown in the plots indicate that this routine works property for the
normal cases. The unnecessary data points that remain outside the statistical limit are
eliminated and the least squares fit is obtained. There was no loss of the data points that
were within the limit. However for some specific cases the where the permeability
values suddenly track back to normal values, some of the data points that would not have
been normally eliminated, were eliminated
5.5.4 Limitations of this Method of solution

There is some possibility for a loss of necessary data points. This limitation can
be overcome by storing the eliminated data points in a matrix and then putting them back
in the plot after all the iterations are done. I.e., after the number of data points eliminated
reach zero. The data points that reside outside the current limit should be eliminated and
the new least squares fit can be obtained.
5.6 Noise reduction on the raw data

The Blister-inflation apparatus uses two pressure transducers, one to measure the
pressure drop in tank 2 and the other to measure the pressure drop beneath the fabric.
57
The Schematic diagram of the apparatus is shown in the Figure 5.21. These pressure
drops are measured as milli-volts. The analog signals are converted to digital signals
using a Analog-Digital converter and we then fed to the computer using the Notebook
software. These pressure drop values in milli-vohs are then converted to psi values. Due
to fluctuations in the power supply to the transducers, there were some aberrations to the
pressure drop values fed to the computer. These aberrations were in the form of jumps at
equal intervals. Usually, the jump lasted for about 3 to 4 data points when the readings
were taken at a sampling rate of 1000 points per second. A unique solution method was
used to reduce this noise. The data points, which have significantly higher slopes than its
neighboring data points, were ehminated and the previous data point was placed in its
place. This procedure was repeated until the whole of the jump was removed. The data
points were then smoothened using the average smoothing method with the formula
Y(i)={y(i-l)+2*y(i) + y(i+l)}/4.
The tank and the cloth (fabric) pressure drops plotted against time, before and
after the noise elimination and with data smoothing is shown in Figures 5.22 and 5.23
respectively. Figure 5.24 shows a typical displacement curve plotted against time in
seconds, while Figures 5.25 and 5.26 show the typical permeability behavior and biaxial
behavior of the fabrics tested using the blister inflation technique
58
Permeability/Pressure Drop VS Pressure Drop at

__
Room Temperature
280
260
_ 240
1220
2 200
= 180
(0
160
0>
Q.
140
120
100
1T
20
40
60
Initial Tank Pressure (psi)
Figure 5.1. Permeability behavior of the fabrics at room temperature
59
Permeability/Pressure Drop VS Pressure Drop at - 40

degree celcius
260
240
_220
I 200
n
^ 180
1 160
CO
i 140
" 120
100
80
"1
20
40
60
Figure 5.2. Permeability behavior of the fabrics at -40 X
60
Permeability/pressure Drop VS Pressure

Drop
300
250
I 200
420 room
^ 150
nCO
i 100
420-40OC
Q.
50
0
~\
20
40
Figure 5.3. Permeability Behavior of 420-D fabric
61
60

Drop
300
250
5 200
CO
630D-room
150
630D-40OC
n
CO
100
0)
50
1 \ I I I
"T
20
"T
40
62
60

Drop
250 1
200
E
g 150
:
650D -room
8 100
E
0)
650D-40OC
Q.
50
~i
I I 1 i I \ I I I
20
40
60
63

Drop
250
-c 200
E
I 150
840 room
9-
840-40
SCO 100
o
Si 50
1
20
40
64
60

Drop
250
200
E
150
8 100
E
Q.
50
Gl 66247 -room
Gl66247-40oC
TI[IIr
"1
20
40
60
Figure 5.7. Permeability Behavior of G166247 fabric
65
Biaxial Stress -Strain Behavior

10000
9000
8000
0)
4 0 psi
30 psi
20 psi
- 15 psi
10 psi
(0
0)
S,
75
MB
K
(0
iS
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.8 Biaxial behavior of 420-D fabric at room temperature
66

10000
10 psi
CO
- 15 psi
(0
0)
20 psi
to
- 30 psi
<5
X
(0
- 40 psi
iS
0.5
1.5
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.9. Biaxial behavior of 420-D fabric at -40 X
67

10000
8000
0)
tn
tn
6000
to
1
4000 -
40 psi
30 psi
20 psi
- 15 psi
X
(0
10 psi
2000
0
0
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.10. Biaxial behavior of 630-D fabric at room temperature
68

12000
10000
g_ 8000
4 0 psi
30 psi;
10 psi
15 psi
2 0 psii
tn
if)
6000
75
S 4000 H;
CD
2000
0
0.5
1.5
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.11. Biaxial behavior of 630-D fabric at -40 X
69
0)
40 psi
- 30 psi
20 psi
- 15 psi
10 psi
"5
X
(0
0.5
1.5
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.12. Biaxial Behavior of 840-D Fabric at room temperature
70

10000
8000
tf)
(0
40 psi
30 psi
20 psi
15 psi
10 psi
6000
S
<n
IS
K
(0
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.13. Biaxial Behavior of 840-D Fabric at -40 C
71

10000
9000
8000 -,
? 7000
a.
(0
4 0 psi
30 psi
20 psi
15 psi
10 psi
6000
tn
X
CD
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.14. Biaxial behavior of 650-D fabric at room temperature
72

10000
9000
8000 -'.
0)
7000
(0
CO
6000
&
5000
To
4000
X
(0
40 psi
30 psi
- 20 psi
" 15 psi
10 psi
3000
2000
1000
0
0
0.5
1.5
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.15. Biaxial Behavior of 650-D Fabric at -40 C
73

10000
9000
8000
(0
7000
CO
6000
&
5000
(0
X
(0
40 psi
30 psi
20 psi
- 15 psi
10 psi
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.16. Biaxial behavior of G166247 fabric at room temperature
74

15000 ~f
13000
11000
CO
9000
40 psi
- 30 psi
20 psi
- 15 psi
10 psi
CO
CO
I 7000
(0
X
(0
5000
3000 ^'
1000 ^,
-1000 t
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.17. Biaxial behavior of G166247 fabric at -40 C
75
PemBability \ ^ Ressure DR3P
800
GassB
=?eoo
QassA
E^
JC20O
0
0
Riessiie[]kx}p(psi)
Figure 5.18 Initial Least Squares Fit
76
Statistical Limit
(3 Std Deviation)
Permeability Vs Pressure Drop

-^600
E 500
Statistical Limits
Cj
?5 400
^300
is 200
o
E 100
0)
0
0
Pr Drop (psi)
Figure 5.19 Second Least Squares Fit
77
Permeability Vs Pressure Drop

^600i
c
y.
E 500
^r
C>l
y^
i 400
CO
c
$300-
^r
y^
y^
S 200 i
(0
^ ^
E 100
a>
Pr Drop (psi)
Figure 5.20 Final Least Squares fit
78
Computer
>
>
Analog to
Digital
Aiibag Fabric
Blister jig
Assembly
1 - Pressure Gauge
2 - Inlet Valve
3,4 - Pressure Transducers
5 - Displacement Measurement
Figure 5.21. Schematic Diagram of Blister Inflation Apparatus

79
Dynamic Pressure Vs Time
(0
Tank Pressure
3
Cloth Pressure
, , t . f t ; I i 11 *
"T
Time (sec)
Figure 5.22 Pressure VS Time before noise reduction
80
Dynamic Pressure Vs Time
Tank Pressure
Cloth Pressure
'"T"'""""'*'
~i
Time (sec)
Figure 5.23. Pressure VS Time after noise reduction
81
Displacement Vs Time
1.5 -
0)
E
0)
o
CO
& 0.5 +
^ * ^ " * # ^ ^ ^ " f ^ l W f M M j ^ i ^ iij^.<IHnJ>pîî^WPi^îi1t'i*ifi^^>f4i<t4
0.2
0.4
0.6
-0.5
Time (sec)
Figure 5.24 A Typical Displacement Vs Time Curve
82
0.8
Permeabilty Vs Pressure Drop

700
600
500
E
1^ 400
ro
u.
1^
^ 300
E
Q.
200
100
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Pressure Drop(psi)
Figure 5.25. A Typical Permeability behavior of the airbag fabric
83
Biaxial Stress Vs Strain

10000
9000
8000
6000
[iaI stress
7000
5000
4000
OQ
3000
2000
1000 -[
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
'
0.3
'
'
' I
0.35
Biaxial Strain
Figure 5.26 A typical biaxial stress-strain behavior of the airbag fabric
84
Chapter VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research was proposed to gain a better understanding of the performance of

the airbag fabrics and their properties under the hostile conditions of deployment The
demands for quality and reliability with airbag fabrics are high because of the safety
device nature of the airbag. Since airbag fabrics are being manufactured with different
properties, it is important that these fabrics are evaluated before they are actually used for
passenger restraint. In most cases these fabrics have not been tested before at extreme
conditions of temperature ( -40 X to 100 X). The novel blister-inflation technique (BIT)
was used to evaluate the properties of these fabrics under biaxially stretching conditions.
BIT tests were used to analyze the permeability-temperature-pressure drop relationship
and biaxial stress-strain behavior of the fabrics. The role played by the airbag fabrics in
the dissipation of impact energy was also investigated. Several nylon and polyester
fabrics of different weave and denier were investigated in this study.
6.1 Conclusions
The investigation of permeability behavior of the fabrics revealed that the 420-D
fabric had a very high permeability at both room temperature and ant -40 X. Although
the 840-D fabric had a very low permeability at room temperature, it had a relatively high
permeability at -40 X. in comparison with the other fabrics. The 630-D fabric exhibited
a very high increase in the permeability with pressure at room temperature. But at -40 X,
it exhibited a decline in the gradient of the permeability isotherm. The 650-D fabric
exhibited a decrease in the permeability at around 15 psi when tested at room
85
temperature. However, there was a steady increase in its permeability at ^ 0 "C The
^166247 fabric exhibited enormous increase in its permeability at the pressure range of
15 psi to 30 psi. But the fabric exhibited the least permeability at -40 X in comparison
with the other fabrics. The 840-D and Gl66247 fabrics exhibited higher modulus than the
other fabrics. The fabrics also exhibited a decrease in the modulus with the temperature
6.2 Recommendations for future research

This research effort was mainly focussed on the permeability characteristics, and,
biaxial stress-strain behavior of the airbag fabrics in order to evaluate their energy
dissipation capacity. Since different processing techniques are used in the manufacture of
the airbag fabrics, biaxial deformation comparisons between different fabrics are
important. Further, The existing ASTM standards also fail to recognize the effects of
many variables that affect the performance of the airbag fabrics and are in need of
revision . The following research efforts are recommended for future research efforts.
1. This research effort did not study the effects of coatings, seams and vents on
the performance of the airbags. Further evaluation of these effects may be
desirable before the fabric is put into use in the automobiles.
2. The blister-inflation apparatus is automated and hence the pressure drop and
displacement readings are momentary. The permeability and biaxial stressstrain have to be calculated. A software code should be developed for quick
evaluation of permeability and biaxial stress-strain behavior of the fabrics
following each test.
86
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
ASTM Standards D737-75, American Society for Testing Materials. 1985.
2.
Haykin, Simon, Neural Networks. McGraw Hill. New York, 1994.
3.
C. D. Denson et al. Polymer Engineering and Science. 13. 125, 1973 and 11, 174.
Polymer Engineering and Science, 1971.
4.
K.C. Hoover and R. Wm. Tock, Polymer Engineering & Science, 16, No.2.
5.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and Dan Haycock. Analysis of Fabrics used in

Passive restraint systems. Journal of Textile Institute. (U.K.) pp. 1-5,1995.
6.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. A Novel Blister-Inflation

Technique for Estimating the Thermal Aging Effects of Airbag Fabrics, SAE
Paper #950341, 1995.
7.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, Blister-Inflation Technique for Evaluation of Airbag

Fabrics, Presented at Sigma Xi -1993, Texas Tech University, Lubbock.
8.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, Characterization, Modeling, and Design of Airbags and

Woven Expansible Fabrics, Doctoral Dissertation, Texas Tech University. 1995
9.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. Comparison of

Contributions to Energy Dissipation Produced with Safety Airbags. Presented at
SAE International Congress and Exposition, Paper # 950340, pp38-40, Detroit,
Feb, 38, 1995.
10.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. Evaluating Airbag Fabrics,

Automotive Engineering, Vol. 103, 11, pp. 55-58, 1995.
11.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. Effects of Temperature and

Pressure on Inflation of Airbag Fabrics, Journal of Shocks and Vibrations, pp. 35, 1994.
12.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. Effects of Temperature and

Pressure on Inflation of Airbag Fabrics, Journal of Shocks and Vibrations, pp. 712, 1994.
87
13.
Keshavaraj, Ramesh, R. W. Tock, G. S. Nusholtz. Permeability of Airbag Fabrics.

ANTEC^ 94, SPE Annual Conference. San Francisco, pp. 2556-2558, 1994.
14.
R.M. Downs. ASTM Inflatable Restraint Standards, ASTM Standardization

News, PP-28, July 1991.
15.
R. W. Tock, and G. S. Nusholtz. Permeability-Temperature Relationships of

Expansible Nylon Fabrics, SPE, ANTEC93. Technical Papers, 1302-1306, 1993.
16.
Ramesh Keshavaraj, Characterization, Modeling, and Design of Airbags and

Woven Expansible Fabrics, Doctoral Dissertation, Texas Tech University. 1995
17.
Web site http://www.newswire.ca/releases/Julyl998/22/c4386.html
18.
Web site http://www.state.ct.us/dot/hwysafety/airbags.htm , Airbags, 1999
19.
Web site http://www.mercedes.eom/e/home/news/news_3.htm.Mercedes Benz

news 1998
20.
Web site http://www.aaa.asn.au/crash/airbags.htm, Airbags Enhance Safety 1998
21.
Web site , http://www.techmall.com/techdocs/TS971118-14.html, 1995
22
Web site http://www.detnews.com/1997/autos/9712/26/12260129.htm. Design

may guide airbag safety. 1997
88
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DYNAMIC TESTING OF AIRBAG FABRIC PERMEABILITY

AND EXTENSIBILITY FOR DEPOWERED AIRBAGS

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND

The research problem

Inflatable restraint systems - Airbags

Overviewof events after a crash

Airbag material of construction and selection

First-generation airbag fabrics

Second-generation airbag fabrics

Third-generation airbag fabrics

Performance comparison of polyamide and polyester fabrics

Functional parts in the airbag system

Airbag pressure time history

Estimation of energy adsorbed by a fabric

Biaxial stretching of woven fabrics

Airbag pressure time history

Theory of Blister Inflation

Mathematical expressions for stress-strain.

Kinetic energy adsorption by the airbag fabric

3.5.1 Mathematical expression for impact energy released by occupant

3.5.2 Energy dissipation by viscous airflow through the fabric

3.5.3 Energy adsorbed by biaxial stretching of the fabric

3.5.4 Energy dissipated through vents and seams

3.5.5 Total energy adsorbed by the airbag

4.4.1 Estimation of permeability and biaxial Stress-strain for the airbag

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Estimation of permeability and biaxial stress-strain characteristics of

Permeability and biaxial deformation at room temperature

Permeability and biaxial deformation at-40 C

Comparison of biaxial deformation of fabrics woven from different

420-D Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave

5.4.1.1 Permeability at Room Temperature

5.4.1.2 Permeability at -40 ^C

5.4.1.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 420-D Fabric

5.4.2.1 Permeability at Room Temperature

5.4.2.2 Permeability at -40 C

5.4.2.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 630-D Fabric

840-D Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave

5.4.3.1 Permeability at Room Temperature

5.4.3.2 Permeability at -40 X

5.4.3.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 840-D Fabric

650-D Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave

5.4.4.1 Permeability at Room Temperature

5.4.4.2 Permeability at -*0 C

5.4.4.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of 420-D Fabric

G166247Fabric with a 49x49 weave count and plain weave

5.4.5.1 Permeability at Room Temperature

5.4.5.2 Permeability at -40 C

5.4.5.3 Biaxial Stress strain behavior of G166247 Fabric

Analysis of Permeability/Pressure Drop Values of the Airbag Fabrics

5.5.1 Blister Inflation Technique

5.5.2 The data elimination problem

5.5.3 Method of Solution

5.5.4 Limitations of this Method of solution

5.6 Noise reduction on the raw data.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.2 Recommendations for future research

4.1 Properties of fabrics tested

Functional parts of an airbag system

Airbag pressure time history in Isolation and with dummy

Airbag pressure time history

Schematic diagram of blister inflation apparatus

Permeability behavior of fabrics at room temperature.

Permeability behavior of fabrics at -40 C