DUET

CE-3301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I

NOTE NO. 04
PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE.

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
Permeability
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Features / Characteristics of Permeability:

The facility of fluid flow through any porous medium is an engineering

property termed as permeability.

For Geotechnical Engineering problems, the fluid is water and the porous
medium is the soil mass.

Any material with voids is porous and if the voids are interconnected,
possesses permeability.

The continuous void spaces in a soil permit water to flow from a point of
high energy to a point of low energy.

Depending on the type of earth material there are large differences in the
degree of permeability.

Darcys Law:

For laminar flow though saturated soil, Darcy established experimentally

that the rate of flow, q defined as the volume of water flowing per unit time
across a sectional area A of soil, i.e.

= velocity (v) was directly

proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i) i.e. v i Or, v =

= ki where, v

= flow velocity and i = hydraulic gradient. k = constant of proportionality.

Mathematically, q = kiA

The k is known as Darcys Co-efficient of permeability or the

Hydraulic conductivity.

k is almost independent of i and has the dimensions of a velocity (v).

Definition of Permeability / Hydraulic conductivity:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

The co-efficient of permeability or simply the permeability or the

Hydraulic conductivity may be defined as the rate of flow of water under
laminar flow conditions through a unit cross-sectional area of a porous medium
under a unit hydraulic gradient and standard temperature conditions (200c).
Factors that affect permeability:
1.

The important factors that affect permeability of soils are:

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The density and viscosity () of the soil water.

The size of the soil grains (D10).
The void ratio (e) of the soil.
The shape and arrangement of pore.
The degree of saturation (Sr).
Temperature (T).

Explanation of the preceding factors:

1.

If the density and viscosity () is decreased, then K is slight increased.

2.

If the grain size (D10) is increased , K is also increased.

3.

If void ratio (e) is increased, K is also increased.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

4.

The shapes and arrangement of pore affect permeability, this dependency is

difficult to express mathematically.

5.

An increase in the degree of saturation (S r) of a soil causes an increase in

permeability.

6.

Temperature decreases the viscosity of water and increase permeability.

Validity of Darcys Law:

1.

We investing the range of darcy behavior and Non- Darcy behavior of a

flow conditions

2.

At steady state the flow is laminar & it depend upon the relation between
the Rn =

where
v = velocity of water
D = Diameter of the soil particles
w = unit weight of water (gm/cm3)
= viscosity of water (gm/cm-s)
3.

When the Renold number is ( Rn =

1 ) less than one ; the flow is

laminar that is Darcy behavior.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

4.

When the Renold number is grater then one i.e R n >1; the flow is
turbulent that is Non-Darcy behavior.

For a medium sand, it is assuming that the D 10 = 0.045mm, k = 100

=>1000.0452 = 0.2025 cm/sec and i =1; = ki =0.2025 cm/sec, at 200c
=10-5981 gm/cm3, w =1 gm/cm3.
We know

Rn =

= 0.93 < 1

From the above calculation we are concluded that the medium sand, fine sand,
silt, clay soil due to laminar flow condition that is Darcys behavior.
The coarse sand, gravel & bulders; the flow turbulent that is Non-Darcy
behavior.
5.

Validity of Darcy's Law:

We investigating the range of Darcy behavior and Non-Darcy behavior of a

flow conditions.

At steady state the flow is laminar and it depend upon the relative between
the Rn i.e. Renold number

Rn

VDP

; where V = Velocity of water, D =

Diameter of the soil particles, =unit weight of water/gm/cc, = viscosity

of water (gm/cm-s)

When the Renold number is

Rn

VDP

less than one; the flow is

laminar that is Darcy behavior.

When the Renold number is greater than on i.e. Rn > 1; the flow is
turbulent that in Non-Darcy behavior.

For a medium sand, it is assuming that the D10 = 0.045 mm, K = 100D102 =
1000.045)2 = 0.2025
Rn

VDP

and i = 1
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

V = ki = 0.2025 1 = 0.2025
Plot 20C = 10-5 981 gm/cm3
= 1 gm/cm3

0.2025 0.045 1
981 10 5

= 0.93 < 1

From the above calculation we are concluded that the medium sand, silt,
clay soil due to laninal flow condition that is Darcy's behavior.

The gravel, sand and bulder's; that flow is turbulent that is Non Darcy
Dehavior

OR
Validity of Darcys Law:
Darcys law is valid so long as the flow through the channels of soil media
remains laminar. It is valid for a wide range of material and flow conditions
including sands and clays. A criterion can be evolved based on the relationships
between Reynolds number, R and a friction factor, F. the Reynolds number is,
R

VDw
g

(1)

If water flows with a velocity of V units per section through a pipe of length, L
and diameter D and the head h lost in overcoming friction is
h

2 FLV 2
gD

(2)

where F is a friction factor which depends upon the surface condition of the
material and viscosity of water. In soils, D is the average pore diameter.
From (2)

F=

Or,

F=

Or,

F=

where,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Where

if Darcys law is valid.

Now,

R=

Where

=C

=C= a Constant at any particular temperature, expresses a criterion

that Darcys law is valid as long as R is inversely proportional to F.

RF=C
Or,

logR + logF = logC = C

Or,

logF = C- logR is equation of straight line.

If Darcys law is valid, then soil is unconsolidated sand.

For laminar flow, R = 1 Put, V=Ki, K=100D102 cm/sec
i=1, =10-5 gm-sec per sq.cm

or,
Or,

100 D102 1 D 1
5

10 980

w=1gm/cc, g=980cm/sec2
if D=D10=effective grain size.

Or,

D10=0.046 cm=0.46mm

i.e D10=0.5mm, It shows that Darcys law holds well in silts through medium
sands.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Discharge velocity and Seepage velocity:

Hydraulic gradient i = , h = h1-h2,

By the equation of continuity, qaa = qbb = qcc.

If the soil be represented as divided into solid matter and void space, then
the area available for the passage of water is only Av.

If Vs is velocity of flow in the voids across the section area Av, then V the
average velocity across the section area A
AvVs = AV Or, Vs =

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

since

We can write, Vs =

=(

)V

Since, (

So the discharge velocity or apparent velocity is an average rate of flow of

water across a unit area (A) in the soil.

The seepage velocity or true/actual velocity of flow is that with which

water flows through the soil voids.

) is always greater than unity, Vs is always greater than V.

Typical values of permeability of natural soils:

Values of
permeability
> 10-1

Degree of
permeability
High

Fine gravel, Coarse and Medium sands

10-1 to 10-3

Medium

Fine sand and loose silt

10-3 to 10-5

Low

Dense silt and clayey silt

10-5 to 10-7

Very low

<10-7

Impermeable

Soil type
Coarse gravel and medium gravel

Silty clay and clay

Units of co-efficient of permeability:
-

S.I. units => k => mm/sec, cm/sec, m/day, m/year.

F.P.S units => k => inch/sec, ft/day, ft/year.

Units of co-efficient of permeability:

-

Co-efficient of permeability of soil is generally expressed at a temperature

of 200c.

At any other temperature T0C, the co-efficient of permeability can be

obtained from ,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Where, kT and k20 = co-efficient of permeability at T0c and 200c

respectively.

T and 20 = co-efficient of viscosity at T0c and 200c respectively.

Since the value of

Where,

is approximately 1, we can write, k20 = kT

is found from following graph corresponding to temperature in

T0C.

Empirical relation for k from D10 and e :

-

For fairly uniform sand i.e. small uniformity co-efficient, Hansen (1930)
has proposed an empirical relation for the co-efficient of permeability k
(mm/sec) in the form.
k=C

Where, C = constant = 100/cm.

D10 = effective grain size in cm.
k = 100

cm/sec.

Another simple relation has been proposed by Casagrande for the coefficient of permeability for fine to medium clean sand:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

K=1.4e2K0.85.
-

Where, K= Co-efficient of permeability at void ratio, e and K 0.85 is the

corresponding value for the same soil at a void ratio of 0.85.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Experimental determination of k:
Laboratory determination of k using a constant head permeameter:

The constant head permeameter is suitable for more permeable granular

materials.

The soil specimen is placed inside a cylindrical mold and the constant head
loss, h of water flow through the soil is maintained by adjusting cylinder
and the duration of the collection period, t is noted.

From Darcys law, the total quantity of flow, Q in time, t can be given by Q
= qt = kiAt, Where A = the area of cross section of the specimen =

D = Diameter of the specimen.

-

But i =

, where h = Head of flowing water and L = The length of the

specimen. Q = k At Or, k =
Laboratory determination of k using a falling head permeameter:
-

The falling head permeability test is more suitable for fine grained soils.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

The soil specimen is placed inside a tube and a stand pipe is attached to the
top of the specimen.

The initial head difference, h1 at time t = 0 is recorded and water is allowed

to flow through the soil such that the final head difference at time t = t is h2.

The rate of flow through the soil is q = kiA = k A = a

Where, h = head difference at any time, t.

A = area of the specimen =

and D = Diameter of the specimen.

a = area of the standpipe =

and d = Diameter of the standpipe.

L = Length of the specimen.

- Putting the integrating limit and integrating,

(-

) Or,

Or, t =

loge(

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Or, k =

loge(

) Or, k = 2.303

log10(

).

Field determination of k: (Pumping test).

Unconfined Aquifer:
-

When the ground water layer is not surrounded by two impervious layers
and its pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is known as an
unconfined aquifer.

Confined Aquifer:
-

When the underground water layer is surrounded by two impervious layers

and its pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure is known as confined
aquifer or artesian aquifer.

For an unconfined aquifer:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Figure shows a permeable layer underline by an impermeable stratum.

The co-efficient of permeability of the top permeable layer can be

determined by pumping from a well at a constant rate and observing the
steady state water table in nearby observations wells.

The steady state is established when the water level in the test well and the
observation wells become constant.

Dupuit assumptions for Field determination of k

i.

The flow is horizontal, so that the piezometric level is everywhere at the

water table.
ii. The surface may be ignored, so that the free water surface is coincident
with piezometric level.
iii. The hydraulic gradient is constant at any given radius, and is equal to the
rate of change of the piezometric level with radius
-

At the steady state the rate of discharge due to pumping can be expressed
as by Darcys law.
Q = kiA where Q = Steady state discharge, A = Flow area.

From Figure, i =

Q = k.
-

and A= 2rh.

. 2rh

Putting the limits and integrating,

=>

=> loge(

)=

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

=> k =
For a confined aquifer:
Figure shows a well sunk through an aquifer at both top and bottom by
practically impervious strata.
-

In this case, there is no water table and no free surface and the piezometric
level is everywhere above the top of the aquifer.

Applying Darcys law and Dupuits assumptions

Q = kiA Here, A= 2rD => Q = k

Putting limits and integrating.

=> loge(

)=

(h2-h1) => k =

. 2rD

Permeability of Stratified soils:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Horizontal flow:
- Where the soil profile consists of a permeability of a number of strata having
different permeabilitys, the overall permeability of the soil is not the same in
directions parallel to, and normal to the strata.

Consider the soil profile shown in figure consisting of two layers whose
properties are indicated by suffix 1 0r 2 respectively.

For flow parallel to the strata, the hydraulic gradient in each layer is the
same, the total flow is the sum of the flows in the two layers, and the total
area of the section is the sum of the areas of the two layers.

= i1 = i2

= q1 + q2

= A1 + A2 = H1L + H2L = (H1 + H2)L

Then,

=
-

In the general case, for n strata,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

=>

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Vertical flow:

For flow normal to the strata, the total flow is equal to the flow in each
layer, the total area is equal to the area of each layer, and the head loss
overall is equal to the sum of the losses in the two layers.

= q1 = q2

= A1 = A2,

i1 =

Then,

i2 =

= h1 + h2, =

, or, h1 = i1H1 and h2 = i2H2

=>

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

In the general case, for n strata

=>

Example:
1.

Find the co-efficient of permeability for fairly uniform sand if effective

grain size is 0.15mm.

Solution:

Here,
We know,

= 0.15mm= 0.015cm
k

=C

cm/sec

C = 100/cm.

= 100*
= 0.0225 cm/sec. (Ans.)
2.

The co-efficient of permeability of sand at a void ratio of 0.8 is 0.47

mm/sec. Estimate the co-efficient of permeability of this sand at a void
ratio of 0.5.

Solution: We know,

Now,

k = 1.4
=>

= 1.4

--------------- (i)

=>

= 1.4

--------------- (ii)

(i) (ii) =>

=>

= 0.47*

= 0.184mm/sec

(Ans.)
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

3.

The results, of a constant head permeability test for a time sand sample
having a diameter of 150mm and a length of 300mm are as follows.
Constant head difference
= 500 mm.
Time of collection of water
= 5 minute
Volume of water collected
= 0.35 litre
= 240C

Temperature of water

Find the co-efficient of permeability in m/year for the soil at 20 0C if

= 0.91.

Also find the velocity of flow in m/sec.

Solution:
We know for constant head permeability test, k =

Given that, L = 300mm, h = 500mm, i =

D = 150mm, A =

= 17671.46 mm2

t = 5minute = 5*60 = 300sec.

Q = 0.35 litre = 0.35*106 mm3 = 350000 mm3
=> k =

=> k20 = k24 *

= 3.96* 10-2 mm/sec.

= 3.96* 10-2 * 0.91 = 3.6* 10-2 mm/sec

= 3.6* 10-5 m/sec = 1136.43 m/year (Ans.)

Velocity of flow = ki = 3.6* 10-5 *

= 6.0*10-5 m/sec (Ans.)

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

4.

The co-efficient of permeability of a soil sample was found out in a soil

mechanics laboratory by making use of a falling head permeameter.
The data used and the test results obtained were as follows.
Diameter of sample
= 6cm.
Height of sample
= 15cm.
Diameter of stand pipe
= 2cm.
Initial head
= 45cm.
Final head after 2 minutes
= 30 cm.
Determine the co-efficient of permeability in m/day and Also find the average
velocity in mm/sec.
Solution:
The for determining k is
k=

log10

Here, d = 2cm, a =
D = 6cm, A =

=
=

= 3.14 cm2
= 2827 cm2

L = 15cm, t = 2 minute = 2*60 = 120 sec.

h1 = 45 cm, h2 = 30 cm.
k=

log10

=> k = 5.63*10-3 cm/sec = 4.86 m/day (Ans.).

Average velocity of flow = kiaverage = 5.63* 10-3 * (45 + 30)/(2*15)
= 14.1*10-3 cm/sec = 0.14 mm/sec (Ans.)
5.

During preparation for a pumping test, a well was sunk through a stratum
of dense sand 10m deep, and into clay of very low permeability beneath.
Observation holes were drilled at 15m and at 60m from the well. The water
in the well and in the observation holes stood originally at the same level,
2.35m below the top of the well. At steady condition, the discharge was
found to be 19.7m3/hour. The water level in the observation hole 15m from

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

the well had dropped 1.93m and that in the hole 60m away had dropped
0.52m. Find k in m/sec.
Solution:
r1 = 15.0m, and h1 = 10 - 2.35 - 1.93 =5.72m
r2 = 60.0m, and h2 = 10 - 2.35- 0.52 = 7.13m

k=

=> k = 1.33*10-4 m/sec (Ans.)

6. A pumping test was made from a well in a permeable layer overlain and
underlain by impervious stratum. When steady state was reached the following
observation was made:
Q = 0.12 m3/hour, r1 = 2.0m and h1 = 6.2m, r2 = 5.0m and h2 = 6.8m,
and thickness of the confined layer, D = 5.0 m. Find k in m/sec.
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Solution:

We know,

k=

* log10

* log10 (

= 5.8*10-3 m/hr.
= 1.6*10-6 m/sec. (Ans.)
7.

A soil mass consists of three uniform layers of soil deposits. Their coefficient of permeability and thickness are (i) 6*10-4 cm/sec & 6m. (ii)
40*10-4 cm/sec and 3m and (iii) 4*10-4 cm/sec and 9m. Find the
permeabilitys of the soil mass for horizontal and vertical flow of water.

Solution:
Here, K1 = 6* 10-4 cm/sec, H1 = 6m, K2 = 40*10-4 cm/sec.
H2 = 3m, K3 = 4*10-4 cm/sec, H3 = 9m.
For horizontal flow,

KH =

= 1.067*10-3 cm/sec (Ans).

For vertical flow,

Kv =

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

=
= 5.4*10-4 cm/sec (Ans).
Exercise:
1. A constant head permeability test was carried out on a cylindrical sample
of sand 10cm diameter and 15cm height. 160cm3 of water was collected in 1.75
min, under a head of 30cm.Compute the co-efficient of permeability in m/year
and hence find the velocity of flow in m/sec.
(Ans: k = 3059.65m/year and v = 1.94*10-4 m/sec.)
2. A falling head permeability test is performed on a specimen of clean
uniform sand 100mm in diameter and 150mm long. The diameter of the
standpipe is 5mm. The water level in the standpipe is 1500mm above the
overflow which drops by 500mm in 120 seconds. Find the permeability and
average velocity of flow. How much additional time will the water level in the
standpipe take to drop by another 500mm.
(Ans: k = 1.267*10-3 mm/sec, V= 1.05*10-2 mm/sec and t= 3min, 25 sec.)
3. A permeameter of diameter 8.25 cm contains a column of fine sand 46 cm
long. When water flows through under constant head at the rate of 191cc/min,
the loss of head between two points 25 cm apart is 38 cm, compute the coefficient of permeability and velocity of flow. If a falling head test is made on
the same sample, using a standpipe of diameter 3cm, in what time will the water
level in the standpipe fall from 156 cm to 106cm above the outflow level?
(Ans: k = 0.21 cm/sec, V= 0.0595 cm/sec and t = 11.16 sec.)
4.
A permeameter of diameter 8.25 cm contains a column of fine sand 46 cm long.
When water flows through under constant head at the rate, 191cc/min and the
loss of head between two points 25 cm apart is 38 cm, compute the co-efficient
of permeability and velocity of flow. If a falling head test is made on the same
sample using a standpipe of diameter 3 cm, in what time will the water level in
the standpipe fall from 156 cm to 106 cm above the outflow level?
Solution as follows:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

5. A pumping test was carried out to determine the co-efficient of permeability

at a site which was selected for the construction of an earth dam. Observation
wells were established at distances of 3m and 6m from the test well. The
following data were obtained:
Depth of water table = 16m.
Discharge under steady condition = 2.3 m3/min.
Drawdown at outer well = 0.5m
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Drawdown at inner well = 1.5m.

Determine the co-efficient of permeability of soil.
(Ans: k = 2.82*10-4m/sec.)
5. A pumping test was carried out for determining the co-efficient of
permeability of soil in place. A well of diameter 40cm was drilled up to the
impermeable stratum. The depth of the water bearing stratum was 8m. The yield
from the well was 4m3/min at a steady drawdown of 4.5m. Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil in m/day if the observed radius of influence
was 150m.
(Ans: k = 234.58 m/day.)
Seepage
Features / Characteristics of Seepage:
-

Seepage is the percolation or slow movement of water through soil or rock.

It may be one dimensional, two dimensional in one plane or three

dimensional.

The interaction between soils and percolating water has an important

influence
on:
(i) The design of foundations and earth slopes.
(ii) The quantity of water that will be lost by percolation through a dam or
its subsoil.

Definition of Seepage:
-

Seepage is the quantity of water per unit width of obstructed water front
structure below for the percolation or slow movement of water through a
dam or its subsoil.

Piping:
-

Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil on the downstream sides of some

hydraulic structures gets lifted up due to excess pressure of water.

Seepage pressure:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

The pressure that is exerted on the soil due to the seepage of water is called
earth seepage force or pressure.

Flow line:
-

The path which a particle of water follows in its course of seepage through
a saturated soil mass is called a flow line.

Equipotential line:
-

Equipotential lines are lines that intersect the flow lines at right angles.

At all points along an equipotential line, the water would rise in a

piezometric tube to a certain elevation known as piezometric level.

Flow path:
-

The channel formed by any two adjacent flow lines will be called a flow
path.

Flow net:
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Flow net is a network of flow lines and equipotential lines intersecting at

right angles to each other.

Properties of a flow net:

-

The properties of a flow net can be expressed as given below:

i.

Flow and equipotential lines are smooth curves.

ii.

Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
All flow lines commence on the upstream equipotential line and
terminate on the downstream equipotential line with right angle
intersections.

iii. No two flow lines cross each other.

iv. No two flows or equipotential lines start from the same point.
Laplace differential equation of seepage:
-

The concept of flow net is based on Laplaces equation of continuity which

escribes the steady flow condition for a given point in the soil mass.

Let us take a single row of sheet piles driven into a permeable soil layer as
shown in figure (a).

The row of a sheet piles is assumed to be impervious.

The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream side
through the permeable layer is a two dimensional flow.

For flow at point A. We consider an elemental soil block A with

dimensions dx, dy and dz (length dy is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper).

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

It is enlarged soil block A in figure (b). Let V x and Vz be the components

of the discharge velocity in the horizontal and vertical directions.

The rate of flow water into the elemental block in the horizontal direction
is Vxdzdy and in the vertical direction it is Vzdxdy.

Again the rate of outflow from the block in the horizontal and vertical
directions are (Vx+

)dzdy and (Vz+

Entrance faces hydraulic gradient, ix =

Exit faces hydraulic gradient,

ix +

dx =

dx and iy+

dy =

)dxdy respectively.

and iy =

dy.

Assuming water is incompressible and no volume change in soil mass

occurs.
i.e. [the total rate of inflow] [the total rate of outflow] = 0.
Vx
Vz

Vx
dx d z d y Vz
dx d x d y [Vx d z d y Vz d x d y ] 0
x
z

=>
-

=0

Using Darcys law, the discharge velocities can be expressed as V x = kxix =

kx
-

and Vz= kziz = kz

where kx, kz are co-efficients of permeability in the vertical and horizontal

directions respectively.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

=> kx
-

+ kz

=0

If the soil is isotropic with respect to the permeability co-efficient i.e. k x =

kz, then
=>

=0

By direct analogy, thus, the three dimensional flow is

=>

=0

Families of curves always intersect at right angles:

Figure shows the intersection of flow line with an equipotential line.

AB is the flow line and CD is the equipotential line.

At point C the slope of the curve AB is , computed as follows:

The velocity vectors are (nothing that a sign will go with the derivatives)

Vx = kx

, Vy = ky

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

By inspection of the figure, tan =

Now along any line of constant pressure, say from C to D, h = Constant

and therefore the derivative, dh = 0 but the derivative dh is h = k x

dx + ky

dy = 0

Or,

Product of slopes of two curves = tan*(

)= 1.

So, the product of slopes of two curves = 1.

Thus the families of curves defined by the Laplace equation always

intersect at right angles.

Discharge calculation from Flow nets:

-

Figure respect a layer of soil one unit in width confined between two
imperious soil layers.

The soil will be divided into sections by drainage a series of flow lines and
equipotential lines which intersect at as close to right angles as it is
practicable to draw.

The channel formed by any two adjacent flow lines will be called flow
path.

The difference in energy head represented by any two adjacent

equipotential lines is a head loss defined by h and it is evident that the
total head losses between two points say B and C is hi.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

The dimensions in the segments in figure are a and b as from this the area
of element 1 through which water flows is A = a*Width = a*1 = a.

The total area is obtained from the three flow paths (nf = 3), ATotal = nf(a).
Where nf = number of flow paths and may be an integer or decimal.

The length L of soil across which a total head loss h occurs is L = nd (b).

Where, nd = Number of equipotential drops between two boundary points

where h is and must be an integer since h = constant.

The flow quantity per unit width can be computed as

Q= kiA = k A = k(h)

Now, if squares are drawn, then a = b and Q = k*h*

Flow net construction:

The general shape of the flow net will be determined by the boundary
conditions in most cases. General requirement for the flow net boundary
conditions are:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

i.

The flow line intersects with equipotential lines at right angles, except at
singular points where the velocity is zero or v = as occurs at corners or
tips of impervious cut off walls.

ii.

From the definition of q, h must be same amount for each equipotential

line.

iii. The pressure head at the intersection of phreatic line and only equipotential
line is zero.
iv. All flow path must have continuity so that qin = qout.
In constructing flow nets the following guidelines may prove helpful:
i.

Always draw squares, which intersect at right angles as nearly as it is

possible to draw them (exceptions are at singular points, such as corners),
When conditions exist which require the use of rectangles for modification
to allow the use of squares.

ii.

Use as few flow paths (and resulting equipotential drops) as possible while
maintaining square sections. Generally four to six paths will be sufficient,
used with a modest plotting scale so that the drawing does not tend to be
more precise than soil data can justify.

iii. Check the accuracy of squares by adding selected lines and observing if
they sub-divide large squares into recognizable smaller ones.
iv. Use a pair of divides to measure the square dimensions.
v.

Always watch the appearance of the entire flow net. Do not make fine
detail adjustments until the entire flow net is approximately correct.

vi. Take advantages of symmetry where possible. Symmetrical geometry may

result in positions of the net being exact squares, if so, develop this area
first then extended the net into the adjacent zones.
vii. Use smooth transitions around corners and reentrant corners. Use gradual
transition from small to large squares.
viii. A discharge face in contact with air is neither a flow line nor an
equipotential line, however such a boundary must fulfill the same
conditions of equal drops in potential where equipotential lines intersect it.
ix. To get a very good results a roughed inflow net is adequate, while rough
net are usually not acceptable for academic work, one should be aware that

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

the ratio of nf/nd will be relatively unchanged in a very precise, right angle
intersection flow net from very rapidly drawn and uncorrected flow net.
Design a graded filter:
-

When seepage water flows from a soil with relatively fine grains into a
coarser material, there is a danger that the fine soil particles may wash
away into the coarser material.

Over a period of time the process may along the void spaces in the coarser
material.

Such a situation can be prevented by the use of filter or protective filter

between the two soils i.e. finer soil and coarser soil (rock).

For the proper selection of the filter material, two conditions should be kept
in mind:

a)

The size of the voids in the filter material should be small enough to
hold the larger particles of the protected material in place.

b)

The filter material should have a high permeability to prevent building

up of large seepage force and hydrostatic pressure in the filters.

Based on the experimental investigation of protective filters, Bertram

(1940), provided the following criteria to satisfy the above conditions:
4 to 5 (to satisfy condition-I)

4 to 5 (to satisfy condition-II).

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Where, D15(F)= Diameter through which 15% of filler material will pass.

D15(S) = Diameter through which 15% of soil to be protected will pass.

D85(S) = Diameter through which 85% of soil to be protected will pass.

The acceptable grain size distribution of the filter material will have to lie
in the shaded grain zone.

The U.S Navy (1971) requires the following conditions for the design of
filters:

i. For avoiding the movement of the particles of the protected soil

< 5,

< 25,

If the uniformity co-efficient, Cu =

< 20.

of the protected soil is less than 1.5,

may be increased to 6.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Also if Cu of the protected soil greater than 4.

may be increased to 40.

ii.

For avoiding build up of large seepage force in the filter

> 4.

iii. The filter material should not have grain sizes greater than 3 inch (76.2mm).
(To avoid segregation of particles in filter)
iv. To avoid internal movement of the fines in the filter, it should not have
more than 5% passing a No.200 sieve.
v.

When perforated pipes are used for collecting seepage water, filters are also
used around the pipes to protect the fine grained soil from being washed
into the pipes.

To avoid the movement of the filter material into the drain pipe of
percolations the following additional conditions should be met:
> 1.2 to 1.4

> 1.0 to 1.2.

Example:
A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer
is shown in figure. Given, kX = kY = kZ = 5*

mm/sec.

i.

How high will the water rise if measured of piezometer placed at points a,
b, c and d?

ii.

What is the rate of seepage through flow channel-II per unit width
(Perpendicular to the section)?

iii. What is the total rate of seepage through the permeable layer per unit
width?

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Solution:
(i) - From figure, nf = Number of flow paths = 3
nd = Number of equipotential drops = 6
- The difference of head between the upstream and downstream sides =
10ft.
- So the loss of head for each drop =

= 1.667ft.

- Point a is located on equipotential line 1, which means that the

potential drop at 'a' is 1*1.667ft.
- Therefore the water in piezometer at point a will rise to an elevation of
(15-1.667)=13.33ft above the ground surface.
- Similarly the piezometric level for:
b = 15-2*1.667 = 11.67ft
c = 15-5*1.667 = 6.667ft.
d =15-5*1.667 = 6.665ft.
(ii) We know, q = k(h)

k = 5*

q = 1.64*

h =10, nf = 1, nd = 6

mm/sec = 5*

= 2.734*

=1.64*

ft/sec.

ft3/sec/ft (Ans.)

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

(iii) We know, q = k(h)

= 1.64*

*10* ,

nf = 3

ft3/sec/ft. (Ans.)

= 8.2*
Exercise:

1. Draw the flow net for the weir shown in Fig.-1 and calculate the rate of
seepage under it
if k = 4*

mm/sec.

(Ans: 5.41*

m3/sec/m)

2. Draw the flow net for the sheet piling wall shown in Fig.2 and compute the
rate of seepage under if k = 4.5*

cm/sec.

3. / Q-8(c)-DUET/2014. Write down the guidelines for constructing flow net

of soil (N. B. show the answer as before). Draw flow net and calculate the
seepage loss meter width of sheet pile as shown in Fig.-3.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

WT
5m

Sheet Pile

2m

WT

3m

K= 6.1X10-5 m/sec
8m

## ##

##

##

Impervious Layer
Fig No: -3

Solution as below:

N. B. Flow Net will be Vertically Symmetric.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur