1

DUET
CEE-4441
SOIL MECHANICS & GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
NOTE NO 02

SOIL COMPACTION AND SOIL CONSISTENCY

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE DENSITY AND

CONSISTENCY
Relative Density or Density Index
The concept: The concept of relative density is a criterion for the density of a
sand deposit. This criterion is of an arbitrary character, it is not based on any
plausible physical concept of density of any one physical body. Relative density
applies only to sand, not silt and clay.
The relative density is given as,
Dy

emax e
n n 1 nmin 1 / min 1 /
max
emax emin nmax nmin 1 n 1 / min 1 / min

Where,
e

= void ratio of sand at its natural density () state in the field or lab.

emax = void ratio of the same sand in its (min) loosest state in the lab.
emin = void ratio of the same sand under its densest ( max) or most compact
state in the lab.
nmax = maximum possible porosity of sand soil in loosest state.
nmin = minimum possible porosity of the given sand soil in densest state.
n

= natural porosity of the given sand soil in the field or in the lab.

The most effective means of densifying sand fills is by the soil vibration
method.
Analyzing the above formula one notes the following:
If the sand in its natural condition already is in its loosest state (e=emax), then the
relative density of sand is D =0.
If the sand in its natural condition is in its densest state (e=e min), then its relative
density is D =1.
For intermediate values of e, the values of D between 0 to1.
Definition of Relative Density:
Physically, relative density expresses the ratio of actual decrease in volume
of voids in a soil to the maximum possible decrease in volume of voids.
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DUET, Gazipur

In other words, relative density indicates how far sand under investigation
is capable of further density under externally applied loads or energy.
Degree of Relative Density:
Attempts have been made to characterize the various degrees or states of
densities by means of numerical co-efficient.
According to Terzaghi,
For, Loose sand, 0< D <1/3.
Medium dense sand, 1/3< D <2/3.
Dense or well compacted sand, 2/3< D <1.
Application of Relative Density:
The relative density theory finds its application in compaction of granular
material in various soil vibration problems associated with engineering
operations, foundation of machinery, vibrations transmitted to sandy soil
from trains and automobiles.
The relative density values of sand give us an indication whether or not
unpleasant consequences can be expected from engineering operations
which might affect structures or foundations due to vibration settlement.
Example -1:
Calculate the relative density of sand soil whose void ratios are as follows, e max
= 0.55, e = 0.30 and e min = 0.20. Also, evaluate whether the sand deposit is in a
loose state, medium dense state.
Solution:
e

0.55 0.30

max
We know, D e e 0.55 0.20 0.71 (Ans.)
max
min

Because 2/3 = 0.67 < D = 0.71 < 1.00, the result, D = 0.71 indicates that the
sand is in a dense state of compaction.
Relative Compaction:
Another used in regard to the degree of compaction of coarse grained soils is
d

relative compaction, RC, which is defined as RC =

Where,

max

= dry unit weight in the field

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DUET, Gazipur

max = maximum unit weight of the same soil in the laboratory.

The difference between relative density and relative compaction is shown in
Fig.1.
Dry unit wt.
Void ratio
Dr, Relative
density (%) 0

100

RC, Relative
80

compaction
100
Fig.1-Relative Compaction

Approximate Relation between RC and Dr as RC = 80 + 0.2 Dr , where Dr is in

percent.
Fig-1 Relative Compaction
Definition of soil compaction:
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the
particles closer together with a reduction in the volume of air, there is no
significant change in the volume of water in the soil by a dynamic load.
Objective of compaction:
The objective of compaction is to improve the engineering properties of the soil
such as
1)

Reduction of subsidence from the reduced void ratio.

2)

Increase the unit weight of soil.

3)

Increase in soil strength.

4)

Reduction in shrinkage, decrease in volume resulting as the water content

reduces from the reference value during drying.

5)

A decrease in permeability and in compressibility.

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Proctor comp active effort:

A) Standard method:
Volume of cylindrical mould : 1000 cm3.
Soil

: With all particles larger than 20mm removed.

Rammer

: 2.5kg mass.

Height of fall

: Falling freely through 300mm.

Soil layers

: Compacted in three equal layers.

Number of blow

: Each layer receiving 27 blows with the rammer.

B) Modified method:
Volume of cylindrical mould : 1000 cm3.
Soil

: With all particles larger than 20mm removed.

Rammer

: 4.5kg mass.

Height of fall

: Falling freely through 450mm.

Soil layers

: Compacted in five equal layers.

Number of blow

: Each layer receiving 27 blows with the rammer.

C) Vibrating hammer method:

Mould

: 152mm in diameter.

Soil

: Approximately 2360 cm3, will all particles

larger than 37.5mm removed.

Soil layers

: Compacted in three equal layers.

Hammer

: A circular tamper filled in the vibrating

hammer.

Time of compaction

: Each layer being compacted for a periods of 60

seconds.

Factor affecting Compaction:

The compaction of soil depends on various factors such as:
1)

The dry density of soil.

2)

The moisture content of soil (Fig-2)

3)

The air content of soil (Fig-2)

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DUET, Gazipur

4)

The type of soil(Fig-3)

5)

The type of compaction efforts(Fig-2)

Fig-2

Fig-3
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Proctor Test and soil moisture density relationship:

In 1933 proctor showed that

1)

There exists a definite relationship between the soil moisture content and
the degree of dry density to which a soil may be compacted and

2)

That for a specific amount of compaction energy applied on the soil there is
moisture content termed the optimum moisture content at which a
particular soil attains it maximum dry density.

Such a maximum dry density optimum moisture content relationship gives a

practical and satisfactory method of construction control of earthworks.
The net dry weight of compacted soil is then determined as well as the
compacted moisture content. These two quantities, moisture content and dry
density from a pair of co-ordinates or a point 1 on a dry density graph, Fig-4.
Compaction is repeated at various moisture contents, the moisture contents of
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

the soil sample being increased each time to produce data for plotting a
complete moisture content-dry density graph.

Fig-4
The calculation of the dry density, viz. dry unit weight of the compacted soil in
terms of its wet density and moisture content is calculated for each test mode as
follows:
d

w
A B
AC
X 100% and w
where
1
B C
V
100

Where,
= percent of moisture by oven-dry weight in the specimen of the soil.
A = weight of dish or can and wet soil.
B = weight of dish or can and oven dried soil.
C = weight of dish.
V = volume of compacting mould.
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d = dry weight per cubic foot or m3 of compacted soil.

w = wet weight per cubic foot or m3 of compacted soil.
The soil moisture contents are plotted on the graph, Fig-4, as abscissas and the
dry unit weights as ordinates. When the plotted points are connected with a
smooth line, a curve is obtained the shape of which is generally of a hyperbolic
form. In order to determine better the course of the curve if is advisable to
obtain the test points before at and past the peak of the curve. The moisture
content corresponding to the peak or maximum ordinate of the curve is termed
the optimum moisture content (OMC) of the compacted soil sample at a
specified amount of energy applied on that soil. The oven dried soil weight in
lb/ft3 or in KN/m3 of the soil tested at optimum moisture content is termed the
maximum dry density (MDD) or maximum dry unit weight for the
compaction.
Determination of field density or bulk density in field
Two methods
1)

The sand cone method. Fig: 5(a)

2)

The balloon method. Fig: 5(b)

The sand cone method: Firstly the weight of sand cone which is filled with
known density of Ottawa sand is determined. Placing the template on a flat
surface, the hole up to 100 to 150mm is dig. The soil of the hole is collected and
the weight of soil is determined. Now the hole is fillet by placing sand cone
onto template. The weight of rest sand in sand cone is determined. The
difference between first and second weight of sand cone are given the weight of
sand in the hole. The weight of sand is divided by density of sand and volume of
hole is got. The weight of collecting soil of the hole is determined. This weight
is divided by volume of hole and the bulk density of soil is given. The moisture
content of soil is determined by oven and finally dry density of soil is got.
The balloon method: The hole is digged by placing template on a flat surface.
The weight of collecting soil is determined. The volume of hole in this method
is directly determined by balloon apparatus. In this apparatus water is filled in
its graduated cylinder. The difference between the initial and final reading of
graduated cylinder are given the volume of the hole. The weight of soil is
divided by volume of hole and bulk density of soil is given.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

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Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

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Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

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Example-2
Standard proctor compaction tests carried out on sandy clay yielded the
following result:
Bulk density (kg/m3) :

2058 2125 2152 2159 2140

Moisture content (%) :

12.9

14.3

15.7

16.9

17.9

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a)

Plot the compaction curve i.e. the curve of dry density against moisture
content and hence find the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content.

b)

Also compute the percentage of compaction if bulk density and

moisture content of same soil in field are 2034 kg/m 3 and 13.0%,
respectively.

c)

Calculate the moisture content necessary for complete saturation at this

maximum dry density if the specific gravity of the solid constituents is
2.73.

d)

Plot the zero air voids line and 5 percent air voids line.

Soln:
We know,

1
100

Here,
(%) : 12.9

14.3

15.7

16.9

17.9

W:

2058

2125

2152

2159

2140

d:

1823

1859

1860

1846

1815

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From normal graph Fig. - 6

Maximum dry density (Laboratory) = 1865 kg/m3 (Ans)
And, optimum moisture content = 14.9% (Ans)
b)

Now,

1
100

compaction =
c)

or,

d (Field) = 2034/(1+13/100) = 1800 kg/cm3%

or, % compaction = 1800/1865 = 96.5% (Ans)

When, dry density = 1865 kg/m3

For 1m3 sample:
Volume of solids =

= 0.683

Volume of water for saturation = 1 0.683 = 0.317 m3

Weight of water = 0.317x1000 =317 kg

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Moisture content =
d)

x 100 = 17% (Ans.)

Select values of moisture content

(%) :
1+

14

Gs: 1.38

15

16

1.43

17
1.44

18

1.46

1.49

[ Gs =2.73 ]

For zero air voids, 1- na = 1-0 = 1

w = 2.73 x 1000
d : 1978

1936

Gs
1836

1870

1832

= 2730 kg/m

For 5% air voids, 1- na = 1 0.05 = 0.95

d : 1880

1840

1801

d =

1777

1741

These lines are plotted on graph Fig. - 6

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Example - 3:
The relative compaction of soil in a new embankment of Gazipur is 90% and
field dry density is 1800kg/cm3. Find the % of OMC of this soil laboratory
maximum wet density is 2250 kg/cm3.
d ( field )

Solution: % compaction = d (lab)

max =

or, 2000 =

or, d(lab) =

1800
0. 9

= 2000kg/cm3

or, w = 0.1125 = 11.25% OMC (Ans.)

Exercise

1.

The results of a standard proctor compaction test are as follows:

Moisture content W (%): 5
Bulk density (kg/m3): 1890

11

2139 2170 2210

12

15

2219 2161

20
2069

a.Plot the curve of moisture content against dry density and determine the
optimum moisture content and maximum d.
b.If the grain specific gravity is 2.70, plot the zero air and 10 percent air
void line.
c.What are the values of void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation for
the soil at its condition of OMC.
Ans. a. OMC = 10%; b. d =2002kg/m3; c. e = 0.35, n = 0.26, Sr = 77%
Additional Examples
Illustrative Example 2.12 A borrow area soil has a natural water content of 10%
and a bulk density of 1.80 Mg/m3. The soil is used for an embankment to be
compacted at 18% moisture content to a dry density of 1.85 Mg/m 3. Determine
the amount of water to be added to 1.0n 3 of borrow soil. How many cubic meter
of excavation is required for 1 m3 of compacted embankment?
Solution, Borrow area soil.

d 1.80 1.636 g / ml

Unit weight

= 1.623 9.81 = 1605 kNm3

It us consider 1 m3of borrow soil

Ws = Dry weight/m3 = 1605 kN
Ww = Weight o f water/m3 = 1.605 kN
In embankment,

Wwl = 0.18 1605 = 2.889 kN

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DUET, Gazipur

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Water to be added = 2.889 1.605 = 1.284 kN

Weight of dry soil in embankment/m3 of embankment =

18.150
1.131m 3
16.05

Illustrative Example 2.13. There are two borrow areas A and B which have soils
with void ratios of 0.80 and 0.70, respectively. The inplace water content is
20%, and 15%, respectively. The fill at the end of construction will have a total
volume of 10,000 m3, bulk density of 2 Mg/m3 and a placement water content of
22%. Determine the volume of the soil required to be excavated from both
areas, G = 2.65.
If the cost of excavation of soil and transportation is Rs. 200/- per 100 m 3 for
area A and Rs. 220/- per 100 m3 for ar ea A, which of the borrow area is mote
economical?
Solution, Borrow area A.

2.65 1.0
1.47 g / ml (14.44kN / m 3 )
1 1.80

Let us consider 1 m3 of borrow soil Ws = Dry weight/m3 = 14.44 kN

In embankment,

2
1.639 g / ml ( 1608kN / m 3 )
1 0.22

Weight of dry soil per m3 = 1608 kN

Volume of soil required

16.08
1.114 m 3
14.44

Cost of soil = Rs 200/1001.114 = Rs. 2.23 per m3

Borrow area B,

2.65 1.0
1.559 g / ml (15.29kN / m 3 )
1.70

Ws = dry weight/m3 = 15.29 kN

In embankment, weight of dry soil = 1608 kN
16.08
1.052m 3
15.29

Volume of soil required

Cost of soil

= Rs 220/100 1.52 = Rs 2.31 per m3.

Borrow area A is more economical.

SOIL CONSISTENCY
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DUET, Gazipur

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Definition of consistency:
Consistency in general is that property of material which is manifested by
its resistance to flow.
The term soil consistency conveys the idea of the degree of cohesion or
adhesion between the soil particles.
Also consistency can be regarded as the outward result of the forces of
cohesion and adhesion acting at various degrees of moisture contents.
In this sense consistency refers to the resistance of soil offered against
forces that tend to deform or rupture the soil aggregate consistency is
commonly described by such terms as cemented, solid, hard, brittle, stiff,
sticky, plastic, mellow or soft. The gradations of soil consistency are
greatly influenced by the soil moisture content.
Plasticity:
Plasticity may be defined as the property which enables a material to be
deformed continuously and permanently without rupture.
Plasticity is the ability of a body to undergo dislocation of its smallest
structural particles, a consequence of the application of external forces, at
ordinary temperature without disturbance by their coherence.
States of consistency and their limits:
Suppose that a soil water mixture is now subjected to drying.
Drying of soil means a decrease in its moisture content. At the beginning of
the drying process the mass represents a more or less uniform dense liquid.
It is said to be in the liquid state. During the drying process the thickness of
the moisture films between the soil particles decrease.
Upon further drying the cohesive soil mass becomes dryer and somewhat
stiffer and at a certain moisture content, the so called liquid limit WLL, the
soil transforms from the liquid into the plastic state, thereby losing its
ability to flow as a liquid.
In this plastic state the soil can be readily molded holding its shape, or can
change shape without the appearance of cracks in it.
Any material which allows a change of from without rupture and which
will retain this form when the pressure is removed is said to be plastic.
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Upon a further decrease in moisture the plastic properties of the cohesive

soil are lost and at a certain moisture content termed the plastic limit, W PL,
the clayey soil transforms from the plastic state into the semisolid state.
At the plastic limit the change in consistency, viz., the change in shape of a
cohesive soil is accompanied by visible cracks, when worked upon the soil
crumbles.
The next stage of the drying out process below the WPL point gradually
approaches from the semisolid to the solid state.
The moisture content of the soil at which the soil transforms from the
semisolid state to the solid state is termed the shrinkage limit, WSL.
The shrinkage limit is attained at that moisture content at which the
cohesive soil regardless of drying remains volume constant.
Also the change in color upon drying from dark to light approximately
indicates the shrinkage limit, the moisture contents characterizing
consistency limits are based on dry weight of the soil.
The consistency limits of soils are also called Atterberg limits.
The Atterberg limits can be considered the following 3-Limits:
1.

Liquid limit, 2. Plastic limit and 3. Shrinkage limit.

The state of consistency, change in moisture content can be considered the

following 4-states:
1.

Liquid state, 2. Plastic state, 3. Semisolid state and 4. Solid state

The consistency limits or Atterberg limits of soils which are conveniently

represented graphically as illustrated in Fig.-7(a) and Fig.-7(b).
Shrinkage limit Plastic limit Any moisture content in soil Liquid limit
W=0

WSL

WPL

Solid state Semi solid state

W WLL Moisture content, W (%)

Plastic state

Liquid state

Plasticity index PI= WLL-WPL

Fig. 7(a): States of consistency, consistency limits, and plasticity index

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Uses of Atterberg limits:

WLL and WPL give one an idea about the plastic properties and volume
constancy or stability and about the internal friction of soil.
These limits are extensively used in soil engineering for identification,
classification and characterization purposes of soil construction materials.
Plasticity index and Liquid index:
With reference to the Atterberg consistency limits cohesive soils through
change in moisture content can be considered the 4-state of consistency:
When the moisture content of soil is greater then the liquid limit i.e. when
W > WLL, the soil is in a liquid state.
When W = WLL, the moisture content is at liquid limit of soil.
When WPL < W < WLL, the soil in a plastic state of consistency.
When W < WSL, the soil is in the solid state of consistency.
The difference in moisture content or interval between liquid and plastic
limits is termed the plasticity Index, P. I. = WLL -WPL
The state or potential state of consistency of a natural soil can be
established through a relationship termed the liquid index, L.I.
L.I = (WN -WPL)/P. I. = (WN -WPL)/ WLL -WPL,
Where WN = Natural moisture content.
If 0 L.I < 1, the soil is in the plastic range.
If L.I 1, the soil is in a liquid state.
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Example of soil classification by its plasticity Index is in the Table 1.

Consistency limits
Type of
soil

Degree of Cohesiveness
plasticity

Sand

Non
plastic
Silt
Low
plastic
Silty clay Medium
Clayey silt plastic
Clay
High
plastic

Non cohesive

Liquid
Plastic
limit WLL limit WPL
(%)
(%)
20
20

Plasticity
index P.I
(%)
0

Limits of
plasticity
indexes (%)
0

Partly
cohesive
Cohesive

25

20

> 0 to 7

40

25

15

> 7 to 17

Cohesive

70

40

30

> 17

Example 4.
Determine the plasticity index, P.I. and state of consistency for a cohesive soil,
the properties of which are given as follows:
Specific gravity, Gs = 2.65; Porosity, n = 38%; Natural moisture content, W =
13%; Liquid limit, WLL = 22%; Plastic limit, WPL = 9%.
Solution:
The plasticity Index, P.I = WLL - WPL = 22 9 = 13%
Saturation moisture content, Wsat =

Degree of saturation, S =

= 0.232 = 23.2%

= 0.56 < 1.00

State of consistency:
a)

Because 9 < W < 22, where W = 13%, the soil in its natural condition is in
the plastic state.

b)

Because Wsat > 22. Where Wsat = 23.2%, the soil when saturated, would be
in the liquid state.

Shrinkage limit:
When a moist cohesive soil is subjected to drying out it loses moisture and
shrinks.
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During the drying process the compressive forces produced by surface

tension forces of the pore water compress the particles of the skeleton of
the cohesive soil together into a compacted, coherent mass and thus density
it as shown in Fig.- 8.
Hence, the void ratio of the soil decreases.
The moisture content is attained any further decrease in moisture content
ceases and no further decrease in volume, viz. shrinkage takes place.
The menisci of the capillary moisture are tearing off and the pore moisture
retires into the interior of the soil mass.
The soil changes its color from dark to light and the soil ceases to shrink.
The moisture content at this condition is termed the shrinkage limit.
Then soil passes from the semisolid to the solid state.
The relative position of the shrinkage limit (W SL) on the consistency scale
is shown in Fig. 7.
On the average soil shrinkage limits vary from about 10 to 15 percent by
weight of soil.

The shrinkage limits is expressed as follows:

Wi.Ws WSL.Ws =(Vo Vd) w
WSL = wi

(Vo Vd ) w
= Wi W
Ws

Where,
Wi.Ws
Wi

=
=

initial amount of soil moisture in gm, before drying out.

initial moisture content in percent.

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Ws
WSL.Ws
w
Vo
Vd
W

= dry weight of a soil sample, in gm.

= amount of moisture, in gm at shrinkage limit.
= unit weight of water = 1g/cm3.
= initial volume of soil sample before drying.
= final volume of a soil sample after drying.
= moisture loss in percent by dry soil weight.

Shrinkage limit of cohesive soil is useful in evaluation the behavior of

slopes of dams and cuts development of cracks in earthworks.
Determination of Atterberg limits of soils
Liquid limit test:
The liquid limit of soil can be determined by 3- methods as follows:
A.

Casagrandes method

B.

One point method

C.

Static cone penetrometer method

A.

Casagrandes method:

The device for the determination of the liquid limit of soil in accordance with
Atterbergs definition consists essentially of
1)

A specified size cup made of brass and weighing (20010)gm

2)

A can and crank mounted on a hard rubber block and

3)

A grooving tool as shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.

The cranking of the can lifts the brass cup up to a specified height of 1cm from
which height the cup drops upon the block exerting a blow on the latter. The
cranking is to be performed at a specified rate of two rotations per second. In
this mechanical method the number of blows required to close the groove in the
soil at its bottom along a distance of about one half an inches is recorded and
the corresponding moisture content of the soil taken from around the closed
groove determined. This operation is to be repeated three more times at different
consistencies or moisture contents. The soil samples should be prepared at such
consistencies that the number of blows or shocks required closing the groove
will be below and above 25 blows.

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Fig. 10 Liquid Limit Determination (A, B. C, D) & Plastic Limit

Determination (E, F, G, H)
The relationships between the number of blows and their corresponding
moisture contents thus attained are plotted on a one cycle, semi logarithmic
graph paper. The best fit to the plots results in the so called flow graph or flow
curve of the soil tested. The slope of flow curve is called flow index.
The equation of flow curve is obtained by equation, W LL = -If .logN + C Where,
WLL = water content, If = flow index, N = number of blows, C = a constant.
The moisture content, WLL corresponding to the intersection of the flow curve
with the 25 blow ordinate is taken as liquid limit of the soil as shown in Fig. 11.
It performed at temperatures between 35C and 40C
Example 5:
Given the following liquid limit test data,
Trial Nos.

Number of blows

Moisture content

14

40.0

21

34.4

31

28.0

39

25.0

Determine the liquid limit of this soil.

Solution:
The liquid limit test data are plotted in Fig. 11. The liquid limit of the soil tested
is scaled off from the flow graph at 25 blows as WLL = 31.25% (Ans.)

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B.

One point method

The formula used in one point method is WLL = W (

, where W is the

water content corresponding to the number of blows N.

C. Static cone penetrometer method
Fig. 12 shows the arrangement of the apparatus. The soil whose liquid limit is to
be found out is mixed well into a soft consistency and filled into the cylindrical
mould of 5 cm diameter and 5cm high. The cone which has a central angle of
31 and a total weight of 148gm will be kept free on the surface of the soil.

The depth of penetration y of the cone is measured in mm on the graduated

scale after 30 sec of penetration. The liquid limit, WLL may be computed by
using the formula,
WLL = Wy + 0.01(25 - y) (Wy + 15)
Where, Wy is the water content corresponding to the penetration, y.
This operation is to be repeated three more times at different moisture content.
The moisture content verses corresponding penetration are plotted in a normal
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graph paper. The moisture content WLL corresponding to the intersection at

25mm penetration of graph line.
2.

Plastic limit:

About 15gm of soil passing through No. 40 sieve (ASTM), is mixed throughly.
The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until it is about 3mm in
diameter. This procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till the soil shows
signs of crumbling when the diameter is 3mm. The water content of the
crumbled portion of the thread is determined. This is called as plastic limit.
3.

Shrinkage limit:

By two methods:
1.

Determination of WSL when the specific gravity of the soils G is unknown.

2.

Determination of WSL when the specific gravity of the soils G is known.

Method 1.When G is unknown.

There block diagrams of a sample of soil having the same weight of solids Ws
are given in Fig. 13. Block diagram (a) represents a specimen in the plastic
state, which just fills a container of known volume V o. The weight of the
specimen is Wo. The specimen is then dried gradually and as it reaches the
shrinkage limit, the specimen represented by block diagram (b) When the
specimen is completely dried its weight will be Ws where as its constant volume
remains as Vd.
These different states are also represented on Fig. 14. The shrinkage limit can be
written as
WSL

Ww (Wo Ws ) (Vo Vd ) w
(V Vd ) w

Wi o
Ws
Ws
Ws

The volume Vd of the dry specimen can be determined by displacement of

mercury as explained below:
Determination of dry volume Vd of sample by Displacement in Mercury.
Place a small dish filled with mercury up to the top in a big dish. Cover the dish
with a glass plate containing three metal prongs in such a way that the plate is
entrapped. Remove the mercury spilt over into the big dish and take out the
cover plate from the small dish. Place the soil sample on the mercury. Submerge
the sample with the pronged glass plate and make the glass plate flush with the
top of the dish. Weight the mercury that is split over due to displacement. The
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

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volume of the sample is obtained by dividing the weight of mercury by its

specific gravity which may be taken as 13.6. Fig. 15 shows the apparatus used
for the determination of volume.

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Method 2,when G is known:

WSL =

Ww
Ws

But, Ww = (Vd - Vs) w = (Vd

Therefore,

Vd

WSL

) w

Ws
w
G s w
Ws

Vd w

V
1
w d w
Ws
wGs
Ws
Gs

The values of right side are known, Vd is determined by as before easily WSL are
found.
Example 6:
When the plastic limit is made the moisture lost by drying the collected
crumbled soil threads is 3.48gm. The dry weight of the soil treads is 15.38 and
liquid limit is 36,8%. Find the plastic limit and plasticity index.
Solution:
W

3.48

f
WPL = W 15.38 = 0.2262 or 22.62% (Ans.)
s

P.I = WLL WPL =36.8 - 22.62 = 14.2% (Ans.)

Example 7:
Given , Wi = 51.78%; Vo = 15.10cm; Vd = 9.95cm3; w = 1gm/cm3; Ws =
16.84gm; G = 2.66. Determine the shrinkage limit.
Solution: WSL = Wi

= 51.78

= 0.212 = 21.2% (Ans.)

Activity of clay:
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The activity of clay is expressed by an activity number, Ac.

Activity Number, Ac =

Plasticity Index, P.I

% by dryWeight finer than 0.002 mm

Soil classification according to the activity number,

Ac

Soil type (clay)

< 0.75

Inactive

0.75 1.40

Normal

>1.40

Active

Sensitivity of clay:
The unconfined compressive strength, qu is defined as the ultimate load per
unit cross sectional area that a cylindrical specimen of with height to
diameter ratio of 2 can take under compression without any lateral
pressure.
Remolding of undisturbed sample of clay at the same water content alters
its consistency because of the destruction of its original structure.
The degree of disturbance of undisturbed clay sample due to remolding can
expressed as,
qu , undistrurbed

Sensitivity, St = q i , remoulded
u

Where, q'u is the unconfined compressive strength of remolded clay at the

same water content as the undisturbed clay.
Sensitivity, St
<1
1
24
48
8 16
>16

Nature of clay
Insensitive clays.
Low sensitive clays.
Medium sensitive clays.
Sensitive clays.
Extra sensitive clays.
Quick clays.

Thixotropy:
If a remolded clay sample with sensitivity greater than 1 is allowed to stand
without further disturbance and change in water content, it may regain at
least part of its original strength and stiffness.

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The increase in strength is due to the gradual reorientation of the adsorbed

molecules of water and is known as Thixotropy.
Its application is in connection with pile driving
operations and types of construction in natural
clay.

Soil Suction
Capillary phenomena
If the lower part of mass of dry soil comes into content with water the
water rises in the voids to a certain height above the free water surface.
The upward flow into the voids of soil is attributed to the surface tension of
the water.
The height to which water rises above the water table against the force of
gravity is called as capillary rise or capillary height.
The capillary height is greatest for very fine grained i.e. smaller voids of
soil.
The water held in the pores of soil above the free water surface is retained
in a state of reduced pressure (Fig.-16). This reduced pressure is called as
capillary pressure or soil moisture suction or soil negative pressure or soil
suction.
Let
Ts

Surface tension per unit length.

hc

Capillary height of water in void of soil.

Unit weight of water.

Radius of void or pore of soil.

Water is the capillary pore is held by an upward force due to surface tension of
water.
Total upward force, F = Ts.2r. cos
Total downward force due to water weight,
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W = r2hcw
For equilibrium,
W=F
Or, r2hcw = Ts.2r. cos

Or, hc =

cos

The Capillary angle, with surface depend on:

Chemical properties of fluid

Composition of pore

Impurities of soil

For clean soil, 0 and dirty and grassy soil, 90

Ts depend on mainly temperature.
Temperature, C
Ts (gm/cm)

10

20

30

40

0.0756

0.0742

0.0727

0.0711

0.0675

Now for water in clean soil,

= 0, Ts = 0.0756 gm/cm and w = 1 gm/cc
so, hc =

2 x 0.0756 0.1512

1xr
r

cm if r in cm.

Capillary rise (height) will depend on the following factors,

1)Type of soil.
2)Compaction of soil.
3)Temperature of soil.
4)Size and arrangement of pores in soil.
5)Structure of soil.
Relation between hc and soil suction (PF)
hc =

cm if r in cm of soil pores radius.

PF = log10 (hc)
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If pore size is smallest (clay soil), then capillary height or soil suction is
greatest.
If pore size is largest (sand), then capillary height or soil suction is smallest
(Fig.-17).
(PF) clay > (PF) silt > (PF) sand > (PF) gravel
Soil suction increases as the moisture content decreases (Fig.-17).
The curve representing the functional relationship between soil suction and
moisture content is known as soil characteristics curve or soil suction curve
(Fig.-17).
Water comes from sand to clay because the suction of clay is more.

Fig.-17
Question: Explain the Capillary phenomena in soil and establish the
expressions for capillary height and soil suction. How are capillary height
and soil suction varied for various soils?
Example -8:
If the soil suction value is 2, determine the pore size for clean soil.
Solution:
Here, PF = 2
We know, PF = log (hc) Or, 2 = log(hc) Or, hc = 100 cm
Again, hc =

0.1512
0.1512
0.1512
or ,100
or , r
=
r
r
100

0.0015 cm = 0.015 mm

The size of pore = 2r = 2 x 0.015 = 0.03mm (Ans.)

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur