Chapter 5

- Diodes: Flowing Down the One Way

Street
We are now ready to increase our arsenal of electrical devices, introducing the diodes. It has
the following electronic symbol:

Simply put, a diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction, but not the other.
In this chapter we will study how a diode operates in an electrical circuit, and two design
variants of the diodes:
1. Light-emitting diodes (LED)
2. Photodiodes

Operation of a Diode and LED

As mentioned, a diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction but not the other.
In an electrical circuit shown by a circuit diagram, current is permitted to flow in the direction
pointed by the triangle in the diode symbol as shown:

Using the pizza-delivery analogy, diodes can be pictured as a one-way toll-booth where
pizza-delivery men can only go through it from one direction but not the other.

Diodes play a very important role in electronics and has many uses. We will learn later in
Electromagnetism that one of its uses is to convert an AC current into a DC current, a process
called rectification.
When a voltage is applied in the right direction, it is called the forward bias. Likewise if the
voltage applied is in the opposite direction, it is called the reverse bias.
Ideally for a diode in forward bias, current will be able to flow through it without any
resistance, and in reverse bias, it will completely block off the current. Hence the voltagecurrent characteristic graph of an ideal diode will look like this:

On the right side, the forward bias, where voltage is taken to be positive, the characteristic
graph lies on the y-axis. This means that regardless of current flowing through the ideal diode,
there is no potential difference across it, so current is able to flow through without any energy
loss.
On the left side however, the reverse bias, where voltage is taken to be negative, the
characteristic graph lies on the x-axis. This means that regardless of reverse applied voltage,
no current is flowing through the ideal diode, so current is being prevented from flowing
through it.
Real diodes behaves slightly differently:

If the reverse voltage applied is high enough, reaching the breakpoint voltage, current
will be forced through the diode in the wrong direction. Usually this will severely
damage the diode.

In forward bias, some energy is lost in the diode, hence there will be a voltage drop
across the diode.

Furthermore there will be a minimum voltage required for current to be able to flow
through the real diode, this voltage is called the threshold voltage. Below the threshold
voltage, there will be a little current flowing through, but it is usually negligible.
Interestingly regardless of applied voltage, the voltage across the diode will be fixed at
the threshold voltage.

Real diodes generally have the following characteristic graph:

Take note that a diode is a non-ohmic device, so it does not have a well-defined resistance, so
it is important when analyzing it in a circuit, do not try to find its resistance. Instead apply
Kirchhoffs law.
Why does a diode have a threshold voltage and the voltage fixed when in forward bias voltage
is applied? The design of a diode is made of semi-conductors and to understand the operation
of diodes will require quantum mechanics which will be left for more advanced studies.
Typical diodes have a threshold voltage of about ~0.7 . The energy loss in the diode are
usually dissipated as heat.
A very important design variant of the diode is the light-emitting diode or LED for short. Its
operation is exactly the same as a diode, just that instead of dissipating heat, it gives off light.
LEDs have the following electronic symbol:

A LEDs symbol is just the same as a diode, just with two arrows pointing away from it,
showing light is being given off.
LEDs threshold voltage are typically higher from ~1.6 to ~4.0 depending on its color. Red
color has lower voltage while violet has a higher voltage.
The reason for this once again has to do with quantum mechanics where the energy of photons
(discrete packet of light energy given out) is directly proportional to the light waves frequency
, and different color of light has different frequency with red being the lowest while
violet being the highest.
In practice however, an LED can actually light up dimly below when the voltage applied is
below the threshold voltage. Below the threshold voltage, a little current will be able to pass
through LEDs. The transition from being switched off when there is insufficient voltage to
fully light up when the threshold voltage requirement is met is more gradual for LEDs as
illustrated by the LEDs

characteristic graph:

However for simplicity, LEDs can be treated as a typical diode where under the threshold
voltage, a negligible current is flowing through so the LED will be treated as being switched
off, unless told otherwise.

Photodiodes and Phototransistors

Another important design variant of the diode is the photodiode, with the following electronic
symbol:

Notice that the photodiode symbol is just a diode with two arrows (representing light) pointing
on it.
Also notice that the direction of the arrows is opposite the direction to an LED with arrows
pointing away. In operation a photodiode is effectively the opposite of a LED.
When connecting in the forward bias, a photodiode function exactly the same as a diode, by
allowing current to flow through it with some voltage drop as long the applied voltage is above
its threshold voltage.
In the reverse bias however, the photodiode will allow current to flow through it depending on
how much light it is exposed to.
In total darkness when no light is exposed to it, the photodiode behaves exactly like a diode.
The more light the photodiode is exposed to, the greater the current will flow through the
photodiode in the opposite direction, making it an ideal light detector. A current produced in
this manner is called photocurrent, which is the current produced by light.
In operation, photodiodes are usually connected in reverse bias rather than forward bias to the
applied voltage as shown:

The operation of the photodiode can be demonstrated by its

characteristic graph as shown at

different light level:

The presence of light pushes down the

graph, giving rise to a photocurrent.

Interestingly regardless of the applied voltage, at a certain light level, it can also be seen that
the current produced remains the same. The amount of current flowing through depends only
on the light brightness level. Due to this, an ammeter can be easily placed in series to the
circuit to measure alight levels.
The reason for this is that light consist of discrete packets of energy called photons, which we
will examine in much more detail later in Quantum Physics. At higher light level, more
photons will be absorbed which drives more current through the photodiode.

A major advantage of photodiodes over LDRs is that they are a lot more sensitive to weak light
and have a much faster response time; making them ideal for devices that require to detect very
weak light at a very short time, like cameras and telescopes.
Furthermore photodiodes can be designed to detect other forms of electromagnetic waves such
as microwaves and infrared that are invisible to our eyes, and be tuned to detect a very narrow
range of wavelength, also making them ideal for wireless transmission of information. We will
examine this in more detail in the next chapter of amplifiers.
On a concluding note, there is another similar device that even though
designed differently and works for both forward and reverse bias,
functions exactly like a photodiodes, called phototransistors with the
electron symbol shown on the right.
Compared to photodiodes, phototransistors are more responsive, but
they are less sensitive, meaning photodiodes are better for detecting
really weak light.