PREFACE

This small booklet is prepared for the information of

(R&B) Engineers who are involved in making of
concrete for structures. The intention is to compile the
required information regarding concrete from relevant
IS/IRC codes ,as many codes are not readily available
for reference. Many of the senior Engineers might be
well versed with the codal provisions. But the young
Assistant Executive Engineers do not have required
practical experience and knowledge of codal
provisions.
In order to have some basic idea of
concrete technology this booklet is prepared .Mistakes
if any noticed in this booklet may be informed for
correction.

CELL NO:9440818349
Engineer

P.SURESH
Deputy Executive
(R&B)
Udayagiri.

Sub

division,

INDEX
From

TO

1) Basics of concrete technology & Definitions

1

2) Materials

16
3) Cement concrete mix design

17

19
4) Proportioning of materials by weight

20

22
5) Water cement ratio

23

27
6) Fabrication of reinforcement

28

32
7) Different grades of concrete

33

34
8) Preparation of form work

35

38
9)Preparation of concrete

39

10) Under water concreting & Hot weather concreting

42

46

41

11) Summary of Quality control tests

47

50
12) Preparation of C.C. Cubes &Slump test
51

56

13) Cement concrete pavements

57

64
14) Myths & Facts about concrete
67

65

BASICS OF CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

It is a known fact that concrete is a structure of four components
viz., (a) Cement, (b) Water, (c) Coarse aggregates and (d) Fine
aggregates. The materials when mixed with water, forms calcium silicates
and hardens upon reaction of cement and water. Now-a-days concrete was
changed a lot with more number of ingredients and as many as ten
materials as detailed below.
a) Fly ash (b) Ground granulated blast furnace slag (c) Silica fume
(d) Rice husk ash (e) Metakeoline,(f) Plasticizers, (g) Super plasticizers, (h)
Synthetic (Polymeric) fibres (i) Steel fibres (j) Air entraining agent.
Out of the above, the 5 items from (a) to (e) are called mineral
admixtures, which are used as partial replacement of cement. The use of
above admixtures has distinct advantage from partial replacement of
cement, increase in compressive strength and workability at the time of
placing concrete. The other items mentioned plasticizers and super
plasticizers are used to increase the workability of concrete mix without
increasing the water content in the mix. These are very useful in high
grades of concrete of M-40 and above to attain the required concrete
strength. The items of synthetic fibres, steel fibres are used for increase in
compressive strength of concrete and ductility and fatigue life of plain
concrete. The item of an air entraining agent is used for making of
concrete in freezing weather to counter the freezing and thawing effect.
Each of the material used in concrete is having its own advantages from
the conventional four components concrete. The usage of different
materials is to be judged carefully depending on the requirement of
concrete.

DEFINITIONS & TERMINOLOGY

Characteristic Compressive Strength of Concrete (fck)
The characteristic compressive strength is defined as the strength of
concrete, below which not more than 5% of test results are
expected to fall.
Coarse Aggregate:
Aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75mm IS sieve or a portion
of an aggregate retained on 4.75mm sieve.
Fine Aggregate:
Aggregate most of which passes 4.75mm IS sieve.
Hydraulic Cement:
It is a finely ground material which on addition of requisite quantity of
water is capable of hardening both under water and in air by chemical
reaction of water and is also capable of binding together appropriate
materials viz., coarse aggregate and fine aggregate to make a solid mass
after requisite curing.
Water Cement Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of weight of water in a concrete mix exclusive of
water absorbed by aggregates and weight of cement in the concrete of
one cum. The minimum water cement ratio is 0.30 and maximum water
cement ratio is 0.50 for structural concrete.
Single Sized Coarse Aggregate:
It is the aggregate which contains only one size of aggregate either
40mm, 20mm or 10mm.
Graded Aggregate:

It is the aggregate which contains different sizes of aggregate, which

gives dense concrete mix.

Grades of Concrete:
The standard practice of representing a concrete mix is M followed by a
number. In this notation, M represents the concrete mix and the number
suffixed represents characteristic compressive strength of concrete after
28 days of curing.
For example,M40 Grade: It represents a concrete mix whose compressive
strength after 28 days of curing is 40 N/mm 2 when tested over 150mm
size cubes.
Nominal Mix Concrete:
It is a traditional mix of concrete in which the materials viz. cement,
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are proportioned in a particular
proportion (1.50 to 2.0) between coarse aggregate and fine aggregate.
For example,CC (1:2:4) It represents a concrete mix which contains 1
part of cement, 2 parts of fine aggregate (sand) and 4 parts of coarse
aggregate (metal or chips). It assigns no specific compressive strength of
concrete. This involves higher cement content and uneconomical.
DESIGN MIX CONCRETE
It is a concrete mix which is designed in the laboratory for a specific
compressive strength of concrete required in the field. Concrete mix
design means selecting the proportions of different ingredients on the
basis of their absolute volume of concrete per one cum in the most
economical way for the specified strength. The objective of proportioning
concrete mixes is to arrive most economical and practical combinations
and proportions of different ingredients to produce concrete that will meet
the requirement of compressive strength, workability and durability.
Now-a-days, the use of nominal mix concrete has been limited
to unimportant concrete items. Nominal mix concrete can be used for M 15
and M20 grades of concrete only. The grades of concrete higher than
M20Grade must be design mix concrete only.
Workability:
It is the property of concrete which determines the amount of useful
internal work necessary to produce complete compaction.

Slump of Concrete:
It is the term used for specifying the workability of fresh concrete at the time of
placing. It is not related in any way to the compressive strength of
concrete.
Flexural strength of concrete:
It is the tensile strength of concrete in bending and is related to characteristic
compressive strength of concrete. This is given by
fcr = 0.70 fck
This term is useful in plain jointed cement concrete pavements as this is
the main design parameter to be satisfied under wheel loads. The minimum
flexural strength required is 4.50 N/mm2 (4.50Mpa) for C. C. pavement.
For rural road C. C. pavements, the minimum flexural strength required
is 3.80 N/mm2.
In case of bridges, the basic permissible tensile stresses in plain concrete
shall not exceed the following values, as per Clause 303.3 of IRC: 21-2000.
Concrete Grade

Permissible Tensile
Stresses

M15

M20

M25

M30 and above

0.40 Mpa

0.53 Mpa

0.61 Mpa

0.67 Mpa

(or)

(or)

(or)

(or)

40 T/m2

53 T/m2

61 T/m2

67 T/m2

Pascal:
Pascal is the unit of stress in N/m2.
Mega Pascal (Mpa):
It is the unit of stress and is equal to N/mm 2. Hence 15 Mpa means 15N/mm 2.
Some times Mpa is used instead of N/mm2.
Curing:

Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from concrete while
maintaining a satisfactory temperature regime.

Target Mean Strength of Concrete:

While designing a concrete mix, the mix shall be designed to produce the
grade of concrete at a slightly higher value in the lab to accommodate the
deficiencies

during

construction.

This

is

given

by

characteristic

compressive strength plus 1.65 times the standard deviation. The

value 1.65 is a standard normal variant which is considered for the
accepted failure of 1 in 20 (5%).
Fineness Modulus of sand:
It is defined as the sum of the cumulative percentage weight of materials
retained on each sieve (excluding 150micron sieve) divided by 100.

MATERIALS
(A) CEMENT:
Out of all components of concrete, cement is the prime and important
material, which directly influences the strength of concrete. Hence we
must be very careful regarding the quality of cement proposed for use in
concrete. The following types of cement are generally used.
i)

Ordinary Portland Cement 33 grade, 43 grade, 53 grade (OPC)

ii)

Portland Pozzolona Cement (Fly ash based)

iii)

Portland Slag Cement.

We generally adopt ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in our Department

works. In case of cement, the grade numbers 33/43/53 represents the
compressive strength of cement at 28 days curing when tested
over 70.6mm cubes prepared with cement mortar (1:3) using
Ennur standard sand.

So, OPC 33 refers to cement, having a

compressive strength of 33 N/mm2 after 28 days of curing when tested

over 70.6mm cubes.
Out of the three grades of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the
manufacture of 33 grade cement was stopped. Few factories are
manufacture 43 grade cement. Almost all the factories manufacture only
53 grade cement, as it involves no additional expenditure to the factories.
The strength of cement is increased by simply fine grinding the materials.
Even though the OPC 53 grade gains early strength and more strength
at 28 days, it has got the following disadvantages.
The heat of hydration is too high and curing has to be started as
early as within 10 hours after laying of concrete. If proper curing
methods are not employed, micro cracks develop due to high heat of
hydration. In practice, concrete is laid today, dikes of cement mortar
(small bunds) are formed tomorrow and to allow hardening of dikes, curing
will be started day after tomorrow. Thus, the actual process of curing
starts only after lapse of 36 hours or more. By that time the heat of
hydration increases alarmingly and cracks develop. And finally, the

damage to the concrete goes unnoticed. It is a fact that concrete requires

more water from the first 10 hours to 24 hours. In view of the above
abnormal delay in curing, the usage of 53 grade cement should be judged
carefully.
The presence of micro cracks due to delayed curing causes lot of
problems, regarding durability. The reinforcement gets corroded due to
ingress of moisture through these cracks and structural strength gets
decreased, finally leading to failure of structures. Lot of discussion is
going on around

the world, regarding the rate of failure of

recently constructed structures after 1980, than the structures

constructed prior to 1980.
As we are left with no other alternative of except using OPC 53
grade, due to the non-availability of other grades of OPC, it is desirable to
start curing as early as possible, after 12 hours of laying of concrete,
without any delay to safeguard the life of concrete structures.
The Portland Pozzolona Cement (fly ash based) is presently adopted
in
C. C. pavements, partially replacing the cement with fly ash. IRC: 44
2008 recommends a maximum dosage of 20% by mass of cement.
The use of Portland Pozzolona Cement is having the following deficiencies.
The gain of strength with PPC is low when compared to OPC in early
days. But the compressive strength at 28 days is almost same for both
types of cement.
The real problem comes with curing. Now-a-days it became a
practice to stop curing on the pretext that 70% of the strength is achieved
in 7 days, and in order to remove the centering early, for speedy
execution of work to reuse the formwork. Sometimes, adequate quantity
of quality water for curing will not be available in dry seasons. Due to the
above problems, if curing is stopped at 10 days or so, the concrete laid
with PPC will achieve for less strength and causes problems in durability

criterion. So, curing must be done for 28 days, when PPC is used to
achieve the required strength. This does not mean, curing for OPC can be
stopped early. It is my personal opinion, curing must be done for 28
days, by ponding, irrespective of type of cement used

inspite of

codal specification of 14 days curing, to achieve the required strength and

to arrive long lasting durable concrete structures.
The concrete prepared with PPC will gain more strength even after
28 days considerably. Some cores taken in the CC pavement laid with PPC
after 65 days gave the compressive strength up to 60 N/mm 2 against the
required compressive strength of 30 N/mm2.
From the above, we can clearly say, curing for prolonged period of
not less than28 days will help in many ways in the strength and durability
criterion of concrete structures.
The following are the important parameters to be tested before
using cement for structural concrete / pavement concrete.
1)

Initial setting time

2)

Final setting time

3)

Fineness of cement

4)

Compressive strength on CM (1:3)

Cubes 70.6mm size at 28 days

Not less than 30 minutes

Not more than 600 minutes.

:
:

Not more than 10%

33 N/mm2for 33 Grade

43 N/mm2for 43 Grade
53 N/mm2for 53 Grade
5)

Cement stocked for more than 3 months in stores should be

avoided. If it is compulsory the above parameters are to be tested
invariably, before use.

6)

Cement containing lumps should be rejected.

7)

The use of Portland Pozzolona Cement (PPC) should be discouraged

unless it is specified in agreement and OPC is to be preferred.

8)

Cement mortar/ Cement concrete should be used within 30 minutes

after mixing cement with water. It is usual practice for masons to
mix the required cement mortar in the forenoon before start of work

10

and use it until evening, for their convenience and to avoid frequent
mixing of cement mortar. This should be discouraged as it is
undesirable and detrimental.
9)

Cement Content

Minimum

Maximum

a) CC pavement (PCC) 325 Kg/m3

425 Kg/m3

(IRC: 442008)
b) RCC items

(IRC: 442008)

Depends on condition
of exposure

c) Bridges

450 Kg/m3
(IS: 4562000)

Depends on condition

540 Kg/M3

of exposure

(IRC: 21-2000)

(B) STEEL:
Different types of steel generally used in concrete are
i)

Mild Steel or S240

ii)

HYSD Steel or S415

iii)

TMT Bars or S500

The usage of mild steel in structural RCC members is dispensed.

They are used as dowel bars in contraction / expansion joints of

CC pavement. Mild steel is also referred to as S240, which means steel
whose

characteristic

yield

strength

is

240

N/mm2.

The

characteristic yield strength is assumed as minimum yield stress

(or) 0.20 percent proof stress.
Similarly, HYSD steel means high yield strength deformed bars or
S415, whose characteristic yield strength is 415 N/mm2.
The TMT bars are the new innovation in steel. The word TMT means
thermo mechanically treated bars. The production of TMT bars involves
quenching and tempering process. In the production of these bars the
bars obtained at high temperature from the furnace are partially cooled

11

such that 50% of the outer core gets hardened due to spray of water and
the further cooling is stopped due to partial cooling of steel bars, the outer
cores becomes hard and cool, whereas the inner core becomes soft and
will be at high temperature. The high temperature of inner core gets
dissipated through the outer core. During this process the yield strength of
steel will increase and the inner core is ductile. A good TMT bar is
supposed to have 15% to 30% of outer hardened tempered periphery,
when checked in cross section of a bar. This also involves no extra
expenditure to the manufacturers and they are dumping all the steel as
TMT bars without any quality standards. It gives characteristic yield
strength of 500 N/mm2 and is ductile for easy bending.
The following important parameters are to be tested for steel before use.

1)

2)

Weight of bar per running meter length

6mm --

0.222 Kg/m

8mm --

0.395 Kg/m

10mm--

0.620 Kg/m

12mm--

0.888 Kg/m

16mm

--

1.578 Kg/m

20mm

--

2.465 Kg/m

25mm

--

3.852 Kg/m

32mm--

6.311 Kg/m

The characteristic yield strength (fy) as detailed below:

a) Mild Steel (S 240)
b) HYSD Steel (S 415)

Not less than 415 N/mm2

- Not less than 500 N/mm2

c) TMT bars (S 500)

3)

Percentage elongation

Not less than 240 N/mm2

Not less than 14.50%

12

4)

The minimum tensile strength at failure should be more than

10% of characteristic yield strength / minimum yield strength
a) Mild Steel (S 240)
b) HYSD Steel (S 415)

c) TMT bars (S 500)

Not less than 265 N/mm2

Not less than 460 N/mm2

-

Not less than 560 N/mm2

The parameters (3) and (4) are crucial when the structure is
subjected to failure loads due to unprecedented disasters like earthquake,
cyclones, typhoons, Tsunamis, etc. If the steel does not have any
elongation property, the steel breaks into pieces suddenly without any
warning, when it reaches the stress values nearer to the yield stress (fy). In
order to have some warning during failure loads the above two
parameters are fixed for steel, so that people can leave the structures
safely, when there is bending of roof slabs, columns, beams etc., before
collapse of structures.
While using TMT bars one must be very careful, as the TMT
treatment is being followed carefully in less than 50 factories of India
against the 2000-2500 numbers of TMT steel manufacturers. The
manufacturers are simply misleading the consumers with the word TMT,
for selling their product easily.
C) WATER:
Water is the most important component of concrete just like oxygen to
human living. Water used for mixing of concrete and for curing must be of
good quality without any adverse chemicals, for the reaction with cement.
Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing of concrete.
As a guide the following tests may be made and represent the maximum
permissible values (as per IS: 456-2000).
i)

To neutralize 100ml sample of water using phenolphthalein as an

indicator, it should not require more than 5 ml of 0.02 normal
NaOH(Sodium Hydroxide).

13

ii)

To neutralize 100ml sample of water using mixed indicator it

should

not

require

more

than

25ml

of

0.02

normal

H2So4(Sulphuric Acid).
iii)

The PH value of water shall be more than 6.

In case of any doubt regarding the quality of water used, the tests

for initial setting time of cement& compressive strength of concrete as per

IS: 516 are to be conducted. The initial setting time of test block made
with specified cement and water proposed to be used, shall not be less
than 30 minutes and shall not differ by +30 minutes from the initial
setting time of control test block prepared with same cement and distilled
water. Similarly the average 28 days compressive strength of at least
three 150mm concrete cubes prepared with water proposed for use shall
not be less than 90% of the average strength of three similar concrete
cubes prepared with distilled water.
Mixing or curing of concrete with salt water / sea water is very
harmful to concrete because of presence of harmful salts. For structures
located at sea coast, the constructors use locally available water, which
contain harmful salts and causes un-repairable damage to the concrete.
Hence the use of salt water / sea water shall not be permitted
under any circumstances. The extra lead for bringing potable
water may be provided in the data itself and insisted during
execution without fail.
The following important parameters are to be tested before using water
for concrete construction.
1)

PH value

Should be more than 6

2)

Chlorides

<

500 mg/litre for RCC

<

2000 mg/litre for PCC

3)

Sulphates

<

400 mg/litre

4)

Organic solids

<

200 mg/litre

5)

Inorganic solids

<

3000mg/litre

14

Generally the water used for drinking satisfies the above criterion
and other ground waters are to be tested without fail prior to use of water
for concrete.
D) COARSE AGGREGATE:
As already discussed the material which is retained on 4.75mm
sieve is termed as coarse aggregate. The coarse aggregate for concrete
can be either granite or trap or any other hard material. The coarse
aggregate should be angular, non-flaky and free from dust, oils, etc.
Rounded concrete aggregate should be avoided as far as possible. They
can be used subject to the condition; necessary tests show satisfactory
results in respect of strength, workability and durability. Graded aggregate
with different sizes of material gives dense concrete and there by higher
compressive strength. The following important parameters are to be
tested for coarse aggregates before use in concrete.
1)

Sieve Analysis
TABLE 2

I.S. Sieve
Designation
80 mm
40 mm
20 mm
16 mm
12.5 mm
10 mm
4.75 mm

.
2)

Should satisfy Table 2 of IS: 383

COARSE AGGREGATES (Clauses 4.2)

Percentage Passing For Graded Aggregates Of Nominal

Size
40 mm
20 mm
16 mm
12.5 mm
100
------95 to 100
100
----30 to 70
95 to 100
100
100
----90 to 100
--------90 to 100
10 to 35
25 to 55
30 to 70
40 to 85
0 to 5
0 to 10
0 to 10
0 to 10

Aggregate Impact Value

surfaces

Less than 45 for non-wearing

(e.g.: piers, abutments, foundations,

etc.)

15

3)

Flakiness Index Value

-Less than 30 for wearing courses

(e.g.: Deck slab, wearing coat, CC
Pavement,Runways, etc.)
Should be less than 40% for CC

pavements
(As per Clause 4.4 of IRC: 442008)
Should be less than 35% for structural
concrete
Not more than 2%

4)

Water absorption

5)

Maximum size of Coarse Aggregate

6)

i)

CC Pavement

25mm

ii)

RCC Items -

20mm

iii)

PCC Items -

40mm

There has been no restriction that other than granite material

should not be used in concrete, provided that the aggregate
satisfies the above parameters. It can be observed that AIV up to
45% is permitted for concrete items (Non- wearing surfaces) where
as 30% is specified for road aggregate. This is to be noted in mind
regarding the selection of aggregate.

E) FINE AGGREGATE (SAND):

The material which passes through 4.75mm sieve is termed as fine
aggregate. The fine aggregate should be clean, free from clay, soils, etc.
and should satisfy one of the four zones specified in IS: 383. The gradation
requirements for the four zones of sand are given below.
TABLE 4
I.S. Sieve
Designation
10 mm
4.75mm
2.36 mm
1.18 mm
600 microns
300 microns
150 microns

Grading
Zone I
100
90 to 100
60 to 95
30 to 70
15 to 34
5 to 20
0 to 10

FINE AGGREGATES (Clause 4.3)

Percentage Passing For
Grading
Grading
Zone II
Zone III
100
100
90 to 100
90 to 100
75 to 100
85 to 100
55 to 90
75 to 100
35 to 59
60 to 79
8 to 30
12 to 40
0 to 10
0 to 10

Grading
Zone IV
100
95 to 100
95 to 100
90 to 100
80 to 100
15 to 50
0 to 15

16

As verified from the above table, the material shown in Zone-I is

very coarse, Zone-II is coarse, Zone-III is fine, Zone-IV is very fine. All the
above four grading can be used for plain concrete like C. C. pavements,
piers, abutments, retaining walls, etc. However the material confirming to
grading zone-IV should not be used in RCC work.
We generally adopt natural sand obtained from river beds / stream beds /
quarries. The following parameters are to be tested before use in
concrete.
1) Gradation

-To assess the zone of sand

2) Fineness Modulus

-2.00 to 3.50

(FM- 2.00means too

fine
Sand & 3.50 means too coarse sand)
-Should be less than 4%

3) Silt Content

4) Material passing 75 microns sieve

-Should be less than 4%

5) It is to be noted that now-a-days all grades of concrete is being laid

with weigh batchers or by weight in boxes, the bulking of sand test is
redundant and unnecessary.
F) ADMIXTURES:
The various admixtures that are generally used with cement are
detailedbelow:
(i)Retarders, Plasticisers, Super-plasticisers
We generally use plastIcisers and super-plasticisers for concrete for
increasing the workability of concrete at the time of placing, at lower
water-cement ratio. These admixtures will be useful for good compaction
of concrete at low water-cement ratios. These are mixed with cement,
while mixing of concrete at the rates specified below:
a) Plasticisers

-Up to 1% by mass of cementation materials

b) Super-plasticisers -Up to 2% by mass of cementation materials

17

ii)

Fibres:
Fibres are used in concrete for enhancing the ductility and fatigue

life of high grade concrete. The fibres shall be of steel / polymeric such as
polypropylene / Polyester / Polyethylene / Nylon and shall be uniformly
dispersed in concrete mass at the time of concrete production. The
Polymeric fibres may be added in concrete in the dosage of 0.2
0.4 percent by mass of cement. The diameter of Polymeric fibres
normally varies from 10 to 70 microns.
In market, presently Recron 3S fibres manufactured by Reliance
Industries are available. By adding these fibres, the strength of concrete is
increased. Specialist literature may be referred and test conducted, before
using in concrete.
MINERAL ADMIXTURES

The following materials may be added as mineral admixtures.

a) Fly Ash:
Fly ash is the material obtained as by product of thermal power
plant. The mixing of fly ash in concrete increases the strength and
workability at low water cement ratio results in savings in cement content
and

increase

in

durability

of

concrete.IRC:

44-2008

recommends

maximum dosage of 20% by mass of cementitious materials. The initial

cost of fly ash is zero and can be taken from Thermal Power Stations at
free of cost. The only problem with fly ash concrete is that it requires
continuous curing for 28 days as the gain in strength is low at early ages,
compared to OPC concrete. The strength at 28 days is same for both
concrete mixes.
b)Silica Fume:

18

The Silica fume (Very fine non crystalline silicon dioxide) is a

byproduct of manufacture of silicon, Ferro-silicon, from quartz and carbon
in electric arc furnace. It is generally used in proportion of 5 to 10 percent
of cementitious material content of the mix. Use of silica fume is
extremely advantageous for higher grades of concrete such as M 50Grade
and above and for high performance concrete with special requirement.
This is generally used for long span pre-stressed and precast bridge
structures worldwide.
So far, we have discussed about the various materials that are
used in concrete and their properties and requirements for concrete.

CEMENT CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

After selecting the various components of concrete, we have to
select whether nominal mix concrete is to be adopted or design mix
concrete is to be adopted. For minor and unimportant works we will adopt
nominal mix concrete like (1:4:8), (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1: 1 :3). The different
nominal mix concretes that are generally for some items are given below
for guidance.
Cement
Conten
t per
Cum

S.
No
.

Mix
Proportion

a)

CC (1:4:8)

166 Kg

b)

CC (1:3:6)

221 Kg

c)

CC (1:2:4)

331 Kg

d)

CC (1: 1
:3)

441 Kg

Item of work

Bed for CC drains &culvert body

walls, bed below CC pavements,
etc.
Bed for CC drains & walls of
drain, retaining walls, toe walls,
culvert body walls, etc.
PCC Raft of slab culverts,
substructure, RCC columns&
beams of buildings, etc.
Deck slabs of slab culverts, RCC
Bed blocks & backing walls, CC

Equivale
nt Grade
of
Concrete
--

M10

M15

M20

19

pavement works of small value

(less than Rs. 10.00 Lakhs), RCC
slabs& beams of buildings
nearer to sea coast (within 25
Km from sea coast), etc.
As seen from the above, the cement content shown is as high as
441 Kg/cum for CC(1:1:3) which is taken equivalent to M 20Grade. It is a
fact

that

maximum

cement

content

for

any

grade

of

concreteuptoM80, as per IS: 456 is only 450 Kg/cum. It can be

concluded that the use of nominal mix concrete is uneconomical and
unnecessary for present day scenario. The grade of M 20 can be achieved
with a cement content of 350 Kg/cum, by designing the concrete mix and
we can save 91 Kg of cement per cum of concrete.
However, as the design of concrete mix involves a sum of
Rs.20,000/- towards laboratory charges and very good quality control
during mixing of

concrete. Nominal mix concrete is being adopted for

small works in the range of Rs. 10.00 Lakhs to

Rs. 20.00 Lakhs in order

to mitigate the problems of small contractors and for speedy execution of

work, even though the cement content is high.
Hence, as far as possible design mix concrete should be adopted for
all structural concrete items.
Now let us see what is the design of concrete mix? The design of
concrete

mix

means

selection

of

suitable

proportions

of

various

components, for arriving at a specified grade concrete mix duly satisfying

the requirements of workability, compressive strength and durability.
Hence a design mix should have
a) Adequate workability at the time of placing of mix to have good
compaction.
b) The required compressive strength at the specified 28 days age.
c) The long lasting durability of concrete structure during its service
life (design period).

20

Before, we obtain the design of concrete mix the following

information is to be forwarded to the laboratory without fail.
1
2
3
4

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
With

For Example
Grade of concrete required
M30/M40/M50
Type of cement
OPC / PPC - 43/53 Grade
Maximum nominal size of aggregate 20mm/25mm/40mm
Minimum cement content
325 Kg/cum or so
depending conditions of
exposure
Maximum water cement ratio
0.50
Workability
30 15mm or so
Degree of supervision
Good
Type of aggregate
HBG crushed stone
aggregate
Maximum cement content
425 Kg/cum (or)
450Kg/cum
Chemical admixture type
Super-plasticiser /
Plasticiser
Mineral admixture type
Fly ash - 20%
Silica fume 5% etc.
the above information, we need to send samples of cement (3 bags),

coarse aggregate (5 bags) and fine aggregate (3 bags) to the laboratory.

After receiving the above information and sample materials, the
laboratory authorities will conduct the following tests on the materials, for
the design of concrete mix.
a) Compressive strength of cement at 28 days for confirmation of
grade of cement.
b) Specific gravity of (a) Cement (3.15), (b) Coarse aggregate (2.74)
and (c) Fine aggregate (2.63).
c) Water absorption of coarse aggregate (should be less than 2%) and
fine aggregate (should be less than 2%).
d) Gradation of coarse aggregate to check the gradation with IS: 383.
e) Gradation of fine aggregate for confirming the grading zone as per
IS: 383.
After conducting the above tests, the design of concrete mix will be
done as per relevant IRC code (IRC: 44-2008 for CC pavements) duly

21

finalising the quantities of cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and

water. After arriving at the selected proportions, trial mix will be prepared
and cubes are casted. The cubes are to be cured for 7 days or 28 days for
assessing the compressive strength of concrete mix designed. As seen
from above, a minimum period of 60 days or more is required for any
laboratory for issuing a mix design of concrete for the specified grade.
Hence the field officers must send the requisition along with samples two
months in advance before commencement of work. It is our practice, to
call a mix design 2 to 3 days before the commencement of work which is
nothing but fabricating a false mix design, to start the work, finally making
it a ritual for receiving payment and to avoid complications from
inspecting agencies. When a mix design is available for the same source
of all materials and type of cement for a particular grade of concrete, this
can be adopted for another work, subject to the approval of
Engineer-in-Charge, provided that the mix design done earlier is
not more than one year old (Clause 9.2.3 of IS: 456-2000).
The above procedure is to be followed for obtaining a mix design
from laboratory well in advance, before commencement of work.

22

PROPORTIONING OF MATERIALS BY WEIGHT

After receiving the mix design of concrete from the laboratory, we
have to make a trial mix with the proportion of materials specified and
cubes are to be casted. These cubes are to be tested for 7 days / 28 days
for confirmation of mix design. If the compressive strength of trial cubes
casted satisfies the compressive strength required, the mix design can be
adopted.
After

assessing

the

compressive

strength

of

trial

mix,

the

arrangements are to be made for proper mixing of various components of

concrete. In case of large works, weigh batching plants are readily
available, suitable setting can be made for receiving the specified quantity
of materials for each batch. It is always advisable to use mobile weigh
batchers for concrete. However in our Department works, we do not have
weigh batching plants or weigh batchers and we have to load the
materials in the hopper of the mixer by weight. For this we have to work
out the materials required for each load (say one bag or 50 Kg of cement)
and boxes of suitable sizes are to be prepared separately for coarse
aggregate and fine aggregate and a container for mixing specified
quantity of water.
A typical calculation for working out the sizes of boxes required,
based on a laboratory mix design is given below for convenience of
readers.
Mix Design given by the laboratory (Materials required for One
Cum of Concrete):
(a)

Cement

:416Kg/m3

(b)

Water

:158 Kg/m3

(c)

Fine aggregate

: 668 Kg/m3

23

(d)

Coarse aggregate:1242 Kg/m3

(e)

Water -cement ratio

:0.38

(f)

Chemical admixture

:2.50 Kg/m3

24

STEP- 1:

As the load of hopper mixer is for one bag of cement, we have

to work out the materials required for 50 Kg of cement from
the mix design given for one cum of concrete.
Cement content

No. of bags of cement =

STEP- 2:

416 Kg/m3
416 / 50 = 8.32Bags

Now we have to calculate the weight of various components of

materials for one bag of cement as detailed below.

a)

Water

b)

Fine aggregate (Sand)

c)

Coarse Aggregate (Chips)

:1242.00 / 8.32

d)

Chemical admixture

:2.50 / 8.32

STEP- 3:

:158Kg(158 Litres)/ 8.32 Bags

= 18.99 Kg (or) 19 Kg = 19.00 Litres
668.00 / 8.32 = 80.29 Kg
= 149.28 Kg
= 0.30 Kg

From the above, we can say that one bag of cement, 80.29 Kg
of sand, and 149.28 Kg of coarse aggregate are to be loaded
in the hopper of concrete mixer.

(i)

For water we can take a 10 Litre PVC can and cut to 9.50 litre
size. Two cans of 9.50 litres each can be poured for each load
of concrete without any difficulty. In practice, slightly higher
water content may be needed, as there will be some loss of
water from centering. This is to be adjusted slightly as per
requirement, at the time of compaction by needle vibrators or
pan vibrators.

(ii)

For fine aggregate we have to load 80.29 Kg. For this we can
take a standard box of size 0.375m x 0.3m0 x 0.30m (earlier
1.25cft box) and fill the material up to the top of box without
coping in a level manner and weigh the same. (One box of
sand approximately weighs 45 Kg). The weight of sand may be
accurately measured thrice and the average weight is to be
considered.
Say the average value of weight of sand in the box

45.65 Kg.
Weight of sand required for one load

= 80.29 Kg.

25

Number of boxes required

=80.29/45.65
= 1.76 No.

As it is difficult to load fractions of boxes, it is better to convert

them in to 2 boxes of smaller height keeping the area of boxes
constant.
The approximate height required for 2 boxes = 0.30 x 1.76 / 2
= 0.264m
(0.30m is the height of original box)
Hence provide 2 boxes of 300mm x 375mm x 264mmsize
sand for each load of mix.
Check:

Weight of material for two loads

Density of sand

(37.5x30x30)

(45.65x1000)/
=

1.3526 G/cm3

Weight of material for 2 boxes of size

375mmx300mmx264mm
= 2x37.5x30x26.4x1.3526/1000

80.34 Kg

Hence O.K
(iii) For coarse aggregate we have to load 149.28 Kg. Similarly, as
detailed above for fine aggregate, the average value of weight
of chips in box can be arrived say the average value of weight
of chips in one box is 48.90 Kg.
No. of boxes required for one load

= 149.28/48.90

= 3.05

No
We can say 3 boxes (0.375m x 0.30m x 0.30m size)of chips are
to be loaded for each load of one bag of cement. As such, the
labour can conveniently load -i)

1 Bag of cement

ii)

2 Smaller boxes of sand

iii)

3 standard boxes (375mm x 300mm x 300mm size) of

chips

iv)

2 Altered cans (9.50 Litres each) of water

v)

Chemical admixture with a small tin weighing 0.30 Kg

26

The field staff may be trained to load the above quantity of

materials, in the hopper of concrete mixer and the concrete can be laid
easily. Please note that it is a tricky method, for our convenience and not
acceptable by many consultants, who insist for weigh batchers only. This
is only a last resort in the absence of weigh batchers.

27

WATER-CEMENT RATIO
It is a well-known fact that water is the main component which plays
vital

role

in

achieving

the

three

main

parameters

of

concrete,

i.e.,workability, compressive strength and durability. The selection of

water for concrete must be done with due care, as any harmful salts may
lead to total collapse of structure. One must ensure twice regarding the
suitability of water available for concrete as it is generally the opinion of
many Engineers, what happen if water available at site is used even if it is
hard water and the factor of safety provided in the design will take care of
all our lapses. It is to be noted that there are many factors which
influence the strength of concrete and we must be very judicious
in selecting every material in concrete.
After selecting the water proposed for use, we have to put our mind
on water- cement ratio. Before going to this, first of all we have to know,
how much water is needed for reaction of cement with water. Researches
revealed that 25% water is required for reaction with cement. That means
the minimum water-cement ratio required is 0.25. With this water cement
ratio, we cannot make concrete either workable or to compact the
concrete. So we must slightly increase the water-cement ratio to have
desired workability and to compact the concrete. Practically a concrete
with water-cement ratio of 0.35 is the optimum water-cement ratio to
achieve the specified characteristics of concrete. Even the concrete
prepared with the water-cement ratio of 0.35 is observed too stiff and
difficult to compact with vibrators, as time lapses. So, the field engineers
and the masons prefer to have loose mix, so that it can be placed and
vibrated easily. For the sake of this small convenience, we sacrifice the
strength of concrete. Let us see how the strength of concrete is
reduced with increase in water cement-ratio. The increase in watercement ratio leave more voids in concrete after hardening and effect the
strength alarmingly. Hence use minimum water in mixing as nearer as
possible to a water-cement ratio of 0.35. Excess use of water in mixing,

28

cause segregation of aggregate and if vibrated more the soft cement

mortar will come to the top (called laitance) which appears very smooth
and hard aggregate goes down finally leading to the reduction in strength
of concrete.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Figure - Loss of strength of concrete due to incomplete

compaction
As seen from the above figure the compressive strength of concrete
gradually reduces with increase in water-cement ratio. Then, what is the
next alternative to increase the workability without increasing the watercement ratio. The answer is plasticisers (or) super-plasticisers. These are
chemical compounds, which increases workability of concrete without any
increase in water-cement ratio, because of their property and facilitates
free flow of concrete, so that the strength of concrete remains unaffected
and good compaction can be achieved.
After placing the concrete, we must compact the concrete without
any voids, with vibrators. The vibrators may be either internal vibrators
(needle vibrators) or external vibrators (pan vibrators/screed vibrators,
shutter vibrators). Presence of more water due to excess water-cement
ratio is very comfortable for compacting the concrete. But the strength of

35

29

concrete is reduced alarmingly. It is an established fact that the

inadequate vibration also leads to more voids and honey combing of
concrete, finally lead to reduced compressive strength of concrete. The
presence of 5% voids in the concrete either due to more watercement ratio or due to inadequate compaction will reduce the
strength from that of fully compacted concrete by about 30%.
Similarly the presence of 10% voids will reduce the strength by
60% (As per Para N.1.4 of IRC: 15-2002).You can observe, as to how we,
the field engineers are neglecting the importance of water-cement ratio
and compaction, unknowingly and finally we are giving unsafe and less
durable concrete structures to the society, in spite of spending huge
amounts. We must always keep in mind that we should use
minimum water in mixing, whatever may be the problems of
workers and masons to discharge our duty.
Another problem, we generally neglect is curing. All the staff of
Department will be available in the day of concreting until mid-night and
none of the staff including contractors staff, will not be available on the
next morning. The masons leisurely start their work in the afternoon and
form dikes (small bunds) of cement by the evening. As the dikes are wet,
nobody bothers about to cure the concrete for that day. The third day after
a lapse of nearly 36 hours, the water boy comes and starts filling the
dikes. Actually concrete requires more water in the first 24 hours after
final setting. But at that time we dont pour water, which is highly
detrimental to the concrete and unsafe, less durable structure. Even this
curing started late will not be done continuously until 28 days as
specified. They cure the surface for 7 days and stop further curing as if
they have to complete the further work ahead of schedule. We too do not
find time to check whether ponding of water is done continuously for 28
days. And finally poor quality concrete will be ready and left open to
traffic, leaving all doubts in the shade of factor of safety in designs. Let us
see how we are spoiling the concrete, with our wrong notions in mind and
careless attitude.

30

Take the example you are making a concrete of M 40 grade, with

design mix and stopping curing after 7 days for various reasons and due
to over confidence. The strength of concrete for 7 days curing would be
40.00 x 0.7435 (as per Table 900-5 of MORT&H Specifications) = 29.74
N/mm2.
Take the case there are some 5% voids in concrete due to excess
water-cement ratio or due to inadequate compaction, the strength will be
reduced by 30% and finally the actual strength works out to 29.74 x 0.70
= 20.82 N/mm2.
Hence, you are giving a concrete of 50% strength. If there is any
deficiency in cement or in aggregates, arrived strength would be even
less. If there are 10% voids, the strength works out to 29.74 x 0.40 =
11.90 N/mm2 which is just equal to VCC(1:3:6), which serves no purpose
for any durable structure. This is all due to the negligence in making of
concrete, but not due to the less usage of cement or other materials.
So, my sincere advice is
a) Use minimum water in mixing nearer to the value of watercement ratio of 0.35.
b) Compact the concrete thoroughly with adequate internal
vibrator and external vibrator, immediately after pouring the
concrete in the forms without any lapse of time. Note that
inadequate vibration lead to honey combing and excess vibration
lead to segregation of mortar and chips. Both are undesirable. It is a
question, when to stop vibration, where to do vibration. There is a
practical rule that the good vibrator can be achieved when
(i)

The needle of internal vibrator should be placed vertically

immersed in concrete with a spacing of 5 to 8 times the
diameter of needle of vibrator that means a 40mm
needle vibrator should be placed at a spacing of 200mm
in both directions for stiff mix and at 320mm spacing in
loose mix with minimum water-cement ratio.

31

(ii) After inserting the needle in concrete, the vibration should

be continued, until the aggregate on top surface of
concrete starts just disappearing, the needle should be
withdrawn and placed at a distance as specified above.
There has been no rule how much time the vibration should be
done as it mainly depends on the workability of mix (i.e. watercement ratio).
(iii) Usage of pan vibrator may be limited to roof slabs of thickness
less than 120mm, otherwise use both needle vibrators and pan
vibrator.
(iv) The formation of soft mortar layer at the top (laitance) is highly
undesirable for CC pavements, as it has got the tendency to be
worn out due to movement of vehicular traffic, leading to the
exposure of aggregate and rugged surface.
(v) Ensure continuous ponding of water in the dikes for 28 days,
without any gap. Use as maximum water as possible in
curing of concrete by paying some attention during
curing period.
(vi) Finally you will be giving a very good, safe, durable concrete
structure.
c)

Dont waste time to start curing, for the reasons that dikes (small
mortar bunds) are not ready. Curing must be started after 12 hours of
placing concrete in variably for good quality concrete.
.

FABRICATION OF REINFORCEMENT
Before going to the fabrication of reinforcement we have to check
the (i) weight per running metre,(ii) fy value and (iii) percentage
elongation of steel, proposed for use for different diametres. As you dont
have all full length of bars, one must have laps in some bars. We should
have some idea, where the laps are to be provided and how much lap
length is to the provided.

32

(1)It is to be kept in mind that laps should be preferably not more

than 33% of the total number of rods at a section. In
exceptional cases it can be increased to 50%.
(2)

The lapping of reinforcement should be avoided in maximum

bending moment zone. For this it is customary not to provide
laps in the middle third of total span.

(3)

The overlapping length should be as specified in relevant codes.

For Buildings (As per Clause 26.2.5.1ofIS: 456 2000):
(a) Bars in compression like columns,

top rods of beam, etc.: 50

d
(b)Bars in tension like bottom rods in beams

: 70 d

The above values are given conservatively as calculated by

the formula given in the Clause 26.2.1. The above lap lengths are
safe for any type of condition of stress at the point of lap. The
field engineers with interest can slightly reduce them, by going
through the actual design stresses and bond stresses and
calculating the lap length by the formula given in Clause 26.2.1
of IS 456-2000.

For Bridges (As per Clause 304.6.6.3 of IRC 21-2000):

(a) Bars in compression like reinforcement
of piers, bed blocks, etc.
(b)

56 d

80 d

Bars in tension like bottom steel of deck

slabs, beams, etc.

33

The above values can be safely used without any doubt. They
can be reduced by going through the actual design stresses at
the point of lap and other parameters as given in Clause
304.6.6.3.
(4)

Maintaining adequate cover under the reinforcement at bottom is

very important to maintain adequate bond of surrounding concrete
and durability of structure. This point is usually neglected, which is a
serious lapse, leading to early deterioration of structures. Many of
the building slabs and bridge slaps are failing in a very short span of
10 to 20 years, due to corrosion of reinforcement. This can be seen
anywhere in Government buildings and our road bridges nearer to
sea coast. The situation is so alarming that almost all the bottom
reinforcement is exposed without any bond with the surrounding
concrete and you can count the number of rods. The safety of such
structures is in air, for many years and we are running heavy loads
without any pain, leaving the safety of commuters to god. This is
mainly due to the following deficiencies.

(a)

Due to the non-provision of cover blocks of adequate depth.

The cover blocks of adequate strength and thickness are to be
casted well in advance not less than 21 days and cured properly.
These cover blocks are to be provided with a small binding wire at
centre during casting, so that the cover blocks can be tied with
reinforcement, after fabrication of reinforcement.

(b)

The compaction of concrete is poor and due to presence of more

voids, leading to reduction in strength of concrete.

(c)

As many field Engineers forget the casting of cover blocks in

advance and keep temporarily the 40mm aggregates or stone
pieces available at site, during the day of concreting. These stones
get displaced due to the movement of men while laying concrete.
Finally the grill rests on bottom shutters and concrete is completed

34

without noticing this. After removing the bottom shutters, after 28

days of curing they notice the mistake and the bottom surface is
plastered with rich cement mortar. The surface looks good and
traffic will be allowed as usual. As there is little cover or no cover to
the reinforcement corrosion takes place due to the ingress of
moisture from the atmosphere slowly as the time goes on. Due to
the corrosion of reinforcement, steel gets expanded, pushing down
the plastered surface, thus spalling the plastering / concrete. The
problem increases manifold as the spalled concrete and exposed
reinforcement remain unnoticed and no repairs attended for some
more years. Finally the entire plastered surface falls down, exposing
the reinforcement fully. The diameter of reinforcement and strength
of reinforcement is badly effected and the mat is ready for collapse
at any time. Secondly, as there is no bond between bottom
reinforcement (main reinforcement) and concrete, the transfer of
tensile stresses from concrete to steel will not take place. Finally the
tensile stresses at bottom are to be borne by plain concrete alone.
This type of structures may collapse at any time, as and when a
heavy load of more than 30 T moves over the bridge. The agony of
inmates of the building with such corroded, exposed reinforcement
in roof slab cannot be explained and the safety of inmates is at
stake. This is all due to a small mistake committed by us during
concreting and inadequate care subsequently.
It is a fact that many road structures are failing in advance due to
this problem which needs serious attention by all field Engineers.
The rehabilitation of such structures with epoxy compounds is highly
expensive and qualified technicians and expert Engineers with
specialisation are needed. We will not be in a position to allot
adequate funds for this rehabilitation under maintenance, until the
structure collapses.

35

I hope the field Engineers have understood the importance of

cover to reinforcement and casting of cover blocks well in advance
and curing of the cover blocks. The cover blocks if not cured
adequately, will get crushed due to the movement of men, during
concreting operation and serve no purpose. So, please be careful
regarding cover to reinforcement during concreting operation.
Requirement of Cover
(A)

For Buildings as per Clause 26.4.2 of IS: 456 2000:

(a)

(b)

(B)

Severe exposure (within 25 Km of sea-coast):

(i)

For beams and slabs

45 mm

(ii)

For columns

40mm (min)

(iii)

Column Footings

75 mm

Moderate exposure (other areas):

(i)

For beams and slabs

30mm

(ii)

For Columns

40mm (min)

(iii)

For Column Footings

50mm

For Bridges as per Clause 304.4 of IRC: 21-2000:

Exposure

Severe Exposure Moderate

(Within 25 Km
Of sea coast)

(i) For pier footings

75mm

75mm

(ii) Piers, bed blocks, deck

50mm
slabs, RCC retaining walls, etc.

40mm

The above values of cover should be maintained invariably for

durability of structures and design of buildings should take the
above cover into consideration.
In the case of bridge superstructure, as the depth of deck slab is
too high, seating chairs are to be provided at a spacing of not more
than 1.50m to maintain the vertical position of top reinforcement
and bottom reinforcement. They must be calculated and kept in

36

position, such that at least 50mm of concrete should be available at

top also after concreting.
In case of cantilever projection of slab of T-beam structure,
voided deck slab, the main reinforcement should be kept at the top
in cantilever portion. The bar benders keep the rods at the top. But
as men moves over the reinforcement during concreting operation
they will not stay in top position and of left unnoticed, cracks will be
develop at the top. As the thickness is just 100 mm at the end of
cantilever, small rectangular chairs may be provided at the end to
keep the top rods in position. This is to be ensured without fail.
In case of buildings for sun shades, slab projection, this is to be
ensured by keeping necessary concrete cover blocks, so that the
main reinforcement remains at the top during concreting operation.
Otherwise the cantilever projections fail. We can see in many
buildings, the steel for cantilever projections at the bottom due to
the above problem.
(5)

Fixing of rainwater down take pipes, drainage spouts,

reinforcement for hand rails and hand posts, mastic pads at
expansion joints is to be checked regarding the spacing and
position before starting concrete.

(6)

Fixing of Kraft paper for bridges, bearing plastering with Kraft

paper over load bearing walls of buildings is to be ensured without
fail.

DIFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE

IS: 456-2000, Classifies different grades of concrete according to
their usage in Clause 6.1 (Table 2)
a)

Ordinary Concrete

M10, M15, M20

b)

Standard Concrete

M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50, M55

37

c)

High Strength concrete :

M60, M65, M70, M75, M80

The mixes under ordinary concrete M10, M15and M20 are generally
nominal mix concrete. However, design mix concrete is economical and
can be used from M15 grade onwards. In our Department we adopt
concrete grades up to M40. The grades of concrete higher than M 40 requires
fully automated weigh batching plant and strict quality control during
execution to achieve the specified compressive strength.
For grades of concrete higher than M55, specialist literature and
experimental results are to be adopted and the parameters shown in IS:
456 are not applicable.
The minimum cement content, minimum grade of concrete for plain
and reinforced concrete are specified in table 5 of IS: 456-2000 depending
on the condition of exposure. There are five conditions of exposure
mentioned in the code. However we in our Department we execute
structures under two conditions of exposure viz. (1) Severe (within 25 Km
of sea-coast) and (ii) Moderate (more than 25 Km from sea-coast) for
simplification, they are reproduced for ready reference.
S.
No
.
1

Exposure
condition

Minimum Grade
Plain

reinforce
d
M30

Minimum
Cement
Plain

Reinforc
ed
320 Kg

Maximum
water-cement
Ratio
Reinforce
Plain
d
0.50
0.45

Severe
M20
250
(within 25
Kg
Km of seacoast)
2
Moderate
M15
M25
240
300 Kg
0.60
0.50
(more than
Kg
25 Km of
sea-coast)
From the above, we can clearly say the minimum grade of concrete
for plain concrete is M15 and for reinforced concrete is M25. The
grades lower than this cannot be used for any structural concrete. The
minimum cement content specified is 240 Kg. Hence we are not
supposed to use (1:3:6) mix as it contains only 221 Kg of cement. It is

38

observed in some buildings VRCC (1:2:4) is being proposed for RCC

structures (which is considered as equivalent to M 15) against the minimum
grade of M25 specified in the above table. This procedure is to be stopped
for giving durable structures. For giving adequate cover as specified in IS:
456 the thickness of roof slab should be provided as minimum of
120mm thick. This may be adopted.
Further the cement content is to be slightly adjusted depending on
the size of aggregate. The values of minimum cement content given in the
above table are for 20mm aggregate. The cement content will be more for
lower size aggregate and less for larger size aggregate. If we use 10mm
aggregate instead of 20mm aggregate the cement content should be
increased by 40 Kg per cum. Similarly if we use 40mm aggregate the
cement content can be reduced by 30 Kg per cum. It is to be kept in mind
that when there is heavy congestion of reinforcement, as in the case of
bulb portion of the web of T-beam bridges usage of 20mm aggregate may
lead to severe gaps and concrete not flow down, due to large depth and
small width of beam. In some cases the bottom steel was not surrounded
by any concrete due to congestion and finally leading to collapse of
structures. In such cases, it is advisable to adopt 10mm size aggregate
with increased cement content, so that the concrete can flow down to
bottom of beam and honey combs can be avoided.

39

PREPARATION OF FORM WORK

Generally, it is felt that preparation of form work is not the duty of
field Engineer and is left to the discretion of bar benders. Even though, it
is the responsibility of centering staff, the field officers must check the
following items to ensure the safety of form work and to avoid loss of
mortar, to avoid bulging of shutters during vibration. To have an idea, the
following points are listed below.
1)

Ensure that the steel cribs are supported on stable hard soil. If the
soil is loose, it is advisable to lay concrete bed 150mm thick and keep the
steel cribs over it.

2)

Ensure that the spacing of cribs is adequate. Generally the spacing

of cribs at 1.50m c/c is satisfactory.

3)

All the cribs are tied with the steel rods at a vertical spacing of
0.60m in both directions.
4)

In case of sands, it is better to soak the sand completely in water

before erecting cribs. No loose soil shall be filled for adjusting the
heights to suit the height of cribs. Extra width may be provided on
all sides of cribs ,to provide lateral support and to avoid slipping of
sand due to rains ,etc.

5)

The channels placed over the cribs for placing centering sheets are
to be properly spaced. Adequate lap length may be provided when the
length of channel is less than span length without fail. Bend shutters and
shutters with holes are to be discouraged for form work.

6)

The joints of centering sheets are to be sealed to avoid loss of slurry

during concreting and vibrating operation. An adhesive tape (brown colour
used for books& packing) 2 wide can be used conveniently for sealing
the joints of shutters. In case of sloped joints or vertical joints, cotton
waste obtained from hand looms can be inserted without gap. A rubber
seal also may be used in this way to avoid loss of slurry.

40

7)

Suitable

raise

at the

center

of

span may be provided

to

accommodate the deflection due to loads as per IRC standard drawings for
bridges.
8)

All the holes, small gaps left over openings are to be sealed
thoroughly before placing reinforcement.

9)

In case of C. C. pavement, steel channels are provided as centering.

These are to be supported with 16mm spikes (nails) as shown below. In
some difficult cases, an angle gauge may be prepared to support the
channels. The gaps between two channels are to be sealed with cotton
waste to avoid loss of cement slurry and formation of honey combs.

Spike 16mm Dia

Second Spike
16mm Dia

Gauge Bar with

ISA 40x40x6mm
Bolted @ 3m c/ c

Cotton waste

Bolt & Nut

Arrangement
Bully Support
Centering
Channels

Lean concrete

Existing Road

NOTE:

ISA 40x40x6 angle may be provided as gauge bar with

holes at ends and channels are also to be provided with holes,

so that they can be fixed with bolt and nuts to avoid bulging of
channels. These angles are fixed at 0.50m from the end of
panel on both sides and one number at centre of panel so that
the channels can remain in position, during laying and
compaction of concrete. This method will be very use full
when the spikes cannot remain vertically due to poor soils or
when it is not possible to drive spikes like laying of C.C

41

pavement over a causeway work at more heights. This is tried

and proved successful in some works.
10)

Diesel oil or Lubricant oil is to be coated to centering sheets, sides

and vertical shutters to avoid adhesion of concrete with the steel shutters.
If this is not done, the surface of concrete will be rugged and shabby. The
same procedure may be adopted for channel faces in case of CC
pavements.

11)

The gradient if any required for bridges is to be checked by thin

twine, so that undulations can be rectified before placing reinforcement.
All the above mentioned points are to be attended before placing
reinforcement and no item can be attended once the reinforcement is
placed.

12)

Adequate number of cover blocks of required thickness, as specified

are to be casted, well in advance and cured properly by the time, the
reinforcement is placed over centering. The size preferably should be
50x50x40mm for bridges. The thickness of cover blocks may be increased
or decreased as per codal requirements, described earlier.

13)

Bearings if any either Kraft paper bearing or elastomeric bearings

are to be fixed and protected before placing reinforcement.

14)

Mastic pads can be placed at joints of deck slab, just before

concreting and are to be readily available of suitable depth as required.

15)

The maximum and minimum spacing of reinforcement for

RCC as per IS: 456
As per Clause 26.3.3, the maximum spacing between the
reinforcing bars shall not exceed the following values.
a) Beams - main reinforcement

b) Beams - shear reinforcement

(Vertical stirrups)

:
0.75 d
where d = effective depth

c) Slabs - main reinforcement :

3 d (or) 300mm,whichever is

less

125 mm

42

d) Slabs - distribution reinforcement:

5 d (or) 450mm,whichever

is less

As per Clause 26.3.2, the minimum spacing of reinforcement

shall not be less than the maximum of following.
i)

The diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal.

ii)

The diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are not equal.
5mm more than nominal maximum size of aggregate.
When there are two or more rows of bars, the minimum

vertical distance between the bars shall be (i) 15mm, (ii) Two-thirds
the nominal maximum size of aggregate, (iii) maximum size of bar
whichever is greater.
The maximum spacing of reinforcement is very important in
RCC roof slabs, as it prevents formation of cracks and if exceeded
will lead to excess crack widths, allows ingress of moisture,
corrosion of reinforcement and finally the structure shows distress at
an early age.
The minimum spacing of reinforcement is also equally
important to allow concrete surrounding all layers of steel during
compaction of concrete by vibration. If adequate spacing is not
available the concrete will not go down in large depth beams leaving
large holes and will lead to early failure of structure. Hence the
maximum spacing, minimum spacing limits shall be followed to
have a durable structure.
(16)The maximum and minimum spacing of reinforcement for
BRIDGES as per clause 303.4 of IRC 21-2000
(a) For Deck slabs the diameter of reinforcement shall not exceed 25
mm and spacing shall not exceed 150 mm.
(b) For T-Beam bridges ,voided deck slabs etc, the diameter of main
reinforcement shall not exceed 32 mm and spacing shall not exceed
150 mm.

43

PREPARATION OF CONCRETE

After placing the reinforcement in position, the field engineer must

check the reinforcement for their size, spacing, cover to reinforcement,
measurements of beams, slabs, position of drainage spouts, etc., as per
drawing. This must be checked one day in advance, before starting
concrete. Adequate number of internal vibrators (needle vibrators) and
external vibrators (screed vibrators or pan vibrators) are to be kept ready
in good working condition. The boxes prepared as per mix design shall be
marked with paint, the type of material to be loaded. It is the usual
practice to pour 50% of water required in mixer drum first. Then the
materials will be loaded in the hopper, as per the mix design. Care may
be taken not to place cement first in hopper. These materials in
hopper will be loaded in the mixer drum and the balance 50% water will
be poured slowly. The mixing shall be continued until uniform mixing of
concrete is obtained. As per Clause 10.3.1 of IS: 456-2000, the mixing
time shall be at least2 minutes. Hence a minimum time of 3 to 5 minutes
after all the materials are loaded into the mixture will be purposeful to
have a uniform concrete, depending on the water-cement ratio adopted.
After the mixing is completed the concrete shall be unloaded. The
workability of a mix can be assessed by slump cone test. An experienced
Engineer can judge it with eye depending on the stack of concrete
unloaded. If it is firm and high, the mix is having less water-cement ratio
and if the stack flows into a loose concrete, it means high water-cement
ratio. Depending on the requirement, we can slightly modify the water
cement-ratio and next loads will be taken up. The procedure of conducting
slump test for assessing the workability of concrete is enclosed at the end.

44

After the concrete is unloaded, it has to be carried by wheel borrows

or trolleys depending on the load while lifting the aggregate, it is to be
ensured that each part of concrete contains uniform mix with adequate
mortar and aggregates, without any segregation of concrete material. The
concrete material now has to be deposited in the form work manually.
While depositing the concrete, the concrete can not be dumped from
height, as in the case of foundations, where the concrete is thrown from
ground level to foundation. It is to be stopped, as it leads to segregation.
The persons must go nearer to the form work in foundation and drop the
concrete carefully. As per Clause13.2 of IS: 456-2000, the maximum
permissible free fall of concrete is 1.50m.Care should be taken to avoid
displacement of steel reinforcement, while dropping / placing of concrete.

The concrete must be deposited in layers not exceeding 300mm for

internal vibrators (needle vibrators) and 150mm for external vibrators.
Use of both vibrators will be more advantageous for compaction of
concrete. The process of mixing transporting, placing and compaction of
concrete should be completed within 30 minutes. As already explained
over vibration and under vibration of concrete are harmful and should be
avoided.
The detrimental effects of over vibration are detailed below.
i)

It segregates the material, bringing the soft material of concrete

i.e. mortar to the top and aggregate to the bottom, so that the
top layer is soft and non-uniform. Finally this causes reduction in
compressive strength.

ii)

The concrete surrounding reinforcement at top will be too soft

and can be carried away by the vehicular traffic, leading to
undesired rugged surface in case of C. C. Pavements.

45

Similarly under vibrated concrete is more detrimental, as the

concrete may not go down to the bottom of beam if not compacted
properly, leaving large holes and leaving the bottom layer of steel
unconnected with concrete. This happens in deep beams of bridges. One
must ensure adequate compaction of concrete such that the concrete is
filled as a solid mass without voids.
A good compaction and less water-cement ratio are the key factors
for the life of any concrete structure. Hence, compaction of concrete must
be done under the guidance and close supervision of experience
Engineers and cannot be left over as a masons job. After compacting the
concrete adequately with internal vibrators, the pan vibrator may be used
at the top to level the surface. It does not mean all the finishing operation
should be done with pan vibrator. Skilled masons shall be employed, to
level the surface of concrete and for making up the small undulations.
Remember that concrete can be moulded to any shape or finish like
clay in the hands of a pot maker. If you have the command and concept of
concrete preparation never use water for making the top surface level or
for smooth finish as it spoils concrete.
In case of CC pavement, the laitance (a thin layer of cement mortar
formed at the top) due to vibration is to be cleared with straight trowel,
until the coarse aggregate is just touched with trowel. The presence of
laitance on top is likely to be carried away by the vehicular traffic due to
non-presence of aggregate at top. This should be ensured on CC
pavement and all soft cement mortar at top is to be cleared to have a long
life durable cement concrete pavement.

46

UNDER WATER CONCRETING

In some cases, as in the foundation of bridges, water will be present

beyond 3 to 4 m depth depending on season. In rainy season, water may
be present at shallow depth of 1.50m, in sandy soils of coastal district. We
are not supposed to lay concrete in water directly. The alternative is to
dewater the foundation with pumps. It is easy to remove the water by
using pumps and place the concrete. This is practicable when the
permeability of soil is low and the seepage of water is low and the
concreting operation can be completed before substantial water is entered
in foundations. In case of sandy soils it is highly difficult to control
seepage of water even if you employ many pumps. In order to prevent
seepage water getting mixed with concrete, a small depth trench with a
width of 1.0m and 1.0m depth will be excavated all-round the foundations.
The seepage water entering from four sides will be collected in the
trenches excavated and from there the water can be pumped by using
adequate number of pumps. The dewatering can be done slowly, so that
the water level in trench is lower than the foundation level and the
concrete can be laid, at foundation level. However, when the foundation
concrete quantity is high, that it may take 10 to 12 hours for laying
concrete manually, we have to go for alternative arrangements. Once if
the water level touches the foundation level the dewatering cannot be
allowed, as it sucks the cement from concrete and is highly detrimental to
concrete. In such cases, we have to use a tremie pipe for laying concrete
which avoids direct contact of concrete with water or skip boxes can be
used. The tremie pipe is nothing but a large diameter PVC pipe of 450mm
diameter with a funnel at the top. The length of pipe shall be such that the
bottom of pipe touches the foundation level and top of the funnel at
ground level. The funnel of tremie pipe is fixed such that the concrete

47

unloaded from mixer fall into the funnel and flows down through the pipe
to the foundation level. Then the tremie pipe is slightly raised and next
load of concrete is released. This process is continued until all area of
foundation is filled with concrete, by slightly moving the end of PVC pipe
through the area of foundation. Vibration should not be resorted
under any condition when concrete is laid in water. We have to
use 10% extra cement over the requirement for underwater
concrete.
If a grabbing machine is available which is generally used for sinking
of well foundations it is convenient to lay concrete, with the buckets of
machine and taking the buckets to the bottom of foundation and opening
the buckets at that location. In both the cases, concrete will come into
contact with water partially which is inevitable. As the concrete will be
totally under water, after laying the segregated material of concrete if any
will get deposited layer by layer in the closed form work
Note that no dewatering shall be allowed within 24 hours after
laying of concrete. As the concrete is totally under water, the required
strength will be achieved without much difficulty. The above methods
proved to be effective in many bridge works and can be followed without
any hesitation.
In case of open foundation, it is suggested not to do dewatering
while the concrete is in progress. However the concrete may be stopped
from one end and partial removal of water by other means manually or
low power pumps may be employed, subject to the condition that the
water pumped out should not contain any cement. The operation should
be carried out in such a way the dewatering will not suck the cement from
the concrete laid. This is to done in close supervision of experienced
Engineers as it is highly dangerous if cement goes out. Even it will be
better to lay the concrete in stagnated water of shallow depths, than

48

dewatering while concrete is in progress. The process of dewatering when

concrete work is in progress is to be avoided as far as possible.

49

HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

[As per IS: 7861 (Part I) 1975]

Many of us do not know the effects of high temperatures during

laying of concrete. The high atmospheric temperatures result in rapid
hydration of cement, increased evaporation of mixing water, greater
mixing water demand and large volume changes resulting in cracks. First
of all we have to define hot weather concreting. As per IS: 7861, it is
defined as the operation of concreting done at atmospheric temperatures
above 400C, any operation of concreting, where the temperature of
concrete at the time of its placement is expected to be beyond 40 0C. The
MORT&H specification Clause 602.7.2 has given even stringent limitation
that no concreting shall be done, when the concrete temperature is above
300C.
The effects of hot weather concrete can be as listed below.
1) Accelerated setting: High temperature increases the rate of
setting of the concrete. Therefore the duration of time during which
the concrete can be handled is reduced.
2) Reduction in strength: High temperature results in increase of the
quantity

of

mixing

water

to

maintain

the

workability

with

consequent reduction in strength.

3) Increased tendency to crack either before or after hardening,

plastic shrinkage cracks may form due to rapid evaporation of water.
Cracks may be developed in hardened concrete either by increased
drying shrinkage, resulting from greater mixing water used or by
cooling of the concrete from high temperatures.

50

4) Rapid evaporation of water during curing period. It is very

difficult to retain moisture for hydration in hot summer and maintain
reasonably uniform temperature conditions during the curing period.
Now the problem is how to reduce the temperature of concrete during
preparation and keep it less than 300C as specified. The following are the
some of the methods useful for controlling temperature of concrete.

i)

Sprinkling of cold water over coarse aggregate stock piles and

keeping them moist.

ii)

Reducing the temperature of mixing water by adding crushed ice.

It is proved that a 20C reduction in temperature of water reduces
0.50C change in the concrete temperature. In this case, you have
to count the quantity of ice in water-cement ratio. Use of ice as
part of mixing water is highly effective in reducing concrete
temperature, since on melting alone, it takes up heat at the rate
of 80 KCal/kg.

In this method one must observe that the ice

mixed in water should be melted by the time mixing of concrete

is completed. Otherwise, there is a possibility of ice melting after
consolidation of concrete and thus leaving hollow pockets in
concrete, which causes serious damage to concrete compressive
strength.

As per the Figure 2 given in IS: 786 when the ambient temperature
is 400C, if 10 Kg of ice is added in water duly replacing water, the
temperature of concrete will be reduced by 2 0C. Similarly by increasing
the ice quantity, sprinkling of water over aggregate, the temperature of
concrete can be reduced to 300C to avoid detrimental effect of high
temperature.

51

Curing is also very crucial for concrete laid in hot weather, since hot
weather

leads

to

rapid

drying

of

concrete.

Immediately,

after

consolidation and surface drying of concrete shall be protected from

evaporation of moisture by means of wet gunny bags (not dipping). Once
the concrete has attained some degree of hardening sufficient to
withstand surface damage (approximately 12 hours after mixing) moist
curing with water shall commence. It is very important to note that
continuous curing is essential, because volume changes due to alternate
wetting and drying, promote the development of surface cracking.
The compressive strength of concrete will also be effected due to
high temperature concrete mixed, placed and cured at high temperatures
normally develop higher early strength. But the compressive strength at
28 days is lower. It is a fact that the 28 days compressive strength of M 35
grade concrete cured at 300C will have a strength reduction of 10% to
15% when the same concrete is cured at 400C.
This phenomenon is very important, as we lay CC pavements in dry
months of April to June, when the atmosphere temperatures are above
400C. But we never take any of the precautions specified above while
concreting is in progress. This will definitely land us in troubles. Hence all
of us must be more careful while laying CC pavements in hot weather. The
delay in starting of curing nearly after 48 hours of laying of concrete will
cause irreparable loss in strength of concrete. The requirement of water is
very high in the first 24 hours and during that period we provide little
curing or no curing, because of which the strength will be badly effected.
We must start the curing after 12 hours in hot seasons compulsorily. The
strength of concrete after 48 hours is 41% as per Table 900-5 of MORT&H
specifications. if you do not provide required water for curing, the
compressive strength of concrete will be alarmingly low. One must be
more careful in curing especially for CC pavements laid in hot weather to
avoid complications at a later date.

52

SUMMARY OF QUALITY CONTROL TESTS REQUIRED FOR

BRIDGES
A) MATERIALS:
S.
No
.

Name of
material

Type of Test
a) Fineness of
Cement
b) Initial setting
time

CEMENT

c) Final setting
time
d)Compressive
strength at 28
days
i) OPC 33 Grade
ii) OPC 43 Grade
iii) OPC 53 Grade

STEEL

a) Weight per
running
meter in Kg

Frequency

Permissible limits

One test for

each
consignment
One test for
each
consignment
One test for
each
consignment
One test for
each
consignment

<10%

One test for

each
consignment

Not less than 30

minutes
Not more than 600
minutes

> 33 N/mm2
> 43 N/mm2
> 53 N/mm2

6mm-0.222Kg/m
8mm-0.395Kg/m
10mm-0.620Kg/m

53

12mm-0.888Kg/m
16mm-1.578Kg/m
20mm-2.465Kg/m
25mm-3.852Kg/m
32mm-6.311Kg/m
b) Characteristic
yield
stress fy
i) S-240(Mild)
ii) S-415 (HYSD)
iii) S-500 (TMT)

One test for

each
consignment

c)Percentage
elongation

One test for

each
consignment

> 240 N/mm2

> 415 N/mm2
> 500 N/mm2

Not Less than14.5%

54

S.
No
.

Name of
material

Type of Test

a) PH Value

b) Sulphates
3

WATER

COARSE
AGGREGAT
E

FINE
AGGREGAT
E

c) Chlorides

Frequency

One test for

each source
(or) monthly
One test for
each source
(or) monthly
One test for
each source
(or) monthly

a) Sieve Analysis

1 Test/15m3

b) AIV

One test for

each source
(or) as and
when
required (or)
monthly
1 Test/30m3

i) Non-wearing
surfaces
ii) Wearing
surfaces
c) FIV
i) For Structures
ii) For CC
pavements
d) Water
absorption
a) Sieve analysis
b) Fineness
Modulus
c) Silt Content
d) Bulking of sand

e) Water
absorption

Permissible limits

>6

< 400 mg/Litre

< 500 mg/Litre

for RCC
< 2000
mg/Litre
for PCC
As per IS: 383
Table

< 45%
< 30%

< 35%
< 40% (IRC: 44)
1 Test/Day

< 2%

1 Test/15 m3
1 Test/15 m3

As per IS 383
2 to 3.50

2 Tests/Day
2 Tests/Day

< 4%
Not required
when concrete is
laid by weight
< 2%

2 Tests/Day

55

B)CONCRETE:

S.
No
.

Name of
material

Type of Test
a) Slump Test

CONCRETE

CONCRETE

Frequency
2 Tests/Day
(or)
1 Test/10m3

Permissible
limits

15 to 45 mm
For CC
pavement
25 to 50 mm
For structures
b) Compressive
Number of samples to be
Strength Test
prepared and tested as per IS:
456 (one sample means 3
specimen
cubes
of
150x150x150mm)
Quantity of
Number of Samples to be
Concrete
casted for
7 days + 28 days
i)1-5 Cum
1x3 + 1x3
= 6 No
ii) 6-15 Cum
2x3 + 2x3
= 12 No
iii) 16-30 Cum
3x3 + 3x3
= 18 No
iv) 31-50 Cum
4x3 + 4x3
= 24 No
c) Compressive
As given 7 Days 70% of
Strength Test
in (b)
fck
subject 28 days fck+3.0
to a
up to
minimu M15
m of 6
28 days fck+4.0
cubes
above
M15
As per Clause 16.1
& Table 11 of IS:
456-2000
7 Days Compressive Strength for Different
Grades of Concrete

56

Grade of concrete
M-10
M-15
M-20
M-25
M-30
M-35
M-40

Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade

Load
>160 KN
>240 KN
> 315
KN
> 395
KN
> 510
KN
> 555
KN
> 630
KN

>
>
>
>
>
>
>

Compressive
Strength
7.00 N/mm2
10.50 N/mm2
14.00 N/mm2
17.50 N/mm2
22.50 N/mm2
24.50 N/mm2
28.00 N/mm2

57

28 Days Compressive Strength for Different

Grades of Concrete
Grade of concrete
Load
Compressive
Strength
M-10 Grade
> 295 KN > 13.00 N/mm2
M-15 Grade
>405 KN > 18.00 N/mm2
M-20 Grade
>540 KN > 24.00 N/mm2
M-25 Grade
>655 KN > 29.00 N/mm2
M-30 Grade
>765 KN > 34.00 N/mm2
M-35 Grade
>880 KN > 39.00 N/mm2
M-40 Grade
>990 KN > 44.00 N/mm2
NOTE: (i) For calculating of compressive strength of
concrete, the following values are generally
considered.
(a) 10 N = 1.0 Kg (Exactly 9.80 N = 1.0Kg);
(b) 10
KN = 1.0MT;
(ii) The least count of compression testing machine
is generally 0.50 MT or 5 KN and total capacity is
100 MT or 1000KN
d) Core Tests of
2 Cores for
As detailed
3
Hardened Concrete
every 150 m
below
Strength of 150mm diameter cores with depth of
200mm for CC pavement (Direct load on core after
applying corrections)
CONCRETE

Grade of concrete
M-25
M-30
M-35
M-40

Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade

Average value
>380 KN
> 460 KN
> 535 KN
> 610 KN

Individual
Value
>305 KN
>370 KN
> 425 KN
> 490 KN

58

PREPARATION OF C. C. CUBES FOR COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH
(As per IS: 516)

It is a very well-known problem for many of the field Engineers the

concrete pavement or concrete structures, that some of the cubes casted
from same load of concrete fail at a lower value than the required value,
causing some confusion. One of the reasons, for this ambiguity is due to
error in preparation of CC cubes. Mostly the preparation of CC cubes is
being left to the masons available at site and the preparation varies from
mason to mason. In order to avoid this problem the preparation of CC
cubes for compressive strength is detailed below as specified in IS: 516.
1) The concrete shall be mixed thoroughly with correct water-cement
ratio. The mixing time shall be not less than 3 minutes, after all the
materials are poured into the drum of mixer.
2) The moulds of standard size 150x150x150mm are to be fitted tight
and joints are to be sealed to avoid loss of water during compaction.
This may be done by using cotton waste at joints from outside.
3) All the faces of the moulds are to be coated preferably with diesel or
mud oil, to prevent adhesion of concrete.
4) A stainless steel rod of 16mm diameter, 600mm length is to be used
for compaction (The rod supplied with slump cone for workability
test can be used).
5) The concrete shall be filled into the mould in layers of 50mm depth.
The total depth of mould 150mm should be filled in three equal
layers.
6) In placing each scoopful of concrete, the scoop shall be moved
around the top edge of the mould, as the concrete slides from it in

59

order to ensure a symmetrical distribution of concrete within the

mould.
7) Each layer shall be compacted with the standard tamping bar
supplied shall be used and the strokes of the bar shall be distributed
in uniform manner over the cross section of mould. The concrete
shall be subjected to not less than 35 strokes for each layer of
50mm depth. Here, we commit the mistake mainly. This is to be
ensured perfectly.
8) The strokes should penetrate into the underlying layer and the
bottom layer shall be rodded throughout its depth.
9) After the top layer has been compacted, the surface of the concrete
shall be finished level with the top of mould using a trowel and
covered with a glass or metal plate to prevent evaporation.
10)

The test specimens shall be stored in shade at a temperature

of around 270C for 24 hours. Then the specimens are taken out from
the moulds.
11)

Later the specimens shall be submerged in clean and fresh

water. Note that the curing should be done with water having a P H of
more than 6 only. Many people feel that the water used for curing
need not be so pure, as mixing water in concrete, which is incorrect.
12)

The cubes must be under water for not less than 28 days and

they should not be dry under any circumstances.

13)

The cubes, which are sent for testing, shall be well packed in

damp sand, so as to arrive there in damp condition. On arrival at the

testing laboratory, the specimens shall be stored in water, until the
time of test.
14)

At least three cubes are to be tested for arriving as the

compressive strength.
15)

Specimens

(cubes)

stored

in

water

shall

be

tested

immediately on removal from the water and while they are still in
wet condition, surface water shall be wiped with cloth, before
testing.

60

16)

The dimensions of the specimen shall be measured correctly

to the nearest 0.20mm and their weight shall be noted. Honeycombed, bulged, corners damaged cubes are to be rejected and
fresh cubes are to be obtained.
17)

For testing cubes, the specimen shall be placed in the

machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to opposite

sides of the cubes as cast, that is not to the top and bottom. This
means that the top of cube marked or engraved with date, shall be
placed normal to the fixing plates such that you can read the date
from front side while testing is done. The cube shall be placed at
centre of the plates at top and bottom.
18)

The compressive load on cubes shall be applied without shock

and increased continuously at the rate of approximately 140

Kg/cm2/minute until the specimen breaks down and cannot take any
further load. In other words for 150mm cubes, you have to apply a
load of 315 KN/minute gradually.
19)

The ultimate load reading shall be noted, when the cube

cannot take any further load and black needle comes back, leaving
the red needle at maximum load position.
20)

The compressive strength of concrete is obtained by dividing

the maximum load with the cross sectional area calculated with the
actual measurements recorded before test.
21)

The average strength of three cubes shall be taken as the

compressive strength of sample (one sample means 3 cubes),

provided that the individual variation is not more than 15% of the
average.
Acceptance Criterion (As per Clause 16.1 of IS: 456): The concrete
shall be deemed to comply with the strength requirements when both the
following conditions are met with (a)

The mean strength determined from any group of four

consecutive test results complies as detailed below (set of 4x3
= 12 cubes)

61

(b)

: (fck+3.0) N/mm2

(i)

For grades up to M15

(ii)

For grades above M15

(fck + 4.0) N/mm2

Any individual test result do not vary by more than

(i)
(ii)

For grades up to M15

For grades above M15

:(fck- 3.0) N/mm2

:(fck- 4.0) N/mm2

However for CC pavements / structural concrete, as per Clause

1716.2.5 of MORT&H Specifications, the acceptance criteria is given,
the concrete complies with the specified compressive strength,
when both the following conditions are met with
(a)
The mean strength determined from any group of four
consecutive
(b)

samples

should

exceed

the

specified

characteristic compressive strength i.e., fck.

Strength of any sample is not less than the specified
characteristic compressive strength minus 3 MPa, i.e., (fck-3.0)
N/mm2.
For bridges, as per Clause 302.11.1 of IRC: 21-2000,

when both the following conditions are met, the concrete

complies with the specified compressive strength.
(a)
The mean strength determined from any group of four
consecutive

samples

should

exceed

the

specified

characteristic compressive strength by 3.0 MPa, i.e., (fck+3.0)

(b)

N/mm2.
Strength of any sample is not less than the specified
characteristic compressive strength minus 3.0MPa, i.e., (fck3.0) N/mm2.
In the light of the above three guidelines, it is always

better to follow the higher value as per IS: 456-2000, as other

Codes are likely to be revised in conformity with IS: 456-2000.

62

SLUMP TEST FOR WORKABILITY

(As per IS: 1199)

Generally in the mix design of concrete, the water-cement ratio to

be adopted, slump desired will be specified. The slump test is only
indicative about the workability of concrete, i.e. the ease with which
mixing, placing, compaction of concrete can be done. It is useful to have
first-hand idea about the concrete mix likely to be produced, can meet the
workability criterion. The test is very simple and is detailed below.
1)

Slump cone is a truncated cone, having 200mm diameter at bottom,

100mm diameter at top, 300mm height, prepared with steel sheet. The
inside should be smooth to facilitate
to lift the cone during test. A steel tamping rod 16mm in diameter,
600mm long rounded at end is used for compacting concrete in
layers.

2)

A sample of freshly mixed concrete is taken from the concrete mix.

3)

The mould shall be filled with concrete in 4 layers of 75mm each.

Each layer shall be tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of tamping
rod. The strokes shall be distributed in a uniform manner over the cross
section of mould and for second and subsequent layer; the tamping rod
shall penetrate into the bottom layer.

4)

After the top layer has been tamped 25 strokes the concrete shall be
struck off level with a trowel.

5)

The mould shall be removed from concrete, immediately by raising it

slowly and carefully in vertical direction without disturbing the concrete
cone formed.

63

6)

This allows the concrete to subside and the slump measured immediately
by determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of
the highest point of concrete specimen tested.

7)

The above operations shall be completed within a period of 2

minutes after sampling without any vibration or shock.

8)

The slump measured shall be recorded in millimeters of the

subsidence of the specimen during the test.

9)

In case any slump specimen collapses or shears off laterally gives

incorrect result and this needs to be done again.

10)

The following slump values are generally specified for different types of
concrete.
i)

CC pavements

ii)

Mass concrete, lightly reinforced sections

of columns, slabs, footings

iii)

15 to 45mm

25 to 75mm

Heavily reinforced sections of slabs, beams

columns, walls

iv)

Trench fill, in-situ piling

50 to 100mm
:

100 to 150mm

Another test for workability in the laboratory is compacting factor

test shall be used in very stiff concrete mixes. A compacting factor of 0.75
to 0.80 is suggested for stiff mixes.

64

CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

The construction of CC pavements have increased multifold due to
their long life and trouble free service, maintenance, capability to
withstand in the water logged areas. In view of the above advantages, the
construction of CC pavements is undoubtedly very good option compared
to BT road, even though the cost of construction is high during initial
stage. One must have adequate knowledge of design and construction of
CC pavement. With a view to have some basic idea the following points
are mentioned for guidance. The design of CC pavement should be done
as per IRC: 58-2002.
1)

IRC: 58 deals with the design of plain CC pavements for roads having a
daily commercial traffic (vehicles with laden weight exceeding 3MT) of
over 150. They are not applicable to low traffic rural roads.

2)

The design of CC pavement is based on modulus of sub grade reaction

K value. The approximate k-value corresponding to CBR value is given
below for ready reference.
2
Soaked
CBR
Value (%)
k-Value
Kg/cm2/c
m

Pure B. C.
Soils

2.1

2.8

3.5

10

Sandy (or)
Sand
Mixed with
clay
4.2

4.8

5.5

15

20

Hard
Soils

6.2

6.9

50

100

Roc
k

--

14.
0

22.
2

65

3)

The increase in k-Value of sub grade due to laying of granular base

may be taken as per the table given below.

Modified k- Value over granular sub-base and bed concrete

k-Value of
sub-grade in
Kg/cm3

Effective k-Value over

untreated granular subbase of thickness
150mm

2.80
5.60
8.40

3.90
6.30
9.20

NOTE: (i)

Effective k-Value
over bed concrete of
thickness 100mm and
Granular sub-base of
thickness 150mm
15.12
38.90
38.90

Cement concrete pavement should not be laid directly

over the sub-grade.

iii)

A dry lean concrete sub base with a grade not lower than M10 is
generally recommended for modern concrete pavements. The
value of K will again be increased if dry lean concrete is
provided as per Table- 4 of IRC: 58-2002. Generally we come
across with B. C. soils in the coastal area having a CBR between
2% to 4%. The corresponding value of K with 150mm thick
granular sub-base followed by 100mm thick bed concrete with
M10Grade works out to 15.12 Kg/cm 2. Hence the design of C. C.
pavement should be based on this K value and corresponding
axle loads repetitions.

4)

C. C. pavements are designed for a flexural strength of 4.50 Mpa (4.50

N/mm2). As per IS: 456, the flexural strength is given by the formula
0.70fck. In order to have a flexural strength of 4.50 Mpa the minimum
grade of concrete required for normal C. C. pavement is M 40. (As per IRC:
44-2008). In this connection normal C. C. pavement means the roads
having a daily commercial traffic (vehicles with laden weight exceeding 3
MT) of over 150. The other roads, where the daily commercial traffic less

66

than 150, the minimum grade of concrete M 30 (flexural strength 3.80 Mpa)
is recommended. The use of leaner concrete grades for C. C. pavements is
contrary to IRC recommendations.
5)

The camber for CC pavement shall be 1.50 to 2.00% (1 in 65 of 1 in

50).

6)

separation

membrane

of

minimum

thickness

125micron

is

recommended to reduce the friction between concrete slabs and dry lean
concrete sub base (bed concrete M10).

7)

In case of problematic soils sub grades such as clayey and expansive

soils, a

blanket course of 150mm thick with sand shall be provided in

addition to sub base

8)

The layer of wet mix macadam is not necessary over granular sub-base
for laying . C.C. pavements, as laying of bed concrete over granular subbase serves as base.
9)

It is advisable to lay the granular sub-base for the entire formation

width to act as a drainage layer under C. C. pavement.

10)

Dowel bars are to be provided as a load transferring device from one

panel to the other panel at contraction joints, where the traffic intensity
is higher than 150 CVPD, since aggregate interlock cannot be relied
upon to affect the load transfer across the joints. For rural roads, with
less traffic dowel bars can be omitted at contraction joints. Dowel bars
at both contraction joints and expansion joints shall be positioned at
mid depth of slab.
However, in some of the estimates, even for State Highways
carrying heavy traffic, dowel bars at contraction joints are not provided,
which may effect the service life of C. C. pavement. This is to be
examined carefully as per the guide lines give in IRC: 58-2002

67

11) Dowel bars need not be provided for C. C. pavements of less than
150mm thickness.
12)

Dowel bars (mild steel bars only) are to be provided at both

contraction joints and expansion joints as per the table given below
(Table 7 of IRC: 15-2002).
S

Slab Thickness
(mm)
150 mm

Dowel bars (Mild Steel)

Diameter
Spacing
Length (mm)
(mm)
(mm)
25
500
200

200 mm

25

500

250

250 mm

25

500

300

300 mm

32

500

300

Generally we adopt 200mm thick C. C. pavements. For this we

must provide 25mm diameter mild steel bars @ 250mm c/c. Many
people are providing 25mm diameter mild steel bars @ 300mm c/c,
which is not correct. Dowel bars shall be mild steel round bars only.
Tor steel should not be used. The spacing of dowel bars shall be
provided as per the table given above without fail.
13)

In order to allow free movement of slab at contraction joints dowel

bars
are to be provided with thin plastic sheath for a length of 60%
of its
total length (500x0.60 = 300mm). The thickness should not be
greater than 0.50mm (Clause 8.3.6 of IRC: 15-2002). However it is
mentioned as 1.25mm in Clause 602.6.5.5 of MORT&H
Specifications. It is better to adopt a thickness of 0.50mm to
1.25mm for free movement of slabs during contraction.
14) For dowel bars at expansion joint, a closely fitting cap 100mm long
with closed end with PVC or GI pipe 3mm thickness, shall be placed

68

over the sheathed end of each dowel bars. An expansion space at

least equal in length to the thickness of joint filler board (20mm
generally) shall be formed between the end of the cap and the end of
dowel bar by using compressible sponge.
15) Tie bars of HYSD steel or mild steel are to be provided at
longitudinal joint when the width of CC pavement exceeds 4.50m, to
relieve the warping stresses and to avoid separation of panels. Tie
bars shall be positioned within the middle third of slab depth. The
length and spacing of tie bars for a two lane road is given in the
Table (Page 110 of IRC: 15-2002).

Slab
Thickness
(mm)

16)

Diameter

Tie Bar Details (mm)

Maximum Spacing
Minimum Length
Mild
TOR
Mild
TOR

200

12

Steel
560

Steel
900

Steel
630

Steel
690

250

12

450

720

630

690

300

12

370

600

630

690

Tie bars are not required for structural reasons; their only function
being to prevent the separation of slabs. The bars are not designed

17)

to act as load transfer devices.

A joint is to be cut 3 to 5mm wide at contraction joints, to regulate
the formation of cracks. Contraction joints are to be provided at
4.50m intervals.

18)

The cutting of joint is to be done with joint cutting machine or by

placing a steel plate of

3to 5mm thick and remove it when the

concrete is just hardening. In the first case of joint cutting by

machine, one must have an idea, when to cut the contraction joints.
As per the guidelines, the saw cutting of joints should be done at
appropriate time, when the concrete has attained adequate strength
required, so that the concrete is not disturbed.

The saw cutting

69

should be done, when the strength of concrete is between 3.0MPa to

10.0 Mpa (3.0 N/mm2 to 10.0 N/mm2). For M35 grade concrete, this
strength is achieved in 24 hours to 36 hours. As a general guide, the
saw cutting for M35 grade should be done between 24 to 36 hours
after laying of concrete. If the cutting is done before 24 hours, the
concrete will be disturbed and the joint will be shabby. If the cutting
is done after 36 hours it is difficult to cut the groove, to the required
depth.
Many field engineers are taking up the cutting of joints
after total completion of curing period which is incorrect and very
difficult. The saw cutting may be taken up as discussed above not
later than 36 hours after placing concrete.
19) At expansion joints, we must provide mastic pad to relieve the
compressive stresses, at joint locating due to expansion of C. C.
slabs. There are no guidelines regarding the spacing of expansion
joints, except to provide them at culvert and bridge abutments. The
present practice is to omit expansion joints altogether(Clause No.
N.2.4 of IRC: 15-2002). However it is generally adopted at 6 panels to
avoid problems at a later date.
20) No traffic shall be allowed until the curing is totally completed for a
period of 28 days.
21) Joints are to be sealed with joint sealing compound after 28 days of
curing to avoid ingress of foreign material into the joints. Any sand,
dust entered into the joints during the process of curing, should be
thoroughly cleaned and air blown before laying joint sealing
compound. Joint sealing should be done before opening to traffic.
22)

Curing must be started by sprinkling water after final setting time

of cement is over and no impressions can be seen due to sprinkling

70

water. It is always advantageous to keep the concrete wet from 12

hours. The lapses with us are (i) The curing started late after 24
hours, (ii) Inadequate curing period i.e., stopping curing at an earlier
age of 7 to 10 days, (iii) Keeping the concrete surfaces dry even
during this short curing period. All these omissions land us in
troubles.
In order to mitigate this problem, the following methods may be
adopted.
i)

Stop laying of M35 grade concrete by 2:00 PM every day,

allow it to dry for 6 to 8 hours. Then construct dykes (small
bunds of mortar or earth) on the same day evening. Start
ponding of water in the early hours of next morning. Meanwhile
you can sprinkle water depending on the hardening of concrete

ii)

After stopping, the concrete of M35 grade the workers may

be asked to lay bed concrete, so that the bed concrete will be
ready for laying C. C. pavement.

iii)

The stopping of M35 grade concrete early permits the

masons to remove the excess laitance formed due to vibration,
on the top surface of concrete and to brush the surface for
obtaining the texture of required.

iv)

When joints are formed manually by placing steel plate the

joints can be made to line and level after removing the steel
plate before the sun sets.

v)

The side forms can be removed and honey combs finished

on the same day, so that curing need not be stopped for
hardening of this finished surfaces. Because of this many
contractors stop curing for the 2nd day completely and start
curing on the forenoon of 3rd day. That means curing will be
started after 36 hours of laying of concrete. The strength of
concrete at 36 hours if cured properly will be 31%. For M 35
grade it works out to 10.85 N/mm2. If you dont provide adequate
water during this period, the damage caused cannot be

71

rectified and we have to face the problems. One must keep this
in mind, while executing concrete items.
Many of us feel that who will follow this, when labour leaves by 6
PM. The Masons may be paid extra to keep them available up to 9:00 PM
to have durable and high strength concrete. Please remember where there
is a will, there is a way and we can do this if we have the will.

72

INCREASE IN STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WITH AGE

The Concrete mix starts reaction of cement and water immediately
they are added. The initial setting time is generally 30 minutes and final
setting time not more than 600 minutes. Modern days cement has earlier
final setting of 6 hours or less. The hardening process of concrete is
assumed to have started after final setting time. In order to have some
idea, regarding the strength of concrete, a ready to use table is available
in MORT&H specifications Book. The same is reproduced here for
reference. It is to be noted that the strength of concrete increases very
rapidly in 48 hours up to 40%, 7 days up to 74% and thereafter, the
strength increases slowly. Even after 28 days the concrete has a tendency
to have increase in compressive strength. The increase is more dominant
in case of Portland Pozollona Cement (PPC).
No. of days
Strength
(%)

1
20.5
0

2
41.0
0

3
50.5
0

4
60.0
0

No. of days
Strength
(%)

28
100.0
0

30
104.0
0

45
108.7
5

No. of days
Strength
(%)

100
123.5
0

115
125.5
0

150
130.5
0

5
65.5
0

7
74.2
5

50

60
114.0
0

75
117.7
5

200
135.5
0

360
146.0
0

110.5
180
133.5
0

10
81.5
0

14
87.5
0

21
95.0
0
90

121.00

From the above table, one can say that M 35 grade concrete laid will
have 100% strength of 35 N/mm 2 at 28 days, 39.90 N/mm 2 at 60 days,
46.725 N/mm2 at 180 days, 57.10 N/mm2 at 360 days. This is likely to be
revised in the next revision, as lots of arguments are going against this.
Until then we have to follow this table.

73

MYTHS & FACTS ABOUT CONCRETE

Myth

Fact

Very hard metal is to be Aggregate of very hard nature is

used for concrete
not
essential
for
concrete.
Concrete with AIV less than 45 is
suitable for all grades of concrete
except for wearing surfaces viz.
wearing coat of bridges, CC
pavements,
etc.
For
wearing
surfaces aggregate having AIV less
than 30 is to be used. Gradation of
aggregate is more important for
concrete to have more strength.
Hence
trap
metal
or
other
reasonably hard material satisfying
the above requirements can be
used for any grade of concrete. For
BT/CC
roads
we
must
use
aggregate having AIV less than 30,
which means very hard material is
required for roads rather than
other structures like bridges.
Water used for mixing
must be good. Water used
for curing need not be that
much good used for
mixing
Flaky materials should not
be used for concrete

Water used for mixing and curing

must have the same specification
and must satisfy the condition of P H
value more than 6.
Flaky materials with FIV up to 35
can be used for concrete. IRC: 44
permit aggregates having FIV up to
40 for CC pavements.

74

Use of more water in

mixing
gives
dense
concrete
and
good
finishing durable

Use of more water leaves more

voids in concrete after completion
of hardening process. The presence
of voids reduces concrete strength
considerably. The presence of 5%
voids
reduces
the
concrete
strength by 30%.

75
Curing for 28 days considerable for
any type of cement whether OPC/PPC
to attain good strength. For high
grades of cement the requirement of
water in first few hours i.e. from 12
hours to 36 hours, is very high and
we must provide adequate water
during this period. High grades of
cement are more vulnerable for
cracks due to excess heat of
hydration.
Excess vibration leads to segregation
of concrete. Keeping the soft laitance
at the top and aggregate at the
bottom.
This
lead
to
poor
compressive strength of concrete.
The vibration must be optimum, such
that it gives uniform dense concrete.
As a general rule the vibration can be
stopped once if the aggregate at top
is just disappearing due to vibration
and no air bubbles are seen at the
top.

Curing for shorter periods of

10 to 14 days is sufficient as
high grade cements are
used.

Excess
vibration
gives
dense concrete and thus
give more strength

Plate vibrators are more The internal vibrators must be used

powerful
than
internal in all concrete works to have better
(needle) vibrators
vibration. The plate vibrators can be
used for slabs up to 125mm thick. For
all other items internal vibrators are
more effective.

Needle vibrator should be The needle vibrator should be

placed inclined for better vertical in concrete for better
compaction of concrete
compaction and spacing of insertion
of vibrator should be 5 times the
diameter of needle.

For better compaction in

RCC Members the needle of
vibrator can be touched
with
reinforcement
,by
inducing vibration in steel

It is dangerous to keep the needle in

contact
with
reinforcement
for
compaction of concrete. This will
definitely disturb the already laid
concrete in the process of final
setting and develops cracks in
concrete. Further it will damage the
position of reinforcement in concrete.
This should not be allowed.

76

77

REFERENCE CODES
1) IS 456-2000 :CODE OF PRACTICE FOR PLAIN AND REINFORCED
CONCRETE
2)IRC 44-2008 :GUIDELINES FOR CEMENT CONCRETE MIX DESIGNFOR
PAVEMENTS (SECOND REVISION)
3)IRC 15-2002 :STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND CODE OF PRACTICE FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE ROADS
4) IS 516-1959 :METHODS OF TESTS FOR STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
5)IS 1199-1959 :METHODS OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE
6) SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROADS AND BRIDGE WORKS MORT&H
(FOURTH REVISON)
.