Adamson University

College of Engineering
Electronics Engineering Department

Navigational Aids
Blake & Miller

Group 5 & 6
Members:
Regal, Nathaniel A.
Reodique, Brian A.
Ricohermoso, Ma. Elisa F.
Sacopon, Michael Joshua P.L.
Salvador, John Jason O.
San Luis, Raschene Edith N.
Solina, John Carlo M.
Soriano, Desiree C.
Tecson, Voltaire Edison B.
Tongo, Julie Ann P.
Velasco, Ferdinand Alerick B.

Engr. Bernadeth B. Zari

Instructor

Blake (Summary of Radar p 656-663)

Radar

Target
Early Radar
Microwaves

Long range over

the horizon
radar
Pulse radar

Continuous
wave radar
Doppler Effect

Radar cross
section

RADAR
Is an acronym for radio detection and ranging
It has its origin during world war 2
Requires that a transmitter emit a signal using a
directional antenna toward some object called the
target
Can be obtained by analyzing the reflection or echo
Often used signals in the HF or VHF regions of the spectrum
Can be focused into narrower beams and they can detect
smaller targets, since the must be relatively large compared
with the wavelength to provide a good reflection.
This uses frequencies in the HF range to take advantage of
ionosphere propagation.
Works by transmitting by a short burst of microwave called
pulse which reflect from the target and is receive at a later
time.
Can measure velocity in an indirect way; by finding position
of a target at two different times and calculating how far it
has moved in a given time interval.
Transmit continuously and compared the frequency of the
receive echo with that of the transmitted signal.
Relative motion between the radar and the target that
causes change of frequency from which the velocity
information can be obtained.
Defined as the area of a perfectly conducting flat plate
facing the source but would reflect the same amount
of power toward the receiver.
Smaller than the actual cross sectional area of the
target as seen from the radar installation.

Radar Equation
PR =

2PtG2
(( 4)3 )r 4

Where: Pr = Receive Power in watts

= Free-space wavelength
Pt = Transmitted Power in watts
G = Antenna gain as a power ratio

= radar cross section of the target in square

meters
r = range (distance to the target in meters.
PULSE RADAR

Distance to the
target Formula

Ambiguity
Maximum
Unambiguous
Range Formula

Pulse Repetition
Rate
Pulse Repetition
Rate Formula

R=

ct
2

Where : R = distance to the target

c = velocity of light (3*10^8)
t = time taken for the echo to return
The radar cannot distinguish between this target and a much
closer one.
Rmax =

cT
2

Where : Rmax = maximum unambiguous range

c = velocity of light
T = pulse period
Frequency used instead of period

Rmax =

c
2f

Where : Rmax = maximum unambiguous range

c = velocity of light
f = pulse repetition rate
PULSE WIDTH
Minimum usable
range
Short pulses

Transmitted pulse has a finite pulse duration

the distance the signal can travel during the time it takes
to transmit the pulse.
Improves the performance of radar at short range.
Improves the ability of the system to separate target that are
in the same direction but at different ranges.
Result in a lower duty cycle for the transmitter.

Doppler radar

Circulator

Disadvantage is that they increase the bandwidth of the

signal.
Radar that causes the frequency of an echo to differ from
that of the transmitted signal when there is relative motion
between the radar and the target, along a line joining the
two.
Can measure the velocity component along a line that joins
the source and the target.
Separates the transmitted and received signals
A device with three or more ports that allows an input to one

Doppler
technique

Clutter
Radar echoes
Narrow beams
Transponder

IFF
(Identification
Friend or Foe)
Stealth

Minimum Usable
range for Radar

port to emerge only at the next port in order.

Allow the velocity of a target, as well as its position and
direction, to be estimated.
Also allow the elimination of stationary objects from the
display.
Stationary object
Simple reflections of the original pulse, not by any means
images of the target
By using these, frequency sweeps during the pulse, and a
large amount of computing power
Transmitter-receiver installed to make the whole process
more efficient.
Responds to a radar pulse by transmitting a signal that can
identify the aircraft, even down to its flight number and
destination.
Designed to prevent friendly aircraft from being attacked.

Techniques for avoiding detection of radar

Two basic ways of escaping radar detection are the ff:
a. Absorb radar waves rather than reflect them
b. Scatter any reflected signals as widely as possible to
avoid returning a strong signal to the hostile radar.

cTp
2

Rmin =

Where:
Rmin = minimum usable range
C
= velocity of light
Tp
= pulse duration
Maximum
Unambiguous
Range

Rmax =

c
2f

Where:
Rmax = maximum usable range
C
= velocity of light
f
= frequency
Doppler Effect
Equation

fD =

2 Vrfi
c

Where:
fD
= Doppler shift in Hertz
Vr
= relative velocity of the source and target in m/s
along a line between them; it is positive if the two are closing
(getting closer)
Fi
= incident frequency in Hertz
C
= velocity of light in m/s
Doppler Radar
used in a speed
Trap

Y= total
velocity
Road

x= Measured
velocity
X = ycos

Rada
r

Where:
X
= component of velocity measured by the radar
Y
= total velocity

= angle between the direction of travel and the

direction of a line from the target to the radar

Miller (Section 9 #s 36-48 p. 539-546)

Questions
36. Explain briefly the principle of operation for a radar system.
The word radar is an acronym formed from the words radio detection
and ranging. Radar is a means of employing radio waves to detect and locate
objects such as aircrafts, ships and land masses. Location of an object is
accomplished by determining the distance and direction from the radar
equipment to the object. The process of locating objects requires, in general,
the measurement of three coordinates: range, angle of azimuth and angle of
elevation.

There are two fundamentals of a radar set, the transmitter and

receiver. When the transmitted signal strikes an object (target), some of the
energy is sent back as a reflected signal. The small beam width
transmit/receive antenna collects a portion of the returning energy called
echo signal and sends it to the receiver. The receiver detects and amplifies
the echo signal which is used to determine location.
37. Why are the waveguides used in preference to coaxial lines for
the transmission of microwave energy in radar installation?
The high powers and high frequencies involved in these systems are
much more efficiently carried by waveguides than by a transmission lines.
38. With respect to a radar system, explain the following terms:
a. Target the transmitted signal strikes an object
b. Echo the small beamwidth transmit/receive antenna collects a
portion of the returning energy
c. Pulse repetition rate is the number of pulses transmitted per
second
d. Pulse repetition time is the time from the beginning of one pulse
to the beginning of the next pulse. Also PRT is the reciprocal of PRR
e. Pulse width is the duration of the pulse (the time the transmitter is
radiating frequency)
f. Rest time time between pulses
g. Range is the distance to the target determined by the time required
for pulse to travel to the target and return
39. Calculate the range in miles and meters for a target when t is
found to be 167us. (13.5 mi, 25,050m)
Range =

t
167
=
=13.5113 miles
12.36 us 12.36 us

40. What is the distance in nautical miles to a target if it takes 123us

for a radar pulse to travel from the radar antenna to the target,
back to the antenna, and be displayed on the PPI scope? (10 mi.)
Range =

t
123
=
=9.9514 miles
12.36 us 12.36 us

41. Explain how multiple targets lead to the term maximum range
and what is meant by the term. Calculate the maximum
unambiguous range for a radar system with PRT equal to 400us.
(32.8mi.)

The range beyond which target appears as a second return echoes is

called the maximum unambiguous range.
Range =

t
167
=
= 32.7868
12.2 us 12.2us

miles

42. What are the double range echoes? Describe a means of

detecting this problem.
Double range echoes are frequently detected when there is a large
target close by. Such echoes are produced when the reflected beam is strong
enough to make a second trip. Double range echoes are weaker than the
main echo and appear at twice the range.
43. Why does a radar system have a minimum range? Calculate the
minimum range for a system with a pulse width of 0.5 s.
A radar system should have a minimum range because typical pulse
widths range from fractions of a microsecond for short-range radars to
several
microseconds for high-power long-range radars.
Minimum Range = 150*Pulse Width
= 150*0.5 s
Minimum Range = 75 meters
44. In detail, discuss the various implications of duty cycle for a
radar system.
High peak power is desirable in order to produce a strong echo over
the maximum range of the equipment. Conversely, low average power
enables the transmitter output circuit components to be made smaller and
more compact. Thus, it is advantageous to have a low duty cycle. A short
pulse width is also advantageous with respect to being able to see closely
spaced objects.
45. What is the peak power of a radar pulse with 1 s, the pulse

repetition rate is 900, and the average power is 18 W? What is the

duty cycle?
PRT = 1/900 = 1.111x10-3
Duty Cycle = 1 s/1ms = 0.9x10-3x100 = 0.09%

PP = 18/0.09 = 20 KW
46. For the Radar block diagram in Fig. 14-26, explain the function
of each section
The pulse repetition frequency is controlled by the timer (triggered
generator or synchronizer) in the modulation block. Pulse-forming circuits in
the modulation are triggered by the timer and generate high-voltage pulse s
of rectangular shape and short duration. These pulses are used as the supply
voltage for the transmitter and, in effect, turn it on and off. The modulator,
therefore, determines the pulse width of the system. The transmitter
generate the high-frequency, high-power RF carrier and determine the
carrier frequency. The duplexer is an electronic switch which allows the use
of a common antenna for both transmitting and receiving. It prevents the
strong transmitted signal from being received by the sensitive receiver. In
older radar no RF amplifier is found, due to noise problems with the RF
amplifiers of that era.
47. A police radar speed trap function at a frequency of 1.024 GHz
in direct line with your car. The reflected energy from your car is
shifted 275 Hz in frequency. Calculate your speed in miles per
hour. Are you going to get a ticket?
Given: f = 1.024 GHz
fd = 275 Hz
Required: V = ?
Equation: fd =

Solution: 275 =

2 V cos

2V cos ( 0)
3 x 10 8
x 2.23694 mph
1.024 GHz

V = 90 mph
48. What is the Doppler Effect? What are some other possible uses
for it other than police speed traps?
A phenomenon whereby the frequency of a reflected signal is shifted if
there is relative motion between the source and reflecting object. Other uses
for Moving-Target Indicator system.