Chapter 3

Stress, Cauchys equation and the

Navier-Stokes equations
3.1

The concept of traction/stress

Consider the volume of fluid shown in the left half of Fig. 3.1. The volume of fluid is subjected to
distributed external forces (e.g. shear stresses, pressures etc.). Let F be the resultant force acting
on a small surface element S with outer unit normal n, then the traction vector t is defined as:
t = lim

S0

F
F
S

(3.1)

F
n

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000000000000000
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000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
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000000000000000
111111111111111
S
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
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000000000000000
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000000000000000
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000000000000000
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000000000000000
111111111111111

111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
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000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
S
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111

F 111111111
000000000
n

111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111

Figure 3.1: Sketch illustrating traction and stress.

The right half of Fig. 3.1 illustrates the concept of an (internal) stress t which represents the
traction exerted by one half of the fluid volume onto the other half across a ficticious cut (along a
plane with outer unit normal n) through the volume.

3.2

The stress tensor

The stress vector t depends on the spatial position in the body and on the orientation of the plane
(characterised by its outer unit normal n) along which the volume of fluid is cut:
ti = ij nj ,

(3.2)

where ij = ji is the symmetric stress tensor.

On an infinitesimal block of fluid whose faces are parallel to the axes, the component ij of the
stress tensor represents the traction component in the positive i-direction on the face xj = const.
whose outer normal points in the positive j-direction (see Fig. 3.2).

MATH35001 Viscous Fluid Flow: Stress, Cauchys equation and the Navier-Stokes equations 7

x3

x1

x3

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00000000000000
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33
00000000000000
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23
13 11111111
00000000000000
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00000000
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0000000
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00000000000000
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31 11111111
00000000000000
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0000000
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32
00000000000000
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0000000
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00000000
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0000000
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00000000
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0000000
1111111
00000000
21 11111111
0000000
00000000
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12 22
1111111
0000000
1111111
11
00000000
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0000000
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00000000
000000011111111
1111111
00000000
11111111

x2

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00000000000000
00000000000000
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00000000000000
00000000000000
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22
00000000000000
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21 11
12
00000000000000
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0000000
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00000000000000
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00000000
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3211111111
00000000000000
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31
00000000
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00000000000000
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0000000
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00000000
13
0000000
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11111111

33
0000000
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0000000
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11111111

x1

x2

Figure 3.2: Sketch illustrating the components of the stress tensor.

3.3

Examples for simple stress states

stress vector ti

Hydrostatic pressure: ij = P0 ij ; note that ti = ij nj = P0 ij nj = P0 ni , i.e. the stress on

any surface is normal to the surface and presses against it (i.e. acts in the direction opposite to
the outer normal vector) which is precisely what we expect a pure pressure to do; see left half of
Fig. 3.3
Pure shear stress: E.g. 12 = 21 = T0 , ij = 0 otherwise; see right half of Fig. 3.3. This sketch
also illustrates that the symmetry of the stress tensor is related to the balance of moments: If 21
were not equal to 12 (i.e. if the tangential stress acting on the vertical faces was not equal to the
tangential stress acting on the horizontal ones) then the block would rotate about the x3 axis.

P0

P0

x2

T0

P0

T0

T0

T0

P0
x1

Figure 3.3: Simple stress states: Hydrostatic pressure (left) and pure shear stress (right).

3.4

Cauchys equation

Cauchys equation is obtained by considering the equation of motion (sum of all forces = mass
times acceleration) of an infinitesimal volume of fluid. For a fluid which is subject to a body force
(a force per unit mass) Fi , Cauchys equation is given by
ai = Fi +

ij
,
xj

(3.3)

where is the density of the fluid. ai is the acceleration of the fluid, given by (2.5), therefore
Cauchys equation can also be written as

Dui
ij
= Fi +
Dt
xj

(3.4)

MATH35001 Viscous Fluid Flow: Stress, Cauchys equation and the Navier-Stokes equations 8
or

ui
ui
+ uk
t
xk

= Fi +

ij
.
xj

(3.5)

Note that Cauchys equation is valid for any continuum (not just fluids!) provided its deformation
is described by an Eulerian approach.

3.5

The constitutive equations for a Newtonian incompressible

fluid

In chapter 2 we derived a quantity (the rate of strain tensor ij ) which provides a mathematical
description of the rate of deformation of the fluid.
Cauchys equation provides the equations of motion for the fluid, provided we know what state of
stress (characterised by the stress tensor ij ) the fluid is in.
The constitutive equations provide the missing link between the rate of deformation and the resulting stresses in the fluid.
A large number of practically important fluids (e.g. water and oil) are incompressible and exhibit
a linear relation between the shear rate of strain and the shear stresses. These fluids are known as
Newtonian Fluids and their constitutive equation is given by
ij = pij + 2ij ,
or, using the definition of the rate of strain tensor,


uj
ui
,
+
ij = pij +
xj
xi

(3.6)

(3.7)

where p is the pressure in the fluid and is the dynamic viscosity, a quantity that has to be
determined experimentally.
Note that there are also many fluids which do not behave as Newtonian fluids and have different
constitutive equations (e.g. toothpaste, mayonaise). Not very imaginatively, these are often called
Non-Newtonian Fluids the behaviour of these fluids is covered in a different lecture.

3.6

The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible Newtonian

fluids

We insert the constitutive equations for an incompressible Newtonian fluid into Cauchys equations
and obtain the famous Navier-Stokes equations


p
ui
2 ui
ui
= Fi
+ 2 ,
(3.8)
+ uk

t
xk
xi
xj
or symbolically

u
+ (u )u
t

= F p + 2 u.

(3.9)

Dividing the momentum equations by provides an alternative form

ui
ui
1 p
2 ui
= Fi
+
,
+ uk
t
xk
xi
x2j
where = / is the kinematic viscosity.

(3.10)

MATH35001 Viscous Fluid Flow: Stress, Cauchys equation and the Navier-Stokes equations 9
In combination with the equation of continuity
ui
=0
xi

(3.11)

u = 0,

(3.12)

or symbolically
the three momentum equations form a system of four coupled nonlinear, partial differential equations of parabolic type (second order in space and first order in time) for the three velocity components ui and the pressure p.

The governing equations in selected

coordinate systems
Rectangular cartesian coordinates
The rate of strain tensor

xx
ij = yx
zx
where
xx =
zz =
yz =

u
x

w
z

xy



1 w v
+
2 y
z

xy
yy
zy

xz
yz
zz

v
yy =
y


1 v
u
=
+
2 x y


1 u w
zx =
+
2 z
x

The vorticity
= curl u =

w v u w v
u

y
z z
x x y

The Navier Stokes equations

u
u
u
u
1 P
+u
+v
+w
=
+ 2 u,
t
x
y
z
x
v
v
v
1 P
v
+u
+v
+w
=
+ 2 v,
t
x
y
z
y
w
w
w
1 P
w
+u
+v
+w
=
+ 2 w,
t
x
y
z
z
div u =

u v w
+
+
= 0.
x y
z

The Laplace operator

2

2
2
2
+
+
.
x2
y 2
z 2
10

MATH35001 Viscous Fluid Flow: The governing equations in selected coordinate systems11

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

Relation to Cartesian coordinates:
x =
y =

r cos ,
r sin ,

Velocity components:
u = ur ,

v = u ,

w = uz

The rate of strain tensor

rr
ij = r
zr
where

rz
z
zz

1 v
u
+
r
r




w
v
1 u
1
zz =
r
+
r =
z
2 r r
r




1 u w
1 1 w v
rz =
+
+
z =
2 r
z
2 z
r
rr =

u
r

The vorticity
= curl u =

1 w v u w 1
1 u

,
(rv)
r
z z
r r r
r

The Navier Stokes equations

u
u v u
u v 2
+u
+
+w

t
r
r
z
r
v v v
v
uv
v
+u
+
+w
+
t
r
r
z
r
w
w v w
w
+u
+
+w
t
r
r
z
div u =



2 v
1 P
u
2
,
=
+ u 2 2
r
r
r


2 u
1 P
v
,
=
+ 2 v 2 + 2
r
r
r
1 P
=
+ 2 w,
z

1 v
w
1
(ru) +
+
= 0.
r r
r
z

The Laplace operator

2

1
r r




1 2
2
r
+ 2
+ 2.
2
r
r
z

MATH35001 Viscous Fluid Flow: The governing equations in selected coordinate systems12

Spherical Polar Coordinates

Relation to Cartesian coordinates:
x
y

= r cos ,
= r sin cos ,

= r sin sin

Velocity components:
u = ur ,

v = u ,

w = u

The rate of strain tensor

rr
ij = r
r
where

u
r
1 w u v cot
=
+ +
r sin
r
r


1 sin  w 
1 v
=
+
2
r sin
r sin
rr =

1 v u
+
r
r


 v  1 u
1
r
+
r =
2 r r
r


1
1 u
w
r =
+r
2 r sin
r r

The vorticity
= curl u =




1 u 1

v
1
1 u
1
,
.
(w sin )

(rw),
(rv)
r sin

r sin r r
r r
r

The Navier Stokes equations



2 v
2 w
u v u
w u v 2 + w2
1 P
2u
2v cot
u
,

+u
+
+

=
+ 2 u 2 2

t
r
r
r sin
r
r
r
r
r2
r2 sin


v
v v v
w v uv w2 cot
1 P
2 u
v
2 cos w
2
,
+u
+
+
+

=
+ v + 2
2 2 2 2
t
r r r sin
r
r
r
r
r sin r sin
w
w v w
w w uw vw cot
+u
+
+
+

=
t
r
r
r sin
r
r


P
u
w
2 cos v
2
1
2
,
+ w 2 2 + 2
+

r sin
r sin r sin r2 sin2
div u =

1
1 w
1 2
(r u) +
(v sin ) +
= 0.
r2 r
r sin
r sin

The Laplace operator

1
2
r r
2





1

2
2
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
.
r
r sin

r sin 2