TECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENTSOFMETALCASTINGTECHNOLOGY

Dr.MuralidharManapuram
AssistantProfessor(Mech.Engg.)
Dept.ofMechanicalEngg.,
NorthEasternRegionalinstituteofScienceandTechnology,
Nirjuli791109,ArunachalPradesh,India

ABSTRACT
Globalfoundry industryisaround12000years young.Globalfoundrytechnologicalinventionsshowingthe
detailsofyearofinvention,nameofthenationandpersonslinkedwithinventionsarediscussedunderfiveheadings
(meltingandpouring,moulding,coremaking,fettlingandheattreatment,andpatternmaking.Gold,copperandlead
werediscoveredinaround10000to5000B.Cinnaveform.Copperfrogof3200B.C.seemstobetheoldestcasting
availableinMesopotamiaofUSA.
From the evidence of ancient Indian art castings like the dancing girl (2350B.C), short horned bull (3000
B.C),etc.,itcanbesaidthattheIndianfoundryindustryseemstohavestartedduringthesameperiodasthatofthe
western countries. The iron pillar (6 ton) casting at Delhi is an example of excellent casting skills that existed in
ancientIndia.Earliest literaryevidenceoftheuseofironwasmentionedinRigVedaasAyas. Indiansinthearmy
wereequippedwithcanearrowstippedwithiron,headguards,metalbodyguards,etc.Thehistoryofcivilizationis,in
manyways,linkedtothestoryofmetalsandalloysinantiquity.Manassaysmetalsandmetalscanjustaswellbe
usedtoassaytheprogressofthemankind.
Societies have been evolved into huntergatherer societies (2.5 million to 12,000 years ago), agricultural
societies(12,000to300years),industrialsocieties(250to300years)andknowledgesocietiessinceadecadeorso.
Knowledgerevolutionhasbecomeadrivingforceinglobalisationandglobalintegratedeconomy.Thedrivingforces
forglobalisation are technology,market needs,economic integration,managementvision, andglobal strategy. The
restraining forces are culture, market differences, costs, national controls, nationalism, war, management myopia,
organization history and domestic focus. Out of these, technology is a universal factor that crosses national and
culturalboundaries.Technologyistruly statelessandborderless.Onceatechnology isdeveloped,itsoonbecomes
available everywhere in the world even though ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric and geocentric orientations
exist.
Metalcastingsareusedvirtuallyfromwombtotomb.Morethan90%ofallmanufacturedgoodsandcapital
equipment use castings as engineered components. World foundrymen have to cater to the universal needs of
peopleonland,seasandoceans,airandspace.Itisnowonderthattheworldfoundryindustryisdoingagreattask
fortheuniversalneedsofpeople.ItalsomakesidolsofGodsandGoddesses,bellsofChurch,crownsofEmperor,
Queen, Miss World and Miss Universe as well. It caters to the needs of global family like feeding and clothing of
people (textile machines and agricultural machines), purification and transportation of water (pumps and
accessories),buildinghighways,railroads,locomotiveandautomobiles thattraveloverthemformobilityofpeople,
manufacturingaircraftsthatfly inair,shipsandsubmarines. Itmakestoolsandimplementsofwartodefendpeople
fromenemies.Productsoffoundryareinhospitaldeliveryrooms,householdappliancesandmortuary furnacesand
accessories or metal laundries for fettling castings. Aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, multistoried buildings use
castings. Spaceprocessingof materials has opened the doors to universal foundry and nanotechnology to nano
foundries.
In the present paper an attempt has been made to discuss the technological developments for past 12
millenniumsconsideringbasicstepsofcastingmanufacturingofpatternmaking,mouldingandcoremaking,melting
andpouringandfettlingandfinishing.Severalusefulconclusionshavebeenarrivedat.
Keywords:casting,moulding,foundrymen,knowledgesociety,fettling

1.0

GENERALINTRODUCTION
Peoplehaveinhabitedtheearthover2.5millionyears.Thenumberofhumanbeingshas

been very small (approximately 5.32 million people) during 8000 B.C. on earth. World
populationhadincreasedtremendouslyduringthe18th and19th centuries,reachingonebillionby
1850 A.D., and by 1925 A.D. and 1960 A.D. it had doubled and tripled respectively. It is
expectedthatthepopulationwillcontinuetogrowupto7.2billionsand8.5billionsbytheyears
2010 A.D. and 2020 A.D. respectively. It may reach 10 billions by the middle of the present
century even though the earth has a sustainable population capacity of 3 billion people and
maximumpopulationitcansupportis10billions.Globalincomeandpercapitaincomesarealso
varyingwidelybasedonvariousdrivingforcesandrestrainingforces.Globalincomeintheyear
2000A.D.wasUS$30.3trillionanditisexpectedtogrowuptoUS$41.6trillionandUS$56.5
trillion by the year 2010 A.D. and 2020 A.D. respectively. There is a wide disparity among
differentcountriesinpercapitaincomeaswell.Forexample,in2000A.D.theGNPpercapita
incomeofLuxemburgwasUS$38,587whereasthatofCongowasonlyUS$81.
Societies have evolved intohuntergatherer societies (2.5 million to12,000 years ago),
agriculturalsocieties(12,000to300years),industrialsocieties(250to300years)andknowledge
societiessinceadecadeorso.Knowledgerevolutionhasbecomeadrivingforceinglobalisation
and global integrated economy. The driving forces for globalisation are technology, market
needs,economicintegration,managementvision,andglobalstrategy.Therestrainingforcesare
culture, market differences, costs, national controls, nationalism, war, management myopia,
organization history and domestic focus. Out of these, technology is a universal factor that
crosses national and cultural boundaries. Technology is truly stateless and borderless. Once a
technology is developed, it soon becomes available everywhere in the world even though
ethnocentric,polycentric,regiocentricandgeocentricorientationsexist.
Thetechnologieslikeworldwideweb,internet,multimediaetc.havesignificantlycontributedto
theemergenceofatrueglobalvillage.Thenewelectronicinterdependencerecreatestheworld
in the image of a global village. Organisations are evolving into national, international,
multinational, transnational or global organisations. United Nations Organisation (1945 A.D.),
WorldTrade Organisation (2000 A.D.), World Bank (1944 A.D.), World Intellectual Property
Organisation (1974 A.D.), World Foundrymen Organisation (WFO), etc., haveevolved during
thelastcenturybasedontheneedsofglobalisation.Thedollarvalueofworldtradeisrunning

at roughly US $4 trillion per annum and foreign exchange transactions are running at US $1
trillionperdaywhichisUS$250trillionperannumworldwide.
The paradigm of engineering is undergoing a major evolution globally or universally.
Withtherapidincreaseofglobalpopulation(over6.5 billions)theprimarytaskofengineering
has expanded its horizon beyond satisfying the needsof global society using the continuously
depleting finite natural resources. The diverse distribution of natural resources over the
Continentsoftheworldmadetheengineeringcommunitiestothinkhowtomakethemavailable
economicallytotheneedysociety,whichresultedintotheevolutionofglobalization.Thehistory
ofmankindshows thehumanbeings inner urgeinoneor otherforms for winning globallyor
beyond.Naturalresourcesdepletionononesideandthepopulationincreaseontheotherhand
madethetechnologiststothinkandacttoproduceproductsandserviceswithinfinitevarietyat
shorter production cycles in quantities very small to very large number with required quality
withoutmuchincreaseincost.Keepinginviewofwidedisparitiesexistinggloballyintechnical,
economical, social and environmental factors global production systems are continuously
evolving.
2.0

CASTINGMANUFACTURINGTECHNOLOGY
Manufacturingisthebackboneofanyindustrializednationanditplaysapivotalrolein

globaleconomy. Indiaisrankedeighthamongindustrializedcountriesasperpurchasingpower
parity.ManufacturingcomesundersecondarysectorasperIndianeconomyanditcontributesto
around30%ofGDP(GrossDomesticProduct)directlyand40%oftertiarysectorindirectly.The
word manufacturing is derived from the Latin word manufactus which means made by
handanditfirstappearedintheyear1567A.D.Fromthetaxonomyofmanufacturingitisclear
that processes like metal casting, metal forming, metal joining, and metal cutting or in
combinationsofthemcanmanufactureaproduct.Metalcastingsaremanufacturedinfoundries.
Foundry is a commercial establishment where metal castings of ferrous and non ferrous are
produced.
Manufacturingplaysanimportantroleinsatisfyingtheneedsofthe6.5billionpeopleof
theglobeusingdepletingfinitenaturalresources.Itgeneratesalargeemploymentaswell.Inthe
neweraofmanufacturingamixofmasscustomization,massproductionandcraftmanufacturing

systems coexist to make available a wider array of products and services thanever before by
smallscaleunits,smalltomediumenterprisesandmultinationalcompanies.
Manufacturingactivityhasbecomemorecomplexwithincreaseinthequantityofwork
andtheprocessesarecompetingamongthemselvestoedgeoverothersinmakingproducts.For
example, an automobile requires 15000 parts to be manufactured and assembled whereas a
Boeing747400needs6millionparts,aspaceshuttlelaunchingvehiclerequires10millionparts
tobemanufacturedandassembled.Productionratesareashighas10aluminiumcanspersecond
or3millionrazorbladesperhour.Quantityvariationsandleadtimesalsovarywidely.Alarge
steelcastingof300metrictonsmayrequirealeadtimeof7monthswhereasanautomobilecan
be manufactured with automated systems in every 57 seconds or less. Hence it is often very
difficultforcasting manufacturing engineersandresearcherstodesign and selectcombinations
of manufacturing processes and optimum process paths. For example, in a complex
manufacturing system with 190 work stations connected incombinationsof parallel and series
thenumbersofprocesspathsareaslargeas6.2billionsanditmaytake82.5yearstorealizea
production rate of 15,000 parts per hour. It is interesting to note that after optimization by
isolation, multiples and synchronization, theprocess paths canbe reduced to as low as 18,432
andtheoptimizedpathcanrun1hour14minutesbeforeprocesspathsstartrepeating.
Castingmanufacturersarealsomaderesponsibleforcompletelifecycleofcastproducts
in certain regions like European Union. As a consequence they have to industrialize the after
salesoperationsanddeproductionof castproducts.Duetohighlevelsofconsumptionofworlds
naturalresources,scientists,engineersandtechnologistsareworkingforasustainableeconomy.
Thecycliceconomyisseenbymanyasapathcapableofmakingasignificantcontributiontothe
conservation of natural material resources. Hence there is a need for reengineering the
engineeringactivitiesof castingmanufacturing.
3.0

GLOBALFOUNDRYINDUSTRY
ThewordfoundryisderivedfromtheLatinwordfunderemeaningmeltandpour.

Metal casting, a 12,000 years old technology, offers the widest variety of routes to produce
componentsinawiderangeofshapes,sizes,metals,quantitiesandqualityrequirements.There
are around 50,000 numbers of foundries globally producing about 100 million metric tons of
metal castings annually worth of US $120 billion, employing 2 million people directly, and

havingUS$30billionexportsand3millionmetrictonsannualincrementalgrowthpotentialand
adding around 50 new foundries every year. India is presently the fifth largest metal casting
producer in the world. India has around 4500 operating foundries manufacturing around 6.11
million metric tons of metal castings annually worth of US $ 14.75 billion (INR 708 billion)
employing2lakhpeopledirectlyasper40thcensusofworldcastingproduction,December2006.
Globalmetalcastingindustryhasgraduallychangedfromcrafttoscienceandtechnology
overthelastcentury.ThefirstbookonmetalcastinginEnglishpirotechnicawaspublishedby
Mr. Vannocio Vin Cenzio Austino Luca Biringuccio, manager of M/s. Papal foundries in the
Vaticanin1466 A.D. Master craftsmen madecannons andlargebellsin the15th century. First
patentoncupolafurnacewasobtainedintheyear1794A.D.inEnglandbyJohnWilkinson[6]
but nowadays plasma fired cupolasof 3900 mm in diameter with a capacity of 5080 metric
tonsperhourarealsoavailable.
Metal castings are used virtually from womb to tomb. More than 90% of all
manufactured goods and capital equipment use castings as engineered components. World
foundrymen have to cater to the universal needs of people on land, seas and oceans, air and
space. It is no wonder that the world foundry industry is doing a great task for the universal
needs of people. It also makes idols of Gods and Goddesses, bells of Church, crowns of
Emperor,Queen,MissWorldandMissUniverseaswell.Itcaterstotheneedsofglobalfamily
likefeedingandclothingofpeople(textilemachinesandagriculturalmachines),purificationand
transportationof water(pumps andaccessories),buildinghighways,railroads,locomotive and
automobilesthattraveloverthemformobilityof people,manufacturingaircraftsthatflyinair,
ships and submarines. It makes tools and implements of war to defend people from enemies.
Productsoffoundryareinhospitaldeliveryrooms,householdappliancesandmortuaryfurnaces
and accessories or metal laundries for fettling castings. Aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, multi
storiedbuildings usecastings.Spaceprocessingof materialshasopened thedoorsto universal
foundryandnanotechnologytonanofoundries.
In the present analysis of global foundry industry technology, top ten world casting
producing nations, Indian foundry industry have been considered. Various key parameters
analysed include the following:historical developmentof foundry technologies, global casting
production, number of foundries per nation, annual production, number of work force, annual
workinghours,productivitypermanyear,productivitypermanhour,costpertonofiron,steel

andnonferrouscastings,energyproductivity,castingproductionindexandcastingvalueindex.
Intelligentfoundrysystemsandcastinggenomeanalysishavebeencarriedout.
Casting productivity and quality are two buzz words every foundry management
considersforimprovingcastingmanufacturingefficiencyandeffectiveness.Productivityacross
theglobevarieswidelybasedontechnologyadoptedandmanagementpracticesfollowed.Types
ofvariationmay be within thecasting,castingtocasting, timetotime, sitetosite,endtoend,
seasontoseason, assemblytoassembly, monthtomonth, daytoday, shifttoshift, and crew
tocrew, country to country, top ten casting producers and region to region. Hence, the global
productivitystudiesoffoundry industrywouldbeofinterestandprovideusefulinformation.
The global foundry industry may be divided into seven regions (representing cluster
regions) for comparative study. They are Asia Pacific Region (APR), African Region (AFR),
EuropeanUnionRegion(EUR),EasternCentralRegion(ECER),LatinAmericaRegion(LAR),
Middle EasternRegion (MER),and NorthAmericaFreeTrade Area Region (NAFTAR). Each
region has several nations producing metal castings. Asia pacific region has the highest
productionofcasting (40.3%)of the globalproductionwhere asAfrican regionhas thelowest
(0.7%) production. Productivity analysis including productivity per region, productivity per
individualfoundrysite,andproductivitypermanyearcanprovideinterestinginformation.The
presentdayeconomytellsthattheknowledgeintensivefoundriescanonlysurviveintheprocess
of globalisation and increased international competition. As knowledge resides only in the
humanmind,itcanonlybeharnessedbyfocusingonincreasinghumancapabilitiesthroughthe
processofincreasedcommunication,cooperationandlinkagesforfoundries.
With the changingprofileof worldfoundry industry,themetal casters are interestedto
know the total tonnage figures world over, technologicized process capabilities, total
employmentpotential,dollarvalueofcastingproduction,andfoundryindustrys futuregrowth.
Castfuturing is expected to concentrate on 100% pre and post consumer recycling, 75%
beneficial reuse of foundry byproducts, reduced average lead time (by 50%), reduced energy
use (by 20%), increased productivity (by 15%), increase in reinvestment in research and
education(by10%)anddevelopingauniversalgenomemapofcasting.
3.1

ProductionandProductivityAnalysesofGlobalFoundryIndustry

Casting manufacture is a value addingprocess and productivity is the key performance

metricforanyfoundrysefficiencyandeffectiveness.Thewordproductivitymeansfacultyto
produce.Every foundrymanagementcontinuouslystrivestoimprovecastingproductivity.But
there are no systematic methods to compute productivity calculations (global, cluster wise,
nationallevel,regional,industry,sectionwise,monthtomonth,daytodayandshifttoshift)in
termsoftonspermanyear,kgpermanhour,salespermanyearandthenumberofcastingsper
manyear or manhour. In the present investigation an attempt has been made to develop
productivity calculation methods from global to local level. The partial productivities (labour,
material, energy and furnace lining) of a melting section of gray iron foundry have been
analysed. Around 2,000 melt heats data were considered for analysis and action plans are
suggestedforimplementation.
Major contributing factors for continuous casting productivity improvement are
technology(59%),followedbycapital(27%)andworkforce(around14%).Inthepresentwork
anattempthasbeenmadetoconsidertheabovefactorsforproductivityimprovementatglobal,
clusterwiseworldfoundryproductivity,toptencastingproducingnationsproductivity,European
Union(17nations)productivityanalysisofferrousandnonferrouscastingsforaperiodoffive
years(19972001).Severalusefulandimportantconclusionshavebeenarrivedat.
World foundry industry is about 12,000 years old. It has grown and evolved into
technology from arts and crafts. So far there has been no systematic dimensioning of world
foundry industry. The first worldcastingproduction census was startedin 1966 (AFS Modern
Casting).Fromtheavailablepublishedliteratureitseemsthereisnosystematictechnoeconomic
analysis of world foundry industry. Hence in the present work an attempt has been made to
dimension the world foundry industry, synthesize the world casting production data for 1966
2007 analyse the characteristics of clusters of world foundry industry, global die casting
industryandtoptencastingproducingnations.
Economic analysis of metal castings plays an important role in deciding whether to
produce or buy castings, and in improving productivity. Even though casting production cost
varies from year to year, the knowledge of cost analysis may help foundry managements in
strategic decisionmaking and cost reduction policies. Alloywise (gray iron, ductile iron,
malleable iron, steel, aluminium alloy, copper alloy, zinc alloy, magnesium and other non
ferrous)castingproductionalsovariesfromyeartoyear.However,nosystematicanalysisonthe

trend seems to be available. Top ten casting producing nations account for around 8085% of
globalcastingproduction.Hencethereisaneedtoanalysethecastingproductiondynamicsfor
thetoptenandgloballevelcastingmanufacturers.Castingsareproducedgloballywithdifferent
alloy mixandpercentages(gray, ductile,malleable,steel,aluminium, copper,magnesium,zinc
andothers).Profitsandlossesdependonthecastingmixthatfoundriesmanufacture.Thereisno
commonindextomeasurethecastingvalueproducedbydifferentnations.Henceanattempthas
been made to develop a method for calculation of casting value indices for global casting
producingnations.
Global labour cost indices based on USA and India, and hourly labour compensation
indices for global foundriesof threeclustersin2000 A.D. havebeenpresented.This wouldbe
useful for comparing production costs in developed and developing countries in the world.
Casting production costs are normally considered on per ton basis. The casting may be
geometricallysimple,moderateorofcomplexshape.Thereisnotmuchinformationavailablein
the published literature about foundry webbased connectivity of world foundry industry and
Indianfoundryindustry.Inthepresentinvestigationanattempthasbeenmadetocollectandlist
thefoundrywebsitesforbetterglobalfoundryconnectivityandknowledgedissemination.
3.2

Originof GlobalFoundryIndustryCastingCensuses
Castings are produced in foundries at different geographically scattered areas in the

world.Nosystematiccensusofworldcastingproductionseemstobeavailablepriortotheyear
1966 AD. Modern Casting Journal of American Foundry Society was the first to make an
attempt to collect and publishcensusof world casting production. Every year in the monthof
December issue of Modern Casting Journal the census of world casting production is being
published. It is found that only 4045 countries in the world have been submitting casting
production figures regularly and the remaining 150 and odd nations have not been submitting
metalcastingproductionfigures.However,itisnotedthatverylittlecastingproduction(1015%
oftotalcastingtonnageonearth)takesplaceinthose150andoddcountries.
ThedetailspresentedintheTable1includecensusnumber,year,andproductioninshort
tons / metric tons, number of countries reported, name of the nation producing the highest
casting production, quantity of highest castingproduction, total number of operating foundries
andcumulativeworldcastingproduction.FornearlytwentyyearstheUnitedStatesofAmerica
hadbeenmaintainingthehighestannualcastingproduction(21.9millionmetrictons),followed

byUSSRforthirteenyears(27.8millionmetrictons)andChinaforsixyearswithamaximum
annualcastingproductionof24.42millionmetrictons.Thecumulativeworldcastingproduction
forthepast40yearshasbeencomputedanditisfoundtobearound2.39billionmetrictons.The
numbersofcountriesreportingcastingproductiondatavaryfrom30to44fromyeartoyear.The
number of operating foundries varies from 19,278 (1990) to 47,790 (2005) although until the
year 1989, there was no authentic record of the number of operating foundries in different
countries.
In the year 2008 (December), around 47,790 foundries in 36 countries have produced 85.74
millionmetrictonsasperthe42th censusofworldcastingproduction.Thehighestworldcasting
productionreportedisaround90.98millionmetrictonsproducedintheyear1979andthelowest
figure reported is around 33.4 million metric tons in the year 1983. Forty censuses of world
castingproductionarepresentedinTable1.
Global foundry industry has been evolving continuously increasing its processing
capabilities. With about 50,000 foundries in the world (considering additional 1015% on the
reported figure to account for the remaining 150 nations), the global foundry industry has
reachedacastingproductioncapacityofabout100millionmetrictonsperannum.
Theglobalcastingproductionanddollarvalue,thehighestcastingproducingnationand
itsdollarvalueduring19992007arepresentedinTable2.ThesearecomputedbasedonUSA
production cost. This wouldbeuseful toquantify the global foundry turnover and incremental
growthpotentialofthefoundryindustry.
WorldFoundrymenOrganization(WFO)wasformedintheyear2001ADtocatertothe
needsofworldfoundrymen,membernationsanduserindustriesandpreservationandpromotion
offoundryknowledge.Ithasawebsite:http://www.thewfo.com.Thiswasoriginallyestablished
in1927inZurichasCIATF(ComiteInternationaldesAssociationsTechniquesdeFonderie)and
relaunchedin2001asWFO.ThewebsitesofmembernationsandIndianfoundrywebsitesare
presentedinTable2.Globalconnectivityoffoundriesandfoundrymeninstitutescanaccessand
connectthroughthesewebsites.

World
casting
Census
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31st
32nd
33rd
34th
35th
36th
37th
38th

Table1:CensusesoftheGlobal CastingProduction(19662007)
Year
Casting
Number Nameofthe Quantityof
Total
productionin ofthe highestcasting thehighest
number
theworld
countrie producing
casting
of
MetricTons s
nation
production,
operating
MetricTon
foundries
1966 69,732,666*

U.S.A.

1967 72,371,861*
34
U.S.A.
15,986,540*

1968 70,604,182*
30
U.S.S.R.
24,361,000*

1969 84,087,671*
37
U.S.A.
20,105,060*

1970
84,087,671
37
U.S.A.
20,105,060*

1971
73,643,648
40
U.S.S.R.
22,100,000

1972
68,892,763
40
U.S.S.R.
18,950,000

1973
77,155,376
40
U.S.A.
21,903,000

1974
72,366,534
39
U.S.A.
21,146,697

1975
72,947,695
39
U.S.S.R.
24,024,000

1976
79,798,868
39
U.S.S.R.
24,024,000

1977
79,964,031
39
U.S.S.R.
27,839,000

1978
90,349,757
43
U.S.S.R.
27,839,000

1979
90,983,439
44
U.S.S.R.
27,839,000

1980
86,380,831
41
U.S.S.R.
27,839,000

1981
73,497,402
38
U.S.S.R.
27,839,000

1982
46,817,894
34
U.S.A.
9,521,396

1983
34,125,374
33
U.S.A.
10,321,444

1984
47,309,802
32
U.S.A.
12,228,497

1985
47,309,802
32
U.S.A.
12,228,497

1986
47,309,802
32
U.S.A.
12,228,497

1987
46,657,529
32
U.S.A.
10,327,453

1988
46,657,528
32
U.S.A.
10,327,453

1989
46,657,528
32
U.S.A
10,327,453

1990
64,692,874
32
U.S.S.R.
18,000,000
19,278
1991
49,261,920
30
P.R.China
10,750,000
23,611
1992
61,444,520
30
C.I.S.Russia
14,330,000
22,969
1993
66,830,810
31
C.I.S.Russia
15,590,000
27,853
1994
66,460,782
38
U.S.A.
13,267,000
35,151
1995
69,747,750
35
U.S.A.
14,428,000
23,292
1996
67,882,634
38
U.S.A.
14,074,000
33,323
1997
60,898,564
38
U.S.A.
14,074,000
30,904
1998
63,318,297
38
U.S.A.
13,223,700
30,328
1999
64,881,040
35
U.S.A.
13,710,000
28,152
2000
64,750,239
34
P.R.China
13,955,000
30,035
2001
68,311,197
35
P.R.China
14,888,992
33,537
2002
70,209,475
34
P.R.China
16,261,563
34,661
2003
73,554,626
35
P.R.China
18,145,966
34,740

10

39th
2004
79,745,467
32
P.R.China
22,420,422
32,070
40th
2005
85,741,078
36
P.R.China
24,421,205
47,790
st
41
2006
91,368,121
36
P.R.China
28,094,168
47,354
42nd
2007
94,919,007
33
P.R.China
31,269,630
46,456
Grand 42years 2,576,931,675
total
Highest
94,919,007
44
P.R.China
31,300,000
47,790
6
*ShortTon=900kg.,MetricTon=1000kg.,kT=kiloTon,MMT=10 Ton,BT=
109 Ton,
DataSource:ModernCastingworldcastingcensuses1to42nd

Table2: WebAddressesofGlobal andIndian Foundries

Indianfoundrywebsiteaddresses
http://www
http://www
http://www
http://www
aaagindia.com
aardikeengineering.c activisers.com
alokalloys.com
om
Advareason.com
ap.nic.ind/midhani akpfoundries.com
amritindia.com
altimetalloys.com
ashokleyland.com Paranjapemetal
ammarun.com
shapers.com
amplcastings.com
Aviwco.com
autoshellgroupcbe.co automalleable.com
m
apexalloysteel.com Atnicinmidharvi.co ashapura.com
autocast.com
m
Bakulcastings.com
balajicasting.com
bacgiam.com
Baramatiengg.com
Beehivekowtha.com Bestofblasting.com brtechnocast.com
Kelsonsfoundryeq
uip
ments.com
bruceanchor.co.uk
Bmcmetal.com
chilledcam.com
casproindia.com
cidextradefairs.com coatingsncoatings.co come.in/international Leoroadequip
m
ments.com
Cpclimited.com
doshiassociates.net deepmetals.com
disaindia.com
finegroup.co.in
foseco.com
efapl.com
electrotherm.com
Fmcg4u.com
foundry.elkem.com firstindex.com
flowlinksystem.co
m
foundryflux.com
fykays.com
gajjarindia.com
gargi_india.com
Gkrbd.com
Greynodules.com gujrattechnocastings.c harisonscasting.co
om
m
hindustanmalleables.c Hinferromet.com
hitecind.com
hydcast.com
o.in
indiacasting.com
Indianfoundry.com .indiapistons.com
Indoshellcast.com
inductothermindia.co Inovacast.com
jadavindustries.com jagadambay.com
m
jagadishtechnocast.co jashindia.com
jayeshgroup.com
jocasttirchy.com

11

m
junejametalworks.comKastwel.com
kirloskars.com
Kiswok.com
ktntechno.com
Kunalpumps.com
lookupindia.com
lubipumps.com
.mankoind.com
marutipiston.com
metalaids.com
Metalbrasive.com
mpmindia.com
navkaar.com
Nicroalloys.com
Compaxindia.com
pioneerfurnaces.com prashant.ppi.com
pshotblast.com
Ptcil.com

cadmac.com
kgpmetal.com
kriscast.com
krisklur.com
laempe.com
Orbitworld.com
lustrecarb.com
malnad.com
Marvelousmetals.com mastagroup.com
midcopumps.com
mouldtechind.com
nelcast.com
nhpball.com
oswalminerals.com ambarams.com
upsteels.com
psgfoundry.com
rajasthanudyog.com rajeshindustries.co
m
Rameshcastwell.com rataneng.com
rbagarwalla.com
rhinomachines.co
m
rkfoundryworks.com rrlsteels.com
rsmautocast.com
samcoalloys.com
sandfits.com
Sapl.com
sargammetals.com
shaney.com
shanthala.com
Shantiiron.com
Ultraseelindia.com sonalicastings.com
splsteel.com
Sreesakthiindia.com steelcastltd.com
styrosteel.com
Supercastings.com
sushaindia.com
swastikcastings.com Textmoprecision
shivanialloysteel
unispecmarketing.co Precisionautowares.co versatile_equip
castings.com
m
m
ments.com
vikram@ufindia.com vindipump.com
virgoengineers.com Vishalmalleables.c
om
vsmartindia.com
Walchand.com
wesman.com
gujalloycast.com
Worldfoundryassociationswebsites
thewfo.com
agoria.be
jpg.ch/gvs
tbl.no
gjuberifbriforeningen. fme.nl
foundry.ru
abifa.org.br
se
castmetalfederation.co ibf.org.uk
assofond.it
tbl.no
m
Foundrynations.com Indianfoundry.com soc.nii.ac.jp
kfs.or.kr
fondeursdefrance.org met.fi
fme.nl
foundry.matav.hu
tudoksad.org.tr
metal.ptime.kiev.ua Afsinc.org
icms.com.au
svazslevaren.cz
Vdg.de
di.dk
feaf.es

3.3

GlobalCastingValueAnalyses
MethodsforCalculationsofCastingValueIndices:

TotalCastingValueIndex(CVI)for aNationmaybeexpressedas:
CVI =(MIi Pi)(Pi).E1,

12

whereMIi =MaterialIndexforithcastmetal=[Percentageofcastingdollarvalueofithcast
metalPercentageofcastingproductionofithcastmetal],
i=1(castiron),2(steel),3(aluminium),4(copper),5(zinc)and6(othernonferrous),
Pi =Productionintonnageofithcastmetal,
Thematerialindicescanbecalculatedinthefollowingway:
(a) Calculate the total casting production and percentage of total casting production for each
alloy(castiron,steel,aluminium,etc.)foracountry.
(b)Calculatethetotalvalueofthecastingsproducedandcalculatethepercentageoftotalvalue
ofeachalloy.
(c)Thendividethepercentagetotalvaluebypercentageofproduction.
Forexample,intheyear1999A.D.USAhadproduced70.9%ironcastingsanditsshareintotal
valueis37.6%.Sothematerialindexforironcastingsis37.6/70.9=0.53
Material indices used for calculation of value indices were given by Joe Scarry (
www.castingtrade.com)fortheyear1999whichareasfollows:
Iron

:0.53

Steel

:1.44

Aluminium

:2.0

Copper

:2.0

Zinc

:4.5

Magnesium

:4.5

Othernonferrous

:4.5

Someoftheotherfactorscalculatedare:
Casting Production Index = (Annualcasting production of a nation in metric tons in a year
Annual casting production of the nation producing highest castings in metric tons in that
year)E2
Hourly labour compensation index = (Hourly labour compensation of USA in US dollars
HourlylabourcompensationofanationinUSdollars) 100..E3
Globalcastingcost($)={(Annualglobalcastironcastingproductionintonscostofcastiron
castings/ton) + (Annual global steelcastingsproduced intonscostofsteelcastings/ton) +
(Annual global nonferrous castings produced in tons cost of nonferrous castings /
ton)}....E4
3.4

GlobalTopTenCastingProducingNationsandTheirCastingValueAnalysis

13

A studyof the characteristicsofthe majorcastingproducersleadsone tothefollowing

information:
Global casting production has been fluctuating based on the domestic casting
requirementsandinternationalexportmarketpotential.Globaltoptencastingproducing
nationsproducearound8085%ofglobalcastingproduction.
WorldwidecastingexportmarketpotentialwasaroundUS$30billionintheyear2000.
Considerable excess production capacity exists in all the top ten casting producing
nations.
Malleableiron,gray cast ironand steelcastingproductionhavebeen decreasingduring
thedecadeperiod(199099).
Thetoptennationscastingproductionofaluminiumcastingsinmillionmetrictonshas
increasedsteadilyfrom2.91to5.94(104%increase)andthatofductileironfrom7.96to
11.98(50.5%increase)respectivelyoveradecadeperiod(199099).
Global ferrous casting production has remained more or less static but nonferrous
casting production has been increasing. There is an increase by 86.9% in nonferrous
castingproductionoveraperiodoftenyearsfrom1990to1999.
The casting value indices (CVI) based on USA production and dollar values were
computedfor19992005andarepresentedintabularforms andCVIfortheyear2005in
Fig.6.2.Thematerialindices(MI)andproductionindices(PI)areshowninTables6.14
and6.15respectively.

Table3:MaterialIndicesbasedonUSAfor19992005
Material/ Production
%
Cost
Totalcasting
%Value
Material
Alloycast inMMT Production perton, valueinUS$ (5)=(4)total
Index
(1)
(2)=(1)
US$ billion(1)(3)
value
(6)=(5)
total
(3)
=(4)
(2)
production

Castiron
Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Othernon
ferrous

8.77
1.29
2.09
0.29
0.46

Materialindicesfortheyear2005
67.99
1656
14.523
10.0
4488
5.790
16.20
6210
12.979
2.25
6210
1.801
3.56
12,650
5.819

14

35.5
14.15
31.72
4.40
14.22

0.52
1.42
1.96
1.96
3.99

Total
12.9
100
40.912
Castingproductiondatasource:34th to40th censusesofworldcastingproduction

Table4:CastingValueandProductionIndicesforGlobalTopTenCastingProducing
Nationsfor2005
Nation
Totalannual
Cast Steel Aluminium Copper Non CVI
PI
castingproductionin ironin in inMMT
in ferrous (7)
(8)
MMT(1)
MMT MMT
(4)
MMT inMMT
(2)
(3)
(5)
(6)
CastingValueIndicesfor2005
China
24.42
18.66 3.22
1.89
0.42
0.23 0.8076
1.00
USA
12.9
8.77 1.29
2.08
0.29
3.66 1.000
0.53
CIS
7.62
4.48 1.2
0.92
0.16
2.28 0.9480
0.31
Japan
6.66
4.76 0.28
1.48
0.09
1.85 0.9234
0.27
India
6.11
4.79 0.81
0.52

1.32 0.7604
0.25
Germany
5.11
4.00 0.20
0.72
0.008 1.01 0.8554
0.21
Brazil
2.97
2.46 0.29
0.24

0.53 0.7182
0.12
Italy
2.54
1.44 0.07
0.52

0.95 1.5363
0.10
France
2.34
1.85 0.11
0.32
0.03
0.46 1.1291
0.09
S.Korea
1.90
1.57 0.15
0.14
0.02
0.32 0.7488
0.08
Mexico
1.79
0.87 0.08
0.66
0.18
0.92 1.236
0.07
Global
85.74
61.61 9.0
11.72
1.51 22.23 0.9136

3.5GlobalFoundryIndustryLabourCostIndices
Hourlycompensationforproductionworkersinmanufacturingisanimportanteconomic
parameterindecidingthepriceoftheproduct.Itvariesfromcountrytocountry,skilllevelofthe
workforce(unskilled, semiskilled, skilled,andhighlyskilled) andcostoflivingof thepeople.
Hourlycompensationisdefinedashourlydirectpayandemployerssocialexpenditure.Hourly
directpayincludesallpaymentsmadedirectlytotheworker(pay,overtime,bonus,andcostof
living adjustments like variabledearness allowance) and thedirect pay for holidays, vacations
andleaves.
Employers social expenditures include legally required insurance, retirement benefits,
healthinsurance,familyallowanceandlabourtaxes.Thesearealsocalledasnonwagebenefits
ornonlabourcosts. As per internationallabour organizations(ILO) definitionof totallabour
cost contained in the 1966 ILO resolution concerning statistics of labour cost adopted by the
11th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS), it doesnt include all items of

15

labour costs. For example, the costs of recruitment, employee training, plant facilities and
servicessuchascafeterias,medicalclinicsandwelfareservicesarenotincluded.Itisestimated
thatsuchlabourcostsnotincludedinhourlycompensationcostsaccountforsome4to5percent
oftotallabourcosts.
Average hourly compensationcost is a wage measure intended to represent employers
expenditureon thebenefits granted to their employees as compensation for an hourof labour.
These benefits accrue to employees, either directly in the form of total gross earnings or
indirectly in terms of employers contributions to compulsory, contractual and private social
securityschemes,pensionplans,casualtyorlifeinsuranceschemesandbenefitplansinrespect
of their employees. These later groups of benefits are known as nonwage benefits. It varies
from country to country, such as 3 % in China, 31.8% in France and 29.1% in Italy of total
labourcosts.
Hourlylabourcompensationindex(HLCI)istheratioofhourlylabourcompensationcost
(inUS$)ofanationtothehourlylabourcompensationcost(inUS$)ofbasenationconsidered
(IndiaorUSA).Inthepresentstudy,worldfoundryindustryworkershourlycompensationcosts
for three clusters APFC, EUFC and NAFTAFC for a period the year 2000AD for 24 nations
havebeenanalyzed.HourlylabourcostindicesbasedonUSAcostas100havebeenfoundout.
Severalinterestingobservationscouldbederived.
Intheyear2000AD,hourlycompensationcostswerevaryingfromoneUS$(India)to
24.01 USD (Germany). Hourly Labour Compensation Index (HLCI) varied from 5
(India)to119(Germany)basedonUSindex100.Anaverageof24nationsofHLCIis
foundtobearound75.EUFChasthehighest HLCIof 85 followedby NAFTAFC(64)
and the lowest is for APFC (around 41). The detailed HLCI based on US and India
resultsarepresentedinTable5.
For the year 2000 AD, HLCI based on India as 100, has also been computed for
comparisonpurposes.Thehighest HLCIisaround2401 for Germanyand the lowest is
100forIndia.Theworldaverage(24nations)HLCIisaround1491.Foundryclusterwise
computationofindicesshowsthatEUFChasthehighestvalueofHLCIof1686followed
by1283forNAFTAFCandthelowestisaround816forAPFC.
The HLCI based on India (100) for the year 2000 is as follows: The highest is for
Germany (2401), followed by Norway (2205), and Japan (2200). The average hourly

16

labourcompensationfor24nationsfortheyear2000isfoundtobearound$14.91.The
averageHLCIbasedonUSandIndiaare75and1491respectivelyfortheyear2000.
Table5:GlobalFoundryIndustryHourlyLabourCompensationIndices
Nameofthe Unitof
Hourlylabour Hourlylabour Hourlylabour Hourlylabour
country
Currency
compensation compensation compensation compensation
innational
inUS$
indexUS base indexIndia
currency
(2000AD)
(2000AD)
base
(2000AD)
APFC

8.16
41
816
(Ave.)
Japan
Yen
2371
22.00
111
2200
China
Yuan
12.42
1.5
8
150
India
Rupee
50
1.0
5
100
S.Korea
Won
9200
8.13
41
813
EUFC

16.86
85
1686
(Ave.)
Austria
Schilling
290.08
19.46
98
1946
Belgium
Franc
922.54
21.11
106
2111
Denmark Krone
165.50
20.44
103
2044
Finland
Marakka
125.57
19.50
98
1950
France
Franc
116.37
16.38
83
1638
Germany DM
49.79
24.01
121
2401
Greece
Drachma
2632
8.91
48
891
Ireland
Pounds
10.67
12.50
63
1250
Italy
Lire
30739
14.66
74
1466
Luxemburg B.Franc
729
16.69
84
1669
Netherlands Guilder
45.54
19.08
96
1908
Norway
Krone
194.35
22.05
111
2205
Portugal
Escudos
1032.05
4.75
24
475
Spain
Peseta
1956
10.85
55
1085
Sweden
Krona
184.77
20.14
101
2014
Switzerland Franc
35.90
21.24
107
2124
U.KingdomPound
10.48
15.88
80
1588
NAFTAFC

12.83
64
1283
(Average)
USA
Dollar
19.86
19.86
100
1986
Canada
Dollar
24.02
16.16
81
1616
Mexico
Peso
23.30
2.46
12
246
Averagefor

14.91
75
1491
24nations

17

3.6GlobalFoundryIndustryClusters(GFIC)
A cluster simply means that it is anetwork made for information and resource sharing
betweenpeople.Clusters aredefinedasconcentrationsofactivitiesbelonging to thesamesub
sector. Network has no centralized control. Network retains the agility, inherent in a small
company yet it has competitiveness of a large company in financial and infrastructure depth.
Network style of functioning automatically forces an efficient interlocking and works as a fit
betweenmeshandweboffoundriesinthecluster.
Thecluster concept approachoffers new insights into the potential roleof foundries in
enhancing their access to new technologies, markets and cooperation. Sectorspecific and
geographically bounded clusters seem to be a common phenomenon for foundries in the
developingcountries.Mostofthemhavebeenverysuccessfulwhichareprimarilybasedontacit
and accumulated knowledge through learning by doing and by interaction. Thus the cluster
concept primarily requires knowledge sharing between elements of a cluster. This sharing
becomesnaturalbecausethereisaconcreterealizationofsinkorswimtogetherfeelingwhichit
generates. Hence learning is shared, exchanged, copied, improved upon, implemented and one
big chain of innovation is continuously supported and nurtured by the virtual network. The
clustersmaybelocal,regional,national,internationalorglobal.
The main objective of forming clusters of world foundry industry is to commit to
harnessing the economic potential of every foundry using specific databases from casting
productiontomarketing.Nonsharingofinformationbetweentheelementsoflocalandnational
clustersmaycreateasituationwheretheclustersrealimpactislost.
In the era of globalization, mergers and acquisition, collaboration at local and national
levelisnotsufficient.Avitalpointthatlocalandnationalclustersmissisthecompetitivenessat
the international level. A global cluster will change the threat of WTO (World Trade
Organization)forfoundriestotheiradvantage.Globalclusterisbasicallyaclusterthatiscreated
between local clusters in different countries of the world. Applications of the information
technologiescanfacilitatethisprocesstoagreatextent.Aglobalclusterovercomesthehurdles
faced by local and national clusters. A world cluster is an international phenomenon. Due to
moreinformationsharingtheentrepreneursofthelocalclustersunderstandotherentrepreneurs
competenciesinabetterway,whichinturnleadsthemtoworksharingbetweenthem.

18

With global clusters, foundries can compete with multinational companies (MNCs),
transitionalcompanies,andmegaorganizationsinabetterway.Asthewholeworldhasbecome
one marketplace, any entrepreneur can sell easily anywhere in the world. For example, Asian
countries likeIndia and Chinahaveaneasy andcheap labour advantageoverothers.They can
use this advantage to reduce the prices and sell more products in international markets and
generate moreprofits. Withthehelpofglobalclusters the foundriescaneasilycontact venture
capitalists worldwide that canhelp in igniting thebusinessprocess. Easy contact with venture
capitalistsandother global fundingfinancialinstitutions willleadfoundries toward hasslefree
financingwithnominalinterestrateandbetterpaymentterms.Thusglobalfoundryclustersare
expected to help in sharing of information among clusters, developing competency, and
understanding between foundries, work sharing between similar foundries, technology sharing,
productsharingandmarketsharingamongfoundries.
Synthesis of global foundry industry includes the following: Classification of various
clusters,codification,identificationofnumberofcountriesineachclusterclassificationoftotal
numberofiron,steelandnonferrousfoundriesanditscastingproductiontonnage,andpercent
shareofglobalcastingtonnage.Similarlyeachfoundryclustercontainsthedetailsofnumberof
countries andcodeof eachcountry,totalnumberof foundries (iron,steelandnonferrous) and
theircastingproductioncapacity.
The details of casting production and dollar value of the seven GFIC are presented in
Table6.

19

Table6:SynthesisofGlobalFoundryIndustryClusters(GFIC)
No.offoundries
Totalcastingtonnage
Nameofthe Code No.of
countrie
(inmillionmetrictons)
cluster
s

AsiaPacific
FoundryCluster
AfricanFoundry
Cluster
EuropeanUnion
FoundryCluster
Easternand
CentralEurope
FoundryCluster
MiddleEast
FoundryCluster
LatinAmerican
FoundryCluster
NorthAmerican
FreeTrade
Agreement
FoundryCluster
GrandTotal

%of Casting
world
value
in
Iron Steel Non Total Iron Steel Non Tota casting
(1) (2) ferrous (4) (5) (6) ferrous l production US$
(9)
billion
(3)
(7) (8)
(10)
11675 2939 5963 20577 23.16 2.74 3.56 29.4
40.3
55.36

APFC

14

AFC

155

0.32 0.15 0.06 0.53

0.7

1.17

EUFC

17

1645 368 2487 4500 11.51 0.86 3.18 15.5

21.3

32.47

ECEF
C

1987 644

12.3

18.07

MEF
C
LAFC

976

83 83151 1210 1.4 0.15

1.75

2.4

3.22

783

91

1550 1.83 0.15 0.18 2.16

3.0

3.67

NAF
TAFC

1514 365 2803 4682 9.93 1.32 3.43 14.7

20

32.23

14

40

712

676

209

3343 6.42 1.79 0.82 9.03

0.2

54
18735 4504 12832 36071 54.89 7.23 10.62 73.2
100
147.19
07
cluste
rs
CastingValue(10)={(5)$1260+(6)$3415+(7)$4725}Percentage(9)={(8)
73.15}100

20

Table7:GlobalFoundryClustersandNations
Nameofthecluster

Code

AsiaPacific
FoundryCluster

APFC

No.of
countries
14

AfricanFoundry
Cluster
EuropeanUnion
FoundryCluster

AFC

EUFC

17

EasternandCentral
EuropeFoundryCluster

ECEFC

MiddleEastFoundry
Cluster
LatinAmerican
FoundryCluster

MEFC

LAFC

NorthAmericanFree
TradeAgreement
FoundryCluster
GrandTotal

NAFTAFC

07clusters

54

3.7

Nameofthenations

China,Japan,India,SouthKorea,Australia,
Singapore,Taiwan,Indonesia,HongKong,
Malaysia,NewZealand,Pakistan,Thailandand
Phillippines
SouthAfricaandZambia
Germany,France,Italy,Spain,UnitedKingdom,
Poland,CzechRepublic,Austria,Sweden,
Belarus,Belgium,Netherlands,Finland,
Portugal,Hungary,Switzerland,Norwayand
Denmark
CISRussia,Croatia,Ukraine,Romania,
Slovania,Slovakia andYugoslavia
Turkey,Iran,Egypt,UAEandIsrael.
Brazil,Argentina,Venezuela,Peru,Chileand
Columbia
UnitedStatesofAmerica,MexicoandCanada

GLOBALTOPTENCASTINGPRODUCINGNATIONS:
The following ten nations produces highest castings in terms of tonnage in decending

order.
3.7.1 Peoples RepublicofChina
China is one of the growing nations continuously increasing its casting production. It
producedaround31.3millionmetrictonsin2007asper42nd censusofworldcastingproduction,
December 2008. The number of foundries in China was the largest in the world i.e. 20,000
foundries(1950)employingnearly12,00,000employeesdirectly.
Thereareatpresentaround26,000foundriesinChina.Foundrysizemixconsistsof33%
of foundries producing less than 300 metric tons per annum,53%produce about 301 to 5,000
metrictonswhiletheremaining14%produce5,001to10,000metrictonsperyear.Basedonthe
end user, casting shipments are: automobiles 11.5%, locomotive and railway cars 6.2%,
agricultural machines and IC engines 17.4%, machine tools 5.9%, metallurgical and mining
machinery 17.9%, petroleum and chemical machines 3.7%, energy and textile machines4.2%,
castironpipesandpipefittings15.5%,civilandhouseholdappliances4.5%andothers13.2%.
21

Variousmouldingtechnologiesusedinfoundriesare:vibration35.3%,resinsand18.7%,vertical
parted16.4%,horizontalparted7.1%,injectionandsqueeze7.4%andairimpact6.5%.
AnnualworkinghoursinChinaare2400.Averageproductivityoffoundriesisaround8
10metrictonspermanperyearbutfoundrieswithbettertechnologieshaveattainedproductivity
of30metrictonspermanperyear.ExportmarketpotentialinChinaisaround6,00,000metric
tonsofdiecastings,investmentcastingsandothercastings.Metalsandalloyscastinclude81%
castirons,13%steelcastingsand4%aluminiumcastingsandothers2%.

3.7.2UnitedStatesofAmerica(USA)
The USA foundries have the capacity to ship 11.8 million metric tons of castings
annually and employment potential of over 2,25,000. The USA foundry industry started with
seven foundrymen in 1642 AD. The number of operating foundries has reduced significantly
from6150in1955to2130in2007.Thereisadecreaseincastingproductionfrom21.9million
metrictons(1973) to11.8millionmetrictons(2007).Capacity utilization was82%.However,
ductileironcastingproductionincreasedby39.2%andaluminiumcastingproductionincreased
by89.9%.Metalcastingsareproducedforvarioussectorslikeautomobileandlighttrucks35%,
pipeandpipefittings15%,constructionandminingequipment6%,ICengines5%,railroad5%,
farm machinery 3%, municipal castings 3%, pumps and compressors 2% and others 26%.
Castingmethodsused andtheirpercentages are: sandcasting60%,permanent mould11%, die
casting9%,investmentcasting7%,shellmoulding7%andcentrifugal,ceramicandevaporative
castings6%.
Metals cast include gray iron 40.9%, ductile iron 29%, malleable iron 1%, steel 9.9%,
aluminium 13.9%, copper 2.2%, zinc 2% and other nonferrous castings 1.1%. Long term
predictionsofcastingshipment:grayiron0.2%increaseperyear,ductileiron3%increaseper
year,aluminiumcastings4%increaseperyear,magnesiumcastings15%increaseperyear,zinc
2% decrease per year, steel slight growth, copper some growth and malleable iron would
continue to decline. Foundries consist of varied sizes such as 6% employing more than 250
people, 14%between100250people and the remaining80%employing lessthan100people.
Foundriesalsouseand reuse 100million metrictonsof sand annually and6%of used sand is
available for constructionbackfill, manufactureofbricks,etc. Annuallyfoundriesconsume15
20millionmetrictonsofrecycledscrapmetalgivingnewlifetoproducts.

22

3.7.3 CIS(Russia)
CommonwealthofIndependentStates(CIS)wasformedwithtwelveautonomousnations
in 1991. USSR was the largest castingproducer in the world till the year 1993. It produced a
maximumtonnageofcastingsofaround27.83millionmetrictonsin1979butafterformationof
Russia, castingproductionhas reduced to 7.8 million metric tons in 2007. It has around 1650
operating foundries. 3540% of the foundries are closed or nonoperational at present. The
foundries produce around 70% cast iron castings, 24% steel castings, and 6% nonferrous
castings.Russianfoundryindustryemploysaround1,20,000employeesdirectly.
3.7.4 India
India isthefourth largestcastingproducerin the worldasper2008data.It has around
4,550 foundries producing annually 7.8 million metric tons of castings in the year 2007. Bulk
quantityof castings is producedbygray iron (74%), followedby steelcastings(9.6%), ductile
iron (8%) and aluminium castings (6.8%) and others 1.6%. The average yield for cast iron
castings is around 65%, ductile iron 53%, steel castings 50%. Foundry industrys capacity
utilizationisaround4555%,averagecastingrejectionratesare78%,andaverageproductivity
is around 1220 metric tons/ man /year. Energy consumption for ferrous castings varies from
700900kWhpermetrictonsonanaverage.Yearlyworkinghoursare2400.Sectorwisecasting
requirement in million tons are: sanitary and construction castings0.8, exports0.5, spun pipes
0.35, steel plants spares and accessories 0.30, automobile castings 0.20, defence 0.05 and
miscellaneous 0.40. Varioussuggestions for improvement in the foundry industry put forthby
UNIDO, International Centre for Advanced Manufacturing and other organizations include
developing the right strategy for both global and domestic markets, adopting appropriate
technologies and cost effective approaches, effective utilization of ebusiness and lean
manufacturing concept, collaborative decision, etc. In addition, intelligent casting systems for
foundries, costbenefit and technoeconomic analysis for decision making and manufacturing,
production of better value mix castings like aluminium, magnesium and zinc based alloys are
alsoconsiderednecessarytocopeupwiththepresentdayrequirements.Indiahasthecapability
toreachahigherannualproduction.
3.7.5 Japan

23

The foundry industry in Japan has gained momentum after Second World War.
Productionofcastingsreachedarecordhighof8millionmetrictonsin1991.Endusersectors
likeautomobiles,industrialmachineryandmachinetoolsaccountfor70%oftotalcastingusers.
Grayironproductionhasreducedby46.9%butductileironproductionhasincreasedby34%
and aluminiumcastingproduction has increasedby 179%. Annual workinghours inJapan are
2,200.Atpresentitsproductionisaround7.0milliontonswith1702operatingfoundries.Itisthe
fifthlargestcastingproducerintheworldasper42nd worldcastingcensus.
3.7.6 Germany
It is the sixth largest castingproducing nation in the world as per 2007 data. Its
production was around 5.8 million metric tons with 596 operating foundries. Aluminium and
ductile iron casting production has increased but gray iron and steel casting production has
decreased.Overallcastingproductionhasremainedmoreorlessstatic.Buttherelativevalueof
castingproductionwashighandvalueindexwasalsohighfortheyear2005.
3.7.7 Brazil
Itistheseventhlargestcastingproducerintheworld.Itproducedaround3.2milliontons
with 1394 working foundries. Its production mix includes 2.73 million tons iron castings, 0.3
milliontonsofsteelcastingsand0.23milliontonsofnonferrouscastings.
3.7.8 Italy
Gray iron and steel casting production had reduced at annual rates of 1% and 0.8%
respectivelybutaluminiumcastingproductionhadincreased(44.9%).Itsannualproductionwas
around2.7milliontonswith1176operatingfoundriesin2007.
3.7.9 France
Theannualcastingproductionwasaround2.4millionmetrictonsintheyear2007.Ithas
beenfoundthatgrayironproductionhasbeenstaticwhereasaluminiumandductileironcasting
productionhadincreasedsignificantly.Steelcastingproductionisgettingreducedgradually.
3.7.10 SouthKorea
AnnualproductionofcastingsinSouthKoreahadincreasedto2.0millionmetrictonsin
2007. The number of operating foundries are around 875. Gray iron and ductile iron casting
productionhasbeenincreasingconstantly whereas aluminiumcastingproductionhas remained
static.Itisthetenthlargestcastingproducerintheworld.

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4.0

EVOLUTIONOFGLOBALCASTINGPROCESSES
Global foundry industry is around 12000 years old. Global foundry technological

inventionsshowingthedetailsofyearofinvention,nameofthenation andpersonslinkedwith
inventions are discussed under five headings (melting and pouring, moulding, core making,
fettlingandheattreatment,andpatternmaking.Gold,copperandleadwerediscoveredinaround
10000 to 5000 B.C in nave form. Copper frog of 3200 B.C. seems to be the oldest casting
availableinMesopotamiaofUSA.
From theevidenceof ancient Indian art castingslike thedancing girl (2350B.C), short
hornedbull(3000B.C),etc.,itcanbesaidthattheIndianfoundryindustryseemstohavestarted
duringthesameperiodasthatofthewesterncountries.Theironpillar(6ton)castingatDelhiis
anexampleof excellentcastingskillsthatexistedin ancient India.Earliest literaryevidenceof
theuseofiron wasmentioned inRigVeda asAyas. Indiansinthe army were equippedwith
canearrowstippedwithiron,headguards,metalbodyguards,etc.Thehistoryofcivilizationis,
inmanyways,linkedtothestoryofmetalsandalloysinantiquity.Manassaysmetalsandmetals
canjustaswellbeusedtoassaytheprogressofthemankind.Someancientcastingsoftheworld
andIndiaareshowninFigures1and2respectively.
4.1

PatternMaking
Wax pattern wasused in 3000 B.C useof woodenpatterns started in the 16th century,

mercurywastriedasapatternmaterialinthe19th century,patternallowanceswereintroducedin
the late 19th century. A few other notable developments include match plate patterns and
fosteringtheviabilityofjoltsqueezemachines:in1910ADlostfoampatterns:in1958ADthe
birth of automated match plate for moulding in: 1962 AD. laminated compressed wood for
patternmakingin1985A.D.useofCNCmachines,CAD/CAMforpatternmakingin1990AD.
4.2

Moulding
Earlyfoundrymenhadcastbronzetoolsandweaponsinpermanentstonemouldsduring:

3000BCfirst castirontripod (270kgs)wascastby theChinese:during600BCironplough

shareswerecastin233BCloamsandmouldingwasusedinEuropetocastbellsin1200AD
sand was introduced as a moulding material in France during 1500 AD the first American
casting sagus pot was cast in 1646 AD centrifugal casting was developed by AG Eckhardt,
England in 1809 AD the first moulding machine was made and used by S.Javis Adams Co,
Pittsburgin1837ADamanuallyoperateddiecastingmachinewaspatentedtosupplycastlead

25

fornewspapersandthefirstmotordrivenmouldconveyorwasinstalledin1890ADPoulson
andHargraves,UK,producedthefirstsandmouldsbondedwithsodiumsilicatein1898ADand
the first patent for low pressure permanent mould casting process was issued to Englands
E.H.Lakein1900AD.
H.H.Dochler patented the die casting machine in 1905 AD first sand muller was
marketed by Peter L. Simpson and sand slinger was invented by E.O. Beadsley in 1912 AD,
bentonite usage as binder was in 1915 AD the useof syntheticsand was started in1942 AD
highpressure moulding was startedin early 1950s Cprocess was developed for making shell
moulding in 1952 AD CO2 process was introduced in Germany in 1954 AD squeeze casting
seemstohaveoriginatedinRussiain1955ADverticallypartedflasklessgreensandmoulding
machinewasinventedbyVagnAage,Denmarkin1957AD.
HaroldF.Shroyerobtainedapatentforlostfoamcastingprocessin1958AD,methylene
blue test for greensand moulding wasdeveloped for sand control in 1960 AD Bob Lund and
AngelloBisnellodevelopedthefirst automated greensandmoulding machine in1962ADoil
urethanenobakebinder wasusedformoulds in1965AD sodiumsilicate /estercatalysedno
bake binder system for moulding was introduced in 1970 AD vacuum moulding process for
using unbonded sand wasdeveloped in Japan in 1971 AD furan/SO2 process for moulding in
1978 AD high production lost foam process was started in General Motors in 1981 AD air
impulsemouldingwasdevelopedin1983ADequipmentforsemisolidcastingwasdeveloped
in 1990 AD use of low expansion synthetic sand for lost foam process was patented in 1994
AD High pressure flaskless moulding (500 moulds per hour) was developed in 1994 A.D.
Mercury Marine installed North Americas first pressurized lost foam casting line at Fond Du
Lacin2001AD.
4.3

CoreMaking
EliMilletinventedacoreovenfordryingsmallcoresinindividualdrawersin1887AD

someotherinventionsanddevelopmentsare:sandslingerforcoremaking(1912AD),thefirst
heat reactive chemically cured binder (1944 AD) shell core process by J.Croning, Germany
(1946AD)sodiumsilicate/CO2 system(1954AD)hotboxsystemofmakingandcuringcores
inoneoperation: (1953 AD) introductionof phenolic and furanacid catalysednobakebinder
systems: (1958AD) furan hotboxbinders forcores: (1960AD) newCO2 sand testing: (1962
AD) shell flake resineliminatingsolventsintroduced: (1963AD)oilurethanenobakebinder

26

system: (1965 AD) the cold box process introduced by Ashland for high production core
making:(1968AD)thesodiumsilicatenobakebindersystem: (1970AD)furan/SO2 binder
systemdevelopedforcoremaking:(1978AD)warmboxbindersystemintroduced:(1982AD)
phenolicesternobakebinder:(1984AD)phenolicestercoldboxbinderdeveloped:(1985AD)
a water soluable biopolymer based core sand binder developed: (1966 AD) and Triset
hygrometric testing system developed for sand testing: (2001 AD). Use of mouldcore was
developedin2002A.D.
4.4

MeltingAndPouring
The following discoveries or inventions had taken place in foundry (presented in

chronologicalorder):Gold foundinnave form (10,000 BC) earliest metalobjectsof wrought

navecopperinNearEast(9000BC)leadcoatedonearthenpots(5000BC)smallobjectscast
via investment casting process (30002500 BC) wrought iron in Near East (1500 BC) steel
produced in India (500 AD), first iron furnace built at Falling Creek in North America (1619
AD)firstuseofcokeasfurnacefuelforironproductiondevelopedbyAbrahamDarby,England
(1700 AD), Malleable iron developed by AFD Reamer (1722 AD), Benjman Huntsman
reinventedcastcruciblesteelprocess: 1750 AD, EnglishmanJohnWilkinsoninventedthefirst
cupola furnace using steam engine to provide air blast (1794 AD), aluminium made from
aluminium chloride in Denmark (1825 AD) first black heart malleable iron producedby Seth
Boyden (1830 AD) metallography was developed by HC Sorby, Sheffield in 1863 AD and
JamesNasmythdevelopedageartiltedladleforpouringin1867AD.
Some of the other notable inventions/ developments are as follows: Discovery of
aluminiumreductionthroughelectrolysisbyC.M.Hallin1886AD firstelectricarcfurnaceby
Frances Paul Herolt in 1899 AD first low frequency induction furnace (installed) at Henry
Diston & Co, Tacony in 1906 AD first high frequency coreless electric induction furnace
(installed)atLebananSteelFoundry,Lebananin1930ADarelationshipbetweensolidification
timeandcastinggeometrybyChvorinovin1943ADdiscoveryofductileironin1943byKeith
DMillesandpatentedin1949ADFordMineralCoandBCIRAdevelopedcompactedgraphite
iron,andGeneralMotorintroducedaustemperedductileironforreardifferentialincarsinmid
1980s use of computer for modelling phenomena of solidification, development of 3D
visualizationtechniquesin1993ADlargeststeelcastingforplatemillhousingwith467tonsof
steel melted by a single 90 ton per heat arc furnace in 1999 A.D. installation of first

27

continuouslyoperatedelectricarcfurnaceforcastironproductionwhichsmeltedandmelted100
tonsperhourbyAmericanCastIronPipeCo.,Birminghamin2001A.D.andmagnesiumalloy
cylinderblockcastingwasdevelopedforfourwheelersin2002A.D.
4.5

FettlingAndFinishing
Sandblastingwasdeveloped for large castingsbyR.E.Tilghmanof Philadelphiaduring

1870 AD W.W.Sly and Cleaveland developed the first casting cleaning mill in 1887 AD
Stockham Homogenous Sand Mixer Co, released the sand cutter in 1908 AD thermal
reclamationofcoresandswasstartedin1940ADpnuematicscrubberwasdevelopedforsand
reclamationin1950scoreblower forresincoatedsandwasintroducedin1954ADfirstrobot
Puma was used for ejecting die casting from die casting machine in 1976 A.D. dry ice CO2
process was developed for cleaning core boxes and foundry tooling in 1991 AD and robotic
fettlingwasstartedin1992A.D.
5.0

DISCUSSIONSANDCONCLUSIONS
Data obtained from censuses of 42 years of global casting production as well as from

other sources have been analysed to compute and present some of the key indicators of the
growthandstatusofthemetalcastingindustryintheworld(asawhole),ingroupsofcountries
(namedasclusters)andinthemajorcontributingindividualcountries.Theindicatorsconsidered
are: annual production, number of foundries in existence, total value and value indices of
castings,distributionof ferrousandnonferrouscastings,materialindices,and foundryindustry
labourindices.Basedonthepublisheddatawhichconstituteabout85to90%ofthetotalglobal
castingtonnage,itisobservedthattheglobalhighestproductionwasabout94.92millionmetric
tonintheyear2007,P.R.Chinahadbeentoppingintheworldintermsofannualproductionfor
a good many years. Accounting for the smallpercentage of nonavailable data, it is estimated
thattheworldcastingproductionhasexceededalevelof100millionmetrictonsandthatthere
aremore50,000foundriesallovertheworldputtogether.
Basedongeographicallocationofvariousnations,sevenclustershavebeenformedand
variousindicatorssuchasnumberoffoundries,annualproduction(inabsolutesenseaswellasa
percentage of globalproduction) and the value of castingsproducedhavebeendetermined for
oneyear.AsiaPacificFoundryClustercontributestomorethanonethirdthevalueofthetotal
castingsproducedintheworldandAfricaFoundryclusterhasaverylow(0.7%)contributionto
theworldproduction.Toptencountriesaccountfor8085%oftotalglobalproduction.Casting

28

valueindexreflectsthevalueoftheproductmixintermsofferrousandnonferrouscastingsofa
country.Toimprovethecastingvalueindexeitherthetotalcastingproductionortheproduction
ofnonferrouscastings (high valueitems) hastobeincreased.Thehighestcastingvalue index
fortheyear2005wasItaly(1.5363)followedbyFrance(1.1291).Highperformerscontinueto
beChina andUSA. Indiahasbeen movedto4th positionin termsof production tonnagein the
year2007.
Liberalization of economy in the last decade has opened up doors for producing and
exporting castings at competitive prices. With the rapid expansion of automotive industry,
foundries have got ample opportunity to utilize their capacity fully and earn reasonably good
profits. In thepresent investigation an attempthas been made to analyze the following: global
foundry industry and casting value, global foundry industry clusters, Indian foundry clusters,
globaltoptencastingproducersandCVI, andglobalfoundry industry labourindicesbasedon
India and USA. Evolution of casting processes (based on pattern making, moulding, core
making,melting,fettlingandfinishing)andtheirtimelinesarediscussed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author sincerely acknowledges North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and
Technology, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India for the necessary help rendered in the present
work.
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Figure1:AncientCastingsoftheWorld

31

Figure2:IndianAncientCastings

32