CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION OF DOORDARSHAN
It is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of ParsarBharti a public
service broadcaster nominated by the Government of India. It is one of the largest broadcasting
organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure of studios and transmitter.

Beginning
Doordarshan had a modest beginning with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi on
15 September 1959 with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily
transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extendedto
Bombay and Amritsar in 1972. Till 1975, seven Indian cities had television service and
Doordarshan remained the only television channel in India. Television services were separated
from radio in 1976. Each office of All India Radio and Doordarshan were placed under the
management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi. Finally Doordarshan as a National
Broadcaster came into existence.

Nation Wide Telecast

National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, colour TV was introduced
in the Indian market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then Prime
minister Indira Gandhion 15 August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games being held in
Delhi. Now more than 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD
National) programmes through a network of nearly 1400 terrestrial transmitters and about 46
Doordarshan studios produce TV programs today.

International Broadcasting
DD-India is being broadcasted internationally through Satellite. It is available in 146
countries worldwide, however the information on picking up this channel in other countries is
not easily available. In the UK, DD-India was available through the Eurobird Satellite on the Sky
system on Channel 833 (the logo is shown as Rayat TV). The timing and programming of DD1

India international is different from that of India. Transmissions for Sky Digital U.K. stopped in
June 2008 and DirecTV U.S stopped in July 2008.

Commercial Viability
Once private television channels were allowed in the 1991, Doordarshan has seen a steep
decline in viewership in homes with Cable and Satellite Television which in 2002 was just at
2.38% for DD National. While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory
feed given to it by the highest bidder to national events including cricket tournaments, there has
been a proposal to give it funds by imposing a license fee to own a television in India like the
BBC. However this is unlikely to be imposed keeping in view the financial constraints of the
average Indian viewer.

Channels
Presently, Doordarshan operates 19 channels two All India channels-DD National and
DD News, 11 Regional languages Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an
International channel, a Sports Channel and two channels (DD-RS & DD-LS) for live broadcast
of parliamentary proceedings.(DD-1), Regional programmes and Local Programmes are carried
on time-sharing basis. DD-News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the
DD-Metro Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service.
The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components The Regional service
for the particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional
programmes in the Regional Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through
cable operators. DD-Sports Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events
of national and international importance. This is the only Sports Channels which telecasts rural
sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc. something which private broadcasters will not attempt to
telecast as it will not attract any revenues.

CHAPTER : 2
BROADCASTING PROCESS IN DOORDARSHAN PATNA:The broadcasting technique of doordarshan starts from the studio .Some basics
about the studio at doordarshan Kendra patna are as: There are two types of studio the first is
studio CB ,it is of 50 square mtr and it is used for news reading.The second is main studio and it
is of 400 square mtr and it is used for drama etc. Now the different lights used in studio are :
Lighting has two purposes in television. It allows the camera to make a picture and it makes the
picture interesting. Flat, even lighting gives the video engineer the least amount of trouble, but it
also renders the least interesting picture. The most basic lighting set-up is called "3-point"
lighting. Lighting is always planned relative to the camera angles. Advanced students are
expected to practice basic 3-point lighting.
Since lighting can be a very subjective medium, there are no real hard and fast rules about
lighting ratios and lighting setups. Talk shows tend to be lit evenly and flat. The particular
lighting set up depends on mood, purpose, or style of lighting needed. There are many different
ways to achieve this.
.
Key light: the key light is defined as the apparent, main source of light. The position of the key
light can greatly impact the positioning of all the other lights. The key light is the modelling
light. A harsh, shadow producing instrument such as a fresnel spotlight, is usually used as the
key light.
Fill light: the fill light is the instrument used to soften the dark, well defined shadow produced
by the key light. Ideally, the fill light should not produce a shadow of its own. Therefore, an
instrument which produces a softer, more diffused type of light is usually used.
Back light: back light is illumination from behind the subject. Its main purpose is to show the
separation between the subject and the background. Since the television screen is a two
dimensional object, it is necessary to imply the third dimension with light. Without the backlight,
the subject and the background tend to blend together, but when correctly applied, the back light
subtly rims the subject with light, which visually separates the subject from the background. The
back light is set at about a 45 degree angle. It must be used with care,since its intensity should
vary according to the relative quality of the hair, etc. Blonds and bald people get less back
lighting than those having dark hair.
Side light: side light is sometimes used as an alternative to the standard three point lighting set
up. It is helpful to light this way for people with glasses because there are no reflections of the
lights in the glasses. It still involves a main, key source, and a soft fill, except the lights are
aimed almost directly from the side.
Background light: the purpose of the background light is to establish a "base level of overall
lighting" on the set, and to illuminate the set pieces. These lights are usually considerably
dimmer than the lights on the performers. Background lights are similar to back lights in that
they are both used to create a feeling of depth and dimension in a two dimensional medium.

CHAPTER : 3
STUDIO SECTION
CB STUDIO (CONTINUITY BOOTH):
CB Studio is another studio of the DD Kendra, Patna. It is also known as Studio-B.
Features of the CB Studio of DD Kendra, Patna:

In this studio, Teleprompter is used for reading the news. It has two techniques.
In first technique, there is a monitor in front of the news reader and the news
display on the monitor. In the second technique the news reader uses a mouse to
scroll the news and then the news reader reads the news.

Fig3.1: Studio Room of a news channel in making

STUDIO FLOOR(MAIN STUDIO)
The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A studio
floor has the following characteristics and installations:

decoration and/or sets

cameras (sometimes one, usually several) on pedestals
microphones
lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.
several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room
4

a small public address system for communication

A glass window between production control room (PCR) and studio floor for direct
visual contact is usually desired, but not always possible

While a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.

The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show.
A floor director or floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who
relays timing and other information from the director.
One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some
instances these can also be operated from PCR using remote heads.

Possibly a teleprompter operator, especially if this is a news broadcast

CAMERA LENS:-

Fig. 3.2: camera lens

A television studio is an installation in which television or video productions take place, either
for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage for postproduction. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios, with a few
amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional television
studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons.

CHAPTER: 4
TECHNICAL SECTION:
PRODUCTION-CONTROL ROOM (PCR):
The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room (SCR),
is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing program takes place.
Facilities in a PCR include:

A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and
other video sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing
physical television and computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced
with a virtual monitor wall (sometimes called a "glass cockpit"), one or more large video
screens, each capable of displaying multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall.
A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the video sources to be seen on air
and, in many cases, in any monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used
in Europe, while the term 'switcher' is usually used in North America.
An audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices.
A character generator, which creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics
that are inserted into the program
Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers,
the DVE is integrated into the vision mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can
often control external DVE devices, or an external DVE can be manually run by an
operator.
A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the
name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images, newer still stores can
store moving video clips.
The technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vectorscopes and the CCUs or
remote control panels for the CCUs.
In some facilities, VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the
central machine room
Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and crew

Fig. 4.1: production control room

MASTER-CONTROL ROOM (MCR)
The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the production
control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation requirements keep within
manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only between devices in this room. This
can include:

The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE and character
generator devices
camera control units
VTRs
patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.

In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the on-air
signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and commercials, switch local
or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the transmitter(s), or these items may be in
an adjacent equipment rack room. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where a particular
local program is originated. If the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production
control room to MCR and then out to the transmitter.

VISION MIXER:
A vision mixer (also called video switcher, video mixer or production switcher) is a device used
to select between several different video sources and in some cases composite (mix) video
sources together and add special effects. This is similar to what a mixing console does for audio.

CAMERA CONTROL UNIT (CCU):

DESCRIPTION:
The Camera Control Unit is typically part of a live broadcast camera "chain". It is responsible for
powering the camera, handling signals sent over the camera cable (multicore, triax or fiber) to
and from the camera, and can be used control various camera parameters such as iris remotely.
Broadcast cameras typically carry several signals over the camera cable in addition to the camera
output itself.
Typically, RGB signals are transmitted over the camera cable. The CCU will usually convert
these to SDI, YUV or composite for interfacing to other video equipment.

Fig 4.2: Equipment CCU

Advantages over using independent cameras with automatic settings

In a system with multiple cameras, the cameras can be "matched" - made to look
the same in terms of colour balance and picture intensity without having to ask the
camera operator to

The camera operators are freed from the control of iris and black level - leaving
them free to concentrate on other aspects of camerawork such as blocking and
image composition

All camera signals are carried in one cable.

Scope of CCU functions

A CCU is typically able to control the following camera parameters remotely:

Iris (see aperture)

Color temperature filters
ND filters
Master Black (pedestal).
Black level trim (for red, green and blue components)
Gain trim (for red, green and blue components)
Master gain

VIDEO TAPE RECORDER:

A video tape recorder (VTR) is a tape recorder that can record video material, usually on a
magnetic tape. VTRs originated as individual tape reels, serving as a replacement for motion
picture film stock, and making recording for television applications cheaper and quicker. An
improved form included the tape within a videocassette which were used with video cassette
recorders (VCR). VCRs soon found their way onto the consumer market, however there have
been a wide variety of VTR technologies, many produced primarily for the professional market.

CHAPTER: 5
VIDEO SIGNAL GENERATION:
Video is nothing but a sequence of pictures. The image we see is maintained in our eye for 1/16
sec. So if we see images at the rate more than 16 pictures/sec, our eyes cannot recognize the
difference and we see the continuous motion. In movies camera and movie projector it is found
that 24 fps is better for human eyes. TV system could also use this rate but in PAL system 25
fpm is selected.
In TV cameras image is converted in electrical signal using photosensitive material. Whole
image is divided into many micro particles known as pixels. These pixels are small enough so
that our eyes cannot recognize pixels and we see continuous image. Thus, at any particular
instance there are almost infinite numbers of pixels that need to be converted in electrical signal
simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However this is not possible practical because it
is no feasible to provide a separate path for each pixel. In practice this problem is solved by
method known as Scanning in which information is converted one by one pixel, line by line
and frame by frame.

10

CHAPTER : 6
PAL ENCODER:
0.6us
i/p from camera
1 MHz

Quadrature

amplifier

LPF
G

phase
shift
modu
-lator

switch

MATRIX
1 MHz

amplifier

A/D

ADDER

CONVERTER

LPF

90 PHASE
SHIFTER

SPG

180 PHASE
SHIFTER
180 PS

o/p to ccvs

PS

BURST
GENERATOR

Fig.6.1: block diag. of PAL encoder

PAL, short for Phase Alternating Line, is an analog color television encoding system used in
broadcast television systems in many countries. Other common analogue television systems are
SECAM and NTSC.
The basics of PAL and the NTSC system are very similar; a quadrature amplitude modulated
subcarrier carrying the chrominance information is added to the luminance video signal to form a
composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL,
compared to 3.579545 MHz for NTSC. The SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency
modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz.
The name "Phase Alternating Line" describes the way that the phase of part of the colour
information on the video signal is reversed with each line, which automatically corrects phase
errors in the transmission of the signal by cancelling them out, at the expense of vertical frame
colour resolution. Lines where the colour phase is reversed compared to NTSC are often called
PAL or phase-alternation lines, which justifies one of the expansions of the acronym, while the
other lines are called NTSC lines. Early PAL receivers relied on the imperfections of the human
11

eye to do that cancelling; however, this resulted in a comblike effect known as Hanover bars on
larger phase errors. Thus, most receivers now use a chrominance delay line, which stores the
received colour information on each line of display; an average of the colour information from
the previous line and the current line is then used to drive the picture tube. The effect is that
phase errors result in saturation changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue
changes of NTSC. A minor drawback is that the vertical colour resolution is poorer than the
NTSC system's, but since the human eye also has a colour resolution that is much lower than its
brightness resolution, this effect is not visible. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have
chrominance bandwidth (horizontal colour detail) reduced greatly compared to the luminance
signal.

12

CHAPTER : 7
COLOUR COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL
Active waveform comprises of 2 signals:
Luminance(Y)-black and white
Chrominance(C)-colour signal
The composite video signal is formed by the electrical signal corresponding to the picture
information in the lines scanned in the TV camera pick-up tube and the synchronizing signals
introduced in it. It is important to preserve its waveform as any distortion of the video signal will
affect the reproduced picture, while a distortion in the sync pulses will affect synchronization
resulting in an unstable picture. The signal is, therefore, monitored with the help of an
oscilloscope, at various stages in the transmission path to conform with the standards. In
receivers, observation of the video signal waveform can provide valuable clues to circuit faults
and malfunctions Composite video is the format of an analog television (picture only) signal
before it is combined with a sound signal and modulated onto an RF carrier.It is usually in a
standard format such as NTSC, PAL, or SECAM. It is a composite of three source signals called
Y, U and V (together referred to as YUV) with sync pulses. Y represents the brightness or
luminance of the picture and includes synchronizing pulses, so that by itself it could be displayed
as a monochrome picture. U and V between them carry the colour information. They are first
mixed with two orthogonal phases of a colour carrier signal to form a signal called the
chrominance. Y and UV are then added together. Since Y is a baseband signal and UV has been
mixed with a carrier, this addition is equivalent to frequency-division multiplexing.

13

14

CHAPTER: 8
CHANNEL ALLOTMENT & VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION:
For television broadcasting, channels have been assigned in the VHF and UHF ranges.
The allocated frequencies are:

(Band II 88-108 MHz is allotted for FM broadcasting.)

In the video signal very low frequency modulating components exist along with the rest of the
signal. These components give rise to sidebands very close to the carrier frequency which are
difficult to remove by physically realizable filters. Thus it is not possible to go to the extreme
and fully suppress one complete sideband in the case of television signals. The low video
frequencies contain the most important information of the picture and any effort to completely
15

suppress the lower sideband would result in objectionable phase distortion at these frequencies.
This distortion will be seen by the eye as 'smear' in the reproduced picture. Therefore, as a
compromise, only a part of the lower sideband is suppressed, and the radiated signal then
consists of a full upper sideband together with the carrier, and the vestige (remaining part) of the
partially suppressed lower sideband. This pattern of transmission of the modulated signal is
known as vestigial sideband or A5C transmission. In the 625 line system, frequencies up to0.75
M H z in the lower sideband are fully radiated. The net result is a normal double sideband
transmission for the lower video frequencies corresponding to the main body of picture
information. Because of filter design difficulties it is not possible to terminate the bandwidth of a
signal abruptly at the edges of the sidebands. Therefore, an attenuation slope covering
approximately 0.5 MHz is allowed either end. Any distortion at the higher frequency end, if
attenuation Slopes were not allowed, would mean a serious loss in horizontal detail, Since the
high frequency components of the video modulation determine the amount of horizontal detail
in the picture. Fig illustrates the saving of band. Space. which results from vestigial sideband
transmission. The picture signal is seen to occupy a bandwidth of 6.75 MHz instead of 11MHz.

Fig. 8.1: vestigial sideband

16

CHAPTER: 9
TRANSMITTER

The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape is
generally a paraboloid of revolution.

For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used. Horns are
also used as feeds for reflector antennas.

A small earth terminal, the feed horn is located at the focus or may be offset to one side
of the focus.

Large earth station antennas have a sub reflector at the focus. In the Cassegrain design,
the sub reflector is convex with an hyperboloid surface, while in the Gregorian design it
is concave with an ellipsoidal surface.

These antennas are used to transmit signal from earth station to satellite.[3]

17

CHAPTER : 10
RECEIVER

The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape is
generally a paraboloid of revolution.

For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used. Horns are
also used as feeds for reflector antennas.

They are basically used to receive signals from the satellite which were transmitted by
transmitter.

All the waves which fall on receiver are being focused on the feeder which is placed at
the center of receiver antenna.

This feeder collects all the waves and sends to master switching room through cables and
wires.

After that again down conversion and decoding of signals takes place and in this manner
we receive our information.

Figure 10.1 :receiver

18

CHAPTER: 11
OB VAN
Outside broadcasting is the production of television or radio programmes (typically to cover
news and sports events) from a mobile television studio. This mobile control room is known as
an "Outside Broadcasting Van", "OB Van", "Scanner" (a BBC term), "mobile unit", "remote
truck", "live truck", or "production truck". Signals from cameras and microphones come into the
OB Van for processing and transmission.
A typical OB Van is usually divided into 5 parts:

The 1st and largest part is the production area where the director, technical director,
assistant director, character generator operator and producers usually sit in front of a wall
of monitors. This area is very similar to a Production control room. The technical director
sits in front of the video switcher. The monitors show all the video feeds from various
sources, including computer graphics, cameras, video tapes, video servers and slow
motion replay machines. The wall of monitors also contains a preview monitor showing
what could be the next source on air and a program monitor that shows the feed currently
going to air or being recorded. Behind the directors there is usually a desk with monitors
for the editors to operate. It is essential that the directors and editor are in connection with
each other during events, so that replays and slow-motion shots can be selected and aired.

The 2nd part of a van is for the audio engineer; it has a sound mixer. The audio engineer
can control which channels are added to the output and will follow instructions from the
director.

The 3rd part of van is video tape. The tape area has a collection of VTRs and may also
house additional power supplies or computer equipment.

The 4th part is the video control area where the cameras are controlled by 1 or 2 people to
make sure that the iris is at the correct exposure and that all the cameras look the same.

19

The 5th part is transmission where the signal is monitored by and engineered for quality
control purposes and is transmitted or sent to other trucks.

Figure 11.1: ob van

20

CHAPTER : 12
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:
In telecommunications, the use of artificial satellites to provide communication links between
various points on Earth. Satellite communications play a vital role in the global
telecommunications system. Approximately 2,000 artificial satellites orbiting Earth relay analog
and digital signals carrying voice, video, and data to and from one or many locations worldwide.
Satellite communication has two main components: the ground segment, which consists of fixed
or mobile transmission, reception, and ancillary equipment, and the space segment, which
primarily is the satellite itself. A typical satellite link involves the transmission or uplinking of a
signal from an Earth station to a satellite. The satellite then receives and amplifies the signal and
retransmits it back to Earth, where it is received and re-amplified by Earth stations and terminals.
Satellite receivers on the ground include direct-to-home (DTH) satellite equipment, mobile
reception equipment in aircraft, satellite telephones, and hand held devices.

Figure 12.1-Satellite Communication

Satellite communication
Started in 1960.
Uses Geo Stationary Satellite.
Operates in C-Band & Ku-Band.
21

 tarted in India in 1975.

First Indian Satellite INSAT launched in 1982.
Gulf War brought satellite television to prominence.

Frequency band

Up Link

Down Link

C-band

6 GHz

4 GHz

X-band

8 GHz

7GHz

Ku-band

14 GHz

11 GHz

Ka-band

30 GHz

20 GHz

Fig.12.2: Satellite Transmission Frequency bands

PAREMETER OF THE SATELLITE OF DD,PATNA:
1. Satellite 3A , 93.5 degree East
2. Transponder C-01.
3. Multiple Channels per Carrier (MCPC).
4. Uplink Freq. 5965.5 MHz ,Pol. H
5. Down link freq. 3740.5 MHz, Pol. V
6. Symbol Rate 6.25 Mbps

Fig. 12.3: uplinking and downlinking

22

SATELLITE SERVICES:
1.Fixed satellite services(FSS):
Point to point transmissions not intended for direct public reception.In users are
transparent to satellite connections.FSS are generally network oriented services.
Intercontinental backbone network for telephonic data.Exchange of services(telephonic
data and tv programmes).
2. Broadcast satellite services(BSS):
User oriented services where the in usre met the satellite connections.
APPLICATIONS:
Satelite tv(Digital video broadcast)
Digital audio broadcaster
Satellite internet services
3. Mobile satellite services
Further mobile satellite services are classified into following
categories:
1. Land Mobile Satellite Services (LMSS)
2. Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Services (AMSS)
3. Maritime Mobile Satellite Services(MMSS)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE SERVICES:

The advantages of satellite communication over terrestrial communication are:
The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds that of a terrestrial system.
Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of the distance from the center of
the coverage area.
Satellite to Satellite communication is very precise.
Higher Bandwidths are available for use.
The disadvantages of satellite communication:
Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up.
There is a larger propagation delay in satellite communication than in terrestrial
communication.

23

CHAPTER : 13
ANTENNAS
Antenna (or aerial) is a transducer that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves. In other
words, antennas convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical current, or vice versa.
Antennas generally deal in the transmission and reception of radio waves.
Types of antenna:
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
A typical parabolic antenna consists of a parabolic reflector with a small feed antenna at
its focus. To find the focus, reflect the light of a flashlight off of the dish. When the
reflected beam is parallel, the flashlight is at the focus.
The reflector is a metallic surface formed into a paraboloid of revolution and (usually)
truncated in a circular rim that forms the diameter of the antenna. This paraboloid possesses a
distinct focal point by virtue of having the reflective property of parabolas in that a point
light source at this focus produces a parallel light beam aligned with the axis of revolution.
The feed antenna at the reflector's focus is typically a low-gain type such as a half-wave
dipole or a small waveguide horn.

24

Fig.13.1 : parabolic reflector antenna

25

CHAPTER : 14
EARTH STATION(CONCEPT):
An earth station, ground station, or earth terminal is a terrestrial terminal station designed for
extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft, and/or reception of radio waves from an
astronomical radio source. Earth stations are located either on the surface of the Earth, or within
Earth's atmosphere. Earth stations communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving
radio waves in the super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands (e.g., microwaves).
When an earth station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft (or vice versa), it
establishes a telecommunications link.
Earth stations may occupy either a fixed or itinerant position. The ITU Radio Regulations
describes various types of earth stations, stationary and mobile, and their interrelationships.
Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with satelliteschiefly
communications satellites. Other earth stations communicate with manned space stations or
unmanned space probes. An earth station that primarily receives telemetry data, or that follows a
satellite not in geostationary orbit, is called a tracking station.
When a satellite is within an earth station's line of sight, the earth station is said to have a view of
the satellite. It is possible for a satellite to communicate with more than one earth station at a
time. A pair of earth stations are said to have a satellite in mutual view when the stations share
simultaneous, unobstructed, line-of-sight contact with the satellite

Fig .14.1: earth station

26

CHAPTER : 15
DD Direct + DTH
DD Direct : Carries all channels of DD directly to homes.
+

: Also carries few private channels and radio channels of AIR.

Features
Cost effective alternate to cable TV.
One time expenditure for procuring receive system by viewer.
No monthly/activation charges from subscriber.
No smart card/CAM module required for reception.
Receive Eqpt. consists of a 60 /90 cm Dish Antenna, a Block converter and a Set Top
Box (STB). STB readily available in the open market.
Dealers of the equipment available all over the country.
Indicative cost of the receive system Rs 3000 to Rs 3500.
Cost likely to come down further with volumes.

Fig .15.1: dd direct plus

27

CHAPTER : 16
CONCLUSION
The television transmission consists of inception of signal, encoding, decoding and receiving at
required place. A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including
those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is
properly called a monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use different
technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV).
Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of
weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous.
Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using NTSC, PAL or SECAM
analog encoding and then modulate this signal onto a VHF or UHF carrier. In India, Phase
Altrenating by Line (PAL) technique is used for television broadcasting.
Broadcasting starts from Camera present in studio, from where it goes to Camera control units
(CCUs). From CCUs signals move to Vision Mixer. Editing is done here using Character
Generator. VTR output is also given to VM. Then the signal goes to MSR and then through
Earth Station it is transmitted to satellite (say INSAT 4B). This satellite signal is received by
T.V. tower, which then transfers it to Antenna. From Antenna the receiver receives the signal
and the process gets completed.

In my Industrial training at Doordarshan Kendra, PATNA, I had gained useful knowledge which
will surely be of great help in future. This training gave me an opportunity to learn the practical
aspects of the knowledge of my field of interest, Electronics and communication.

28

REFERENCES
1. www.ddkpatna.com
2. Data provided by faculty
3. Classroom notes
4. Communication system by Simon Hykin
5. Satellite communication by Monojit Mitra
6. Satellite communication by Dhram Raj Cheruku
7. Analog communication systems by wayne tomasi

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