Footbridges

Construction

Design

History

Ursula Baus, Mike Schlaich

With photographs by Wilfried Dechau

Birkhauser

Basel Boston' Berlin

Contents

6 About this Book

8 Bridges and Pictures

10 Characterization of the Footbridge

C on st ru c li on . lorm , Ili ... t on

14 Parameters and Structural Design

128 Urban Renovation

Pl'dc ~ triJn ... R l' C OIHllh-'r

148 The Bridge as Interior Space

os t

lc-rrain

Pr ut t l t ion from \Vind .tnt! \\\ '.ltIH'I"

158 Covered and Enclosed Bridges

162 The Call for Symbols

.\1ill cllll iulll

,lIHI "1 vcnt -."

Brid gl... vt t r. t \ttvoti oll .1. .. le-on s"

18 Retrospective

58 Con struction as an Ethical Maxim

70 Taking Lightness to the Limit

104 Experiments In Construction

Bigger, last cr, Further

Prestressed Concrct c l'ost -War and

Wah-r-t h in St avs and Filigree

Structural Hype and its Erkets since till' 1970s

Traffic, Architect and Engineer

the Prohibit ion or Ornament

Cabl Bridges

82 Stress Ribbon Bridges

100 Dynamics, Vibrations

116 Curved Bridges

180 Play Stations

196 Landscape, Gardens

214

Footbridges

248

References

h)lding, Tilting, Lifting, Turning

Bridges as Garden Orn.mu-nt s

120 Furopean Examples

250

Index

Bridge Designl'rs I{e'luire Mechanical Engineers

Parks and Landscape

255

Picture Credits

192 Loadbearing St ruct ures fo r M oveable Bridges

About this Book

In his int ro duct ion to th e 19 84 re pr int of Georg Meh r tens' classic,

Der Deutsche Briickenbau im XIX. Jahrhundert , which was fir st published in

1900 ,

much of a place in ou r selec t ion as th ose deSign ed to delight th e eye with

or name nt . But mor e about thi s later .

Er nst Werner com me nte d succi nc tly : "It is the fate of bridges th at

serv e only th e ped estrian sim ply to be overl ooked in th e chrono logy of
br idgebuilding." It was not until th e new m illennium that th is began to
change somewhat

not least becaus e a rema rkabl y large nu mb er of citie s

Approach
This book pr esents arou nd

90

footbrid ges in a latent ch ro nology. By

"late nt ", we mean that we have not blindl y foll ow ed th eir exact dat es,

saw th e beginning of a new er a as an occ asio n to poli sh up their imag e

preferring to explain th eir variety in te r ms of more co mp lex relationsh ips

with a "m illen nium br idge". A bibliogr aphi c searc h on th e subjec t of

th at can best be grasped th ematicall y. After all , some ty pes of structu re

bri dges car r ied out in th e German Nati onal Library at th e beginning of

are the result of tech nologic al or scie nt ific developments linked to

20 0 7

re t urned a total of around

2, 5 0 0

publicat ion s. Wh en th e searc h term

particula r per iod s, while other appr oac hes to deSign belon g to ages with a

was rest r ict ed to footbridges, th e cat alogue produced 31 titles, of wh ich a

particular way of expressi ng form . At on e t ime th e engi nee rs are spu r re d

considerable number were bibliog raph ic lists o f essays and articles. T he

on to achieve ever lighter st ru ctu res; at another th e arch itect s re alise th e

huge discr epancy in the results is partly explaine d by the fact that bridges

br idge's effectivenes s as a qua si-hom o eop ath ic me an s of rep airing the

have a gr eat metaphorical and symbo lic value , and thu s appe ar in count-

dam aged townscape, and at yet anothe r th e br idge as a tech ni cal ar tefact

less titles relating to politics and soc iety. The lit erature on footbridges is

is sublima te d to th e aest hetic of an Arcadi an landscape . T he hi st or y of

sparse at an int ernational level too . Apart from th e published pro ceed ing s

foot br idge co nstructio n is th er efor e a prime exam ple of how th e h isto ri es

of two co nfere nces and th efi b gUidelines of

of tec hno log y, ar t and th e world in ge neral overla p , and we wanted to

20 0 5,

no attempt has yet been

mad e to focus exclusively on this sm all and impressively var ied type of
str uct ure . With this book , we hop e to have mad e a mod est star t .
T he idea of writing a book about bridges that ar e for th e sole use of
peopl e on foot - or at m ost on bicycles - excite d us grea tly. We hop e th at

take into acco unt th e complex int erplay bet ween t hem.
The speciali st knowledge of the struct ural eng inee r co mes to th e
fore in essays that ex plain th e technical aspects in stra ightfor wa rd and
under st and able langu age, so th at anybo dy ca n underst and th e aesth eti c

engi nee rs, architect s, land scape ar ch itect s and tow n planner s will find it

poten tial th at is inh er ent in a pa rticular st r uct u ra l deSign . Finally there is

sti mulating , and that the lay reade r will find it ju st as appealing.

a co mpe ndium , listed by location, of a fu rther

We wanted to give as bro ad a view as possible of foot bridge

120

foot bridges th at we had

no space to dis cu ss in detail. We hop e it will provide a sta rting point for

co nstruct ion in Europe without being tied to any cur rent ideology or

rea de rs who want to disco ver more for th em selves aft er t h is fir st glimpse

do ct rine. Br idges that str ive for perfection as structures alone have as

of a fascinating area of bridgebuildin g.

Selection

Acknowledgements

Which bridges should we discuss in greater detail - and for what

To venture upon the first ever study, however limited, of the

reasons? One thorny question followed another. We had no intention of

construction, design and history of any type of structure is a daring, not

hiding the fact that one of this book's authors works for Schlaich

to say crazy, undertaking, and we would never have begun it if we had

Bergermann and Partners, a practice which to date has built more than

not been able to count on assistance from many quarters. For their

50 footbridges, but as a quick glance at the book will confirm, there was

advice and information we would like to thank Jan Biliszczuk, Berthold

no question of using it as a showcase for their work. So it was back to the

Burkhardt, Keith Brownlie, Dirk Buhler, Jurg Conzett, Cornel Doswald,

difficult decisions. We selected bridges of relevance to one or another

Sergej Fedorov, Andreas Kahlow, Andreas Keil, Martin Knight, Jorg

aspect of the relatively short history of the footbridge; bridges that

Reymendt, Jorg Schlaich, Klaus Stiglat, Rene Walther and Wilhelm

appealed to us both (or to one of us, at least); bridges that are unequalled

Zellner. Without the energetic and support and encouragement of

in some way; bridges that could certainly be improved; bridges that

Auyon Roy, Simone Hiibener and Andrea Wiegelmann, this book would

demonstrate courage in construction, astuteness in design, or an

never have appeared in

infallible sense of form. We made a point of seeing all of the bridges

We would also like to thank our knowledgeable translators, Chris Rieser

ourselves (with a few exceptions), as did our photographer, who enjoyed

and Richard Toovey.

our complete confidence.

Our selection is necessarily incomplete, subjective and open to
argument - completeness was never our aim. We admit that our view,

2007 -

and might not even have made it in

2008.

In addition, our special thanks go to Wilfried Dechau, who

discovered many bridges, especially older ones, during his constant
travels as our photographer; he would set off on account of one bridge

naturally, is one from the German-speaking countries. We were kept

and come back with seven. During the last few years he has taken new

busy enough just by having to work together as an engineer and an ar-

photographs of almost all of the bridges in this book - a labour whose

chitectural critic: a rare combination, in which agreement is certainly

documentary value to the study of the history of footbridges cannot be

not reached without argument first, but ultimately we succeeded because

overestimated.

we both had the will to make it work.

Ursula Baus, Mike Schlaich, July

2007

Kronsforde, bridge over the Elbe-Trave Canal, 1959

This meant t aking up-to -date photographs of as many of the bridges

featured in it as poss ible. T he illustrations that the authors had managed
to collec t up to that point wer e very disparate , so it was going to be
difficult to produ ce a book that would be pleasant t o look at . The idea of
starting again from scratc h and giving the book a consiste nt photograph ic
identity th er efor e eliminated a lot of problem s at on e st ro ke .
It was clear that thi s could onl y be done to a cer tain degree. Trips

to Coimbra and London, for example, turned out to be unn ecessar y,

since outstanding ph ot os of th ese bridges had alr eady been tak en by
Christian Richters , Nick Wood and James Mor ris . It also seem ed out of
proportion to m ake a long trip through Nor way for a few bridges far
apar t , when plenty of photos of th em alr eady ex iste d . Not to mention th e
problem of time travel : some br idges no long er existed, because they had
be en built for special events, and in th ese cases we were fortunate in
being able to use photos taken pr eviously by Leo van dcr Kleij and Florian
Holzher r. That still left plenty to do, however . All the same , we were not
really aware that we had let ourselves in for an almost end less task. I cam e
back from every journey with at least twice as many bridges as I had been

Bridges and
Pictures

At th e age of IS, with the fir st singl e-l ens reflex ca me ra of my ver y

expec t ing to find on the basis of th e source material. On my trav els, alm ost

own, I naturally took shots of th e area around my parent's hous e. That

every one I talked to about the objects of my inter est had a suggest ion to

included th e bridge across th e Elbe-Trave Canal. I crossed this bridge

make . And so the itinerary became ever longer and, at the sam e t im e,

every day on th e way to school and I could see it from my room . Of

more fruitful. My thanks ar e du e abov e all to Martin Knight and Cornel

course, it would be going too far to say that this was the origin of my

Do sw ald, from whos e ex pe r t ise I ben efited in Engl and and Switzerland.

affinity for bridges . My enthusiasm for looking at bridges through the

Th e mo st ad venturous discovery for me personally was , by th e way,

med ium of photography was (re -)awakened 30 years later on, when I

thanks to Bill and Alison Landale, my bed-and-breakfast hosts in Ellem -

photographed th e Max Eyt h Lake footbridge by Jorg Schlai ch . In [989,

ford, Berwickshir e , without whom I would never, ever, have found th e

this was a welcome and relaxing diversion for me from th e routine of

un commonly delicate and apparently fragil e - yet astonishingly pr acti cal-

conventional archite ct ure photography. I recently revisit ed th e bridge to

suspension bridges across th e River Esk (see p . [98) .

photograph it again for this book (see p . 92) .

In spit e of that refreshing int ermezzo, bridges remained an exce ption

It can, on the other hand, be quite frustrating to have to ask for in-

formation in order to find a ce r t ain bridge. It then becomes clear how

in my work. This changed with the building of the Storeba elt (Great Belt)

mu ch people's perceptions of o ne and th e sam e bridge can differ . In

bridge in Denmark : I visit ed th e site many times between [996 and 1998

Maidstone, for example , neither th e name "Millennium Bridge", nor

to record the exciting process of building what was, for a br ief period,

words like "susp ension cabl e", "con cret e" or "ne w" were of mu ch help in

th e susp ension bridge with th e long est fr ee span in the world . I managed

finding out which way to go . Not to m ention th e name of th e bridge 's en-

to get a lot of int eresting shots , some of which were shown in th e briicken-

gineer, Jiri Strasky. Ever yone who we asked direct ed us to a cabl e-stayed

schlag exhibition in
2004,

2000,

and in a photo calendar. They wer e follow ed, in

by a project on th e Traversiner footbridge. This gave me a uniqu e

opportunity to photograph work on sit e in th e Grisons Alps every day for

a period of several months. Its immediate results wer e a book and exhibi-

bridge, wh ich , although it was also called the Mill ennium Bridge, had
nothing in com mon with the one that I was looking for, except that it,
too, crossed th e River Medway - at th e other end of the town .
Int ernet route planners are also of limited use , since th eir purpose

tion about the Trav ersiner footbridge. At the same tim e, plans for this

is to give directions to drivers - who have, of course, no need of foot -

bo ok by it s two authors wer e gaining substance, and I gradually came to

bridges. The most reliable sources of information ar e topographic maps,

th e decision that my camera and I should take an activ e part her e too .

but th ey ar e not alwa ys to hand - or, at least, not all of those that ar e

Vagli di Satt a, bridge by Riccard o Morandi. 5 June 2007, 12.20 and 13.27

needed . And even th en , t hey ar c o nly of usc if t hey ar e up -t o -dat e . O ne

"" am ple o f th is was th e footb r idge ove r t he Bregenzer Ach r iver near
Lan gen a ru l ltu ch . T he se tw o villages lie five kilometres apart, as t he
c ro w fI ics. Th e footpath winds alon g th e valley for st ret ches, pet ering
o ut in meado ws amo ng herds of co ws. T he older peopl e in t he yill age
st ill rem em be r a br idge t hat was th er e wh en th ey wer e child ren . A
spri ng flood washed it away one night. But a little bit fu r t her up stream ,
t hcv tell me , th er e is ano t her o ne like it , ncar Fischbach and Doren - and
th at o ne is sti ll sta nd ing. Off I go aga in . My nayigat ion system kn o ws
Illan ~'

Fischbachs, but no ne of t hem nea r Bregenz . The faint hop e th at

Illlight find sig npos ts to thi s, th e only bridge in th e vicinit y, pr oyes, as

it so oft en has, to be naive. Signposts tell you about places to get to , not
\\ a~'s

of get t ing th ere . In ot her word s: th e next villag e , and not a bridge

on o ne of th e ways to it . T he except ion docs proye th e r ule , of co u rse ,

and o nce , looking fo r a suspe nsion bridge across th e Subersac h nea r Egg,
I d id find a signpost t hat said Wire bridge - l.inq enau,
T his at least con fir me d th at th e br idge st ill existed and was passable ,
so th e walk th ere car r ying a heavy cam er a was not going t o be co mplete lv in vain . alt hou gh you never know wh ether it is go ing to be worth th e
effort unt il you act uall y get t o th e bridge. O nly th en do yo u sec , if it is an

o n ly o ne hour apa rt, of R iccard o Morand i' s bridge in Vagli d i Sot to ,

old brid ge , how mu ch of it has sur vived and in what co nd it ion - and how

wh ich is set exqu isitely in th e land scap e . Th e fir st , whi ch I took sho r tl y

mu ch it st ill has in co m mo n with th e o r igina l design . Warning signs ad-

befor e a stor m , shows sh im me r ing green wat er th at is as smooth as a

yisin g ped estrian s t o cross o ne at a time ca n be an ind icat io n th at th e

m irror, wh er eas in th e seco nd , taken as it began, th e su rfa ce has becom e

br idge is in its o r igin al state , but this is not necessaril y so . All th at is

matte , cr iss-c r ossed by fin e ripples.

cer tain, in t hat case , is th at it ha s no t been spoi led by in sensiti ve

re in fo rceme nt or ren ovati on . The Kettenst eg in Nu rem berg , for exam p -

O ne of th e last journeys th at I mad e for th is bo ok took me to Bilbao

in Jun e

2 0 07 .

Upon ente r ing my ho tel ro om , I har dl y believe my eyes.

lc, Illay appc ar t o hang fro m its chains, but it is now suppo r ted in a

Above th e bed hu ng a d r aw ing of an old , asymm et ri cal footbr idge : one

d ifferent way. T he faint -of-hea r t would nevertheless be well advised not

th at I had never see n before , alt ho ugh I had t ravelled to over

to t read heavilv wh en th ey cr oss this parti cul ar bridge. Th at co u ld set it

in th e previou s three yea rs. Did it perh aps cros s th e Ncrvion r iver ? In

swaying and oscill ating badl y - not dangerously so any more, but not

Bilbao ? Wh en ? Where ? I co uld see , as it wer e , th e w rit ing on th e wall :

ever y sto m ach can co pe w ith it. Aft er a taking a fir st look around, I

o bviously, even if severa l ph ot ograph ers wer e to spend a furth er three

check o ut th e bri dge . Go o n it ; look dow n. Walk across. Get dow n off it

years on t h is qu est, t hey woul d st ill encounter u nknown st ru ct ures . Th e

at t he ot her side , if possibl e . See w hat is suppo r t ing it and how - t hen

next sur pr ise came hard o n its heels, wh en I t ra cked down th e place in

wh ere and how th e loads ar e di stributed an d ult im at ely t ran sferred t o

Bilbao where , acco rdi ng to t he hot el sta ff, th e bridge had o nce st ood .

20 0

bridges

t he abutme nts . Fir st I look , th en I t ake t he ph otos. The weat her and th e

W hat I found was an ar ched co ncre te br idge (w hich up t o th en had bee n

light arc im portant fact or s, without a doubt. O n ly on ce , in Maid st one ,

comp letely u nknown t o us) that co nnec te d to t wo differ ent level s o n th e

d id I have to st ifle th e pangs o f co nscience and set tl e for ph ot og raph s

higher bank o f th e riv er in an except ionally clever way (see p. H ) . O f

taken in bad weather. Th er e wa s no sign of an improyem en t and I had a

co u rse , we had m et a bridge of this t yp e before : it see ms lik ely th at th e

plan e to cat ch at Heath row air por t . Even in r ain , the bridge it self m akes

Bilbao bridge was known to Marc Mimram, t o whom we owe th e Pont

a goo d impression , as can be seen o n page 76 .

de Solfer ino in Pari s.

Wh at ever one ph ot ogr aph s, it can only be "sho w n in th e best light"

if t he weat her coo pe r ate s. This is clea r to see in two expos u re s, taken

Wilfried D ech au , 20 07

Cha racterization

Voce quis salter? Did you want to jump?

Pascal Mercier. v ght Tram to Lisbon

Looking at the history of bridgebuilding as part of architectural

(with all of the consequences that this involves for large-scale bridge

history, we see that today's comparatively distinct and unquestioned

construction), but a human being, whether standing, walking or jumping,

differentiation between footbridges and other types of bridge came about

remains a constant factor in the equation. To this extent, the interplay of

slowly at first, and by no means constantly. The history of footbridges is

technical progress, imagination and functional variety in the case of

linked to that of bridgebuilding in general- sometimes more so, some-

footbridges is open to other influences, which bring forth an inexhaustible

times less - and this is one of the aspects that make it so interesting to

variety of distinctive designs. It is a brief that again and again allows

study the footbridge on its own, as a type of bridge in its own right. In

more to be done than providing a mere footbridge - the degree to which

order to define the characteristics of the footbridge, which of course has

credit for this is due to architects, or structural engineers, or both,

a longer history than the road bridge, we need to look at when its typology

becomes clear only upon examination of individual cases.

began to differ from that of large-scale bridges. This occurred towards

the end of the r Sth century, when Enlightenment thought, science, early

What happens on a footbridge, anyway? Not feeling firm ground

industrialization and the increasing importance of the economy

underfoot usually indicates a precarious situation. At the same time, a

stimulated rapid technological and social change, together with a growth

swaying surface, or a narrow pathway, can also produce a shiver of

in mobility and traffic. In the 19th century, advances in transport

excitement when we have to let ourselves in for more or less perceptible

technology began to exert a fundamental influence on bridgebuilding,

oscillations, or glimpses into a yawning abyss. Bridgebuilders have to

with ever-higher standards required for road and rail. These new, high-

live with the awkward fact that people react to oscillations and heights in

performance modes of transport made fresh demands on bridge

very different ways: some may become dizzy with euphoria, while others

construction, in response to which a specially qualified expert in bridge-

may find their knees turning to jelly.

building appeared on the scene

the structural engineer - whose

profession quickly acquired a coherent profile.

Footbridges were only indirectly affected by these technological

Footbridges are generally built to satisfy a tendency to laziness, a

love of convenience, or a joy in contemplation; whether they cross rivers,
streets or valleys, their main purpose is still to shorten the route from

changes and from this point onwards their development took a course of

one place to another. Only in very rare cases is it the thrill of danger, or

its own. After all, trains today may reach speeds of 400 km/h or more

the temptation to be free of the ground, that motivates people to build

and the volume of road traffic may require six, eight, or even ten lanes

them.

12

Characterization

Tarr Steps, Exmoor, earlier than 1000 BC

Maki ng th ese shor tc uts not onl y safe enough even for sleepwalkers,

enginee r s find th em selve s out of their depth, inasmuch as th ey have

but also pleasant to walk across , is an important part of th e bri ef wh en

received far to o little exposure to design-related topics of this sor t

designing a footbridge. Of course, th e basic principle applies : a bridge

during their studies. Mer ely calling upon th e rep eatedly quot ed Vitruvian

should be st r uct urally sound , easy to maintain and che ap . All th e sam e, a

terms utilitas, firm itas and venustas is not of th e slight est help in enriching

lot more can be achi eved by paying attention to cr ite r ia such as an appro-

t he world of contem porary building. Anyone who seriously demands that

priate route , attractive view s, a co m for table environ ment and a memo-

a structure be useful and sta ble and beautiful mak es them selve s as

rable app earance. A footbr idge's balu strades , parapets , hand rails , surfac-

laughable as a politician who , quoting Go ethe , says that Man is nobl e,

ing, niches and balconies should take into accou nt that people will not

helpful and good . Even when th ey do not app ear banal , Vitruvius' terms

onl y walk across it, but would also like to stop for a moment, lean against

no long er have a definite sub stance to offer . The ar chitects' situation

it, rest on it, sit down and look around, or just be alon e - and tha t what-

mirrors th at of th e engineers : th ey are given a basic understanding of

ever th ey do, they will touch it . Thus, a footbridge does not remain just a

structural th eory as stude nts , but rarely devel op it into an ability to design

bridge , but matures int o a jogging track, a boulevard, a promenade, a

structures. Of all things , th en, it is th e mod est footbridge , a class of

pla ce for a rendezvous and , finally, a landmark . Last but not least, light-

structure comparable in st atus to the semi-det ached hous e, whi ch on

ing design has a prominent part to play, as pedestrians expe r ience night-

account of its complex characte ris t ics puts th e much-vaunted cooperation

t ime illumination in a completely differ ent way from a car driver conce n -

between ar chitect s and engine ers to the test . One of th e professions is

trating on the road. W ith such a variety of tasks, standard solutions seldom

defend ing a source of income; the other is hungry for new one s.

prov e satisfa ctory. The basic types of structure as such ar e in no way adequ ate to meet all of th e differ ent requirem ents. In order to achi eve a de-

For us (an architecture cr it ic and a str uc t ural engineer) th e most

impor t ant thing is the result ; we exam ine each case to sec wher e credit is

sign that is more than just the shortest way of con nec ti ng two points, it is

du e and we can recommend, both from our own expe r ience and in gen -

best to vary th em, combine th em and develop th em expe r imentally. This

eral, aiming for amity and lively debate. The fact that the footbridge, such

naturally stimulates the design ambitions of the structural engineer, but

an unpret entious structure, is still capable of exper imental and imagina-

th e ar chitect and the landscape designer also feel called upon to take over

tive development, in spite of all of th e standards and regulations, makes

engi nee ring's choicest task. In matters relating to atmosphere, significant

up much of its charm . This applies throughout Europe , wh er e a jungle of

forms and th e sensory effec ts of material properties , mo st structural

rules and red tap e makes building a complicated and expensive business.

A simple suspension bridge (c. 1890) near Ardez in Switzerland. It can be crossed by only one person at a time.

13

14

Characten anon

Paramete rs and Structural Design

Users experience footbridges much more

alsoopens up new possibilities for emphasizing

longer bridges. Statistics show that such crowding

directly than road or railway bridges. As we cross a

the spatial geometry of the structure. Walkable

(5 kN/m2 is equivalentto 6 people per square

footbridge, we can touch the structure and study

arches and stress ribbon bridges are therefore

metre) is very improbableon a long bridge deck.

the details, thereby allowing us to gras p the struc-

possible design alternatives for footbridges,

As pedestrians are much less sensitive to deflections

ture fully in every sense of the word. These are

although it should be noted that deck gradients

than road or railway traffi c, footbridges may be

bridgesto be to uched. Thedesign freedom for the

greater than 6 percent present problems for

much more slender and lightweight than road or

structural engineer is much more pronounced than

w heelchair users. It is not simply the maximum

railway bridges. Becauseof this, footbr idgesare

for road or rail bridges in spite of some parameters

slope that presents a problem, but the potential

often lively, and dynamic analysis of the structure

particularto footbridge structures. This design

energy required to overcome the slope. This may

should be carried out in the early phases of the

freedom is a welcome and exhilarating challenge.

be expressed asthe inverse of the product of the

design.

In this section, the issues unique to footbridge de-

length and slope. Alternative pathways must be

sign will be summarized briefly. Additional infor-

offered for wheelchair users where there are steep

mation can be found in the technical overviews

deck gradients or stairways.

and the referen ces, which provide an introduction

to the technical literature.

Dimensions
Most pedestrian bridges are narrow, with

TheThird Dimension

decks between of 3 and 4 m. As a rule of thumb,

Pedestrian bridgesallow the design to break

30 pedestrians per minute for every metre of deck

free of the linearity of high-speed traff ic, whose

w idth can cross the bridge without impeding one

bridge decks generally attempt to join two points

another. Even with the largestcrowds, this figure

separated by an obstacle asdirectly as possi ble.

rarely reaches 100 pedestrians per minute. Most

Thegeometry of the bridge deck in the horizon-

European codes call for a minimum deck width of

tal plane can be chosen freely and may be quite

2 m for bridges open to pedestrian and cycle

curved. A spatial experience may be achieved by

traffic.

the suspension of the bridge deck, by a move-

Given these pedestrian densities, it is surpri-

able bridge, or by the intersection of multiple

sing that the pedestrian live load of 5 kN/m 2 called

pathways.

for in most European codes is roughly equal to the

Thegeometry of the gradient of the bridge

deck may also be relatively freely chosen, w hich

loading of the main lane of a roadway bridge.

In many countries, this load may be reduced for

Load testing - where numerical calculations cannot replace the intuition and experience of the engineer, here on site for the construction of the footbridge in Sassnitz

15

16

Charactenzanon

Materials and struct ure

give the usera sense of safety. It often seems

In addition to asphalt and concrete, many

appropriate to integrate the lighting system into

other materials can be used asdeck surfacing. For

the handrails or railing posts, just asthe shadows

timber surfacing, the danger of slipping should be

cast from the railing effect the visual impression of

considered, especially if the wood planksfollow

the deck during the day. New materials and

the longitudinal direction of the structure. The

innovative structuralsystems are often more readily

moisture expansion of the wood must also be

approved by the owners and local administrations

taken into account. Grating surfaces are cheap,

than large bridges w here the total risk and costs

allow light to pass through the deck and do not

are much higher.

require drainage . They are, however, difficult

surfaces to cross for pedestrians who are barefoot
or wearing high heels. Laminated glass surfaces

Freedom of design
Bridge desig n has long been regarded asthe

must have a high level of opacity to prevent people

most rigorous in the challenging field of civil

below from viewing through the deck. Glass

engineering. With the smaller scale of footbridges,

surfacing is primarily found in interior spacesor for

bridge designers can finally let their hair dow n and

covered footbridges.

t ruly indulge their creative side. Self-critical engi-

Railings require particular attention and

neers often seek advice from architects, industrial

must be at least 1.2 m for bridgesopen to cyclists.

designers, and landscape architects for design

The railing should be designed to withstand a

issues such asthe integration of the structure into

transverse load of 1 kN/m applied at the height of

the surrounding environment, the light, colour,

the handrail. Because of the height of the guard-

and feel of the structure. In cases w here the

rails, they are often incorporated into the global

engineers and architects in the design have a good

structural system of the bridge. The design of the

history of cooperation between one another, the

handrail has an important impact on the visual

traditional roles of architect and engineer become

impression of the bridge. The railing may appear

blurred to the benefit of the overall project.

either opaque or transparent from afar and must

It is often said of large bridgesthat "a bridge

St Gallen-Haggen, Bridgeover the Sitter, Rudolf Dick, 1937'

is no destination". Thisis however not at all true

for the designof footbridges. The pedestrian
should rememberhis or her experience crossing
the structureas being particularlypleasant. The
footbridge designs of the lastfew years have
shown just how much is possible in bridge design.
The increasingly large number of designcompetitions hasshown how seriously the design of these
structures is taken. Thechallenge of structural innovation, the audacityof competition, and the
owner's desire to createa landmarkstructure
often overshootthe goal. Bridges that aredesigned
to impress often breakwith rational technical
designtenets. We haveto admit that thesetechnicallyunreasonable structuresmay becomequite
impressive given the right lighting and spatialperspectives but must not be taken asdesignideal.
Thedesignteam should not overlook the
role of the structuralsystem asa catalystfor the
diversityof footbridge design. Moreover, the
developmentof the appropriatestructure, given
the surroundingenvironment, functional requirements, or the additional requirements of the

1 Dick, Rudolf. Von der Sitter-

owner, must be seen asthe central challenge of

brikke Haggen-Stein bei SI.

the project.

Gallen, in: 5chweizerische Bauzeitung, 118, 1941, pp 122-123

Retros pective

Truly, opposing what is customary is a thankless task.

Heinrich Heine

Any general history of bridge construction inevitably begins with

manoeuvre. Because people experience the built environment much

footbridges. The search for the origins of bridgebuilding has so far taken

more slowly and with greater immediacy on foot than they do in cars or

us back to early civilizations in China, Mesopotamia and South America.

trains, this freedom was used, then as now, in a cultural, time-dependent

There is archaeological evidence of simple suspension bridges for those

sense: intuition and experience, experimentation and science; displays

with a steady head for heights, small timber beam bridges and stone slab

of magnificence; gracefulness and bareness - these are the themes that,

walkways for people and animals, like those at Tarr, Exmoor, or in Post-

in retrospect, are of specific relevance to the history of footbridges.

bridge on Dartmoor, and Lavertezzo in Switzerland (see p. 20). It may

They do not replace each other in sequence, but rather add to a growing

well be that globally accessible Internet data banks, such as Structurae,

wealth of design and structural concepts, which the present age can

Bridgemeister and Briickenweb, are creating a riew basis for writing a

draw upon and continue to work with.

more reliable history of early bridgebuilding. That is neither within the

capacity of this book, nor is it our intention.
Our interest begins explicitly with the time in which traffic-related
requirements resulted in quantum leaps in bridgebuilding and also in the
birth of structural engineering as a definable profession -- one that has
dominated the construction of footbridges, too, to this day. It soon
becomes clear that the qualifications and professional ethos of the
structural engineer were determined to a great degree by each new
means of transport: first the railway train, with bridges and vast station
sheds, then the car, with gigantic motorway bridges. Cost-effectiveness,
too, played an increasingly important part, which limited the structural
engineer's freedom to play with forms in order to achieve a particular,
contemporary design. Looking back over the development of the footbridge in comparison, we see that the relationship between construction,
material, form and cost-effectiveness allowed much greater room for

20

Retrospective

The mediaeval stone bridge at La vertezzo in the Verzasca valley, Switzerland

Bigger, faster, further - traffic, architect and engineer

Ever since traffic and its technical requirem ents began to drive

canal and bridgebuilding from the hands of the ari sto cracy, tradesm en' s

innovation in large-scale bridge constr uction , th e footb rid ge has devel oped

associ ations and religious orders . His aim was to make it better and ,

along a re cognizably sepa rate path. The small-scale structure for human

abov e all , efficie nt , as part of a poli cy of centr aliz at ion under the absolute

be ings and animals g radually became som ething special. Build ing it

monarchy. Once again, politi cs was driving developments in th e

rem ain ed nonetheless the responsibility of struct ural engineers . Their

construct ion industry. T he process had begun in 1716 with th e establish-

profession al identity change d rep eatedl y from the mid-rsth century

ment of an engineer ing corps, from which the l:cole Nationale des Ponts

onwards, as exper ience wa s arrange d in a syste mat ic framewo rk,

et Ch aussees was later cre ate d . Man y parts of th e country be cam e mor e

th eoreti cal knowledge grew expo nent ially and economics put pr essure

acc essibl e : at the beginning of th e i Sth cent ur y, t he stone bridges in

on t he construction industry. This becom es evide nt if we outline how

France had number ed ar ou nd 600 , but by 1790, 400 more had been bu ilt,

things stood towards th e end of th e isth ce nt u r y.

whil e th e number of wooden bridges do ubled during the same period.'

Th e militar y had alr eady started cr uci al initiatives to advance knowledg e

Economy in bridgebui lding

of ro adbui lding and for t ress construct ion in th e 17th century; th ese

On 14 February 1747, Jean- Rodolphe Perronet was appointe d head

resulted in th e founding of a military engineering school in Mezier es in

of th e newly found ed Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees (National

1736 .2Colbert th en drew a fateful co nclusion : he postulated that eco nomy

School of Bridges and Roads) in Pari s. He wa s not merely an engineer, but

is essent ial for an infrastructure to be built up efficie ntly - and Perron et ,

also an ext raordi nar ily tal ented organizer and an important contributor

of all people, rai sed economy of m ate ri al to th e sta t us of an aesthetic

to an ambitious ly planned compe ndi um of knowl edg e : th e encyclopaedia

principl e. Towards the end of h is working life, he pr ided him self on

ed ite d by d 'Alembert und Diderot . Per ron et took th e ar t of building

having been th e first to give works of ar t a form "qui ti re de I' economic

Berrey, Bern ard: l.cs Pout s

Mod crncs, ,8(' - ' 9(' siccles,

Paris, ' 9 90 , p. 2~f.;

Grclo n . Stuc k, 19 9 4 , p. 84

(wh ich even now we keep wanting to see as an inviolate who le) and split it

de mati ere un moyen de dccoration'l.r The efficie nt use of material it self

with an axe that has continued in use to this day: eco nomics. Adm itted ly,

bec ame an aesthet ic cr iterion, the fir st step on a path that was to have

Stra ub, 1992, p. 16 3f.

3 Picon, An to in e: Pcr ro n ct ,

he d id so on orders from abov e : Jean -Baptiste Colbert , th e fin ance

immeasurable conse quences for (engineering) bridge construction and

in : L' ar-t de I'i ngen icu r, Par is

minister of th e Sun King, Loui s XIV, had decided to w re st contro l of road ,

later for ar chit ecture as a whole .

pp. 39 and 6of.

2 Ku r t -or; 2003, p.39;

1997, p . ~ 64 ; Mar -re v, ' 990 ,

Tarr Steps, Exmoor, 1000 BC

Thus th e Q!1erell e des A nciens et des Modern es, a peculiar di sagreement

Clapper Bridge, Postbridge, Dartmoor

assessm ent of archi tecture in gen er al (and of bridges in particular) up to

oyer reverenc e for Antiquity and the mod ern spir it of innovation th at

thi s da y. Ther e is, aft er all , no agreem ent about what a true construction

had broken out in liter ary cir cles half a ce nt ur y earl ier, was join ed by

mi ght be and wh ether , if it were taken t o mean so me t h ing like a right

anot her issu e. No soo ne r had enginee rs liber at ed th emselves fr om th e

constru ction , it would always also be beautiful.

dogma of clas sicism, th an design bec ame pervaded by th e co ncept o f

T he aes t het ics of eco nomy and th e truth of co nst r uct ion were

economy. This d id not change with th e degradation of th e EN PC t o a

ultimately join ed at ar o und th e same time by a furth er aspect , th at of

practi ce-oriented school and th e re-establishment of th e Ecole Polyte ch -

esteem for t he fun ctional. T his was th e work of an Itali an Fr an ciscan

niqu e for more acad emi c st ud ies. On th e cont ra ry: th e th eoret ical and

monk, C arlo Lodoli (16 90 -1761), who promoted th e opinion that arc h i-

pra cti cal branch es of th e new profession , t he eng inee r, drift ed eyer

te cture (which wh en referred to th en alwa ys included wh at we now

furth er apart. 4

t hi n k of se par ate ly as engineer ing con str uc t ion) shou ld be func t io nal. In
his w ritings, Lodoli relates fun ct ion less to th e ar ran gem ent of spa ces th an

Truth of Construction

to th e material di spla y of pu rposes. 6 Th ese topics belonging t o arc h ite c-

Th riftiness was a conce rn not ju st of th e Fren ch , but of th e English

tural theory pe netrated far into ar eas in whi ch th e im age of th e na scent

to o .\ It is also worth r em embering that a Jesuit sign ifican tly influen ced

st r uc t ural eng ineer ing professio n (in a narrow sense) was becoming

th e forma tion of op ini on in th e ar chitectural deb at es th at began in the

more sharply foc use d: intuition and ex pe r ience ; scienc e and eco no my.

m id-rxth century. In 17B , Marc Antoin e Laugi er, who was livin g in Pari s
(;rdon , Stu ck, 1994, p. 171'.

ibid. , p. X5"
6

Laugic r, Mar c Antoi ne, Essai

sur l'a rchitccturc , 170 /86;

Mc m mo, And rea (cd .}; Andre a

lodoli
7 Sc-hu t te. Ul rich, Baumeister

in Krieg und Friede n ,

Wo ll'enhiitt d,1984

It sho uld not be forgott en th at, for bridgebuilding espe cia lly,

as co ur t chaplain, published hi s Essai sur I'architect ure, on e of th e m ost

cr uc ial impulses came from th e military sph er e . Matters r el at in g in an y

important tex ts o n arc h itec t ura l th eor y of it s tim e . In it , Laugi er

way to visual appea rance had no part to play th ere , fun ctionality and

fulmina tes against pomp and di spla y and, taking as an exa mple a

effic iency being th e sole criteria for a way of building that event ually

tou chingly primitive hut co ns ist ing of four tree trunks , a pitched roo f and

develo ped a lon g and inv entive tradition ."

a bit of wattl e -and-daub, ex po unds on tru th of construction . This marks

th e fir st app earan ce of a te rm that ha s r emain ed hotly di sputed in th e

21

22

Retrospective

Cambridge, reconstruction of the bridge of 1749

Old Walton Bridge, oil painting by Canaletto, 1754

Intuition and Experience

In England and, above all , France , the technical and scie nt ific
aspects of construction played an ever great er part in defining the pr ofil e
of the engineer, who in principl e was also think ing econom ically. In Eng land, wh er e th er e was no institution comparabl e to th e Ecole Nationa le
des Ponts et Ch aussees, an attempt to educat e st udent s spe cifically in
const r ucti on was mad e by John Soan e (1753-1837) , th e best -known
architect in th e country, who became a professor at th e Royal Acad emy
in London in 180 6. He was alre ady greatly interested in bridgebuilding
wh en he set off on th e Grand Tour for th e first time in 1778. On th e way
to Rom e, he stopped off in Paris to visit Perronet and see hi s brand new
stone bridge , the Pont de Ncuilly, built in 1768 -74.' It was wooden bridges ,
how ever , that Soan e encountered on his return through Sw it zerla nd. The
history of wo od en br idge constr uc tion has many cele brate d str uct ures:
Julius Caesar's rather vaguely described bridge across th e Rhine, built
du ring his suc ces sful advance northwards through Europe;' th e Danube
bridges th at are carved on Trajan's colum n in Rom e and th e bridges
described by Alb erti: and Palladio - respectively - th e latter inspiring
cou nt less foo tbridges throughout Eu rop e .
Wooden bridge co nst r uct ion in England might best be represented by a

:\ \agg i, Navonc, zooj , P: II

Galus Julius Caesar, De hello

gallico

3 Alber ti, Leon Battista , Zdm

Bucher tiber die Baukunst , cd .
Max Thcuer, Dar mstadt ' 975,

small footbridge designed by William Ether idge (1707-1776) and built by

p. 202fT.

Jam es Essex in Cambridge in 1749 . Known as the "mathematical bridge",

4 Palladia, And rea, Die vier

Buch er zur Architektur, eds .

it also serv ed as a mod el for Garret Hostel Bridg e in Trinity College

Andreas Beyer and Ulr ich

Schutte , Zuri ch / Muni ch

(1769) and th e bridge at Iffley Lock in Oxford (1924) .

19'+( ') , P' 219fT.

23

Schaffhausen, 1795

Wett ingen, 1795

Hittisau. Kummabridge, 1720

Et her idge foll ow ed it so o n aft e r wa rds w ith a lar ger wood en br idge : Old

hi s ar t by h im sel f that he is justl y co unted amo ng t he innovat ive mast e r

Walt o n Br idg e, which sur vives on ly' in th e w cll-kn own pai ntin g of it by

bu ild ers of the ccnt ur v."

Ca nalet to from IH4 . It w as a lar ger vers ion of th e "m athemati cal bridge"

Soa ne and hi s assist ant s pain st aki ngly dre w th e covere d wood en

in Ca m br idg e, which was reconst ru ct ed in 18(,(, a nd 1 9 0~. The design d id

br id ges in Schaff haus en (1757 ) , Wettinge n (17(,0 ) and m any others t hat ,

no t gi ye th e wo od e n eleme nt s su ffic ie nt prot ecti on for a bri dge of thi s

in spit e of spa ns of oyer ~o m , fitt ed into t he la nd scape well. Beca use

sor t t o sur vive,

mo st of the Grubenma n ns' woode n brid ges w er e dest r oyed by 1800,

these drawings would have been of g re at valu e , but in Basel , John Soa ne

quote-d b~ Killer, Jm cf:

dcr Haum c-i-tcr

[ l ie \\ '~ T k c

ruuhonmann, l ell'\" , P: V,
l'
1 1I 1" tln- v.u-icd n-an [c-r
,>1 d r'1\\ ing" o r hridg, {rom
' I I itN rl.lnd to fn glalld ,
" T :" ,H el l h' , :\ i, olJ.:Th,"
\ igh l" ,n th l '{'nt ur .\ l.urop c.m
r"]H lt'lt io ll oj t he (irubc-nm an n
1' I", ltl h T S. ill :

John

"';O ,H H' , ?OOI.

p. )d .
, Hum ", 11\1\\ .1["(1: lrom Julius
l ',W ";,l r t o

111(' Crubcnm.mn

ln-ot hc-rs: Soan c- an d th e hixtorv

,.1 \ \ C\l u!l: lI IH'idgt"", i ll : John

\q ,lJl t' ,

zoo j ,

p. 19

... Bu rn ..., p. ?o
'I

'cra.k-l m an u , We rner:

I iol/h r iilkcn de l' Sc hwe LI

t-in lnvvntar. Chur

1'1 '1 0 :

Kille-r, [o-cf: I ) jt ' \ Vnkv dcr

Hnun c-i-tc-r ( ; r u !J,' tl lll ,HHl , 19"' ~;

vn-imuann, Lugcn: 11.1Il" Ulrich

l ;rU h "Il Ill.lllll. I q1\4 ;

10

Kille-r.

19 "'+ .

p.n

The Grubenmanns ' Wooden Bridges

lost almost all of th em along with his d rawing equ ipm ent. h As well as

What Soa ne saw in Swit zerl and amazed h im : up in t he Alps, wo od en

th eir refined co nst r uc t io n , Soa ne pr aised t he pictu resqu e qu alit y of th e

br idge construct ion had mat ured to a sur pr ising deg ree in t he hand s of

Sw iss wood en bridges and log icall y, in h is lectures, exa m ined th e

th e Gr ube nman n br othe rs, without th e ben efit of a ny' aca de m ic

inte r p lay be t wee n t he str uct ure and appea ra nce of a br idge an d t he

infrastruct ure of th e sor t ex ist ing in London a nd Pari s, T he ir lack of

land scap e ." He co ns ide re d Perronet, w ho wa s of Swiss orig in , t o be a

t heoretical kn owl ed ge was mo re t ha n co mpe nsat ed lor by t heir lo ve of

goo d e ng inee r, but a bad ar chi t ect , saying t hat th e Pont de Ne u illy

e xpe r ime nt at io n and th eir st o re of ex pe r ie nce . This cause d a sensat io n.

bridge , in parti cul ar , lack ed th e "beaut y of e legance".'

\ Villiam Coxc, ano t her Eng lishm an, in hi s sket ches a/ the

;\' aC1I ra I, Poli t ical

Indeed , th e Alpi ne region wa s hom e to an out sta nd ing , co nt in ually

and Civil Stat e a/ SWitzerland (sic) , writes of t he bri dge in Sc haffha use n :

g row ing t ra d it io n of woo de n br idge co nst r uctio n , whi ch reac hed a peak

" If o ne conside rs t he size of th e plan a nd th e bold ness of th e st r uc t ure,

of ex perim enta l daring and ac cu m u lat ed expe r ience in the wo rk of Hans

on e is ast ou nde d th at t he builder was a co mmon ca r pe nte r without any

Ulr ich Grube nm ann (17 9 - 1783) a nd Joh ann es Gr ube nma nn ( 1707 -1771).9

science, without th e slight est kn owl ed ge of mechani cs a nd wholl y

Eve n befo re t he Grube nm ann brot hers , th e ar t of build in g wood en

u nversed in t he t heory of mechani cs. Thi s ex t r ao rd inary m an is nam ed

br idges wa s ce rta in ly adva nced . The fir st han gin g t ru ss brid ge had been

Ul ri ch Gru benma nn , a co m mo n cou nt r ym an fr om Tii ffen , a sma ll

built in 146 8 oyer th e Go ldac h near St Ga lle n , wi th a span of 30 m , T his

\'illage in the ca nt o n of Appe nzell , wh o is \"Cr y tond of hi s drink . He has

t yp e of br idge spr ea d rapidly in th e isth cent u ry , w ith spa ns r angi ng

uncom m onl y g r eat natu r al skilfu lne ss and an asto ni shing apt it ude for

mostly fro m

t he prac t ica l par t of m ech ani cs; he has prog r essed so e xce pt io nally far in

Limmat at t he Land vopt cischloss in Baden, Sw it zerla nd, built in

20

to

~o

m; the lon gest , at 38 m , was the br idge oyer t he

157 2 . '0

24

Retrospective

Urnasch, Kubel, 1780

Also worthy of note ar e th e Kumma bridge of 1720 in Hittisau and th e Rosanna bridge of 1765 in Streng en . Hans Ulrich Grubenmann , in particular, became astonishingly ambitious in spanning great distances with timber structures, be cause bridges with found ations in th e water were re peatedly wash ed away by floods . Only t wo of his bridges have survived in
the App cnzcll canton : the Urnasch bridge of 1778 , between Hundwil and
Herisau, and th e Urnasch bridge of 1780 , between Herisau and Stein im
Kubel. Both of them ar e narrow, covere d bridges with a span of around
30 m and ar e designed to carry horse -drawn traffic as well.' The structu-

re of both consist s of a hanging truss with st r uts arranged in a

five-sided polygon and four pairs of susp ension posts . Above all, though,
it was the aforemention ed bridges in Wettingen and Schaffhausen th at
aroused fam e and admiration . Two points should be conside re d her e .
The first is that although these wer e vehicular bridges, th ey might well
not be perceived as such today, in view of th e remarks mad e by William
Cox e when he visit ed Switzerland again aft er ten years: "The bridge
stret ches and gives, as though it wer e hanging on eno r mously thi ck elastic
rop es; it trembles and quakes und er th e tread of any pedestrian, and
under the laden car ts that drive over it, th e swaying becomes so great
that the inexperi enced fear th e collapse of th e same .'" Grubenmann first
wanted the Schaffhausen bridge to span th e full "9 m from bank to bank,
but his clients insisted that the middl e pier of th e pr evious bridge be used
as a support . Grubenmann's impressive models (among th em on e of th e
Schaffhausen bridge) can be found today in the Grubenmann Collec tion
in Teufen.: The lin e between footbridge and road bridge is drawn
differ ently nowadays, of course, and swaying is not tol erated. Although
timb er construction in Switzerland wa s also refined by Jos ef Ritter
(174-5-1809) and Blasius Baldischwiler (1752 -1831), th e baton for larg e-scale

wooden bridges passed to th e Am erican bridgebuilders. 4

Th e second point conce rn s th e aesthetic effect of the bridges .
A look at th em reveals nothing about th eir constr uct ion : th ey are mostly
clad, making th em appear like long timber hous es , and , as th e contem porary view of the Wettingen bridge shows, th ey wer e even painted with
architectural forms . The visual int egration of this bridge as a long building
into its village conte xt and the way in whi ch th e pit ched roofs over the
long arches of th e bridge in Schaffhausen fit into the surrounding roofscap e both confi rm that th e contemporary understanding of beauty is to
be measured in terms of th e picturesque treatment of the bridges and not

I Stade lma nn, ' 9 9 0, IV 8 and 9

2 Coxc 1786, quoted in Kill er,

19 84." . )6

J The or iginal model of the

Sch affhausen Bridge is in
the Allerh ciligenmu scum,
in Schaffhausen , and th ere
is a reproduction in the
Grubenmann Co llection, in

of th eir str uct ure, which could only be seen from within - and then on ly

Teuf en .

with diffi culty in the dim light . To this day, it is precisely as footbridges

4 Afte r c. 18 0 0 , large -span

timber br idges are developed

th at covered wood en bridges continue to be bu ilt in th e unicjue styles of

their respe ctiv e periods (pag e 14-8 onwards).

above all in th e USA by

Th eodore Bur r; as truss
str uc ture s, Kurrcr,

200~,

p. 47

View lnside the urnasch bridge in Kubel; structural model (below)

25

26

Retrospective

Coalbrookdale Bridge, 1779

Such co m po ne nts can be weld ed together to create br idges w it h huge

spans, wh ich th anks to th e high strengt h of steel can be m ade Significa ntly
more slende r th an co ncrete bridges.

Cast Iron and Wrought Iron

The firs t cast -iron bridge t o be built in Fra nce, how ever, was a foot bridge . It crossed th e Ri ver Sei ne with an o verall len gth of [66 .5 m . Lo uis
Alexand re de Cessar t, Inspector Ge nera l of th e Eco le des Ponts et
Cha ussees , and Jacqu es Dillon built th e Pont des Arts in 1802-04 with n in e
arches, eac h spann ing 18.5 m . In [984 , it was repl aced wi t h a reco nstr uc tion in steel, whi ch had seven arches ins tead of nin e .' The Pont des Ar ts
is never theless sti ll mu ch loved by Parisians on account of its functio n as a
footb r idge ; it is also a pla ce t o me et, or spe nd an even ing (or even t he
wh ole day) , r ath er lik e a public squa re. Site d between two sto ne bridges,
Pont Ne uf and Pont du Ca rrousel , th e deli cat e structu re appea rs to sk ip
gracefully an d eas ily o ver th e Seine. Alo ng w it h the Passe re lle D ebill y
and t he new footbridges near Solferi no (see p. (42) an d Bercy (see p . 14 4)
th e Pont des Ar ts d isplays th e his t o r ical di m en sion of th e Seine 's re lati o nship t o th e city.

Science, Economy, Experimentation

The effect on th e rxth cen t u r y of im pro veme nts in iro nwo rk ing ,

It was an oth er project for a pe des t r ian bri dge th at gave Antoine

Rerny Polonceau an op po rt unity t o explore the lim it s o f feasibilit y in

early calc ulat ing m ethods and th e approaching Indu st ri al Revolution

[829: his br idge across th e Sein e near ru e de Bellechass e uses cast ir on

can not be underest im at ed . Until t he end of th e [7th centu ry, t he blast

and w rought iro n in a co m bin ation of arc hes and susp ensio n bridge, wi th

furnaces in whi ch pig ir on was smelte d wer e fire d w ith woo d . T hey

a fr ee spa n of [00 m . J

r eached a m axim um t emper ature of 1200 "C, producing iron of a qu alit y

Th e develop ment of iron pro d uc t ion was defin itel y m ot ivat ed by a

and ma lle ability th at did no t permit large com ponents to be formed .

desir e for techn ologi cal progress, co upled with t he ec onom ic pro spect s

Then , in 1709 , Abr aham D arb y (1678- 1717) had th e idea of firing t he

dep endent up on it. Perh aps surpr ising lv, t hese interest s played along

fu rnaces w ith low- sulphu r co ke, wh ich allowe d temper atures of up to

with th e arc hitect ural ex pectations of abso lut ist r ul ers up t o t he end of

1500 "C to be obtaine d. Th is produ ced r unny, m alleable iron for cas ti ng -

th e t St h ce nt ury and, in so me cases, int o th e age of Eu ro pean Resto rati o n .

a mil estone for br idgebuilding, t oo , alt ho ugh th e iron thu s m anu factured

T his pla ced th e m ain em phas is on th e picturesqu e qu ality of buildings

early on wa s brittle and co uld on ly be subjec te d to load s in co mpression.

and oth er st r uc t ures, as t heir settings in Eng lish and Ge r ma n landscap e

In 1779, a design by arc hi tect T homas Farnol Pritcha rd ([723-1777)

garde ns dem on st rate per fectl y. Before th e efficie ncy of iro n (an d lat er on ,

for a wooden bridge span n ing 30 m was built u sin g cas t -iron co m po ne nts

steel) was consis te ntly and m ethod ically improved , every kn own ty pe of

as an experi ment . This becam e th e ce lebrate d iro n b rid ge of Coalbrook-

bridge had been in corp orated int o th e ran ge of availabl e design s for foo t -

dale, erected by John Wilk in son (1728-1808) and an ir o n found r y owner,

bridges and tast efull y in st alled in th e park s and garde ns of Euro pe .

Abra ha m D arby 1II (1750- [789 ). It was t he first of a li ne of cast -iron

ar ched br idges, wh ich ende d , how ever, as ea rly as [81 9 with th e
co nstruction ofSo ut hwa r k Bridge in London , by John Renn ie the eld er . At
73.20 m, it st ill has th e lon gest spa ns of any cast- iro n br idge in th e wo rld.'
T he t yp es of steel m anufactured nowad ays fo r m st ro ng joints wh en
welded an d are available as tubes, ro lled sec tions, sheet and cast par ts.

I Pclkc, Ebe rhard , 20oS", P: 24

2 Lemoine, Bertrand, Pont
des Arts, in: Lcs Pc nts de Par is,

Pari s

2000,

P:

2 11

l Paris, Archives nanonalcs.

Cart es ct plans ; ilustration in :
Dcswat tc, Lemoi ne, 19 97, P: 9 ~ ;
the Polonceau tru ss syste m was
Invented by his son, Bart he lem y
Cam ille Polon ccau .

Pont des Arts, built 1802-04 wit h nine arches; reconstructed in 1984 with seven arches, each span ning 22 m

27

Retrospective

28

Avington Park, around 5 km northeast of Winchester - iron bridqe, built c. 1845, repaired in 1996

":il~ ,

$.~

Bridges as Design Features for Parks

Stone and wood continued to dominate bridgebuilding into the

estate at Stourhead, in Wiltshire.t Worlitz, however, stands out for the

early 19th century. The maximum free spans that could be achieved with

sheer number of bridges and var iety of bridges in its design programme .

structures of these materials gradually became clear. Cast iron offered

Almost 5"0 bridges wer e built in the Gartenreich area as a whole, 19 of

only a moderately improved performance in respect of span lengths and

which stood in Worl tt z Park . The picturesque, scenic treatment of th e

stability. All the same, bridges such as the Coalbrookdale Bridge were of

bridges and, above all, of th eir settings may well have been influenced by

such importance as models of technical innovation that they were incor-

William Chambers . Chambers had travelled to China, where he had

porated as standard design features in parks and landscaped gardens. In

become acquainted with the Chinese approach to designing buildings and

this context , footbridges played an astonishing role, being used as models

gardens; in 1749 he had begun studying under Jacques Francois Blondel at

to illustrate everything of importance in bridgebuilding in general. They

the Ecole des Arts in Paris, later visiting Rom e to see its Classi cal and

demonstrate in miniature what distinguishes mere bridgebuilding from

Renai ssanc e architecture . Back in England, Chambers began planning

the art of bridge deSign; there is a focus on aesthetic issues , which were

Kew Gardens in 175"5. Nothing is left to chance in th ese picturesque and

unfortunately to become neglected in large-scale bridgebuilding. Today it

carefully composed gardens : visitors are led along a "beauty line" from

is still - or rather, onc e again - possible to see one of the best examples

one enchant ing view to another - and small bridges ar e an integral part

and Thomas \Vciss (eels}:

of this fashion for footbridges : the Gartenreich ar ea bet ween Dessau and

of these scenic compositions. Th e bridge programme at Worlit z also

Kult urlandsch aft , Stuttgart 1996 ;

Worlitz, the first landscaped park to be laid out in a German state.' This

include s an educational element with its roots in Enlightenment thinking.

Sperlich, Mar tin , in: Daidalos

model agricultural area and the landscaped garden at its heart were laid

Typ es of bridge from different eras and cultures with different methods

Llnendlich schon. Das

Gartcnrcich Dcssau-Worlit z,

out on a grand scale by Leopold III Friedrich Franz von Anhalt- Dessau,

of construction appear like stage sets as on e walks among its many

who came of age in 175"8, and his ar chitect Friedrich Wilhelm von

wat erways . The topography of the former flood plain has been artificially

Erdmannsdorff, beginning in 1764. Prior to that, they had travelled in

varied in the park to create different landscapes in miniature, for which

England, among other countries, familiarizing th emselves with th e latest

matching footbridges have been chos en - or vice versa: th e chain bridge

ideas in places such as West Wycombe Park, belonging to Sir Francis

needs a ro ck y chasm; the miniature version of the iron bridge of

Dashwood-, Kew Gardens by William Chambers, and Henry Hoare's

Coalbrookdale is given a gradually rising emban kment; an overgrown

Bechtholdt, Prank -And reas.

wc ltbtld \Vorlit z. Entwurf cin cr

\7, ' 997, p. 741";

Berlin 100~
2

Trauzette l, Ludwig:

Bru ck cnb aukunst , in : Llncndlich

schon , 200~, n .p.

3 Spe rlich, ' 997, p. 76

4 Burkhard t , Ber told : Das

Bruckcnprogramm in W6r1itz,
in : \Veltbild Worlitz, 1996 ,

pr. 27 - 218

Wbrlltz

Coalbrookda le Bridge in miniature, 1791

Cha in bridge, suspended between two artificial cliffs

path lead s t o th e swi ng br idge and so on . T his ri ch and var ied desig n pro g ram me has been desc ribed in deta il by Berthold Bu rckhardt , wh o was
in charge of t he r e cent rep ai r an d reconst ruc tion of the Wiirl it z br id ges. 4
Landscap ed garde ns like thi s on e co uld well be th ou gh t o f as a
pr e fig u ring so me of the id eas in Di sn eyland . O n th e ot he r hand , it is a lso
clear t hat t he sma ll -sca le br idge wa s ga in ing a d eg re c o f autonom y, albei t
p r im arily in th e sens e o f or nament a nd edu cation a nd less be cause of it s
pot en ti al fo r st r uct u ra l cx pe r imc nta t io n .
Regrettably, no t all o f t hc park 's m oveabl e b r idg es have su r vived ,
alt ho ugh the Ag ne s Bri dgc, a D u tc h sw ing br idgc , m ay st ill perhap s be
r ccons t r ucted . It is also re ma rkable that alt hough , besid es Chinoiserie , it
was Swi ss sce nes that were co nside re d t o be part icul arl y pictu resqu e ,
wo o den bridges o f the Swi ss t ype and even Alpin e -stvlc , covered, wood en
bridges ar e mi ssing in W orlitz .

29

30

Retrospective

The High Bridge

White Bridge, 1773

The bridges and the land scape t yp olog y in Worlitz co mplement

each other to create a co nsiste ntly at mos pheric and often m agnificent
whol e. Her e, once again , th er e is an invocation of something th at is already
imp lici t in th e ide a itself, less ut opi an th an unworldly: th e harm on iou s
unity of natu re and technology; th e accord in th e souls of th e arti st and
the te chnician ; th e simultaneity of th e ideal of beauty and fulfilm ent of
fun ct ion . What footbridges can achi eve with alm ost m agical ease becom es
proportionately mor e diffi cult for br idges at th e larger scales demanded
by modern t ra ffic flow s. A single generation later, cri ticism was voiced of
th e pictu resqu e approach t aken at Worlit z, of whi ch foo tbri dges wer e an
esse nt ial part. The philosoph er Geor g Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel
(1770 -1831) wrote, "Wher eas a hug e park , espec ially if rigg ed ou t with

Chinese pagodas, Turkish mo sques, Swiss chalets , bridges , hermitages,

and goodness knows what other cur ios iti es , claim s our attention on its
ow n accou nt ; it pr et end s to be and to mean som ething in it sel f. But our
allure ment vanish es as soon as it is sati sfied , and we can hardl y look at
this sor t of thing tw ice, because the se t rimm ings offer to th e eye nothing
infinite , no indwell ing soul, and beside s th ey are on ly wearisom e and
burden som e when we want rec reat ion and a st ro ll in conver sat ion with a
Hegel , Georg
Wi lhelm Pried r'ich ,
I, trans . TM . Knox,
Ox ford, 199 8, vol. 2,
I

pp. 699-7 0

fri end .'" From a histori cal po int of view, th is crit icism ignores th e holi sti c
significance oflate rxth -ccntur y landscaped parks, in whi ch br idges also
demonstrated struct ura l kn owl edg e .

Drawbridge at the swan pool

Sun Bridge, 1796, spann ing 8 m; the rolled iron of the springings came from England

31

32

Retrospective

Bridge in the parkof Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin, 1801

Int er est in sce n ic land scapes, whi ch should not be without br idges,
revived per iod ically . In th e 19th ce nt ury , Fri edrich Ludwig von Sckell
(1750-1823), Pet er Jos eph Lenne (1789-1866) and Herrmann von Piickl erMusk au (1785-1871) designed gardens that delight in eclect icism to an
aston ishi ng degree, with a tend ency to give th e "natural" its due . Although
footbridges no long er played th e rol e that the y had in Dessau-W orlitz.
th ey wer e not negl ected as a design feature in pa rk s, as is illu strated here
by Ferdinand von Tri est 's 12 m span, cast-iron bridge of 1801 in Ch arlottenburg Park, Berlin, and the Devil 's Bridge of 1852 in Kassel, t o name
but tw o. In England, th e home of th e lands cap ed park , th er e ar e co untl ess
examples of bridges being used as the centre piece s of sceni c compos it ions.
The national ga rde n festivals held at regular interval s in d ifferent
plac es, have th ei r roots in a different tradition: that of th e rxth- century
botanical collec tion. They too sometimes provide opportunit ies to build
high -quality footbr idges as part of urban improvem ent schemes , as is
shown on page 196.

The Devil's Bridge, Wilhelmshbhe Park, Kassel, 1792-93, by Heinrich Christoph Jussow

33

34

Fa ustus Verantius, 1615

Fischer von Erlach, bridge in Sina, 1721

Winch Bridge - second version of the bridgefirst built in 1741 , sketch by Cumm ing, 1824, from Peters

Suspension Bridges - Experiments in Iron and Steel

Fisch er von Erlach to expre ss sheer aston ishm ent, when he reports on

As we m entioned earlier, from the late 18th centur y onwards, engi-

on e of "the wond erful chain bridges in China, built from th e peak of on e

neers found th emselves confronte d with new tasks as a result of develop -

mountain to another with boards on twenty iron chains near th e town of

ments in iron technology and th e ons et of industr ialization . At first , cast

Kingtung.'" The stories told by Euro pe an travellers of rop e and chain

iron had be en used structurally in th e same way as timber ; the iron was

bridges in far -off China certainly ex pre ss admiration . Fischer von Erlach 's

brittle and could not be subj ected to any ten sile load. Improving th e

source of infor ma t ion for th e Chinese ch ain hridge was a work published

tensile st rength of this material went hand in hand with the development

in 1667 by a Jesuit , Athanasius Kir cher , China Monum enti s lllustrat a - th e

of chain , wire rop e and wi re cable suspe nsion bridges . It quickly becam e

depictions are similar in every respect.

clear that th e limits of what was po ssible had not yet been reached, by any

The development of th e suspen sion bridge did not really hegin to

means. ' In connection with th e earliest chain, wire rope and wire cable

tak e off in Eu rope until the 19th cent ur y, when it became technologicall y

susp ension bridges, the footbridge acquired a rol e that earned it incr easing

and econom ically attract ive to produce iron and steel for th e manufacture

attention : that of th e exper imenta l prototype, serving in trial runs of

of chains , cable and wire rop e . Th e mo st important bridges were built in

new structures based on th eory or res earch .

ar eas of rapid industrialization , wh ere th e spirits of com me rce and

To a consider able degree, stimuli came from other cult ures . It is

particularly inter esting, for example , how Johann Bernhard Fisch er von

invention came together. In the following secti ons, we will tak e a look at
th e early chain susp ension hridges, then the wire cable and wire rop e

Erla ch, writing in 1721, treats bridges in th e first -ever outline of ar ch itec-

susp ension bridges. In England and Germany, it was mostly chain

tural history as such . In his second book, which conce rns th e art of build-

suspe nsion hridges that wer e built, wher eas wire rope was experimented

ing in Roman times, he mentions Augustus' bridge across th e Tib er (a

with in other count r ies.

monumental stone bridge with dimen sions suitabl e for a herd of elephants)
and Hadrian 's bridge to th e Castel Sant 'Angelo, wh ich is som ewhat more
modest. Fischer von Erla ch is mu ch mor e deepl y impress ed, how ever, by
bridges made in other ways and by other cult u res, which he considers in
I

Werner, ' 973;

\ Vagn er, Egermann , 1987;

Pet er s, 198]

Chain bridges
The Scholl encn ravine on th e St Gotthard pass in Swit zerland was

his third book. This is ded icat ed to th e arch itecture of th e Ar abs and

supposedl y th e site of a chain bridge built as early as the rjth century.

Turks , th e Persians , the Chinese and Japan ese. One t ype of bridge mov es

Better known , because th ey are th e old est surviving illustrations in this

Hscher von Erlach ,

Zwei tcs Buch

1] 21,

35

Winch bridge in Midd leton, 1830, repaired 1974

field, ar c th ree suspe nsio n br idge designs described in a boo k on mec ha n ics by Fau stus Vcran ti u s in 1615-17. Hi s chain br idge is more like an eye bar b r idge , hanging fro m m assive t ow ers, and in pa r ts it ant icipat es t he
cha in -stayed br idge . Vcra nti us' Maclunae Novae was soo n trans late d into
man y langu ages, whic h was consistent in view of Verant ius ' (155 1-1617)
person a as a mult ilingu al polym ath and aut hor of dict io nar ies.
Incid entall y, th e wo rd th at he used for cast iron tran slat es as " bell food" . 1
T he next oldes t bridge becam e surpris ingly well kn o wn . It was th e
legen dar y ped estri an cha in suspension bridge th at spa nned 21 m across
t he River Tees ncar M idd leto n , in Cu mbr ia. It was built in 1741 to shorte n
th e jou rn ey fo r wo rk ers go ing to Midd leton fr om Holwi ck , o n t he ot he r
side of t he rive r. 4 Th e wa lkway, wh ich co ns iste d of timber boards lyin g
on chai ns , wa s apparently given a modicu m of sta bil ity by four tensi le
chains anc hore d do wn in t he valley ; onl y o n o ne side wa s t here a hand r ail
lor safety. T he br idge att rac te d visit ors from far and w ide, many of
wh o m were greatly alar me d by th e degr ee t o whi ch it swaye d . A poet
[rom Ne wcastle described it as a "da nci ng br idge".\ In 1802, t he chai ns
par ted und er t he weight of ni ne people and alt ho ugh it was subsequently
re pa ire d , it was replace d in 1830 by a new bridge site d a little farther
up stream , whi ch aga in re qu ire d a spa n Of21 m . T his second br idge was
com pletely resto re d in 1974 . T he span t hat could be achieve d with cha ins
had been demon strat ed by t he Chinese muc h earl ie r, in 170 6, wit h t he
han gin g Tat u bridge in Lutingch ao ; st ill stand ing today, it has ni ne eve bar
chains and it spa ns aro un d 100 m . h

Meh r t en s,

19 0 0,

p. ~f.

l'c u-rs. ' 987, P: 2]

Marrcv, 19 9 0 , P: 116
[ wer t , 20 0 3, p. P

36

Retrospective

Melrose, 1828; below : collapse of the bridge in Brighton

Th e fascin ati on of suspension bridges and th e oppor t u nities th ey

offered for imp ro vin g transport gave a new imp etu s to bridgebuilding ,
initially in th e Un ited States of Amer ica : patent s wer e sec ured and reco rd s broken . Jam es Finley (1756- 1828) bu ilt th e first chain br idge wit h a
ri gid deck over St Jacob 's Cree k in 1801; it had a span of2 1m .' He had th is
design o f bri dge pat ented immedi ately - un fortunately, non e of Finl ey's
bridges have sur vived . The st iffeni ng of th e deck was decisive in gain ing
acce pta nce of thi s type of bridge in Europe and th e USA - how ever fond
peopl e may ot her wise have been of "d ancin g bridges".
In th e UK , th e chain sus pe nsion bridge spread very qui ckl y and
again, th e footbridge took on an expe r imenta l fun ct ion . In [8[7, a cha in
bridge was built ac ross the River Tweed near Dryburgh by th e brothers
John and William Smith; while in th e same year Redp ath & Brown built
Kin gs Meadow Bridge , which spanned 33.5 m , also over th e Rive r Tweed
near Peebl es.' Th e chain bridge at Dryburgh collapsed afte r a short tim e
in 1818; th e cur rent bridge (a cable suspensio n bridge) dat es from 1872.
T homas Telford ([757-1834) and Isamb ard Kingdom BruneI (180 6-59)
dared stra ight away to build , on a mu ch larger scale, bridges that wer e no
lon ger exclusively for ped estrian s: th e Menai St rai t Bridge (1826) ; t he
chain brid ge at Co nwa y Castl e (1822 -26), and th e Clifton Suspe nsion
Bridge ([864) .1A span lon ger th an th e 10 0 m had already been achieved in
[820 by Sir Samue l Brown's Uni on Bri dge near Berwick , also across th e
Tweed. Brow n had been expe r ime nting w it h chain bridges since [808,
bravin g repeated set backs such as th e sever e dam age cause d by high
winds to his chain bridge for Bright on pier in [836. 4
Altho ugh brid ge portals wer e st ill frequentl y built of stone , as at
Melro se in [828 and Glasgow in 1855, th ey were increasingly be ing constr ucted as steel tru sses (es pec ially for cable suspension bridges), as at
Dumfries in 1875 and Peebl es in 1905 - th e latt er ri ch ly orna m ente d (see
illu st rat ion s on p. 46) . Portland Stree t Br idge in Glasgow, de sign ed by
ar chitect Alexand er Kirkland and engineer Geor ge Martin with a resp ect able spa n of 126 m , is a good example of how sto ne portals help to int egrate
bridges int o th e urban co ntext of th e city and pr event th em app ea ring as
an all too sel f-co nta ined t echnical const r uc t. The sto ne portals seem to
Ewer-t , 2003. P' S8
J Pe ter s , 19 8] . p. 17

1 Building work on the Clifton

Bridge was inte rrupted fo r

po litical reaso ns from 1842-60 .

Pugslty, SirAlfred ('{I.). The

\ Vo rks of Isamhard Kingdom
Bruncl , an Eng ineer ing
ApprC'ciation , Bristol , 1976
4

Pe ter s , 1987 . P' 95

be part of th e urban fabri c , wher eas th e steel fra me portals, such as th ose
o f th e bridge in Peebl es, belon g com pletely to th e bridge as a unit .
The Glasgow br idge , parts of wh ich had to be renewed in 1871, is highl y
rega rded nowadays and is illuminated as a city land mark . The bridge in
Melrose was rest or ed in [991, befor e which it had been limited to car ry ing
no mor e th an eight peopl e at a tim e.

37

PortlandStreet Bridgein Glasgow, 1855

The fat es of these earl y cases make it quite clear that th e main
structural problem for suspension bridges was oscillation . Pr act it io ners
well versed in chai n bridges, suc h as James Dredge (1794 -1863) and
Rol and Mason Audish certainly built co untless chain bridges, but m ost
of th em collapsed aft er a fairl y short tim e .

Retrospect

38

Chain bridge, "Kettensteg", Nuremberg, 1824

In 1900, Georg Mehrtens (1843-1917), professor of engineer ing at

th e Technische Hochschule in Dresden, r eflected so be rly that "Wholly in

in Malapane (a ce nt re of iron production) in Upper Silesia in 1825" had 75"

co nt r ast to arched bridgebuilding, the building of suspension bridges has

cat tl e herded onto it as a test of its loadbearing capacit y - hardly something

at no time r eally got going in Germany.'" In Mehrtens' opinion, only a

that would be done for a mere footbridge . s In 1828, an other chain

few early chain bridges were of importance. As far as is known today, th e

su spen sion bridge de signed for larger loads was built in Bamberg, with

old est surviving chain suspension br idg e in Germany is th e "Kettensteg", a

towers design ed by Leo von Klenze . Fourteen years later, a traffic

footbridge built across th e Pegnitz in Nuremberg by Johann Georg Kupplcr

restriction was introduced for reasons of safety and in 1891 this br idg e

in 1824-25", which spans a respectable 80 m. According to a Prussian

was demolished. One of th e bridges that has survived, ho wever, is th e

publication of 1822, th e idea of su sp ending bridges wa s first proposed by

early, sm all footbridge in the 11mpark in W eimar, dating from 1833,

Carl Immanuel Loscher in 1784; piers and trestles cou ld be dispens ed

which is suspended from three parallel ch ains on each side and spans

with if the bridge deck were to be suspended, for whi ch Loscher re com-

a mere 14 .8 m.

mended bars or chains . 2 Of th e chain bridg e in Nuremberg, th e four main

suspension chains , hangers and railings remain . The suspension chains

p. 7r;
Vcr han d lungc n des Vcrei ns zur

I Meh r ten s, ' 9 0 ,

2

Bcford crun g des Gcwcr bcfleillcs

in Prcu ssen , Berlin, 1822 , p. 127

3 Petri , Kreutz, Stahlbau,

}. 2004,

pp. 308 ~3 11

4 Pclkc, p. JJ

carts and coaches : a chain su sp en sion bridge spanning 31 m th at was built

The t ale of th e small pedestrian bridge spann ing 28.1 m across the
upper Ruhr in the park of Laer manor in Mesched e is an interesting on e.

consist of tension rods with hooked ends and eyelets . Its original oak

It was r ediscovered towards th e end of the [990S . In 1998, a researcher

pylons were replaced in 1909 by steel truss m ast s - a change that caus ed

studying the archives of the m anor's owner found a manuscript by Johann

problems with d yn amic loads : pin joints and riv ets worked loose, not

August Robling, contain ing a detailed de scription and calculat ion s for

least because it had become a popular amusem ent to set th e deck os-

a 75" m suspension bridge across the Ruhr near Freicnohl. 6 Robling had

cillating. In [931, both secti ons of th e bridge were stabilized w ith two

placed great emphasis on stiffening his br idge adequately, in addition to

ti mber trestles each , fix ed to foundations in th e riv erbed . Sinc e th en ,

which he had proposed an alt ernative des ign with lengths of wire cabl e

private groups have repeatedly attempted to have th e Kettensteg r estored

instead of chains . The manuscript, from 1828, gives th e young Robling 's

5 Hauausfiihrungen des

to its original st at e .: Also built in 1824 was Christian Gottfried Heinrich

position as "Conducteur", roughly equivalent to a construction manager.

Berlin , 184 2, p. 67 (no te by

Bandhauer's (1790 -1837) pedestrian bridge across th e riv er Saale in Nien-

His solution was lat er adopted by a coll eague, A. Bruns, wh en designing

burg: a chain-stayed bridge on timber pylons, whi ch tragically collapsed

the much sm alle r chain su spension bridge at Laer manor, completed in

in th e following year und er th e load of a large number of townsfolk at a

1839 . It stood unnoticed on th e privately owned property for many years

public celebration . 4
In spite of the occasional bad expe r ience , German engineers were
soon con structing chain bridges of larger dimensions that could also car r y

until its significance was reali zed in 1998, wh en it was giv en listed monu ment status." Th is did not prevent a tree from falling on on e of its pylons
during a stor m in 2007. Although temporary m easures were immediately

Prcu ssischen Staatc s, vel .

I,

Andreas Kahlo w]
6 Schm itz, Ch risto ph,
Di e Ruhrbrii ck en , Mu nster,
2004,

P: 126

7 Gr unsky, Eberhard,
Von den Anfange n des
Il angch riickenb aus in \Ves tfalen,
in : Z ci tschrift w cstfalcn, vol.
] 6, Munich, 1998,

pp. 100-159 ;

Schm itz , 2004, p. 163f.

Altenbergsteg, Bern e, 1857

Laer, 1838-39

tak en to stabilize it and pr e\ 'ent it from collapsing, the bridge wa s a pitiful

sight. Half of a pylon had to be repl aced with a tempora ry structure of
st eel bea ms, while frei gh t ti c -down straps t ook th e place of broken or
endanger ed han ger s.
Th e old est suspe nsio n bridge in BelBilJm is thought to be a sm all
footbrid ge in th e park of Wi ssck crke m anor, whi ch was built in 1824, th e
same year as Nu re m berg's Ketten steg. Spanning 23 rn , it wa s design ed in
th e English chain bridge t radi ti o n by Jean -Bapti st e Vilqu ai n, an eng ineer
from Bru ssel s wh o had travell ed aro u nd Eng lan d . ~ T he same year saw
th e foundati on of th e Gesellsclliiftfiir Kettenbriickenbau (chain bridge
co ns t r uc t ion co mpa ny) in Vienna by Ign az yon Miti s, wh ich built th e
city 's fir st cha in sus pe ns ion bridge fou r yea rs lat er - thi s was th e fir st
br idge to have chains m ade of stee l, but unfortunately it was di smantled
in 1880 to m ake way fo r a lar ger bridge . y
Th e oldes t sun i\'ing chain sus pe ns io n bridge in Switzerland is
probabl y t he Alt enbergst eg in Berne, built in 18p by a nat ive of t hat city,
ch ief eng ineer Gu st av Gr.inic hc r (182 0 -18 79). W ith a width of 2.1m and a
len gth of p m , t his foot br idge, now a list ed monument, co n nec ts the old
city ce ntre (after m aking th e steep descent to th e river Aare) with th e
Altenbe rg qua rt er. It is st iffene d by lat ti ce gir ders that sim u ltaneo usly
fun ction as its para pe ts ; th e supe rstr uc t ure has cross -brac ing to pre yent
lat er al deformati on . Th e fl at chains arc m ade up of m embers 3 m lon g,
eac h of whi ch consists of four pa rallel rib s measuring 9 cm wid e and 1.7 cm
thi ck . Th ese cha ins r un oyer roc king pier s and are ancho re d in th e rive r
em ban kme nt at t he so ut he rn end and in th e grou nd at th e northern end.

de Bou w, ;\1., I. Wo ute rs .

Im-e stigat io n of t he re stor ation

o f th e iro n suspens io n hr idgt'

at t he cast le of Wis sckcr kc-,in :

\V ITTransactions on t he Built
Envi ro nment ,

\ 0 1.

Rl, 200S

') Mehr tens , 1900 , p. 6

39

40

Retrospective

St Petersburg, Post Office Bridge across the Moyka , 1824, span 35 m

Paris, Buttes-Chaumont, 1867

In France, th e focus of int er est was mo r e on cable and wire bridges ,

but of course chain bridges were built as well. The country's first chain

Th e first two decades ofthe 19th century were r emarkable for an

unpreced entedl y rapid transfer of knowledge and technology across

bridge was th e Drac river bridge near Gr en obl e, built by Crozet and

national and language barriers, as far as Ru ssia . When it came to solving

Jourdan in 1827 .1 In 1839 , Berdoly and Dupouy built a chain bridge across

tricky te chnical probl ems, th e court in St Pet ersburg readily calle d on

th e Agen with a span of 174 m , but tests showed that it would be un able to

th e services of French or Germ an experts . Notable names in th e field of

car ry the planned load s, so it had to be rein forced, finally being reopened

bridge bUilding include a Span iard , Augus tin Betancourt

in 1841. Even so, it failed to last long, and in 1882 th e chains wer e repla ced

Fren chman, Pierre -Dominique Bazain e (1786-1836), and two Germans,

(17~8-1824), a

by four steel cables on each side. At first , no more th an 60 people were

Wilhelm von Traitteur (1788 -18~9) and Carl Fr iedrich von Wiebeking

permitted on th e bridge at an yone time , but in 1906 thi s was reduced to

(1762-1842) - th e latter working from Munich . Traitteu r had little success

2~ ;

th en in 1936th e main susp ension cables had to be repl aced . In th e early

19~os,

high wat er levels in th e Garonne damaged th e bridge, which had

as an enginee r in his native Baden, but in 1813 he was introduced to the

Tsar of Russia , who was married to a princess of Baden . In th e following

been in need of repair in any case , leading to incr easing doubts about it s

year, he began work in St Pet ersburg und er th e Spaniard Betancourt,

long-term stability. In 2001-2002, the complete bridge was reconstructed .'

taking over as super intende nt of bridges in 1821. 4 Pierre-Dom inique

The challenge of br idge building naturally app eal ed to on e particular en-

Bazaine, who had come to St Petersburg before Traitteur, expe r ime nte d

gin eer with an aptit ude for business : Gustave Eiffcl (1832 -1923). In 1867,

with cable suspension bridges as early as 1823. The bridge built in th e park

he built a 63.86 m span chain suspe nsion bridge in the park of Buttes -

of Catherine Palac e in th e sam e year was, however, a chain susp ens ion

Chaumont. However, he never favoured this typ e of bridge , preferring to

bridge, because th e production of wire was not as far advanced in Russia

exploit th e pos sibilities offered by steel truss structures. The chains of

as it was in France.s Although it was probably th e first of its type to be built

this bridge have, in th e meantime, been replaced by wi re cables.:

in Russia, chain susp ension bridges had not been unknown th er e before
that : Nikolaus Fuss from Swit zerland (Euler 's succ esso r at the St Pet ers bu rg Academy of Sciences) had deSigned a susp ension bridge spanning
300 m across th e r iver Ne va many years earlie r. Traitteur worked on

Peter s, 1987, P' 68

La Passcr cllc d ' Agen.
Lc sauvctage d 'un ouvrage
histor ique, in: Freyssinet
Magazine, Jan -April 20 0 3;
Lccinq . Ben oit, and Sebastian
Petit, Ren ovation of the
I

footh rid ge over the Garo nnc

in .\ gen , in: foothridge 20 0 2 ,

proceedings, Pl'. 120 - 121

3 Lcfrcsn c.Y,, La

recon stru cti on de la passerel] e

sus pcnduc des Butt es
Chaumont, in: Travaux , 482,

May 197), p. 50

chain bridges on a larg e and a small scale simult aneously. His three pe-

4 Fcdo rov, 20 0 0 , P'

destrian bridges have survived : th e Post Office Bridge of 1824across th e

5 ibid . P' 184

ibid. P' 197

80

Bank Bridqe, 1825-26, span 21 .5 m

Lion Bridge, 1825-26, span 23.5 m

Moyka r iver and th e Lion and Bank br idges of 182, - 26 over Catheri ne

hesit at e to atte mpt large , high -m aintenance cha in bri dges, som e of

(now Griboyedov) Canal. Fo r t he br idge across th e Moyka, t he Swiss en -

whi ch are st ill in use to day, the chain suspension bri dge was not des t ine d

gineer Henri Gu illa ume Du fou r had sent pl ans to St Peter sburg - t hese

for a glor io us fut ure . The fata l co llaps e of a chain br idge in Angers in

can no lo nger be fou nd, but it shou ld be noted that a model of h is St An -

[8, 0 , designed by th e h ighl y ex per ienced engineers Joseph Cha ley and

toin e bridge did ex ist in t he teachin g collect ion in St Petersburg.

Th eodore Bordillon , was a serious set back . Better prospects were offere d

In 1823, Trait teu r began designi ng this sm all bridg e, span ning 35 m ; in

by the developm ent of wire cab le and wire rope brid ges, in which advances

o rder to r educe osci llat ions, t he main suspensio n cha ins were to be fixed

we re made by t he Segu in broth ers and Henri Gui llaume D ufo ur in France

t o th e deck in t he middle of the bridge (sag -to -spa n ra t io

and Switz erland , an d by Bri x and (lat er) Roblin g in Ge rmany - alt hough

I : 16).

Two

cha ins consisti ng of 19 eyeba rs each sup port t he br idge via 36 hangers,
t hey run over

2., m high cast -iron obelis ks an d cur ved , spo ked fr am es

dow n t o cast -iron gro un d plates. Fo r t he two ot her br idges, Tr aitteu r

abandoned th e obelisks in favour of anima l fig ures , nam ely lions and
g rypho ns - th e latter bei ng an heraldic beast on t he coa t of arms of
Alexa nde r von Wii rttemb erg, who ran th e Russian hi gh ways aut hori t y in
St Pete rsbu rg. T his design innovati on g ives t hese brid ges t heir specia l
char m - animal fig ures as anchorages for chains or wire ro pes do ap pea r
agai n at a lat er date o n th e Lion Bridge in Berlin (see p . 4 8) , but apa rt
fro m thi s th ey d id not en joy success in engine er ing cir cles . Tr aitt eu r
returned t o Germany in 1830, afte r wh ich he built lit t le . All t hree foot bri dges wer e listed as p ro tected monum ents in 19 35, since when t hey have
all been renovated, gen erally overhau led or recons tructed . 6
Foo t bridge construction certain ly served as a fiel d of exper ime nt at ion in t his early phase of the new construction t ypology, albeit one in
whi ch t here were in it iall y ma ny failur es. W hile t he engine ers did not

th e latter emigrated to th e U SA in 1831.

The challenges faced by t he engineers of the early wire cable an d
wire ro pe br idges are descr ibed br iefl y on th e following pages.

41

42

Retrospective

Suspension bridge over the Cance in Annonay, 1822

--..,.....,....._...-_M

Pont StAntoine, Geneva, 1823

Cable and Wire Rope Bridges

Chains proved to be too susceptible to failure - if a link in th e chain
were to snap, th is would immediately have dire consequences for the

tion methods opened up new perspe ctives for what had, until then, been

st abilit y of th e whole structure . It was therefore important to de velop an

a risky type of construction . Bruno Plagniol and Claude Henri Navier,

alt ernative, in the form of flexible and durable rope of wrought iron w ires .

both of whom wer e bridge and road engineers , be came interested in th e

This was of particular interest to th e m ining industry, whi ch needed a

idea of suspension bridges in general, and worked out a th eoretical basis

more efficient means of ext ract ion at th e pithead . The problem was

for building with wire rop es .

addressed by Wilhelm August Julius Albert, director of mines in Clausthal

in Germany, who inv ented what is supposed to have be en the first ever

Verreet , Roland, Etn kur ze

Gcsc hichte des Drahtscils, 20 0 2
2 Peter s, 19 87, p. 171
3 Gabriel, Knut, Hochfeste
Zuggliede r, Manuskript ,
Uni ver sit y of Stuttgar t , 1991- 9 2;

\ Vagncr, Eger mann, 198)

Encouragement also came from an un expected qua rter: th e banker

and industrialist Benjamin D eless ert , who was appointed pr esident of the

wire rope in [834. It had a diameter of 18mm and co ns isted of three

Banque de France in 1802at the age of 29. Shortly before that, he had set

strands of four wires each .' In the construction industry, the aerial

up a sugar factory in Passy ; it was there that he later decided to build a

spinning process patented by Roebling, who had em igrated in 1831 to the

link between his house and th e factory premises . In [824, work went

USA, m et with success where long (and thus heavy) cabl es were needed,

ahead : Delessert pragmatically chose a co m bina t ion of chains and w ire

because it allowed lightweight Single wires to be "spun in place without

cable bundles for th e 1.2 m wide footbridge, which spanned p m. The

support" into a thick cabl e of parallel wires.' By the second half of th e

main suspension elem ents we re four bundles of 100 wires each , alongside

19th cent ur y, the most important t yp es of cable or wire rope were already

two chains made up of iron bars 4 m long and 2 cm thick. They ran over th e

known and subsequent progres s wa s limited to making improvements in

top of two wooden towers, behind which t hey wer e anchored in massive

the materials, th e cross-sect ional geometry of th e wires, and th eir

masonry blocks. The hangers were attached to them at intervals of t m .!

arrangement in the strands and rope.

T

In Europe , it was French engineers wh o pioneered the development

of cabl e suspension bridges, with th e help of theoreticians whose calcula-

In th e USA, Jo siah Ha zard and Erskine White , manufacturers of

Del es sert, however, did not want to become a bridge builder and he
counsell ed anyone with an interest in su spension bridges to seek advice

4 Navier, Claud e Henri,

Rapport et Mcmoire sur les
Pont s Suspendus, 1823;
Ewer t ,

2003 .

p. )8

) Marrey, 1990, P: 121 ;

Pet er s, 1987,

P: 68

wire cable , began with (yet again) a footbridge : the first-ever cable

from Navier, Seguin, Dufour, Dupin and Cordier - w ith good r eason :

6 Casciato, Mar istc lla: Le

Pon t dc'I ournon , in: L'arr des

suspension bridge, built in 1816 over the Schuylkill Falls in Philadelphia .

after r ead ing an article about cabl e suspe nsio n bridges published in the

7 Marrey, 19 9 0 , P: 121; Pet er s,

Its impressiv e span of 124 m would not be exceeded for decades , alt hough

official gazette Le Moniteur in 1821, th e brothers Marc (1786-1875) and Jul es

it did coll apse shortly after being built, under the weight of a snowfall.

Seguin (1796-1868) had embarked on an audacious project to build a cable

ingenieu r s, p.
' 987.

510

p. 68 f.

8 Pet ers, 1987,

9

p. 124 r.
p. 122

Marre y, 19 9 0,

Photographs taken in summer 2007

sus pe ns io n brid ge across th e River Rh on e between Tain and Tournon . h

Onc agai n , th e new t yp e o f co ns t r uc tion was fir st t r ied out o n a foot bridge: in

18 22 ,

Seguin and Navicr built a sma ll bridge across t he Cancc,

ncar Vcrnosc lcs Annonay, on a propert y belon ging to Mar c Seg uin off
wh at is now th e

[) 27 0

ro ad . Over a metre wid e , th e bridge ma nag ed a

spa n of 18 m .? It was car r ied by six cable bundles of eight wires eac h ,
\\ ith t lu- deck resting o n four of th em and th e ot he r t wo serYing
add it ion all x as hand rail s. In th e middle , it was g uye d down t o lar ge ro ck s
in th e ri vcr to pr e\ ent it fro m sway ing badl y. Today th e brid ge , whi ch
wax later st re ngt hen ed with t w iste d wire rop es, is a sor ry sight : it is falling
apar t, as arc th e buildi ngs of th e form er paper facto r y. It is, how ever,
st ill po ssible to mak e o ut th e rudim ent s of th e wire assembly. Furt he r
ex per ience lor th e Tain -Tournon bridge was gained with th e co nst r uct io n
of a nar r o w footb rid ge span n ing 30 m ac ro ss th e Gal au re at St Vallier,
\\ hich stood until 1844 , S and a bridge acro ss th e Eyr ieux between
St Fo rt unat and St Lau re nt , th e sto ne portals of whi ch sti ll exist.
Another It)()tbridge with an expe r ime ntal cha rac ter was built
rou ghl\ at th e sam e tim e by Bruno Plagniol. H is so n Fran coi s lat er w rote
th at it had been

18

m lon g and

90

em w ide and had crosse d th e Ri ver

Pavr c ncar Chorncr ac . He o m it te d to m ention th at his fath er's bridge had

been dcst ro vcd by a high wi nd soo n afte r const r uc t io n. "
Doubts were ind eed voiced about th e safety of thi s ty pe of br idge .
Seguin , who was a technician t hro ugh and through, as well as a m echani cal
"n gine"r and tran sport organiser, did not lack practi cal proofs, whi ch he

43

Retrospective

44

Passerelle Saint Vincent, 1832, 75 m span

published in 1824 in Des ponts enfi l defer [O n iron wire bridges J. That
summer , work began on the Pont de Tournon across the River Rh on e, for

second ha lf of the ce nt ury. Givin g examples here ca n only convey a sma ll

whi ch th e Seg uins bore t he full costs and ri sk . To st iffen th e deck, th ey

part of the histor y of bridgebu ildin g as we sketc h it out country by co untry .

used th e railings, designing th em as trussed gi rde rs . Complet ed in 1825,

To sta rt w ith, we focu s on Lyon, becau se th e city at th e confluence of th e

th e bridge was unfortunately demolished in 19 65 .

Rh one and Saone river s was endo wed wi th several historically signi fica nt

The fir st cable suspe nsion br idge for public use, how ever , was built
in Sw itze rl and, by Seguin in coope rat ion w it h Henri Dufour. Seguin's

of 1852. Th e latter two suspe nsio n br idges were blown up by German tro-

(1787 -1875) suffic iently to awak en his int er est in th e w ire cable br idge. '

ops on 1 and 2 September 194 4 , but th ey wer e recon struct ed under th e

On I Augu st 1823, th e world 's fir st public br idge to be suppor ted on ly by

directi on of Andre Mogar ay after th e wa r.

in Geneva . With a width of 2 m and a length of 84 rn, this foot br idge was

19 9 0 .

p. 122; Pet er s ,

Pelk c , '98 7, p. 69
3 For a co mpilatio n of th e first

articles since 1807 . sec Peters,

' 987,

p. 69

4 Pelletier, Jean, Ponts et Quais

de Lyon, Lyon, 20 02 , P'

21

f.

of Lyon w ith toda y's cit y ce nt re across th e River Saone since 25 O ct ob er

1832, and it may be accepted as being th e or iginal structure . To th e sout h

each ; it was calculate d for a load of approximately 160 peop le and was

of it are the Passer elle du Palais de Ju st ice , a cable- st ayed bridge fr om

guyed in several places to count er act deformati on .

19 83- 84 , and furth er south th e Passer elle Saint Georges , whi ch delights

th e visitor with its beaut iful proportions and its wa lled steps leading up

loads, becaus e no tradition had yet been built up : no body of knowledg e

to the colum ns on which t he steel pylons stand . T he Passer elle du College,

based on accumu lated expe rience. For thi s reason , it is impossible to

whi ch is suspended from two sto ne pylon s that st and in th e river bcd ,

u nderestim ate th e importance of th e publicati on s, above all those by

cro sses the Rho ne in the east of th e inner city. Renovated in 19 9 6 , it has

Claud e Henri Navier (1780 -1836) , that ce me nte d co n fide nce in th e new

benefit ed gre atly from vehicle ban on th e banks of th e Rhone, whi ch have

typ es of str uct u re . 2 Articles abo ut this t yp e of bridge ar e few and far

been land scap ed as a pedestrian zone .

between , but to thi s day it is st ill producin g beautiful footbridges in

Marre y.

The 2.8 m wid e Passer elle Saint Vince nt has connect ed th e old part

suspe nde d from six wire cables across tw o bays of approximately 4 0 m

Ther e wer e ris ks involved in build ing larger bridges for great er

'9 87, p. 70 f.
2 L'Art de l'ingeni eur, p. p 8;

footbridges ove r a shor t period . They incl ude th e Passer elle Saint Vince nt
of 1832, th e Passer elle du Co llege of 1844 , and the Passer ell e Saint Geor ges

ideas and ex pe r iences inspired and encouraged Guillaum e -H enri Dufour

wire cables, th e Pont St Antoine, was inau gurat ed by Dufour and Seguin

Throughou t Europ e, suspe nsion bridges spre ad very qui ck ly in th e

Lyon ho sts a world-famous festi val of light an so, as part of th e

ever- ne w var iatio ns .sJoseph Chaley, a pupil of th e Seg uins , achieved a

revitalisation programme, light ar t ists wer e co m m issioned to beautify

span of 273 m at an early dat e with h is bridge across th e Saane in Fribourg.

th e enti re ce nt ral di strict. Amo ng other th ings, th ey design ed d ram at ic

He owe d mu ch to Louis Joseph Vicat's ide a of weavin g th e suspensio n

n ight- ti me lighting schem es for the three aforeme ntione d bridges, keeping

member s from single wires in th eir final positi on on site , with th e load

in harmon y with th eir famil iar app ear ance by day. They have also man aged

di stributed equally to each of th is br idge's 1,056 wires . The importance of

brilliantly to avoid da zzlin g passer s-by, or forci ng them to inch their way

Vicat's co ntr ibut ion to th e quality of wire cable production is undisputed .

forward in th e da rk, or oth erwise disorienting th em in the slightes t .

Passerelle Saint Georges, 18 52, 8 7.5 m free span

Passerelle du College , 1844 , main span 109 m, t otal 198 m

45

46

Retrospective

Peebles, 1905

IIkley, 1934

T he reason s why so m an y of th e first cable br idges collapse d wer e

(bes ides th e as yet imp erfect method s of sta tic and dynam ic analysis) th at
the iron w ire produ ced at th e time developed fatig ue un der alte rnating
stres s and was susce ptible to brittle frac t ure s, as well as bein g difficult to
ancho r. Furthermore , the compara t ively flexibl e and light weight superstruct ures wer e susce pti ble to vibra tions . T hese problems wer e br ou ght
und er co ntrol once tough and fati gu e -resist ant ste els becam e available
and th e superst r uctures were suffi cien tly braced by t ru ss fra mes, heavy
deck gir ders , or addit ional guy cables. For the firs t half of th e [9th cent ury,
how ever, the sce pticism show n to wards th e new ty pe of str uct u re was
not un jus tifi ed .
T he leadin g cou ntry in the early yea rs of cable bridge co nst r uctio n,
after [S22, is considered to be France : esti mates of the number built there
vary fro m

300

to 500. In Ens land, ind ustr y cer tai n ly develop ed to meet a

wide range of appl ication s, even th ough engineeri ng received nothing like
as mu ch support ther e as it d id in France .' The approach taken by British
engineers can be describ ed as pr act ical and pr agm atic; for building bri dges,
they placed the ir trust in chain systems rath er t han in novel wi re cable .

Amo uroux , l.cmoine, 19 81,

p. 6 ~;
2

Pet er s, ' 987, P' ' 4 4

Drewr y, Charles Stuart ,

I S ~ 2 , cite-d in Pet er s, 1987. P:

Charles St uart Drewry ([ S05 -I SS[) maintained tha t w ire was impractica l

146; Kemp, Emory L., Samuel

Brown : Britain's Pionee r

for anything th at excee ded t he scale of a footbridge . 2

Suspe nsion Bridg<' Builder , 1977 .

cite d in Pet e rs, 1987, p. 37

O f the early cable br idges known in Britain , mos t were in Scotland ,

wher e Richard Lee built an exper imenta l w ir e cable bridge wit h a span of
34 m acr oss th e River Gala in IS[6 . This was foll ow ed by br idges across

3 Humc, John R ., Scott ish

Suspen sion Br idg<'s, Edi nhurgh
19 77. cited in Pete rs, 19 87, P: J8
4 Mehrt ens, '9 0 0 , P: 7~

Dumfnes, 1875

th e Ri ver Etteri ck and , in 1817 , Kingsm eadows Bridge , whi ch span ne d

ll . \" m across th e Tw e ed near Peebles, as well as t he fir st Dr ybu rgh

Abbey Bridge , by John and William Smith . At t his poin t , th e development

of wire cable bridge co nst ruct io n ceased abruptly, o n ly resuming after
18 8 0 . l

Ho wever , th e arc hitec t ura l vocabular y of t he simple chain o r

cable -suppo r te d brid ge t hen und erwent a number of utterl y incon gru ou s
vari ati on s. Engla nd and Scotland lacked a st ro ngly rooted acade m ic
traditi on in en g inee r ing - in co ntrast to th e sit uat io n in Fra nce, wh er e
t he eng inee r ing pr ofession had t he self-con fide nce to develop an aesth eti c
approach of its ow n. Th e arc he ty pal suspe ns ion bridge w ith a st iffene d
dcck girder was g iyen an indi vidual characte r by pylon s with a h ist orical
to uc h, suc h as th e colum ns an d ar ch itraves adde d to th e bridge of 187 \"
ac ross th e River Nit h in Dumfri es, nco - Gothic fili gree work at Peebl es
in 19 0 \" and I1kley in 1934 (Da vid Rowell Engineers), and castel late d tow er s
on th e bridge ove r th e River D ee at In vercauld in 19 24 (James Abe rn et hy
Eng inee rs ). Here, it becom es evident th at th e approach t o de sign in g
bridges was yer y mu ch an architectural on e .
T he rela tion ship between (en gi neering) st r uc t u re and (ar chitec tural ) det ail s wa s a co nt rovers ial subjec t that led to violent di sputes
int ernati on all y, as it st ill does. The design of portals was subjec t to som e
ler;' odd fli ght s offa ncy ind eed , whi ch , in th e case of larger br idges
es pec ialI;, attrac te d deri sive co m me nts from far and wide . 4

Invercauld, 1924

47

Retrospective

48

Suspe nsion br idge co nstr uctio n in Ger ma ny prog ressed haltingly,

I Meh rtens , '90, P'

, ibid., p-r
J lbid. , p. 76

jr

The Lion Bridge in Berlin 's Tiergarten, 1838, 17.3 m span

wid e suspe nsion bridge with a wooden deck, spanning 17.3 m . In 1958, it

as we me ntioned earlie r in connection with chain bridges. Th e sceptical

was rest or ed and given pr ot ect ed monument stat us. Whether it was based

attit ude taken th er e towards suspe nsion bridges was described clearl y in

on th e Lion Bridge (Lavo v most) in St Pet ersburg is not known for cer ta in.

' 900 by Mehrtens, who wrot e that they wer e no t able to carry th e heavy

It was not un til th e end of th e 19th century tha t th e suspe nsion

railway trains of modern tim es safely, as th e cable -supported br idge over

bridge played a significant part in large- scale bridge const r uct ion in Ger -

the Niagar a had shown . I All th e sam e, th e potential of iron wire, for

many. The deSign s ente re d for co mpe t it ions incre asingly featured sus -

example , was ce r tain ly recognized . Ado lph Ferdinand Wen zeslaus Br ix

pension bridges and finall y it was acknowl edg ed th at for di st ances of 200

(1780 -1870) was officiall y com mi ssioned to car ry ou t exper ime nts using

to 300 m , suspen sion bridges could successfully co mpe te with girder or

iron wire, th e re sult of wh ich was a small footbr idge in Berlin's Tiergarten,

arched bridges, "name ly, when th e site being conside r ed is one at wh ich

th e Lion Brid ge (Lowenbrucke) of 1838 .' Designed by Ludwig Ferdinand

(...) th e beautiful app earance of th e bridge is the main consideration .";

Hesse (1795-1876) and manufactured by the Borsig-Werke, it was a 2 m

In 1898, Kubler and Lcibbrand bui lt a cable br idge 6.2m wide , span ning

Wetter, 1893, 38 m span

Achberg, 1885,48 .6 m span

72 m , at Lan genar gen on Lake Constance. T h is shore -anchored sus pension

6 rn in height, sta nd ing o n recta ng u lar masonr y abut me nts . Alt ho ug h the

h rid ge was rest ri cted to car ry ing ped est ri an t raffic in [9 82-83. One of

bridge ha s be e n a protect ed monumen t since O ctob er 1985, it has not

the peop le w ho o r igin all y worked on it was Ot hma r Hermann Am m ann ,

be en looked afte r, and since [9 90 it has been close d . In a ny case, t h is

th en a tra in e e : th e m an to whom we ow e th e George W ash in gt on Brid ge

beaut iful st r uc t ure sta nds in a water catc hme nt area, wh ich it has been

across t he Hud so n R iver. Ea rl ier , in [885, a ca ble f()()t bri dge wi th a spa n

forb idde n t o e nte r since 19 p . It seems that whe never somebo dy st ud ies a

o f 4 8. h m had been built ac ro ss the R iver Ar gen in Ac hbe rg .

water way sys t e matica lly, t hey come across ped est rian b r idge s that have

In man v places, th e value of o ld footbridges was not r ecogni zed es pecia l" wh en t hey stoo d on pr ivat e pr op ert y, where ga in ing acces s

lan guish ed in obliv ion for re asons ne ve r to be known .

O u r ea r lie r co m me nt abo ut the d iffic u lt ies faced by cha in bridges

was di fficult or impo ssib le . O ne o f th e ear lie st ped est ri an su spens io n

also applies to wi re ca ble an d w ire ro pe bridges: thi s t ype of st ruct u re

hr idges, for example, wh ich crossed th e Ri ver Ru hr in it s midd le reach es,

m ad e littl e he ad way in G erma ny, wh e re bridgebuilding was dominat ed

\\as bu ilt in [87\" on land hel on ging to a screw manu factu rer near Hen gstey.

by arche d or girder bridges m ad e of iro n and concrete.

It \\as dem oli shed bet ween [926 and [928, wh en th e prop ert ) w as so ld to
th e reg io na l \\..1(('1' uti lit y co m pany. \
Ano t he r exa m ple is Am Kaltcnborn fo otbridge in W et t er , No rt h

It w as not un til th e second half o f th e 20t h ce nt ury t hat Fritz

Leon ha rd t, Fr ei Otto and Jiirg Sch laich mad e outsta ndi ng advances in
lightw e ight co nst r uction, includ ing t he use o f ca bles . Jiirg Sch laic h , in

R h ine -W estphali a : a ca ble -s up po rted bridge built in [893 across th e

parti cul ar, succee de d in b uilding ped estrian bri dges o f a unique lightness

Ruh I'

th at have been recog n ized as mast er pieces throughout th e world .

\\

ith a spa n o f ,8 m . h Th e de ck tru ss is suspend ed via han ge rs at

int or va ls o f I.\" m fro m t wo w ire ro pes. T he t wo pylo ns are tru ss frames

49

4 Mehrt en s,

1900 , l': 7S;

Schl atch , Schulle r, 1999, p. 11 4

Schmitz , 2004 , p. ~q
2004, p. B7 r.,
Grun sky, E., Ein Dcnkmal
~

6 Schmi tz,

dv r Ingc nku rkumt

Dvr

Schuhn 'gstdg in IIamm

unci die Ent wicklung <in

Hangchruckcll im fruhcn

20 .

[ahrhundcrt in Ix-utschla ud , in :
B,:lUi ng\'n il: ur , ]<)9 ~, pp. ~ 0 7 -~ 1 4

50

Retrospective

Stams, 1935, spanning 93.7 m across the Inn

Lingenau, 1876,37 .20 m span

Wh er ea s in England , France and Germany, th e motivat ion for

using iron and , lat er, steel to maximum effect in bridge building wa s
pr ovid ed by industrialization , th e Alpin e region was dominated by a ce r ta in
pr agmatism . Valley s and rav ines had to be bridged for rural soc iety to
fun cti on , so effor ts wer e co nc ent ra te d on perfect ing wo od en bridge
const r uc tion. Things cha nged in th e lat ter hal f of th e 19th ce nt ury, wh en
many fascin ating small sus pens ion bridges wer e built. A journey up
rem ot e valleys in searc h of footbridges will usuall y produce results - it is
no accide nt that Swit zerl and views its land scap e and cu lt ura l identity
partly in term s of ro ad and bridge buildin g.
Regrettably, on ly a few of th e many ped estrian bridges st ill in
ex iste nce can be shown her e . Many of th em lie off th e beat en track, wh ere
th ey are ce r tain ly shown off to advantage by th eir beautiful surround ings,
with br eathtaking panorama s and dr amati c chasms . Moreo ver, a virtue
wa s oft en m ade of th e need to build sim ply, resulting in ing eniously
co ncei ved structures such as Kan zler -D ollfuss Footbridge in th e Austrian
vill age of Starns. At on e time , it was th reat en ed with dem olition to make
way for a motorway, but th e local co m m un ity successfu lly pr evented
thi s.' T he br idge , which spa ns 93.7 m and is onl y I. I m wid e , is suspe nded
from two wire rop es; its wo od en cross beams proj ect from th e deck to a
vary ing exte nt , th eir tip s foll owing a cu r ve on plan from th e bearings to
th e ce nt re of th e bridge . Int o th eir ends are screwe d U- shaped iron
profiles, t hrough wh ich a ten sion cable is t hrea ded , cleverl y sta bilizi ng
th e st r uc t ure .
O nly on e per son at a time was origina lly permitted to cross th e
82 cm wide cat wa lk across th e Subersach in Bregen zerwald near Egg and

Lingenau . Initially suspe nde d from four wire rop es, with bra cin g in each

Lang. Maria-Ro se, Geschlchtc

cle f Briickenb autcchnik,

dargestd lt am Bei spiel

vo n Hangehriickcn aus

Vo rarlberg undTirol , in:

Industrit.arch aol og ic, lnnshruck ,
19 9 2,

pp. 16 1-1]1

ibid., p. 16 J
1 ibid., p.16,

Hitti sau, afte r 1885, 30 .6 m span

Doren, 1914,76 m span

hay bet w een th e han ger s, it did not exac tl y perform " ell in a loading t est
th at wa s carr ied out in 19 08 with 30 sheep and, after th at , up to nin e
people . Since then , th e main sus pe ns ion ropes have bee n repl aced , and in
'9 88 th e hridge wa s r enovat ed in an exe m plary mann er. '
An other sm all foothridge dat ing r oug hly from th e second half of
th e 19th ce nt ury cr osses th e Ri ver Bolge nac h between th e \ill age of th at
nam e and H it ti sau . With a spa n of 30 .6 m and a width of 86 e rn, it ca n be
cla ssed as an ar ch aicall y sim ple st r uct ure , as the det ail o f th e ver t ical
sus pe nde r bar shows all too clearl y. Thi s sim plic ity was ca re fully retaine d
wh en th e par ish of Hitti sau had th e bridge repaired in 1 9 8 ~ -- no wada ys it
is co nsta nt ly in usc, as it lie s o n a trekkin g rout e .{
The hridges arc maint ain ed hv th e region al gOH>rn me nt s of Vorarl herg and Tyro l. T he ap preciat ion of bridge c u lt ure in lmver-I yin g r egion s
is demonst r at ed by other exa m ples , suc h as th e Dorcn-Albcr sch wcndc
wire ro pe f(lOtbridge of 1914 and th e Lan gen-Buch w ire rop e l(lOthridge
of 19 05 - both ac ross t he Bregen zerach . So me of t he det ail s a rc st un n ing ly
sim ple, alt ho ug h it wo uld be h ighl y inadvisable to imitat e th em and not
all of t he m would sat isfy c urre nt reg u lat ions. T hey d cscr v high pr aise
non etheless - and no t just o n account of th eir h ist orical valu e . Local
indigen ou s building prefigu red man ) inventio ns th at suppose d ly dat e
fr om m or e rece nt tim es. In an ast o nis h ing number of classic footbridpes,
on e is impressed hy th e use of c hain-link railings, whi ch impro ve th e
t ra ns pa re ncy and th e damping of a brid ge , light weight tran slucent
gr at ings for floor ing, an d th e consiste ntly mi n imi zed use of m at erial in
lightweight co ns truc t ion . The eng ineers of tod ay, eq uippe d wi th
po werful co m put e rs and th e best ana lysis me t ho ds, ca n on ly t ak e t he ir
hat s off t o th eir forerunner s in ad m ira t ion .

51

52

Retrospective

Ardez, bridge over the Hinterrhein, c. 1890

Simplicit y is also to be found in Swiss suspe nsion bridges. Char m ing

sma ll br idges along tod av's hiking routes may not be an und ilut ed pleasu re
for th ose with out a head for height s, but of co urse th ey ar e all co mpletely
safe. O ne of Switzerland 's fir st w ir e rop e br idges was th e Gw aggelibr ugg
in Ne uenho f, near Wettingen Abbey, co mplete d in 1863 . Its sugg estive
nam e ( Wobbly Brid ge) was no co inc ide nce, and when it was restored in
19 81 clearl y recogn izable measures wer e taken to strengthen it . '

Engineering st udents in Zurich ben efit ed from the pr esence of Karl

Culma n n (1821-8 1), th e founder of graphic sta tics, and his successor
Karl Wil helm Ritter (1847- 19 6) , also a brill iant teacher . Graphic sta t ics,
which mad e it possib le to visualize basic st ruct u ra l behaviour, thus formed
th e basis of struct ura l design in Sw itz erla nd , producing br idges that wer e
un equa lled anywhere in the world .' T his fort unate academic constellation
see ms to have borne fr uit almost every where in practice, especially
because enginee r ing work (for exa mple, on th e Gotthard and Rhaeti an
railw ays) was gen era lly recognized as bein g important for Swiss identity
and was ult imately in lin e with t he aim s of th e Sw iss heritage movem ent.
Beside th e ver y simple walkways, like th e one in Ardez acr oss th e
River Inn , and th e re fine d ones, like th at across th e Hint errhein at
T husis, th er e wer e suspe nsion brid ges bu ilt to a relatively high sta nda rd,
as at Co rca po lo, Frasco and man y ot her places . The Sils footbridge, near
Thusis, was built by Richard Co ray (1869 -1946), wh o was not an eng ineer
at all, but an expe r ience d ca r pente r. He co nstructe d and even design ed
falsew ork for th e many of th e most imp ortant bridges , such as th e

Inven tar H isto t ischc r

Vcrk ehr swcpe lie f Schweiz, AG

J~8 .o .l .
2

cd . Cornel Doswald

Leh ma nn, Christine , and

Ber -tram Maurer, Karl Culmann

und die graphische Statfk

- Zei chncn, die Sprachc des
Ingt:nie urs , Berlin ,

2006

Corea polo, bridge over the Melezzo in Switzerland

Thusis, 1925, suspension bridge over the Hinterrhein

Salginatobel Brid ge . Th e st r uc t ure of th e bridge near Thusis, from

192~,

was design ed in such a way th at individual co m pone nt s co uld be repl aced

w it ho ut mu ch difficult y over th e years - an ide a that was picked up by
jlirg Co nzet t wh en designing his fir st Trav er sin er bridge (see p .

122 ) .

Two new proj ect s prove th at th e ran ge of possibilities o pe n to

de sign er s of suspe nsion bridges has by no means been ex hauste d , even in
Switzerland . One of t he m is Jiirg Co nze tt's Tr avcr sin er bridge II ncar
Ron ge llcn (sec p.

212)

and th e other is Walter Bieler 's lon g-span sus pe nsi -

o n br idge in the Gr iso ns , whi ch ha s, how ever , yet to he built .

53

54

Retrospective

Offenbach, Dreieichpark bridge, 1879

Dusseldorf, exhibition bridge, 1880, 12 m

Toulouse, Passerelle dessoupirs, 1902, 42 m

Bremen , bridge by G. Wayss, 1890, 40 m

5aintes, Charente-Maritime, Poitou, 1926-27

Chazelet, 51. Benoit, 1875

Concrete
Alt ho ug h th e early cha in and cable -s uppo r te d bridges co ped eq ua lly
well with lo ng spans and hi gh load s, ded ica ted ama te urs (ye t again) were
bu syin g them selves w ith the p o ssibiliti es offere d by ano t he r m at erial.
The sea rch for m o rtars that w ould set und erwat er had int e nsifie d as ea rly

castle m oat with a 4 m w idth, it w as suppor te d by narrow co nc re t e

beam s rei n forced with th in , round iro n rods. s St r ic tl y spea king, it was
not m er ely a footbridge .
T he pot ent ial of com bini ng iron and co nc re te was soon r ecogni zed ,
an d in th e decad e fro m 1880 to 189 0, pat en t s follo wed one an other in

as th e nud -rsth ce nt ury , ow ing largely t o John Sme ato n, wh o wa s

qui ck successio n. Brid gebu ildi ng played a n ex pe r im ent al and - in vie w of

building th e Edd ysto ne lighthou se off Plym outh . Afte r 1810, ex planations

th e fact th at devel opment wa s co upled w ith co m me rc ial success - a new ,

of how and wh y different binders work as th ey do were found rough ly at

dem on strativ e ro le . In 1879 , a n arc he d footbridge with a 16 m span was

the sa me t im e by a Ge r m an che m ist , J . F. Joh n, and a Fren ch e ngine e r,

built in O ffe nbac h 's Drcieichpark by a lo cal Portland cem ent fact o r y,

Loui s Joseph Vicat, working ind ep endently of o ne an other. In 181 8, Vicat

Feeg e & Go t t har d t. This had been co nc eive d as a t emporar y st ruct ure for

published th e practica l knowledge of this subje ct that he had gained whil e

adver t ising purposes, but it w as left sta nd ing any w ay. In th e 197 0s, it s

building a bridge acro ss t he Dordogne in So uillac . ' Patents for new binders

foundation s and prestressed bands were rep aired , and in 2007 it underwent

wer e taken out very qui ck ly : by Joh n Aspdin for Portland ce ment in 1824;

a co m plet e renovation. For t unat ely, it has been r estored to it s origin al

by Joseph Louis Lambot for ferroceme nt in 184 8 and by Fra nco is COign et

sta t e, without railings, so th e elega nce of th e small arch is onc e more

for beton aBB/ornere (a com pact conc ret e) in 1847. The gr eat drawback was

evide nt. 4 O ne year aft er th e Offenba ch bridge , D yck erhoff & W idmann

that thi s promising co nst r uct io n m at erial possessed negli g ible tensile

built a sm all , ste pped bridge at the 1880 t r ad e and ar t fair in Du sseldo r f.

st re ng t h . Lam bo t tri ed e mbedd ing iron m esh in co nc re t e early on , but

Spa n ning 12 m with a ri se of 2.25" m , it s a rch was lavishl y decorat ed in a

wh en he showe d th e results at the 185"5" Wor ld 's Fair in Pari s, th ey attract ed

hi st oricist sty le , with a bal dachin -like st r uc t ure at the ce nt re . ' Anot he r

little atte nt io n .' O f g re ate r co n seq ue nce were the ex pe r ime nt s car ri ed

temporary, ex pe r ime nt al st r uc t ure was built for th e Sw iss Nat iona l Ex-

o ut by Joseph Mo nie r (1823 -19 6) , a ga r den e r, wh o was g ra nte d hi s fir st

hib itio n of 1883 in Z ur ich : the D ev il 's Brid ge, wh ich spa nne d just 6 m a nd

2 , "1ar rey, 199~ . p. 18

pat e nt in 1867 for plant pots ma de of co nc re te w ith iro n wires laid in side

was o nly 10 e m thick at the cro w n. " It w as fo llowed in 1890 by a proto t ype

it . T h is w as ex te nde d in 1873 t o co ver bridges, w al kw ays and vaulting. In

brid ge in Bremen w it h a 4 0 m sp an an d a c ro w n th ickness of 25" c rn .?

4 Kuffner, Georg. in:

FAZ, 6.2.200 7
, StigJat . ' 99, . p. ,.

1875" , Mon ier built the world 's fir st r ein forced co ncr ete bridge on the
es t ate of the Marquis de Tiltere at Cha zele t. Spa n ni ng 16.5" m across the

Mathias Koen en 's (1849 -1924) brochure on Mon ier's syst em ,

published by Gu st av Adol fWayss (185" 1-1917) in 1886, provid ed a th eoretical

Stiglat,

J Stig lat .

200).

200) .

p_t;7
p . )8;

Schind ler -Yui. (9 9 ) .

7 Troyano ,

2QO J.

p. 182

p. 318f. ;

Straub, 19 9 2, p. 2S,)f.

Girona. Pont d'en Gomez 0 de la Princesa, 1916

ba sis for using reinforced co nc rete, but thi s wa s st ill far from a br e ak through in construction practice . " Le bcton restait un rnat eri au suspect "
(Concrete remained a sus pec t material) wa s th e sobe r ing conclusion
noted down about a sma ll con cr et e bridge, 3.5 m wid e with a span of
j9 m and a crown thickness of just 2j c m , that was built in th e g ro u nds of

th e Wildegg cem ent fact or y in 18 90 . Sin 1893, Fran cois Hcnnebiquc (18431921) was grant ed th e first pat ent for hi s Tvbeam sys te m , whi ch Gu stav e

Quintin use d in 190 2 t o build th e Passerell e des so upirs (span 4 2 m) ac ro ss

th e Ca na l du Midi in Toul ou se .'! T he new co nstr uc t io n mat erial need ed
co nt in ue d promotion and r esearch , which led H cnncbiquc to found

Le Beton arme in 18 9 8 . T he journal co nt r ibute d to the int ern at ional

di sseminat ion of id ea s and knowled ge about co ncrete . In Ge rmany, the
main focu s o f interest was on meth od s of ca lc u lat io n. One mi lest o ne was
th e calcu lati on method published in ' 90 2 by Emil Morsch . A sma ll foot bridge was built for t he [905 world fair in Liege , follo we d by the
Schwarzenberg bridge in Leip zig in [913. Saintes (C ha rc nt e -Ma r it imc ,
Poi tou) in Fran ce acquired a new co ncret e footbridge in [926, whil e in
1929 Cholet (Ma in e -et -Loi rc) was g iv'e n a co ncrete fo o tbr idge in th e

fo rm of a Vie re nd eel g irde r spa n n ing 16.4 x 30.7 x 30 .7 x 19 .2 m . :>

('i

"1arr l' ~ , 1 9 ')~ ,

p.

Ihiam il c-r/M cnn,

lrovano . 200~,
')
tc

)1 ;

200{ .

P: ~I S

r\b r r(' ~ , IQY5. p. l4

Marrc-v . [9 'H. p. ':14

l' : !";

Also worth m ention in g is an arche d co ncre t e bridge from [9 39 in

Bilbao, on e of th e first wh er e the ar ch it self is used as a Iootwav to access
a se cond , lower level at the bearing o f the bridge .

Bilbao, Ponte da Ribera , 1939

55

56

Retrospective

I osssteq in WCi lflingen nearWinterthur, 1934

Nessental, 1931

Robert Maillart

th e shore is especially elegant . In com par ison to t he footbr idge of 1931

Nowher e were form and structure co m bined with such unique

in Ladh olz. ! whi ch sadly has been destroyed , th e Toss steg seem s lik e a

elegan ce as in th e bridges of Robert Maillart (1872- 194 ) in Swit zerl and .

qu antum leap: t he scu lptu ral ene rgy t hat wa s so important to Maill art

Maill art's teach er at th e Eidgen ossi sch e Polyt echnisch e Schu le in Zurich ,

is st r ik ingly evide nt. In 20 04 , th e bridge wa s ren ovat ed , unfortunat ely

Wilhelm Ritter, awaken ed hi s st udents' inter est not on ly in fun cti on ,

using an opaque paint that conce als th e materi al natu re of th e co nc re te

st r uct ural sta bilit y and eco no my, but also in form .' After receiving hi s

arch, whil e barrier s wer e in serted at bo t h ends, making a mocker y of

dipl om a in 1894, Maill art worked in ot her pr act ices for eight yea rs , before

Maill art 's effor ts to ach ieve a smoot h tran siti on bet ween th e brid ge and

setti ng up his ow n bu siness in 19 0 2 in ord er to specialize in reinforced

fir m ground . At one end , whi ch leads to a bu sy roa d, th e need for some sor t

co nc re te const r uc t ion. He closed th e bu siness in 19 19 , but found ot her

of safety measure is un der st an dable , but at th e ot her end it is not ; in any

outst andi ng const r uc tion com pan ies, with which he worked well.

case , it is clea r t hat more attract ive design s for barri er s need to be fou nd .

Maill ar t beca me th e fath er of a particu lar bri dgebuilding trad it ion and ,

Maill art 's sm all p ed estrian br idges ar e exce lle nt early exam ples of

th an ks to th e Salginatobe l bridge , he enjoye d worldw ide acclaim as an

his co nt r ibut ion to fin ding for ms for co nc re te (re in forced w ith iro n or

enginee r. The und erl ying re ason wh y th is relati vely mod est project

steel) that ar e app ropri ate to th e materi al. O ne decisive ste p tow ard s

produced suc h an in fl uential result was th e logical way in whi ch

improving st r uc t ural performan ce was yet to come: pr estressing.

Maill art's design took into acco unt all of th e bridge' s com ponents. This

Towards th e end of th e 19 20 S, Eugene Frevssin et received hi s first pat ent

app roach was evide nt beforeh and in a sma ll , un assuming beam footbridge,

for t his principle, whi ch he made kn own in t he 1935 lect ure Une revoluti on

th e Triftwasser steg of 1931 in Nessental near Gad men : a sim ple T-b cam of

dans les techniq ues du bet on , 6 The possibilities that pr estressing op en ed up

reinforced conc re te , 1.5 m wi de, with a sp an of 21 m . '

for const r uct ing large bridges were exploite d in ea rnest after th e Seco nd

W ith th e Tosssteg of 1934 near Wiilflingen , Mai llart succeeded,

World W ar by Ulrich Finsterwalder and Fritz Leon hardt. The next

together with W . Pfeiffer, in creating a monolithic conc rete st r uc t ure

sect ion of thi s book , whi ch focu ses on individual projects, begin s at thi s

that was, moreover , without "abutments t hat fram e th e loadbearing

point in tim e .

struct ur e and separate it from th e t errain . Leaving th em out see me d just

A!th ou gh th is review of th e hist ory of th e footbridge has been a

as revolutionary as building a hou se w it ho ut a plinth .": Instead , th ey built

br ief one , a lar ge part of th e st r uct ura l, for mal and fun cti on al var iet y of

a slende r polygon al arch br idge (r ise- to -span rati o =

th is t ype of struct ure is alread y evide nt. Abo ve all, th e fact th at eng inee rs

Billington. 19 9 0 , p. IX
1 Hill. Max, ' 955, pp. ] 6-77
\ Maillar t , Rober t , Einige
neu e Eisenbcto nbriickcn, in:

I: 10.84)

with a st iff

deck girder th at also for me d a base for t he iro n railings. The elegance of

and architects have rep eatedl y used thi s bri ef as an oppo r t un it y to

th e 38 m arc h im pr essed Max Bill , who wrot e : "T he st r uc t ure is of a

expe riment explains th e shee r range of exa m ples - one th at exte nds yet

lightness of app earan ce and an appea lin g nat u ra lness, as th ou gh it had

further after th e mi d -zoth ce nt u ry, as is ill ust rat ed by foo tbr idges fro m

grow n her e by itsel f and had sought a way across t he r iver ."4The ar ch slab

all over Europe .

and th e cross wall s ar e each 14 em th ick and th e st iffen ing girde r is 54 ern
th ick . Thanks to a slight rever se curvat ure at bot h ends, th e tran sit ion to

Mcnn , Christian , Pre-fan '

Sch wcizertschc Bauzci tung . I I .

Ap ril' 9 l 6.

P: ,p f.

5 Hill . '9 55. pp . ] ' -71

6 Briihw ilcr , M enn, 201 . p. 14

Tbsssteg, photos from 2006

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Enough of Action We want promises.

Eduardo Galeano, In Praise of Courage

The two world wars certainly created a caesura in architectural

by Fritz Leonhardt, in particular, who like Fritz Todt had already seen

history, but the theory that things began entirely from scratch in Germa-

cooperation with architects (Tamms, Bonatz) as self-evident in earlier

ny after the Second World War has long been discredited among

times, under the National Socialists. Leonhardt liked using terms such

architectural historians. In structural engineering, the question seems

as "beauty" and "elegance" and with these two categories (which were

hardly to have been addressed. While the architects

never precisely defined) he combined a general ethical approach that had

not just in Germa-

ny - were debating political entanglements and the architectural expres-

a rationally argued commitment to the wellbeing of the community.

sion of totalitarianism, the structural engineers maintained a steadfast

Individualism did not have a dominant role. A masterful sureness of touch

silence. After the war, many German engineers carried on working in

in choosing the right construction was supposed to result in a good, at-

much the same way as they had beforehand. Franz Dischinger (1897-1953)

tractive form, as if of its own accord.

died comparatively young, but others, such as Ulrich Finsterwalder

Formal restraint was considered to be a virtue; monumentality

(1897-1988), Hubert Rusch (193-1979), Gotthard Franz (194-1991),

(which Paul Bonatz still thought right on occasion) was avoided as far as

Hellmut Homberg (1909-1990) and Willi Baur (1913-1978) unquestion-

possible, while formal quality was expected to result from working

ably provided continuity in the world of structural engineering as it

closely with the architect. Designing loadbearing structures according to

became increasingly internationalized. For Anton Tedesko (193-1994),

the logic of statics and construction seemed to be an ethical requirement.

who worked for many years in the USA, Ove Arup (1895-1988) and Fritz

Their aesthetic evaluation was not considered systematically for quite

Leonhardt (199-1999), it became a matter of course to build in other

some time. A panel discussion about the Olympic buildings in Montreal,

countries.

which concluded a congress of the lASS in July 1976 and is documented

However, form and expression, functional structural criticism and

in Civil Engineering-ASCE 12h976, mentioned a fatal development,

the political aspects of engineering construction were seldom debated in

namely, that insecurity was leading engineers to slip ever more frequently

the 1950S and 1960s. These were the years of Germany's economic

into the role of mere constructors, serving architects who designed

miracle, in which large bridges, especially, embodied technical progress

however they liked. The relationship between architects and engineers

and the triumph of mobility as a consequence of freedom and affluence,

still remains controversial. As far as footbridges are concerned, however,

which, for the time being, was not called into question. The argument

all was still more or less well in the engineer's world, as the following

that engineers had a responsibility to society was put forward at length

pages show.

60

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Bridge in Vagli di Sotto near Lucca, Italy, 1954

Du r ing a d iscus sion of Maillart , Nervi and Morand i, Philip
Johnson r emarked that Ne r vi certainly created th e most beautiful roofing
str uct ures in the world , but Riccardo Morandi deserved th e gr eat er
respect as he applied more care to the fund am entals of de sign and had
th ereb y create d wonderful bridges w ith the most beautiful structures.
Riccard o Morandi (1902-19 89) founded his own office at th e age of 29 and
began to work clos ely with constr uc tion co mpa nies . Morandi st rove to
learn th e practical asp ects of construction and techn ology of co nc re ting
as efficie ntly as possible . T hes e issues were at th e heart of de sign at that
t im e. It is these two primar y int er est s th at tr uly come to gether in th e
pedestrian bridge in Vagli di Sotto. Both halves of th e bridge wer e
const r ucte d w ith-out supporting scaffoldi ng but wer e const r ucte d
ver tica lly and rotated int o place . T he arch haves ar e joined together at
keystone of th e ar ch with a pinned con nec tion. T he elegant bridge is 40 m
high and spans a narrow sec tion of a re servoir. T he arch span is 70 m . The
keystone joi nt is almost capr iciously sta ged; the deck gir ders beco me
thinner and thinner as th ey appro ach the bearing and lie like pick-up
stic ks on point supports . T h is, alon g with the alr eady ext re mely slende r
structure , cre ates an alm ost fr agile visual imp act . At almost th e same time
and with th e same spe ctacular erect ion procedure, Riccardo Morandi
Boaga, Giog rio, Riccardo
Mor andi, Bol ogna 1984 ,

Troyano, 2003, p. 290;

Str utt ure di calccstruzzo arma ta
c di calccst r uzz o pr ecomprcsso ,
195"4

built a stiffene d pol ygona l ar ch bri dge with a 100 m span over the Storms
River in South Afr ica. The high Vagli di Sotto footbridge has a fanta st ic
setting in the Tuscan landscap e, and its refl ection in th e st ill water s of
th e reservoir is fascin at ing.

70m

An class ic arch bridgeof timeless elegance

61

62

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Enzsteg in Vaihingen, Germany, 1962

The narrow, 2.6 m wide co ncrete arc h footbridge spans 4 6 .2 m and
was originally design ed as a pip e bridge. To link utility with be aut y, the

m bel ow th e t errain. The opposite abutment is a "bac k pack bearing"

found ed directly on th e rock and providing a walk ing surface .

Th e bridge has re m aine d co mplete ly undamaged . The steel railings

city admin istration decid ed to cover the waterpipes with a deck for
ped est rian and bic ycle traffic . Fr itz Leonhardt , one of th e mo st expe r i-

- which wer e originally red - have occasionally be en painted, and an

ence d expe r t s in reinfor ced co ncrete , was co m mi ssioned to design it, in

abrasive coat ing was re cently add ed to th e walking sur face . Leon hardt

coope rat ion with th e arc hitect Paul Bon atz, and later Gerd Lohmer; they

had ori ginally sm oothe d the con crete walking surface and refused th e

produced a reasonabl e st r uct ura l desi gn wh ile respecting th e aesth eti c

add it ional sur facing. Apart from this, the footbridge is un changed to this

demands of th e br idge .

day and bea rs wit ness to Fritz Leonhardt's original design int ention s: to

Ent hralled by Euge ne Freyssin et's article "Une revolution de I'art

create te chn ically appropriate const r ucti on as elegantly as possible .

de batir", Leonhardt visite d him in 1943 and qu ick ly recognized th e

Leonhardt's small footb ridge is th e incarnation of hi s understanding of

potential of th e co mposite material, which had not yet been exploite d .

his career , with th e reali zat ion of th e et hical re spon sibi lit ies of th e design

While the scientific and technical work with reinforc ed and pr estressed

eng inee r.

concre te was being carried out in France and Swit zerland, Leonhardt's

In the meantime, trees and vegetation have grown along both

book Spannbet onJiir die Praxi s becam e a work of "t owe ring imp ortan ce"

ri verbanks , so that th e lengths of the abutments ar e hidden . This leaves

(Christian Menn) .

th e visual impression that th e footbridge is floating in th e surro und ing

During th e con struction of the En zste g, Leonhardt 's ambitions lie

in designing a slende r arc h br idge - a small struct ure of impressive
elegance . The cross sec ti on is a plat e girder with two webs and flang es for
th e pip es. Th e slab is on ly 50 cm thi ck at th e keyston e. With th e deck
cant ilever ing 75 cm to th e side , the first visual impression is of the

12

cm

thick co rn ice as a wafer-thin arch over th e Enz . At th e left abutment,

three prestressed anchors transfer the arch thru st to th e und erl yin g ro ck,

enviro nme nt . T his change re mains in harmony with th e design .

With a 50 em girder and a slab of only 12 em, the 46.2 m Enzsteg is light asgossamer

l~~ /J~r
,
/

26 m

1 /
;.-

0.5 m

63

64

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Dyckerhoff & Widmann test lightweight concrete in bridgebuilding

Schiersteiner Footbridge, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1961

In 1964 , as Dyckerhoff Ce ment Works cele brate d th eir 100th anniversary in W iesbaden- Amoncburg, th e company offered to constr uct a

before. Meanwhile, th e challe nges had multiplied . The ce ment works

hop ed to demonstrate the advant ages of lightweight conc re te in bridge

pedestrian bridge over th e entra nce to th e port of Wiesbaden-Schi er stein

const r uct ion - a developm ent that was already fu r t her advanced in th e

as a gift to th e cit y of Wiesbad en. Th e bridge was conc eived to complete

USA. Fin sterwalder (1897-1988) led th e co nst r uct ion office of Dyckerhoff

a pathway th at had been interrupted for decad es and leave th e Rhin e river-

& W idman n in Munich , a po sition he took over fro m Franz D ischi nger in

banks even more sceni c than ever: th e bridge should becom e a landmark .

1932. He would usc th e opport u nity to develop free ca ntile veri ng

The Schi erstein er Footbridge may be conside re d a pion eer ing

constr uc tion in lightweight co ncrete, so as not to di srupt ship t raffi c

accomplishme nt fr om a structural sta ndpoint , wh ich began an er a of

during co nstructi on . Finst erwalder enjoy ed worldwide recognition for

br idge design history in th e mid 1960s. Th e footb r idge is a produ ct of

his bridges in Balduinstein and Worms, co nstr uc te d in th e 1 9~OS usin g

industrial development during Germany' s eco nom ic boom years, wh en

th e free cant ilever method . Lohme r had studied ar chitecture in St uttgar t

technical advance s wer e necessary to keep ahead of the compe tition .

and worked from 193 6 to 1942 with Paul Bon atz ; he conce ntrate d on the

Although th e technical advan ces of th e st r uct ure were not classified , the y

emblemat ic, at trac ti ve form and pr ob ably design ed t he layou t of the

were not fr eely advertised . The only informative publicat ion on th e

pathways and cantile vering ramps and spira l land ing s.

structure app eared in a 1967 int ernal Dywidag report .

Th e first designs for th e bridge were concei ved in th e Wi esbaden

For th e fir st t ime, white , high stre ng th lightweight conc re te LB 300

would be used for pr est ressing conc re te in free ca nt ileve r const r uc tion .

branch of th e company in 1964. In th e Munich office of Dyckerhoff &

Nor ma l-weight concre te was chose n for th e ramps and low er arc hes. The

Widmann , Ulrich Finstc r walde r - one of the leadin g eng ineers of th e

arch itsel f d id not need to be pr estressed , but th e ca nt ileve r ing ramp s and

tim e along with Fr itz Leo nhardt - learned of th e ambit ious plan s and the

podiums requ ir ed pr estressing. They sit piggyback on th e ar ch as

marketing impor tance of th e proj ect . As it was intended be som ething

triangular t rus ses. The upp er ramp acts as a tension memb er, whil e th e

extraor di nar y and formall y challe nging, Fin stcr wald er sou ght th e co u n-

ra m p pair below acts as co mp ression st r uts . T he deck slab is around 3 m

sel of hi s friend , the Cologne architect Gerd Lohm er, as he often had

w ide and ri ses to a height of 16 m above the waterlin e. Th e arch rise is 12 m

Experiment in cantilevering construction

-;/

Spiral landings becomeviewing platforms

~-'~28.2 m

96.4 m

28.2 m

w it h a span of 96 .4 m. The w ind for ces ar e tran sferred to the abu tm en ts

D yck erhoff Ce me nt Work s and th e co nst r uc t io n offi ce of D yckerhoff &

Alsen , Klaus, Die I )y{'kn hon

by a 50 ern thick lower flan ge , with a width of 1.5 m at t he midspan and

Widm ann in Muni ch benefited. Larg er spans in ligh tweight co ncrete were

Sc-hic rstci n , in : I ) y \\ id ,lg -

3.0 m at t he supports .

fir st possible in th e 1970s , with th e ped estrian bridge over Lake Fiihling

Lightweight con cret e see m ed a logical solut ion, as it s weight was

only a th ird of that of norm al co ncrete . Th e tonn age of prestressing steel
was 20 percent low er than for normal co ncrete. The LB 300 concrete
qui ckl y reached su fficie nt st re ngt h to allow t wo segments to be conc ret ed
per week . Special at te nt ion was paid to th e anc hor ages of th e pr estressin g
steel and th e cre ep and shr in kage pr op erties of lightweight concrete.
Experi m ents showed tha t th ese prop erties d iffered littl e fr om no rm al
co ncre te. But th e Young's m odulus of t he co ncretes vari ed g rea tly, with
17 , 0 00

N /mm 2 for LB 300 and 30 ,000 N / mm 2 for normal co ncre te . This

res ulte d in differing deform ations of t he m at erial. Th e dynam ic beh aviour

of th e st r uc t ure du r ing con st r uct io n wa s al so st ud ied; in serv ice , th e
three pin -jointed arc h st r uc t u re is very stable.
In 1967, th e Schi er stein er Foo t br idg e, w it h a span of 100 m and a
64 m lon g seg me nt in lightweight co ncre te, was th e lon gest lightweight
co ncret e bridge in th e world . C om pet it io n pu shed ri vals to further
technical development s - ma rk et sha keo ut as it is called today - but t hey
wer e unable to find a more ec o no m ic syste m . T he Schi erstein er Brid ge
provided th e fir st ex pe r ience with new m at erials from whi ch th e

in Co log ne , followed by th e second Deu tz cr Br idge over th e Rhine in

1979 , a pr estressed lightweight co nc re t e roadbridge with a span of 184 m .

Bruc kc in Wic sb.uh-nBct-icht c , ~, 196 7, pp. l -h

Wittfoht , 19 84 , pp. 262- 264
Baus, Ur sul a , Dc-r z\\'ci tc

Blick : Schier-stein er Stc g in

W icsbadc n , in : DAB,

pr . 22 -2~

12, 20 0 ~ .

66

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Kingsgate Bridge over the Wear in Durham, UK, 1966

After deciding to change field of st udy from philosoph y to civil

engine ering, Ov e Nyquis t Arup (189 5-19 88) chose reinfor ced co ncre te
design as his specializat ion at th e Polyt ekniske Lerean stalt in Cope nhagen.

see me d to suffi ce as explanat ion .

The 31 m long bridge is impressive no t for its span , but for it s co urageous form that makes us appreciate th e rol e of truth, goodness and

Reinfor ced concre te , th e preferred material for th e classical modern, is

bea ut y in design . The doubl e V-formed supports cant ilever high abo ve

also used in thi s footbridge , th e Kin gsgate Bri dge over the We ar. T he

th e riverbed to redu ce th e span of th e bridge effec t ively. The cap ricious

bridge would be th e last structure that O ve Arup would design himself.

detail of the joint between th e suppo r ts and the de ck girde r almost

Arup found ed his own office in 1946 and developed his multifaceted talent

re sembles a butler's hand car ry ing a t ray. The path layout is parti cularly

to becom e th e most successful eng ineer of hi s ge nerat ion . Arup was born

interesting; a ped estrian appro ach ing from th e cit y is offered a view of

in 1895 and was not much younger th an Di sch ing er or Fin sterwalder.

th e und er side of the structure . This would be impossibl e for th e straight

Arup ben efited greatly from his sophistic at ion , comprehen sive skills, and

approach , so that it was necessar y to cr eat e a kink in th e path . In addition,

his early reali zation of th e fruitfulness of cooperat ion with arc hitects.

a light descen t at th e bridgehead the at r ica lly exagge rates th e pathway.

Ov e Arup co nsidered this bridge to be on e of his favourit e st ructu-

T he erect ion procedu re was unique and differ ed from Riccardo

re s, as he later managed of th e daily work of hi s office and was seldom

Mor andi 's co nst r uc t ion methods for Vagli di Sotto footbridge in th at the

able to de sign himself. His tal ent lay in his ability to lead his team as he

t wo bridge halves wer e fabri cat ed on land parallel to the riv erbank and

recogni zed that good arc h itect ure is only possible when th e owner 's,

th en lifted onto th e suppor ts .

engineer's, arc hit ec t's and contrac tor's interests are coo rd inate d. Hi s
work was - t ypi call y or almost stereotypically for hi s generation - given
an et hical connat ion : design should be "logic al", true and honest, natu ral,
econom ical and efficient . Ove Arup , like Fritz Leonhardt, did not
at tempt to ex plain th e motto "Truth and honest y in design", but his well
thought-out designs were appropriat e to th e materials and for ces , and

On.' Ar up and Part ners 194619 H6 , Lond on , 19 86 , rp. 1{8 -161

Troyan o , zoo j , p. F 9 and p. 472

68

Construction as an Ethical Maxim

Arch bridge over the M30 motorway in Madrid , Spain, 1979

Mo st Euro pean cit ies ex pande d at an in credible r at e during th e

joints between segme nt s wer e co nc r ete d in sit u . A slid ing support was

po st- war econom ic boom in Europe . The r esulting in crease traffic ha s

prov ided at on e side of th e bridge t o allow th e in stallation of jack s. The

led to highways in urban ar eas that can be ca lled unfriendly at best for

jack s wer e used to press th e structure together and in itiate th e ar ch

pedest rians . On exam ple o f thi s is th e M30 m ot or way in Madrid , whi ch

behaviour. T he pressure from the 700 t jacks lift ed th e bridge from it s

ha s cut a gash in th e urban texture to th e west of th e city ce nt re . Only

formwork with a supe re levat ion to co mpe nsa te for th e anticipated deform -

aft er completion of t he motorway was it decid ed to build two pedestrian

at ion du e to creep and shr in kage of th e co ncrete .

bridges over it . The footbridges were to span 80 m without inte r me diate

support in order t o join the neighbouring r esidential ar eas . The bridges
were to be built qui ckly while minimizing the di sruption t o motorway
traffic , but had great aesthet ic r equirem ents , as th e cit y wante d to cre ate
a good impression from th e motorway. Jo se Antonio Tor roja , so n and
successor to Ed uardo To rroja , analyse d a cable-stayed bridge with a span
of 86 m as well as a low ar ch with a span of 13 m and two pinned joints.
He wrote at th e time th at he decided on th e arch solut io n for aesthetic
reasons. An iterative com puter- d r iven form-finding procedure minimized
th e depth of th e structure . T he result is a structur e with a form defined
by optimization, and impress ive in its slenderness and elegan ce . With it s
reinforcem ent in th e q uarter points of th e spa n , t he struc t ure recalls th e
works of Rob ert Maillart.
Steel trestles provided suppo rt for th e structure du r ing ere ct ion.
Prefabricat ed prestressed con cr ete segments with a len gth of 19 m and a
weight of 80 t were p laced upon th e temporary suppo rt s. T he 40 ern wid e

'Io r r oja, J. Antonio, "Do s

pasarclos sab re la Avcnida de

1a Paz", in: ATEI', Horm ig6n y
Acero, jr d t r -i mes te r, ' 979

69

A pure structure with a sim ple railing: in 2007 it was painted blue

16.3 m

78.66 m

3m

16.3m

Taking Lightness to the Limit

It was as though he had nothingness

In

his hands.

Alessandro Baricco. Silk

After the heady economic upturn of the post-war decades, the oil
crisis of 1973 brought the Western world back to reality in a series of
almost unreal experiences: houses lit only by candlelight in some coun-

After all, it is not really enough to equate lightness with slenderness

with beauty as the justification of an aesthetic judgement.
Cable-supported bridges, which can be built in a great variety of forms

tries; car-free Sundays in others, the tarmac empty of all but curious

and with considerable elegance, have undisputed potential. The implicit

pedestrians and gleeful cyclists. The limits of growth and the finite

reliability of wire rope can be illustrated by thinking of tightrope artis-

nature of resources were forcefully brought home to people; throughout

tes: our fear is not that the cable could snap, but that the performers (or,

the world, economy and efficiency took over as the main production

in a metaphorical sense, the designers) might lose their footing. In this

criteria. In architecture and, to an even greater degree, in engineering

sense, the lightweight, gracefully curving pedestrian bridges designed

construction, slenderness was a signal that the ethics-based criteria of

by Jorg Schlaich's practice can be seen as outstanding performances.

so -called honest construction and truthfulness to materials could be

They achieve their effect less by powerful massing than by a confident,

developed further. Lightweight construction, which exploited loadbearing

almost poetic, sense of line.

capacity to the full, suited an age in which behaving responsibly towards

the environment became popular as a political goal.
With the construction of the pavilion in Montreal and the roof above

Stress ribbon bridges gain individual design quality whenever the

structural principle is thought out and tested in different materials. Both
types of bridge require uncompromising attention to detail - and not

the Olympic buildings in Munich, lightweight construction methods in

just structural detail. They also both bring with them one unwelcome

the tradition of Buckminster Fuller and other pioneers showed that they

problem: many pedestrians are unwilling to accept walkways that sway

could give architecture new momentum. In bridgebuilding, the desire to

even slightly, even though the structures concerned (often flexible ones)

conserve resources and the increased pressure to reduce costs compelled

have by no means reached the limits of their loadbearing capacity.

engineers to take lightness to the limit. Structural systems such as stress

Vibrations and oscillations start to make pedestrians feel uncomfortable

ribbon bridges and cable-supported bridges were refined and calculation

long before they jeopardize the stability of the bridge. Bracing and stif-

methods were adapted to optimize the use of material. The design voca-

fening therefore become less of a structural problem than a matter of

bulary, unfortunately, was reduced to slenderness, which acquired an

design, because stabilizing components of any sort tend to obscure the

almost unquestioned status as a quality of design.

Simplicity of line that gives such delicate structures their poetic air.

72

Taking Lightness to the Limit

The first of its kind: with its gradient of about 15 percent, the stress ribbon bridge overthe N3 at Pfaffikon, 2006

Stress Ribbon Bridge in Bircherweid, Switzerland, 1965

The first con cr et e st re ss ribbon br idge for ped estrians was built in
Bircherweid, Switz erl and, in the mid -I96 0s. Rene Walther and Han s

for decades, even though th e str uct ure is consider ed ver y lively. Rene
Walther 's fri end and collea gue Christian Menn referred to the structure

Mor y had founded th eir ow n office in Basel ju st two years before, and

irreverently as a "t rampoline". But suc h vibrations do little to di sturb the

thi s st ructure confronted th em with an aesth et ic problem, which th ey

"robust mountain men " of the ar ea. As the recent Swiss code has requ ired

were able to solve with a technical approach. The photos show that th e

that 20 percent of th e anchors be able to be insp ected and replaced, the

traffic lan es of th e N3 motorway have ver y different elevations . Int er-

bridge was refitted . Electric monitoring devic es wer e installed and

mediate piers were not permitted . Ren e Walther fir st design ed a skew ed

co nt inua lly measure the tension for ces in th e steel tendons.

t russ structure but th e aesthet ics of th e st r uc t ure did not suit the

Rene Walther has continu ed to propose stress ribbon structures ,

surrounding landscap e, whi ch has a view desc ending to th e lake be low.

notably in a compe t it ion w ith a multi-span stress ribbon ped estrian

Ren e Walther rem embered Ulrich Finster w alder's repeated rec om men-

bridge over th e Rhone , unfortunately without succ ess . Project cost is

dat ions for stress ribbon structures for br idges , and decid ed to propose a

becoming more and mor e the deciding factor in competitions ~ stress

slend er stress ribbon bridge to th e Swiss authorities . If th e authorities

ribbon st r uct u re s are not th e cheape st option due to th e larg e foundation

had th e courage, th e first -ever pedestrian stress ribbon bridge would be

anchorages th ey require for the tension forces in th e structure.

built in Bircherweid . An ar chitect was not consulte d on th e project .

The engineer s would exploit the strength of th e material. The deck
slab is merely 12 em de ep at th e edg es and 18cm deep in th e middle of th e
deck . The sag of th e ribbon is mer ely 40 em for a span of 48 m . The high
anchorage forc es are redir ected over a saddl e at the abutment and
anchor ed into th e underlying soil. Five ro ck an chors were used at th e
upp er abutment (V = 800 t), and six at th e lower (V = 810 t) . Six st eel
tendons are enc ased in the thin deck slab . The bridge has been in service

73

The Bircnerweid foot bridge in a photo from 1965

2.8m

74

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Stress Ribbon Bridge in Geneva, Lignon-Loex, Switzerland, 1971

As part of a pipelin e from Mar seilles via Lyon s and Gr enoble to
Gen eva, a structure was need ed to cross the Rhon e between Lignon and

The pip elin e runs along side the west ern railing. For m aint enance
reason s, placing th e pip eline below th e deck - as in Fr itz Leo nhardt's

Loex near Gen eva. The Rh on e divides th e ver y differ ent worlds: multi-

Miihl acker Bridge - was not considere d. It is unfortunate that the pipe-

storey buildings dominate to the north , while th e southern side is an

lin e block s th e view over th e we stern ra iling. It is placed so high as wind

idyllic cou nt ry land scap e. In 1962 , the city of Ge neva de cided to build a

tunn el test ing showed th at th e ope n ing between th e pip elin e and th e

new subur b with three -storey buildings to hou se approximate ly ten

deck would need to be roughly l. .s- times th e d iam eter of th e pipeline to

th ou sand inh abitants in Lignon; it was fin ished in 19 7'- It was th erefor e

avoid dyn ami c osci llatio ns . Th e tw o abut ment s are broken down into

obvious to link the co nst r uc t ion of the pipel ine st r uct ure with a

co m press ion and ten sion member s. T he footings arc ancho re d with 2.s- m

foot bridge to join Ligno n w it h the recrea tion al area of Loex to th e south.
For th e free -spanning str uct ure, the eng inee rs of H. Weisz from

lon g roc k anchors du e to the inferior quality of the overlyi ng soils .

Wolfen sberger co nsidered th e abutme nts and anchors to be th e cr itic al

Geneva and Otto Wenaweser + Rudol fWolfen sber ger from Zurich

elem ents of the co nstr uc tion . As the anchorage for ces are inver sely

design ed a stress ribbon structu re, supp orte d by four pr estressed cables

pr op ortion al to the sag of th e stress ribbon , Wolfen sberger chose the

(d = 92 mm) . W ith a cable sag of .s-.3 m , t he m ax imum slope of th e deck is

ma ximum po ssible sag and decided to con st ruct stress ribbon bridges in

aro u nd 16 per cent . Slopes of th e br idge deck in co nte mporary st ress

ar eas with good-quality soil s.

ribbon s ar e limited to 6 per cent , producing mu ch grea ter te nsion for ces .

After 30 years, the br idge's formal rese rve co nti nues to be convincing.

Th e deck is mad e fro m 74 prefabricated slab segments, each 3.1 m wid e,

The undisturbed r iver ban k is a pr ot ect ed area , wh er e local ro wers do not

wh ich were laid on th e suppo r ti ng cables. This process took .s- days, aft er

disturb the beaver s - T he Rhone valley has re ma ine d almos t completely

whi ch th e join ts betw een the segme nts wer e concre ted in situ to crea te a

undisturbed .

co ntinuous slab. Afte r th e co ncre te had hard en ed , t he supporting cables

wer e again st re ssed . Alt oget he r, th e bridge create s a ver y ro bust impres sion; it is not eas ily exci ted to dynam ic osc illations. Childre n are thrilled
to descend th e ste ep grad ient of th e deck on th eir bicycles .

The maximum gradient is 16 percent.

136 rn

I~

2.

. 1J

I I

[WI

\l2gf]
3.1 m

76

Taking Lightness to the Limit

The flamboyant central stair at the changeof direction

Stress Ribbon Bridge in Maidstone, UK, 2001

T he extraord inary aspect of t he struct ure designed by Strasky

great local bendi ng mom ents near th e abut ments . T he decks ar e t herefo re

Hu st y and Partners together w it h t he ar ch itects fro m Stu d io Bednar ski

haun ched near th e abutmen ts an d at th e intermediate pier. The stain less

in Maidsto ne, sout h eas t of London jumps out at th e viewer : a st ress

ste el raili ng wi th sta in less cablene t in fill ing aid cont r ibute to t he light

ribbon bri dge w ith a change of d irect ion at m idspan . T he Kent Messen ger

app earance of t he st ru ct ur e, de spite England 's t yp icall y ra iny weat her .

Mill enn ium Brid ge and ex pa nde d park con ne cts th e area between th e

Drainage is pro vided by st eel gra ti ng , whic h allo ws water and su nlight to

railw ay and ri ver, wh ich had been diffi cult to access. A natural enviro n-

pass directl y throu gh th e deck . Jiri St ras ky is one of th e gre at exper ts on

ment can be found her e not far fr om th e cit y ce nt re . The design idea was

stress r ibbo n bridges: in 19 85" near Pragu e , Strasky built a multi -sp an

to free up th e ped est rians ' view from th e br idge deck co m pletely, so th at

st ress r ibbon with spa ns of 85" .5" m - 96 m - 67 .1) m. In th e Maid ston e

st r uc t ura l systems using pylons , ma st and cables wer e out of th e que sti on.

Foo tbr idge , th e technical challe ng e is th e directional cha nge of th e deck.

A thin st ress ribbon bridge where th e han gin g deck act s as the main
st ruct u re was th e obvi ous choice. The total len gth of the co nst r uc t ion is
101.5" m is divided into two halves , one 4-9 .5" m and th e ot he r 37.5" m, by a

kink creati ng a 25" change of direct ion in plan . T he pr obl em of th e great

hori zontal for ces resulting fro m th e dir ect ion al change is elegantly solved .
These hori zon tal forces are suppo r te d by com pre ssion forces in a solid
co nc rete stai r way. In orde r to pr even t th e deck fro m lifting up ward du e
to th e incl ine of th e st air way, a slende r steel colum n is ad de d . The super-

1.4 m

st ruct ure consists of 3 m lon g prefabr icated segme nts hu ng on steel cables .
T he joi nts between the seg me nts were conc re te d in sit u and pr etcn sion ed
w ith addi tion pr est ressing tendon s. T his stress ribb on design is t ypi cal o f

Jir i Strasky. T he adva ntage of th e st iff deck is it s relatively small dyn am ic

resp on se . T he trade -off is that th e high stiffness of th e dec k produces

3.1 m

O.8m

Bednarski, Cczary M., Kent

me ssen ger Millenium Brid ge .
Maidst onc, UK , in : Fo otb ridge,
2002 ,

pr . 1I 0 -] 1I

77

Unusual for a stress ribbon bridge - the oppos ite bridgehead is not in sight

/
//

///
/////
//////

"-"-

/mml

-,

-c-, "-

//

" "'"

////
/////

37.5 m

49.5 m

"-

" "

78

Taking Lightness to the Limit

With a free span of 52 m, the bridge sags by only 80 em

Footbridge in Enzauen Park, Pforzheim, Germany, 1991

On ce again, a provincial garden show was an occasion to do
some thi ng for th e pedestrians in a city defil ed by t raffi c. As th e land scap e
alon g th e Enz ri verbank was to be newl y groome d , it was easy to blend
th e ro b ust abut me nts of th e stress ribbon bridge into th e r iver side
SOm

emban kme nts. Grea te r simplicity in a str uc t ure is hard to imagin e ; a

67.7 m

hallmark of Sch laich Bergermann and Par t ner 's work. Two thin metal
plates (4 80 /40 mm , St 52-3) ar e hun g between th e abutm ents. Lightweight
co ncre te plat es are th en bolted onto th e ribbon s (d

17 mm) . The bridge

has a sag of merely 80 ern in order to respect th e maximum slope of

6

per cent for wheelcha ir user s. Each plate ribbon was tran sported to th e

site in three seg me nts, wh ich wer e then welded to gether on site . T he
2.9 m

r ailings, co nsisti ng of steel tubes with a chain link fill ing, co ntri bute the
dynamic damping of th e st ruct ure. Th e tran sparent rail ing makes little
visual impac t. As th e curvat ure of the deck incr eases near the abutme nts,
th e co ncre te plates becom e shorter. The cr it ical area of a stress ri bbo n
bridge is near th e abutm en t. Live loads cre ate bending moments in th e
ten sion me mbers if th ey ar e ri gidl y co nnecte d to the abutme nt , causing
fati gu e to becom e an issue . To avoid th is, th e ribbons are suppor te d by a
saddle with a large eno ugh radius to limit th e cyclica l loading to below
th e fatig ue limit . In total , four new pe des trian bridges tha t re animate th e
att rac t ive riverbanks wer e built for the ga rde n show.

Leicht, wcit , 1003 .

pp.2\6 -'17

79

Concrete sl absare bolted to steel ribbons

North Bridge in Rostock, Germany, 2003

To harmonise natural land scap es - o r t o put it m or e mod estl y,
land scap ed co unt r yside - wi th cur io us and act ive peopl e ma kes th e
garden sho ws pot ent oc casio ns for un it ing hcautv and utilit y. In genera l,
th e hri ef garde n shows leave an extended recreati on al areas and create

38m

27m

more of an imp act th an th e ph rases "ext ra o rd inary ga rdening" or "t he

27m

Ol ymp ics of gardening" would have us believe . It was at suc h an occas ion ,
th e 2003 Int ernationa l Garden Sho w in Rostock , Ger ma ny, th at se veral

4m

foothridges wer e built over th e wat erways that t raver se th e site. Sch laich

Bergermann and Partner design ed a multi -span st re ss r ibb on st ru ctu re

I
I
I
I

for t he Nort h Bridge over a t r ibu tar y of th e l.lnterwa r now near Schmarl.
Each of t he three spans has a lengt h Of 27 m . Two plat e ribbon s are hu ng
between t he abut me nts and over t wo int ermediat e bridge piers. Th ese
int ermedi at e piers co nsist of ar t icu lated colum ns with a car r iage spr ing
elast ic sadd le. Concrete slabs, 12em t hi ck, are holtcd to th e ribbon s. T he
effects o f span co nt inuit y mu st he taken int o accou nt for suc h a st re ss
r ihhon : as on e spa n is load ed , ten sion increases in th e adjace nt spans to
resist th e deformat ion . Sch laich Bergerm ann and Partner agai n proved
th em selves exper ienced m ast er s of st ress ribbo n st r uc t ures.

Sc-hlak-h , Mikc, Die

FuBg.lngerhruckcn auf dcr

in tcrn atio nale n G ar rcn sch au
J(;A 2001 in Rost ock , in :
HJuingc nicu r,

10, 200J

Russel, H., Fin' modest

h r idges make eco no m ic sense
for gard ~'11 show, in : Bridgl'
Ik sign and Eng inl'l..' ri ng.
4 . 1o OJ

?
I
I
I
I

80

Taking Lightness to the Limit

W estern abutment

ISm I

40 m

6.3m

Punt da Suransuns, Viamala , Swit zerland , 1999

The excep tionally beautiful hiki ng path in Via ma la is accompan ied
by severa l bridges fro m t he o ffice o f Conzett Bronzin i Gart ma n in Chur.
O ne of these struc t u res ca n be found no r t h of th e crossing of the AI3
road and t he Hinter Rhine in a d eep valley wi t h a wandering river. The
4-0m spa n o f th e ped estri an bridge is long , but it s po sit ion is we ll chosen :
it is easy to access a nd not di re ctly u nd e r t he roadway. Given th e site, a
stress ribbon struc ture had several adva ntages; th e abut ments are at
d iffe re nt elevations - as in Ren e W alther 's Bircherwei d Br idges ; and to
the steeper abutment, the slope is 20 percent. Ano t her re ason is th at the
hik in g route was t o be a sto ne pa t h to m at ch th e surrou ndi ng landscape .
Jiirg Con ze t t suggested a st ress r ibb on st r uc t u re wi t h a gran ite de ck ,
re mem be ri ng Heinz Hos sd orf's design of a prestressed g ra ni t e bridge for
the recons t r uc t io n of th e De vil 's Br idge in the 19S"0S. Jiirg Conzett
e m ployed g ne iss from the nei ghbourin g town o f And eer for th e d e ck,
a nd V4-Ac hrome-nickel steel or duple x stai n less steel for a ll steel com po nent s. These steels resist the co rrosive effec ts o f the sa lt spray from the
adjacent high way. The joints bet we en the gra n ite slabs are fill ed w it h
Structu re as Space .

3 mm th ick alu m in iu m bands.

200 6 ,

pp. ''4- 21 '

Conzcn , Jiirg. Punt da

Er e ction p ro cedure : first , the abu t me nts were pr e ci sel y con cret ed ,

Sur ans uns Pcdesn-ian Bri( lg(".

in: Str uctura l Eng inc.'c.ring

Int er nati on al , May, 20 0 0 , 2.
Schweize r An.:hitek t und
Ingc.nic.ur. I , 20 00

10

and the nat pegs to w hic h the ste el bands wo uld a nc ho r we re conc re ted
dire ctly into th e ab ut ments . Th e g ra n ite slabs we re successive ly la id o n
th e steel plates beginn in g fro m the lowest point. The tr ick is that th e

The steel bands' attachment to the vertical members of the railing can be clearly seen from below

1 1 ru

granite slabs were attached to the ribbons using the vertical members of
the railing. The bands wedge against one another during tensioning and
the vertical railing attachments are tightened and the handrails is
precisely installed.
The dynamic behaviour of the 4-0 m long bridge could not be
predicted, for vertical oscillations in particular. Hikers however enjoy
the raw attractions of the rocky landscape and are not fearful when the
bridge vibrates, although it does so much less that the slender silhouette
would lead one to expect. Near the abutments, carriage spring saddles
soften the transition to the anchorage. The horizontal oscillations of the
structure, which can be excited by a single hiker, are naturally larger
than the lateral vibrations of Foster and Arup's Millennium Bridge in
London. This small bridge unites the finest aesthetic elements : the raw
rocks in the Hinter Rhine, the flat, glittering gneiss slabs, and the
shining chrome steel suit each other. The overall visual impression of the
bridge leads one to believe that the structure has bypassed all limits of
slenderness - even though its surface is of stone. Altogether, the stress
ribbon bridge is a masterpiece of minimal art.

81

82

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Stress Ribbon Bridges

Bridge in Vent (A)

Thestress ribbon structure is one of the

Bridge made of grass in Himalaya

Some stress ribbon bridgeshave beende-

oldest bridge archetypes. Primitive bridge builders

signed as roadway bridges, the most famous

attempted to span distances wider than the length

example of which is the conceptual design of a

of an existing tree trunk by throwing a line across a

bridge over the Bosphorus by the engineer Ulrich

ravine and tying it on both sidesto a large rock or

Finsterwalder. However, most are footbridges, as

tree. In this simple and natural structural system,

pedestrian traffic is better suited to counteract the

cablesare stressed between the two abutments

oscillations of theselively structures or overcome

and serve asthe walkway. It is difficult to imagine

the slope of stress ribbon structures near the abut-

a simplerstructural system : walkway surface and

ments than road or railway traffic. Bridges for

supporting cable, often from natural fibres, are

which the deck is suspended from the handrails

one. The cables of modern European stress ribbon

acting as the main supporting tension element

footbridgesconsist in prestressing tendons or a

may also be considered stress ribbon bridges.

system of at least two adjacent steel bands or

High-strength materials find their ideal

cables laid out at the edges of the deck. The walk-

application in stress ribbon structures. In most

way is then provided by either a concrete deck slab

structures, the strength of construction materials

encasing the prestressing tendons, or by individual

cannot be fully exploited, as problems of stability

concrete or stoneplanksfixedatop the steel ribbons

or deflection through elastic strain control the

or cables. Such stress ribbon structures have

design . Stability, however, is not an issue for a pure

become possible only by the invention of high-

tension stress ribbon structure. With respect to de-

strength steel. The advantages of the high yield

flections of the stress ribbon, the effects of elastic

strength of this steel are being exploited in con-

strain are much less influential than geometric or

temporary structures(see beginning of this chap-

second-order effects. In addition, by exploiting its

ter: Ulrich Finsterwalder 1970, and in Switzerland

material strength, the depth of the tension member

Rene Walther, 1967 and Otto Wenaweser, 1971).

can be greatly reduced. This in turn decreases local

Stress ribb on bri dge w it h I,

Posit io ns of t he st ress ribbo n

q. f, and H

83

\\C;ijjj)

bending stresses at t he abut ments and saddles,

therefo re necessary, even if t his causes unwanted

w elded to for m the final ribbo n. Befor e final

w hich signif icantly aff ect th e design .

slopes at t he abutments. The designer must the re-

anchoring , th e ribbon or cable is short er th an in

fo re find a balance between cost and pedest rian

it s fi nal state. The t ension members must th ere-

Analysis, Forces

com fort, betw een the fo undat ion costs of ancho r-

fore be st retched or stressed befo re ancho ring at

St ress ribbons are quit e simple to calculate if

ing high-tension fo rces and the pedest rian's

th e abutm ent s. The deck surface is th en eit her

w e exclude local effec ts near the abutments. The

diff icult y in overcoming the slope of the bridge.

placed upon the t ension mem bers or con creted

ten sio n force (S) in the stress ribbo n is dependent

For footbridge s, a common ratio of the struc tu re's

around them . For bridg es w ith individual slab

on the length of the span (I), th e loading (here a

sag under self-w eigh t to span is 1/50. This limits

segments placed upon steel bands, the band

distributed load, q), and t he sag (f) of the ribbon

t he slope of t he deck to 8 percent at it s steepest,

should be thinner near a saddle o r abutment than

and is calculated as follows :

assum ing an app roximate parabo lic form for the

over the free span. Precision is required in

gradient of the deck, rath er than the exact

det ermining th e ribb on length as even minute

hyperboli c for m.

erro rs in t he length of the cable produces great

s= H=

q12 /8 f

The apparent simplicity of the st ress ribb on

differ ences in th e ribbon sag. During erect ion, th e

relies on the great te nsion fo rces in the deck,

anchorage should be made to allow for adjust -

ribbon remains constant alo ng its leng th, while

whi ch require comp lex anchorag es. The abutmen ts

ments, should an error in length occur.

t he tension force (S) increases with the slope of

and the tran smission of the hor izontal anchorage

The horizontal compo nent (H) of the st ress

For long , mult i-span st ress ribb ons struc-

the ribbon t ow ards the abutment s. Wee can see

forces to th e underlying soil are the greatest

tur es, the t ensio n force of the deck continues over

that t he horizon ta l component (H) of the tensio n

challenge in the design and construc t ion of these

th e inte rmediate piers and need o nly be ancho red

forc e is equal to the maximum bendi ng momen t

bridges. Apar t from the abutme nts and

at t he abutments . Arches are oft en used as int er-

of a simply suppo rt ed beam under distrib uted

foundati on s, erect ion of st ress ribbon s structu res

mediate suppo rts fo r multi -span stress ribb ons. If

load (q.J2l8) divided by th e maximu m sag f. We

is qurte simp le. The cables of stress ribbon struc-

the right geome try is chosen, th e hor izontal thrust

can also see tha t t he ribbo n cannot be stressed

tu res arrive on site at th eir final lengt h on spools.

of t he arch can cancel the anchorage force of the

flat: the hor izontal component H approaches infin-

For structures using stiff plates, the plates are

stress ribbon.

ity as the sag, f, appro aches zero. Ribbon sag is

transporte d to the site in segments that must be

84

Taking lightness to the limit

Elastic and geometric deflection

15

CFKflL: 1170

Multispan stress ribbon bridge

Arch with stress ribbon

CFKflL=1/S0

0.5

/'

/'

,/

/'
....

-.. ~

.... .

Stahlftl= 1no

/'

5tahllll =lt50
UK fl1:1120
dehnungslos
Stahl f/l=1I20

.
"2

Deflection, strain

Bending and redirection

The funicular form of a cable under constant

Particular attention must be paid to the

self-weight is the hyperbolic sine while the funicu-

zonesof abrupt redirection of ribbon geometry

lar form for a constant distributed load is the para-

such asthe near the anchorages or above the inter-

bola. The difference between these two functions

mediate piers of multi-span stress ribbon structures.

is minimal for small sag to span ratios of around

The tension member cannot have a rigidly fixed

1/50. As an approximation, the cable form can be

connection in these regions, asthe combination of

and depth h at the saddle is therefore

with

0H

= S/A ", H/bh =q12/8f.bh and OM= MIW

taken as a simple parabola in such cases. Equilibri-

high bending stresses from cyclic live loads and

um occurs as the stress ribbon takes the funicular

high tension stress would lead to fatigue failure.

form for the respective loading condition. For an

The tension member in these zones must be rein-

moment that results from the curvature of the

increase in a constant distributed load over the

forced to minimize the bending stresses . For stress

ribbon at the saddle. The curvature is indirectly

The bending stress OMis due to the bending

span, the tension force w ill increase, producing an

ribbons madeof steel bands, the bending stress

proportional to the saddle radius. Thecurvature of

increase in sag and strain in the ribbon. The para-

may be reduced by using a round saddle that

the ribbon may be expressed

bolic form will however remain . Should the load-

allows controlled deflection of the bands in these

K=

ing have a different distribution, the deck will seek

zones. This allows the band to deflect to find its

equilibrium by taking the funicular form for this

optimum form with respect to the variable loading.

load case. For such deflections, w here there is no

Thesaddle radius can be chosen to ensure that the

strain at the midspan but rather a change in the

variation in ribbon stress stays below the fatigue

form of the deck, the strain is roughly equal to that

limits, or that the stresses remain below the yield

of the distributed load. As the elastic strain of the

strength.

stress ribbons plays litt le role in the deflections,

thin and flexible ribbons of high strength materials
may be used.

M/EI = l /R

The bending stress istherefore

M-h/2

w here

Above the saddle, the pure tension stress Os

(as isfound at the midspan)is combined with bend-

Cross-sectional area

ing stress OMdue to the redirection of the ribbon.

Young's modulus for the ribbon

The total stress

Inertia of the cross section

of a stress ribbon with the width b

Saddle of the multi-span stressribbon bridge in Rostock w ith carriage springs

85

Bending stress as a fun ction of saddle radius

3000

\
\
\

2500

\
2000

"
~

-,

-,

1500

-,
<,

<,

1000

h: t .a mm

h = 1 2mm

500

~-====:::===:::;:========
50

100

h :Ol1 mm

250

200

'50

Radius Imrn]

Concrete slabs
Stress nbbons

Elastic modulus of the section (= 2' l/h)

Radius of the saddle

Bolted plates

The saddle length must be chosen so that

the band never reaches the edge of the saddle
under variable loading to avoid folding. The re-

As shown in the equation above, the bending stress is indirectly proportion al to the sa ddle

quired length fo r a saddle above an intermediate

pier is given as follows:

radius and directly proportional to the ribbon

depth. In order to reduce the bending stress, the

L = 2 it Ra/360

saddle radius should be as great as possible wi th

Art iculated

bearing

the thinnest possible ribbon depth. The required

where

saddle radius can be determined for a material

wi th a yield strength of fyd, depending on the sag,

= a deadload + 2lw. = arctan (4f/I) + 2t:.a

ribbon depth and width, loading and span as

2t:.a = The change in angle of the ribbon at the

follow s:

sa ddle due to live loading and erection tolerances.

Lateral bracing
All stress ribbons are susceptible to dynamic
The advantage of high-strength materials is

Stress nbbon

Saddle size

excitat ion due to their light w eight. The ribbons

evident in the equation above. Not only can bands

themselves exhibit very low material damping

of high-strength materials w ithstand higher

characteristics, wh ich can result in the structure

stresses, they are also thinner. This leads to a

oscillating widely. The bridge's dynamic behaviour

reduction of bending stresses and saddle size.

can be improved by creating a prestressed con-

The image below left shows the required saddle

crete ribbon that is rigid in bending, or by adding

size w ith respect to type of band and magnitude

mass to the structure. For th is reason, heavy

of the bending stress.

concrete slabs are used for the bridge deck in the

86

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Cable Stiffening

==Reductionof sag

Additionalmass

Pforzheim and Rostock bridges to add mass and

Carbo n f ibre rib bon s

decreasethe deflections of the structure under

The advantagesof high-strength materials

variable loading. Fortunately, the natural damping

mentioned abovewould incline a designer to

University Berlin . The structurewas designed

choosethe highest-strength material currently

according to the current codes and standards. The

exploited to add damping. Chain link guardrails

available, carbon fibre. Carbon fibre is currently

structure demonstrates that a ribbon thickness of

only 1 mm is sufficient to support a span of 15 m.

have been proven effective by dissipating the

used in the aviation industry and racin g cars due to

dynamic energy of the structure into heat energy

its high strength - 10 times higher than normal

through friction in the guardrail filling. The Glacis

structural steel - and its low weight - one fift h of

of this extremely lightweight bridge, additional

Bridge has shown that a chain link guardrail can

that for steel. In structural engineering, carbon

mass is added to the bridge in the form of 10 cm

Stiffening girder

In order to reduce the dynamic oscillations

double the damping of the structure [fib guidelines

fibre hasstrangely enough found litt le application

deep concrete slabs. This isthe starti ng point for

2005] The images to the left show the five most

or application as reinforcementof existing

further research at the TU Berlin, on " intelligent"

important methods for reducing the deflections of

reinforced concrete structures.

damping systems that would allow very lightly

decked, and therefore lively structures, to be

elements that are not part of the suspended

efficiently "quieted" - without the additional mass.

ribbon, bridges with cable girders and stiff ening

Carbon fibre materialscould then be used optimally

trusses can be considered separate structural typo-

in the structural desig n.

logies.
Additional cables

A test bridge project using carbon fibre

ribbons was therefore carried out at the Technical

characteristicsof non-structural members may be

suspended ribbons. By adding additional structural

Bendingstiffness

Anchoring of the ribbons

Test bridge at the Techn ical University Berlin

Eibl, Josef and Klem ens Pel le , Z ur Bcrcchnung von Spannba ndhruckcn . Hache I hin ge-b and er , Du sse ldo rf, 197~
O st e r, Han s, Fu13gangerhru cketl von Jiir g Sc-hlaich lind Rud ol f BlTger mann , Exhibiti o n catalog ue , 199 2

Schl aic-h , Jorg and Ste phan Engt'!sm ann , St ress Ribb o n Co nc-ret e
Brid gt.'s, Str uct ura l Fng inecring lntc rna tion al, 4 , Novem ber 1996
Schlaich , f\.\ ikc ct ai. , Gu ide line s for th e (k sign of foo t br idges, lib,
federat io n int crn ation alc d u bcton , bu llet in p , l ausann e, Nove m be r
200)

Stras kv, Jir i, Str ess r-ibbon and cable-suppo rte d pedes tr ian br idg es,

TbornasI clford , London, 200~

87

88

Taking Lightness to the Limit

The footbridge connects two very different parks over a highway

68.6m

Schiller Footbridge in Stuttgart, Germany, 1961

Aft er th e Second World War, Fritz Leonhardt's attempts to cre ate

Bridg es. Fritz Leonhardt referred to th e fan arrangeme nt as the most

light and slender structures quickly set a high standard for structural

"natural and te chnically effect ive" cable arrangement, as can be seen in

design . Th e rel evance of the ideals of lightness and slend erness to German

th e footbridges in Stuttgart and Mannheim.

culture were explicitly laid out, but th ese ideals th e opp osite th e National
Socialist monumental aestheti c. Steel , and later pre stressed conc re te ,
enabled th e engineers to embody th e lightweight ideal in structural
design . The Enz Footbridge is a wonder ful example ofthis (see P: 62) .
Th e engineers in the office of Leonhardt & Andra would not rest until
they had reduced th e depth of th e deck slab from

)2

to

)0

em . The

structural syst em of th e cable-stay ed bridge is well suited to this desire :

by decreasing th e distance between cable suppor ts, th e deck can be mad e
more slender as the bending moments ar e redu ced . Fritz Leonhardt's
greatest goal was to mak e the deck as slender as pos sible, although he
never explicitl y discu ssed th e aesth etic rationale of th e ideal of slenderness
in design . Th e angular contour s of th e cable-st ayed structure did not,
however, guarantee respect for Leonhardt's second design maxim : elegance .
Ther e are two types of cable-stayed bridges . In the "har p" arrangement, th e stay cable s ar e parallel to on e another. Fritz Leonhardt built
Leo nhardt , Fritz and Wo lfhart

Andr a, FuBgangersteg tiber die

SchillerstraBe in Stuttgar t, in :
Baute chnik , 19 62

Schlaich, Schu ller, ' 999,

pp. 17)- 174

th e first cable-stayed bridge with a harp arr angement in

(9)2

in th e

Diisseldorf family of bridges . Th e architect Fri edrich Tamms insisted on

th is cable arrangem ent, which continues to shape the skyline of Diisseldorf,
in particular th e Ob erkasseler , th e Theodor-Heuss , and th e Rh einknie

S5m

24 m

Typical 1970s block s of flats required pedestrian access to the city centre . The deck w idens around the pylons.

56.5 rn

1390 m

56.5 rn

Neckar Footbridge at the Collini Centre in Mannheim, Germany, 1973

The structure consists of a nat deck girder suspended from two
sta y cable planes to each edge. The stay cables (parallel wire strand) are
individually anchored at the top of the steel pylons. The longitudinal
distance of 9 to

10

m between stays, enables the deck girder con consist

of a trapezoidal section only 60 cm deep in reinforced concrete. The

stiffening girder is haunched in the longitudinal and transverse
6.4 rn

directions. The girder has a depth of 1.2 m at the pylons. An expansion

joint is provided at the midspan, and the bearings at the base of the
pylons are fixed in translation by free to rotate. The joint in the midspan
allows the bridge deck to expand but nevertheless transfers shear forces
and torsional moments. The cross section of the steel pylon is merely

Ixl

at the base. The depth of the pylon cross section increases in longitudinal
direction to 1.4 m at the head of the pylon to make room for the cable
anchorages. The wide Flood plane of the Neckar and main span of 139.6 m
may have contributed to Leonhardt's choice of a fan arrangement for the
sta y cables, but the brittle, linear appearance of the bridge does not
bring elegance to mind . The Neckar footbridge does not have a modelled
appearance, despite the widening of the deck at the base of the pylon .
The visual impression remains linear, comparable to a line drawing.

Dornecker, Ar tur; Eberhard

vollc.cI and Wilhelm Zelln er, Die
Schriigkahclbriicke fUr FuOganger
iiber den Neckar in Mannheim, in:
Beton- und Stehlbau, 2 and 3. 1977.
pp. 29 -35 and ~964
Keller, Giorgio, Ponte pedonalc
strallato suI Necker a Mannhcirn . in:
L'industria haliana del Cemento,
11,1982 , pp. 817-82S"

89

90

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Footbridge in Rosenstein Park, Stuttgart, Germany, 1977

Jorg Schl aich wo rked as a you ng eng ineer in th e office of Leonhardt
and Andra , t he bi rthplace of lightweight constr uctio n . In t he early 19 70 S,
th e office wa s wo rking on th e constructi on of a tent roof for th e Ol ympi c
spor ts halls in Munich . Jor g Sch laich - a partner in th e office since 1970 develop ed into a structural engi nee r w ith exceptional curiosit y, fantasy
and d isrespec t for th e co nventi ona l wi sdom . As part of a provincial garde n
show, a red evelopment of a cit y zone , left barren by traffi c planning, was
ordered . Ped estrians we re to be able to cross over a multi-lane mot or way
and t ramline from a park to th e popular spa. This led to th e creat ion of
the fir st co ntemporary self-anchored susp ension bridge. The deck gird er,
a concre te slab, is fixed at one abut me nt but fre e in hori zontal transl at ion
at t he opposite abutment. A lifting of th e deck is blocked at thi s abut me nt .
The main cables (fully locked co il strand d = 75 mm) ar e anchored at each
ofthe deck 's corner points. A continuous saddle is provided at the head
of th e pylon without clamping. The anchorages of th e cables ar e merg ed
into th e deck, making insp ection and maintenance diffi cult . The m ast is a
27.2 m

27m

51 . 1 m

sim ple square cross section of fo ur weld ed plat es to avoid high costs . This

Schleich, Jiirg and H. Bcichc.

Ful1gangerhriicken tiber die

footbridge was built as a cable truss bridge , with th e su rface slabs laid

Bundesgarten sch au 1977 in

Stuttgart, in: Beton - und Stahl-

di rectl y on the str uct u ra l cables .

bctonbau , ' , 19 79 , pp. IH6

Two in one: cable truss and suspension bridge

91

92

Taking Lightness to the Limit

The const r uct ion of the cable suspension bridge m arked the parting
of Fritz Leonhardt and Jorg Schlaich , who found ed an office with Rudolf
Berg ermann in 1980 . T he bridge crosses high above th e Neckar and co nnects a residential zon e near th e river with th e Max Eyth Lake recr eational
area. At on e bank, a narrow path conti nue s up a st eep hillside vin eyar d .
The wid e floodplains of th e Neckar extend to the other bank. Jorg Schlai ch
design ed a suspen sion bridge with 20 to 25 m high m ast s (round hollow

Bridge at Max Eyth Lake near Stuttgart, Germany, 1989

ste el , d = 7" mm , t = 40 -50 mm) th e deck passes in front of th e mast and

joins the vineyard path . To the other side, th e deck splits just before th e
mast . To th e left th e approach spira ls down to a path parallel to the river bank , to th e right directly to th e lake . Leonhardt felt that th e mast should
stand to th e side of the deck. The light cu rvat ure of th e bridge can easily
be view ed from ato p the deck and engrains the visual app earance of the

structure . W ith a span of "4 m , th e deck is merely 30 em deep . T he mast

to th e side of th e flood plain supports half of th e br idge as well as the
appr oach ; to th e Vineyard side , th e mast onl y supports on e half of th e
bridge and it pass es directly to an abutment . The mast to th e vineyard side
is back-st ayed w ith two cables anchored to th e hill side . The hangers are
3.1 m

incl ined along th e length of the deck , which help s to stiffen the deck
girder . The railing consists of a wire net simply clamped to cables running parallel to the edge of th e deck , on e of whi ch serves as the handrail.
The main cables and backstays are full y locked coil strand (d = 106 mm)
and th e hanger s ar e thin st ainless helical strand
(d = 16 mm) . Prefabricated deck elem ents wer e susp end ed from the main
114m

cables starting at th e mid span du ring erection . These segments were in

th e form of aU . Aft er th e rebar of the ind ividual segments was welded
tog ether, th e remainder of th e deck was concrete d in situ to crea te a
continuous slab. T his procedure mad e it possible to erec t the structure

Schlatch, Jorg and E. Schurr.

without th e use of formwork but required a very high level of geometric

FuBgangcrbruckebei Stuttgart,

and te chnical pr ecision .

8, '9 9 0 , pp. 191-19 8

in: Beton - und Stahlbeto nhau ,

The firstsuspension bridge with a curved deck -Ji qhtweiqht and logical ly designed to the lastdetail

93

94

Taking Lightness to the Limit

A main span of 252 m - one of the longest suspension footbridgesin Europe

30m

2S2 m

30m

Suspension Bridge in Vranov, Czech Republic, 1993

T he res ervoi r in Vranov, near th e 19 30 border between Austria and
the Cze ch Repu blic, is a popular vacation area in the su mm er. Th e br idge
repl aces a ferry and supports wa te r and gas lin es betwee n th e town
centre w ith its hot els and rest aurants and th e beach th e other side of th e
river. T he deck is a slende r slab w ith a 2)2 m ma in span and two 30 m
approach spans .
]iri St ras ky is an extre me ly expe r ienced pedestrian bridge design er.
Hi s first st ress ribbon s appe are d in th e 19 7 0 S in th e form er Czec ho slova kia, made of pr efabri cat ed concre te seg me nts and pr estressed
tend on s as th e ten sion eleme nt. Seven of th ese DS-L Bridges were built
between 197 9 an d 19 85 . His susp en sion bridge over th e Vranov Reservoi r
in southern Mor avia is pot ent evide nce th at suspension bridges ar e
rel evant st r uct u res for spans less than 1000 m . With a main span of 2)2 m,
th is fo otbrid ge slende r footbridge is one of th e lon gest in th e world. The
deck of th e st r uct u re is 3. 4 m wid e and only 40 cm deep. Th e tech nical
cur iosity of thi s br idge: part of th e hor izon tal co mpo nent of th e
suspe nsion cable is anchored in th e deck , th ereby redu cing the costs of
Strasky ,

'00,

th e abut ment anc ho rage .

Solid anchorblocks

9.6 m

95

\ "

96

Taking Lightness to the limit

Steel cables combined with a reinforced plastic deck

Halgavor Bridge in Bodmin, Cornwall, UK, 2001

The Halgavor Bridg e sout h of Bodmin in Cornwall is on e of th e fir st

Th er e ar e no codes and ver y few guidelines for the design of fibr e-

bridges mad e from fibr e-reinforced plastic s in th e UK . The bridge was

rein for ced plastics, so testing was required to ver ify th e st r uct ural

required to cro ss a heavily used highwa y and was to cause minimal

integ r ity. The bearing stre ngt h of th e bolt ed anchor age of th e han ger int o

disruption to th e traffic below and need min imal maintenance. In addition,

th e deck was confirme d by testing. The dynamic respon se of th e st r uct u re

th e bridge would be used as a bridlewa y, th e waste from whi ch cre ates a

was closely monitored befor e its inauguration . Th e damping effec ts of th e

highl y co r ros ive environment. These requirem ents led th e eng ineers of

wood en blinder s, th e flexible su r facing o f recycled tyres, and th e chain

Flint & Neill from London, known for th eir expe r ime ntat ion , to sugg est

lin k railin g wer e suffici ent to hamper dyn ami c osc ill at ions .

a carbon fibr e -r einforced plastic as th e mat eri al for th e sup erstructure

du e to its lightweight , cor ro sion resistance and durability.
Th e suspension cabl es and mast of th e st r uct ure with its 47 m span
ar e in steel. The hanger cab les have a radial arrangem ent . T hey and the
1.8

m high wire net railings are in stainless steel. The railings are so high

due to th e bridleway . At the bottom of th e railing, wood en blinders ar e

provided . Th e 3.) m wide fibr e-reinforced deck co nsists of two chan nelshaped,

)0

cm deep edge beams and a 37 mm deep co mposite sandw ich

plat e. The plat e is suppor te d by secondary transver se and longitudinal

girde rs . T he st iffness of th e deck is det ermined by th e lower Young's
modulus of th e handmade edge beams (E

=12 , 8 0 0

N zrn rn") . The m achine

produced sandw ich pan els have high er st iffness (E = 22 , 0 0 0 Nzrn m") . Th e
deck is flexible enough to be monolithically co nnecte d to th e side
abut me nts without cre at ing high st ress fro m constraining forces und er
temper ature loading.

The erec t ion of the deck was car r ied out in one night with th e 31 m
long mids ection of th e bridge was hung fr om th e susp ension cables . The
bridge was op ened to th e public in July 2001. Shou ld t hese plastic bridges

Fir th I. . Coo per D. , ~('\\,

Materials for Ne w hrid ges

tru ly have lower maintenance costs and erec t ion time, we w ill surely see

- li alga\'Or Bride UK, in:

Str uctura l Engineerin g

mor e of th em in the future .

In tern at ional , May 20 0 2, SEl12 :2

Pedestrian, cyclist, horses and their riders

579 m

47 m

3.7 m

97

98

Taking Lightness to the Limit

68m

Bridge over the Rh one in Sierre, lies Falcon, Switzerland, 1998

In th e Rh one valley, th e co nvers ion of th e ind ustrial society is just

as diffi cult as it is anywh er e else, in spite of a more ver satile eco no my.
Abando ne d indu strial zon es mu st be r ehab ilit ated and co nver te d to
co u nter act th eir det eri orat ion . In Sicrre, the lies Falcon are just such an
indust r ial zone that is being reverted piece by piece to a more natural
environme nt, wit h a hik ing trail th at crosses the Rhon e and join s a steep
hi llside. An asym met r ically suspende d , 3.6 m wide bridge ent ices hik er s
to cross. The incl ined , 26 .36 m high pylons make a pow er ful architect ura l
gest ure . O ver th e next few years , th e hiking path will be co mpleted up
th e hill side - until t hen th e br idge seems u nmot ivated and without a role.
It is st r iking t hat t he eng inee rs of Daun er , Joli at & associes usc the
nort hern abutme nt as ce nt ral design co nstra int and integrat e it into the
hiking trail. The sole problem of th e anchorag es' potentially over po wer ing
visual imp act is elega ntly solved . Well -co nceived detai ls for t he railing
and t he change in dec k su rfacin g at the br idgehead along w it h the precise
exec ution produce a cohe re nt st r uc t u re w ith a span of 68 m and a tota l
length of 88. 4 5 m. T he ten sioning of t he suspe nsion cable crea tes light
arching of the deck . Du e to changes in temper ature , t he bri dge is st iffer
in w int er and more flex ible in sum mer - but always sufficiently sta ble.
O ne unique featu re is th e black beam that join s and st abi lizes th e two
masts. Hop efu lly th e hiking t ra il w ill soo n be co m plete d and th e bridge
will soon car ry ped estrian s afte r nin e years as a ghos t bridge .

From an industrial area to natural environmen t

21 m

26.4m

The bridge currently ends in no man's land, a hiking trail will be added shortly

99

100

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Dynami cs, vibratio ns

Load testing of the footbridge in Sassnitz

In the German language, the term for struc-

coverage and the subsequentinstallation of

tural engineers is Statiker, and the structural analy-

damping devices. It is no surprise that the dynamic

sis and calculations of a project are referred to as

behaviour of pedestrian bridges has become the

the Statik. These expressions refer to the field of

main topic of many bridge conferences. A chapter

static mechanics, the dominant field of mechanics

of this book istherefore devoted to the dynamics

that structural engineers handle. In the analysis of

of pedestrian bridges.

most structures, the loading that acts on the structure is considered to be stationary, w hich means

Generally speaking, it isthe loading of the

pedestrian themselves, and more rarely wind

that the structure is considered to deform only

loading, that excites bridge structures to large

slightly, and not to vibrate. Increasingly lightweight

oscillations, or sometimesto collapse. Two

and slender structures are being built as high-

spectacula r bridge collapses in England (Broughton

strength materials become more readi ly available.

Bridge near Manchester, 1831)and France (Angers,

This oft en produces more aesthetic designs w hile

1850) due to synchronized marching of soldiers

conserving resources. Lightweight structures, how-

haveled to the common practice of soldiersto

ever, are livelystructuresthat exhibit larger deflec-

break step while crossing a bridge. This can be

tions than heavy structures, and are generally

seen on the notice on the Albert Bridge in London

susceptible to dynamic excitation.

("All troops must break step when marching over

While staticsare largelysufficient for analysing a heavystone arch, the dynamic behaviour of

this bridge"), and in the current German road

traff ic regulations.

a lightweight footbridge must be considered carefully. Not all phenomena in the dynamicsof struc-

Frequencies

tures are completely understood. Recently, severa l

Thedesign of the structure depends on the

landmark pedestrian bridges haveexhibited spirited

resonance (from the Latin, resonare: to echo) of

dynamic oscillations, resulting in much press

the structure. A good example of this is a swing.

Deckw ith inclined hangers

Loading behaviour

Step frequencies of pedestrians

FplG IkN]

1.5

15

vs

Is

[Hz]

[rn/s]

[m]

slow pace

1.7

1.0

0.60

normal pace

20

1.5

0.75

fast pace

2.3

2.3

1.00

no rmal running

2.5

3.1

125

spnntmg

> 3.2

5.5

1.75

as
t [kNI

02

0.4

0.6

08

Like a pendulum, the swing hasone natural

First, the bott le is released sudden ly at the top of

asthousands of commuters were forced to cross

frequency that is dependent on the length of the

the weighing surface, and then from 50 cm above

the structure by foot. At its inauguration, the

swing but independent of the mass. Regardless of

the sca le. The bott le of water weights 1 kg, but

Millennium Bridge in Londonvibrated under a

the initial force that acts to push the swing, it

will show 2 kg if suddenly released at the weight

heavy pedestrian density w ith such amplitude that

alwaysoscillates at the sa me frequency, measured

surface. Thescale w ill show 30 kg w hen the bottle

it was closed shortly thereafter.The Millennium

in oscillations per second w ith the unit Hertz (Hz).

is released 50 cm above the scale.

Bridge was reopened after the installation of a

If the swing is pushed regularly at the right

The pedestrian does not simply introduce

complicated damping system . Theinclined hangers

moment, i.e. with the same frequency asthe

vertical loads into the structure. During the transfer

of the deck also led to the additional horizontal

swing, the amplitude of the swing displacement

of force from one foot to the other, horizontal

forcesexciting the bridge oscillation.

can be greatly increased with litt le force. The

forces are transferred to the deck that can

Footbridgesw ith vertical naturalfrequencies

swing is now resonating w ith the frequency of

produce horizontal oscillations of the structure.

between 1.3 and 2.3 Hz, or with horizontal

excitation exactly equal to the natural frequen cy

Pedestrians are extremely sensitive to horizontal

frequencies between 0.5 Hzand 1.2 Hz, must be

of the structure. Unlike the swing, each pedestrian

vibrations asthey easi ly disturb our balance.

considered as being susceptible to dynamic

bridge has many natural frequencies, and if one of

Unconsciously, the pedestrian increases the

excitation. It is precisely in these frequency ranges

them lies near the step frequency of pedestrians,

horizontal oscillation by automatically walking

that many lightweight bridges have natural

resonance can occur.

with a "sailor's roll". This implies synchronizing the

frequencies.

The step frequency depends on the speed

step frequency w ith the horizontal frequency of

of the pedestria n. It should be noted that by

the structure to walk more safely along the deck.

Damping

hopping or jumping, the pedestrian can bring the

This effect is often referred to in technical literatu-

Damping helpsto limit the dynamic

bridge to great oscillations more quickly than by

re asthe lock-in effect. Even large bridges are

responseof the structure. The energy of motion of

walking. This is because the excitation force of

susceptible to the phenomenon if suff icient

the st ructure is dissipated asthermal energy

someone hopping is several times the weight of

pedestrians are present. It is reported that the

through friction in the material or between struc-

the individual. This can be illustrated with the help

Brooklyn Bridge was brought to oscillate noticeably

tural components. Thedamping of the structure is

of a plastic 1 I bott le filled with water and a scale.

during the August 2003 New YorkCity blackout,

often large enough to prohibit unacceptable

101

102

Taking Lightness to the Limit

Comfort

Degree of comfort

Level

Chain link guardrails in Pforzheim

Vertical

Horizontal

acceleration

acceleration

0.5 rn/s?

CL 1

maximum

<

CL2

mean

0.5 - 1 mis'

0.1 - 0.3 mis'

CL3

minimum

1 - 2.5 m/s>

0.3 - 0.8 rrvs >

CL4

unacceptable

>

<0. 1 rn/s ?

> O.8 m/s 2

2.5 m/s2

Acceleration limits (Synpex)

levels of vibration. In addition, the pedestrian

pedestrian density, such asat a convention centre

the number of pedestrians, the deck surfacing and

often expects lightw eight structures to vibrate and

or an urban pedestrian overpass. In thesecases,

furnishings, and even the type of railing affect the

therefore does not perceive the vibration as

dynamiccalculations are required to verify that

damping of the structure. The chain link guardrails

the expected vertical acceleration under

uncomfortable.
The acceleration of the structure iscommonly
used to measure the comfort of a pedestrian.
Rough ly 10 percent of gravitational acceleration or
1 m/s>is considered as being easily perceived by
the pedestrian. Accelerations greater than 2.5 rn/s?

normal service conditions lie below the accelera-

of the Pforzheim Bridge were shown to have

doubled the damping of the stress ribbon structure.
If calculationsshow that the dynamic limits

tion limits,
there is no lock-in effect or horizontal
oscillation,
intentional excitation such asjumping or

may be exceeded, provisions for the possible installation of dampers should be taken into account
in the structural design. This allows for the subse-

are considered unacceptable. In order to determine

hopping do not cause the bridge to collapse. The

quent installatio n of a damping system should

w hether a structure is susceptible to pedestrian-

comfort criteria are naturally not considered for

unacceptable accelerations be observed on the

induced oscillation, the natural frequencies must

this type of loading.

finished structure. Viscoelastic dampers require

be determined. This is easy using current software.

The results of the calculations must be taken

relatively largedeflectionsto be effective. Tuned

It should be noted that for very lightweight

with a grain of salt, as the damping of the structure

mass dampers are effective for somefrequenci es

structures, the weight of the pedestriansmay have

can only be roughly estimated . Thetrue dynamic

only and require a rather large mass, typically

a significant effect on the system mass and the

behaviour of the bridge can only be determined by

1 percent to 5 percent of the total bridge mass.

structure's natural frequencies.

Should the natural frequencies of the struc-

testing after erection. These result s too only provide

Wind loading should also be considered in

a momentaryinsight into the dynamic behaviour of

the dynamic analysis of the structure, as w ind may

ture lie in a critical band of frequencies, the bridge

the structure, as the material properties are often

alsoexcite a dynamic response from a lightweight

designer and owner must determine an appropri-

time-dependent. Experience and caution should

structure. At low wind speeds, the wind flow can

ate level of comfort. This translates into the estab-

guide the calculation, and it should be noted that

be assumed to be laminar, breaking off at the lee-

lishmentof appropriate acceleration limits. A nar-

the damping depends on the material and structu-

ward edge of the deck. This can cause a periodic

row footbridge on a hiking trail may haveverydif-

ral typology. In addition, the complexity of the

detachment of vortices at the leeward edge, often

ferent comfort criteria from a footbridge with high

details, the particular natural frequency studied,

referred to asvortex shedding. Thesevortices

Viscoelasti c dampers

Model of nat ural and t or sional frequencies

Karman vortex sheddin g

cause a periodic excitat ion of the structur e and

Cables fro m cable-stayed and suspension

may lead t o the dynam ic excitation of the st ruc-

bridges may also oscillate due to rain. This

tur e. These oscillat ions will generally not cause t he

pheno menon occurs on ly for large bridges, as t he

structu re t o collapse, but may be uncomfort able

long, heavy cables necessary for large br idges

for pedestrians. As struct ural eng ineers say, th is is

exhibit low natu ral frequencies and low dampi ng.

a serviceability problem.

Cable oscillat ions have not yet been observed in

It

IS only

at high win d speeds and turbu lent

foot bridge st ruct ures.

air flows that a str uct ure may be pushed t o collapse. The most fam ous example of this is the
Tacoma Narrow s Bridge. This w as an 850 m long
suspension road bridge . Four mon ths after it s inauguration, the bridge collapsed due t o an aerodynamic Instability th at w as unknown at th e time.
This instability w as such t hat the energy of excitano n from th e win d wa s always great er than t he
energy dissipated by t he dam ping, t hereby leadIng to collapse. In oraer t o avo id flutt er, bridge
decks are designed to be thi n, aerodynamic cross
sections fo r w hich the to rsional nat ural frequ ency
is very far from th e natu ral frequency in bend ing.
The crit ical win d speeds above w hich flutt er
occurs can be determ ined by w ind tu nnel testing.
It must be show n t hat th e crit ical w ind speed lies
above th e high est wind speed expected at the site .

European Comission , Research Programm e o f the Research fu nd

for Coal an d Su-e! HT D , Technical t ;roup S, RFS- CR -o iOI9 (oo o e.},

Ad vanced lo ad mo dels fo r svnch ro no us pedest r-ia n exc-itat ion and

optimised dt'sign gu ideli nes for steel

fin al n:port , Aug u:-.t

root

lw idgcs ( Svn p c x} .

2006

Sct ra , Foo tbridges, Assessment o f vo bra ti onal beh avio ur for

footbr idges under pedestrian load ing. Sct ra - Refe ren ce 0644A, Paris
htt p:/ /\n \ ,, .sctra. c(luipt'mcn t .gouy.fr, O ktobcr

2:006

103

Experiments in Construction

Equilibrium

IS

most beautiful shortly before

It

collapses

Peter Fischt. David Weiss

In the second half of the zo th century, bridgebuilders chased one

record after another. Free spans of 2 km and more were easily bridged
with classic suspension bridges in Storebelt and Japan. Few designers
diverged from the standard solutions as owners feared that the unusual
structures would incur higher construction and maintenance costs. The
innovative spirit of engineers and architects - thankfully - could not be
silenced, as smaller, more manageable footbridges began to be the focus
of their creative energy. For example, did bridges have to be straight?
Could the newly developed plastics improve bridge construction? Could
different structural systems be rationally paired with other materials?
The geometry of the designs becomes more playful as one might expect
for a structure on a human scale. The great possibilities opened by computer-aided design and calculation are truly being exploited by the designer. But it has been shown that only experienced, ambitious architects
and engineers who have learned the fundamentals of construction and
design can carry out such computer-aided innovations. The computer
must never become more than a tool in such design experiments.
We have found successful examples of each of the above-mentioned
themes. We emphasize curved bridges and the combination or
deconstruction of different structural systems. The development of new
materials also belongs to the domain of construction experiments.
The creative impulse in structural design knows no bounds.

106

Experiments in Construction

116ml

43.5 m

54 m

Las Glorias Bridge in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain 1974

T he bridge built at t he Plaza Glor ias Ca ta lana in 1974 by Leo nar do
Fernandez Tro yano is anot her exa m ple of the adaptabi lity of footbri dges
in di fficult terrain and com plic ate d tra ffic rel at io ns. Two cu rve d r amp s
are suspe nded to one edge an d m ee t at t he steel m ast of a cable -stayed
footbridge . They t he n m erge into on e slen der box gir der wit h a span of
68 m o ver a hig hwa y.

The bri dge was origin ally r ed and had t o m ake way for th e [992
Olym pic ga mes in Barcelona. T he st r uc t ure is ju st no r th of t he For um ,
a newl y co nc eived cu lt ura l ce nt re for t he cit y. As t he cables co u ld not be
disma ntle d, th e ent ire br idg e was lifte d by jacks so th at th e cable s co uld
be cut . For th e r econstr uct ion, t he steel box gi rder was placed o n tempor ar y t r estl es as it had been in 1974 . The cables were th en install ed and
stress ed . Ca ble -staye d structures are no r m all y installed by fr ee ca nt ilevering. Th is met hod co uld no t be u sed du e to th e un ilat eral suspe nsion
and curve d r amp s. Leon ardo Fern ande z Troya no design ed symm etr ica l
ramps in re inforc ed con crete for th e tran sit ion t o t he st raig ht bridge
seg m ent and the ne w site .
A visit to th e bridge sho ws th at th e str uct ure , alt ho ugh perfectl y
ma inta ine d and pa inted , is hardly us ed d ue t o it s posit ion in t he urb an
enviro n me nt an d diffi cult r el at ion s w ith t he su rrounding pat hw ays.
In spite of t his and its age , we ca n o n ly hop e t hat t h is elegant bri dge will
soon ente r tain a greate r number of users.

Trovano, Leonardo Fern andez,

Tier ra sobrc cl agua, in;
Co lic-gin de IngcnC'T ios do
cami n os, canales y pu c-rtus,
Madr id , [9 9 9

Translocated: at its new site the bridge alsochanged colour

0.7 m
3.7 m

lQ7

108

Experiments In Construction

Bridge in Kehlheim , Germany, 1987

The ped estrian bridge in Kehlheim can r ightly be called an expe ri mental const r uct ion . This is th e fir st st r uct ure based on th e r eali zati on
that a ring girder could be unilaterally suspe nde d along its entire length
without torsional moments.
The idyllic ri ver land scape suffere d as th e Altrnuhl River was
exte nde d and becam e part of the Main-Danub e Can al. Shipping lan es
required it. Kehlhcim is an histo r ic place with a well-preserv ed city
cent re and, high on a hill overl ooking th e city , th e Bifrciun8shall c th at
King Ludwig I of Bavaria had Leo von Klenze build (18,P-63) to
comme mo rate the war of independ enc e from Napoleon .
Schlaich Berg ermann and Partner , with th e arch itect Kur t Ackermann, design ed a suspensi on bridge in th e histo r ically and environmentally important area near the Tor hausplat z. T he str uctur al syste m is a
susp ension bridge anchored partly in th e deck and partly in th e abutments with th e plan of t he deck in an arc and long appro ach ramps. Th e
structure spans a distan ce of 60 m and th e deck is longer becaus e of its
cur vat ure. Th e ring girder prov ed it self as an efficient structural syste m .
A mast at each rive rbank supports th e m ain suspension cable and th e
hang er s run along th e inner edge of the deck. Th e ma sts wer e required

000

to be lower than th e tower of an historic building in Kehlheim . Th e

Leicht , weit , 2004,

p. 246

O ste r, 19 9 2, pp. .38-39

result is a som ewhat compact pylon anchorage, but th e curvature of th e

suspe nded deck high over the water leaves a lasting visua l imp ression .

4.2 m

Pylon w ith main cable and anchorage

47m

6184 rn

110

Experiments

In

Construction

Bridge in Swansea, Wales, UK, 2003

Wilkinson Eyr e worked on this structure in cooperation with the
engineers Flint & Neill. The archit ec t ural intention was to create a mast
that reflected th e surrounding masts of th e sailing boats whil e st ill
creating an impressive visual landmark. The footbridge is a unilaterally
supported cable -stayed bridge with a kink in the deck, and joins the port
area with a new er cit y zone .
The

140

m long sup erstructure has a kink in th e horizontal plan e at

the mast . Each portion of th e deck is unilaterally suppor te d , leading to

high to rsional moments. The structural advantages of a ring girder were
not e xploited .
Instead, the deck girder is fixed in torsion at th e abutments and
th e mast . At th e ma st, a bearing and an eccentrically positioned cable
can support an eccentric pa ir of forc es, i.e . a torsional moment. Th e
Sande rs, P. , I'irth, I. , Design
and Construction o f the Sail

Bridge , Swansea, UK , Bridge

Engineering 1 ~ 8 , Issue BE4 , 20oS-

steel box section is surfaced with a cantilevering alu m iniu m walkway to

minimi ze weight and the t orsional moment acting on the deck . The ma st
is fixed at th e base and inclined to minimized bending.

4.5 - 5.5 m

~ " " 7~

Pasarela del Malecon in Murcia, Spain, 1996

Javier Mant erola from th e offic e of C arlos Fernandez Casado is
cu r re ntl y th e most experience d bridge eng ineer in Spa in . His 1983 Bar rios de Luna Brid ge , a motorway bridge over a reservoir, was th e longest
cable- st ayed bridge in th e world at th e time of it s con struction . Mante rola plays with th e space s cre ate d by th e fanning cables of th e bridge . After th e famou s Sancho El Mayor Bridge over the Ebro de Castcjon in 1978
and th e Ler ez Bridge in Pontevedra in '995 , he cr eate d an other exam ple
her e in 1995 . T he Pasarela de Male con is a 59 m span cable -stay ed bridge
with a curved deck and an ec ce nt r ic mas t. This creates a very beautiful
fan form but leads to th e nece ssit y of back-stayed cable s to bring the hori zontal component of th e deck cables into eq uilibr iu m at th e head of the
pylon . Th ese forc es must be t ransferred to the found ation s and further
to th e soils below. In order to minimi ze th e an chorage for ces , the deck
was con ceived as a lightweight st eel box gird er. During erect ion, three
prefabricated segme nts of the deck girder were supported on temporary
trestles found ed in th e riv erbed, and weld ed together. The unilaterally
supported ring beam can support th e overturning moment by offset
compression and tension for ces in th e girder completely without torsion
5.1 m

(see p . II6) .

112

Experiments In Construction

West Park Bridge in Bochum, Germany, 2003

For a century, the Ruh r was conside red the n ou rishing econom ic

anchorag es of th e suspension cables, th e cables stab ilize t he mast .

centre of the German coa l and steel industries. T he envi ronment suf-

However, th e defl ect ion of th e structu re changes wit h each load case ,

fered and th e internat iona l co mpetition for ste el and for ot her energy

so an articulate d co nnectio n is requ ir ed at th e footing to avoid ben di ng

sources grew. T he tra nsition o f the Ruhr to a cen tre of th e service

in th e pylon. The form of th e brid ge provides not on ly an efficie nt

indust ry began wit h th e IBA Ems cher Park, and w ill conti nue for deca -

connec tio n to th e neighb ouri ng pathways, but creates a symbol of th e

des. Bochum is in th e middle of this transition , t he remn ants of ind ust ry

urb an ren ewal.

ar e being co nverted , renovated and give n ne w life . Good con nections

bet ween residen tia l and rec reat iona l areas ar e necessary. To crea te one
such co n nection, th e eng inee rs ofSchlaich Bergermann and Par tner
designed a do uble -c urved bri dge in a ver y d ifficult env iro n me nt . The
S-for me d 3 m w ide ped estrian and cycle br idge co nsists of two 66 m lon g
arc segmen ts above the Ga hlensche Stralic and the rai lway below.
T he deck is suspende d from two mast s. T he br idge dec k of eac h segme nt
is suspende d fro m a susp ension cable at t he in side of th e arc. T he cross
section of th e supers tructure var ies wi th th e direct ion of the hanger
cables . Unlike a st raig ht g ird er, wh ich must be fixed by two bear ing axes,
t he ri ng girder need on ly be sup po rte d along one ax is, simplifying the
rein for cem ent of the section . While t he ring gir der of th e Kehlheim
Brid ge is a mon olithic prest ressed concre te gir der (se e p . 108) , later ring
girde rs are bro ken down int o com pressio n and ten sion for ces, in cables
and tubes. T he mast s of th e Bochum stru ct ure do not require back stays
or fixed footings. As the footings of th e masts are low er th an th e

Ge ppe rt. Klaus, A. Krat z

and P Pfoscr. Enrwu rf und
Kon str uk tion ci ncr S-form igen
FuBgangcrhrucke in Bochum ,
in : Stahlhau , 2, 2 00~, pp. 126 - 133

113

120 m

3m

114

Experiments in Construction

An unusually transparent railing expresses the bridge's function as a balcony

Bridge overlooking the Baltic Sea in Sassnitz, Germany, 2007

From Sassnitz, at the northernmost end of Rug en Island, great
ships onc e passed on their way east and west. The quay is now the home
of a glazed railway station, a beautiful historic hall , and portions of the

into a continuous beam on multiple supports as th e cur vat ure and slop e
of th e terrain de cr ease .
The structure's distinctive feature is that th e hanger cables are at -

city that overlook the Balt ic from a high hillside . The island of Rugen has

tached to cantilevers projecting from the inside edge of the bridge deck .

become a popular vacation destination. A ped estrian and cycle bridge

The height of th e cant ilevers was chosen so th at the re sulting force of the

was built in

hang ers passes through the ce nt re of gravity of th e deck . With this prin-

2006

to make Sassnitz more accessible to these visitors and

link th e city cent re with th e port. The bridge would have to overcome a

ciple, there ar e no overturning moments in th e structure du e to deck

difference of 25 m in elevat ion and respect th e protected railway building

load and uniformly distributed load on th e deck . This reduces th e st res -

and the various streets at the site. With the curvature of th e bridge deck,

ses in th e deck girder (see Technical Ov erview Curved Br idges) . Nor-

all of th ese requirements wer e met, and th e increase in bridge length

mally, it would have been poss ible to leave th e 40 m high m ast without

permits the deck to bridge th e change in elevation with a more manage -

backstays, as in th e West Park Bridg e in Bochum (see P: 112) . In order to

able slop e . Nev ertheless, much long er ramps would be necessary to

minimize the defle ctions of the deck under live load s, four backsta ys

maintain a tolerable slop e, had th e structure not be en able to land abov e

wer e installed . The backstays ar e the same cable as th e suspe nsion cable ,

the port. A 7 m high portion of ramp proj ects from th e railway st at ion ,

a Galfan-coated full y locked coil with a diamet er of 95 mm. For ped estri -

as a bridge for transit traffic was demolished after German reunification .

ans in a hurry, a stairway was built at the end of th e susp ension bridge

Connecting with th e transit station was not only a gesture of forgiv eness,

that also serves as an abutment for the horizontal for ce s from the deck .

but also allowed the bridge to exploit the ex ist ing railway station ramps
and, with a length of "only" 240 m , limit the gradient to

percent.

The 3 m wid e deck sweeps across th e port in a long arc to cr eate a

balcony over the sea, op ening up new perspectives and views. These
views ar e unimpeded as th e unilateral suspension lies at th e interior of
th e arc . Th e balcony is a [30 m long suspension bridge that transitions

Dechau, Wilfncd , Secbruckc.

I:otografisches Tagebu ch, Berlin !
Tiibingc n, 20 0 7

115

What appears In perspective as a cable carousel isa safe pathway to the sea

3m

- = - - - =------

353m

118.2 m

lOx 12 37m

12m

116

Experiments In Construction

Footbridgein Sassnitz, 2007

Bridge in Deutsches Museum, Munich

Hanger

Glass surfacing

\Pi"8:'J"':::::III:""",,==;;;:::::;!'!.J!!!~

Tension member

Compression chord

Curved Bridges

In contrastto road and rail bridges subject

to high-speed traffic, the footbridge designer is
literallyallowed to design some pretty crooked

Circular ring girders

Thecircular ring girders areof particularinterestto the structural engineer. Here, the bridge

structures. Thelow speed of the user opens up a

deck iscircular in the horizontal plane. These struc-

spatial dimension and a multiplicity of forms. The

tures may be suspended at only one edge by a sus-

deck canelegantly flow into the existing pathways

pension cableor cable-stay system, which presents

and closely follow the adjacentelevations. The

an especially interesting technical challenge. This is

structuremayalso contain multiple approaches or

alsoan example of the necessity of a holisticap-

decks in order to connecta network of pathways.

proachtowardsthe technical challenge, where the

If approach ramps are parallel to the central obsta-

structural design, behaviour, deflections, fabri-

cle being bridged, a curved deckwit h a seamless

cation and erectionareso closely linked that all

transition from one approach to the other seems a

aspects of the design must be investigated simul-

naturalsolution. In some instances, the curvature

taneously.

of the deckand the resulting increase in length

Thedesigner can exploit the fact that a

may be exploited to minimize the steepness of the

curved bridge may be supported by a single line of

bridge gradient, similarly to a spiral staircase. This

columns while a straight bridge requires two lines

opens a completely new level of design freedom,

of support. Onecan easily imagine that the

asthe deck is not simply curved, but pylons be-

straight girder at the bottom left of the planviews

come inclined, arches become tilted, and suspen-

supported by a single row of supports would cause

sion cables create spatial silhouettes . Thecomplex

the bridge deckto overturn, whereas the curved

structural behaviour of these three dimensional

girder would remain stable. While a central

structures isdiscussed here.

support of the deck is possible at the underside of

the deck, any hangers attachedcentrally above it
would interferewith the walking surface. Circular

Plan views of curved bridges

Straight girder and circular ring girdersw ith central and eccentric supports

Compression ring, tension ring, circular ring girder

ring girders allow the deck to be supported at one

be supported by the structure. If the circular ring

edge without the deck overturning.

girder is supported eccentric to its centreline, an

The st ructural behaviour of the edge-

overturning moment of m = g . e is created, with

supported circular ring girder is at first difficult to

dead load, g, and eccentricity, e. One can imagine

comprehend, aswe are used to thinking in two

supporting this moment w ith the pair of forces

dimensions. In this case, however, the structural

created by the compression and tension rings

behaviour is truly spatial. In order to understand

mentioned above. The overturning moment is in

the concept, let us first look at the boiler f ormula,

equilibrium with the radial forces of the ring pair,

which allows us to calculate the tension force In a

w hich can be determined according to the

cable subject to radial loading. The tension force,

formula p = g . e/h. Using the boiler formula, we

Z, can be calculated according to the formula Z =

can calculate the compression and tension forces

P . r with the radial distributed load, p, and radius

D = Z = g . e . r/h. The overturning moment due to

of the centreline of the cable, r. The formula got

the eccentric support of the circular ring girder

its name from being used to determine the ten-

subject to vertical loading produces no torsion 1,

sion force in the boilers of early steam locomo-

but simply compression and tension forces that

t ives. The same principle appliesto an arch in

result in the moment M = D . h = Z . h about the

compression. The compression force, D, can be

horizontal axis.

calculated using the formula D = P . r with the

The deadweight of the deck and uniformly

radial distributed load, p, and radius of the centre-

distributed dead load, or load cases with geomet-

line of the arch, r. If a compression ring and ten-

ric affinity, may be supported in this manner. Point

1 In thiscase, there isno

St Venant's torsion, even for

sion ring are laid atop one another, the two rings

loads and unbalanced live loads are not geometri-

crea te a pair of equal and opposing forces, p, in

cally aff ined, and cause bending in the tension

closed boxsections. The pair

every radial vertical section. With the distance, h,

and compression rings. This requiresthe appropri-

of forces mayhowever be

between rings, a moment equal to m = p . h may

ate bending stiff ness in the horizontal axis.

circular curved girderswith

interpreted aswarping torsion

117

118

Experiments in Construction

Greenville, South Carol ina, USA, 2004

",.

~:
. .. ..

~:
/

.. . ...
-

119

Structu ral behaviour of a stayed mast

Co mbinat ions of mast, cables, super stru cture

Instable

/~:

1>-

1?~'

L
backstayed mast

stable

"

-L

free mast

A self-anchore d suspension bridge w it h an

A certa in level of rigidity is also required to limit

Pedestrian Bridge in Sassnitz shown on p. 114,

th e rot ation of t he deck due to the overturning

the bridge ring girder is created from a single steel

interior mast is a part icularly eff icient solut ion:

mo ment. Compression is created in th e lower ring

box sect ion . W e can find compression in the un-

wi t h the corr ect choice of hanger and suspension

Spatial Arches
Just as the suspension bridge supported by
a main cable can be interpreted as the inversion of

and tension in t he up per ring should the ring be

derside of th e girder and ten sion at the t op of the

cable inclinati on, the anch orag e force of the cable

the funicular arch bridge, suspension bridges w ith

support ed at th e inner edge . The logic outl ined

girder. The earliest suspension bridge with a circu-

and the compression for ce of the deck can be

curved decks can also be invert ed. The main cable

above makes it clear that the low er ring is in ten-

lar ring girder is the Foot bridge over the Rhine-

designed to be in equilibrium . This appl ies only to

of the curved bridge creates in inte resting structu-

sion and the upper ring in compression w it h an

Ma in-Danube Canal in Kehlheim (1988 ), w hich

uniformly distributed loads and anchorage of th e

ral com po nent, a three di mensional f unicular ten-

exterior edge suppo rt .

has a concrete deck. In Kehlheim, t he ten sion

suspension cable t angent to the ring gi rder. As

sion member. The inversion of th is t ension mem -

forces are taken up by high strengt h prestressing

non -unifo rm loading patterns are unavoida ble,

ber creates a spatial arch. The 77 m long bridge

girder IS very clearly illustr ated in the 27 m long

steel at the top of the sect ion . The first circular

fo rces to t he mo ments about t he verti cal axis and

over t he Rhine-Herne Canal near Oberhausen is

circular ring bridge in the Deutsches M useum in

ring girder bridge, Glo rias Catalana in Barcelona

ho rizonta l for ces must nevert heless be taken into

th e achievement of th is struct ural principle, a steel

Munich . The struct ure is th e centre of attract ion

(1974; see p. 106) is a cable-stayed structu re,

account w hen designing the abutment s. A self-

arch suppo rti ng a curved deck and subject t o

a deck from a steel box sect ion.

ancho rage suspension system is not possible wi t h

compression forces, see p. 120 .

The st ruct ural behaviour of the circular ring

of t he bridge eng ineering section of the M useum.

The t ensio n ring is created from cables and th e

All the bridges ment ioned above are sup-

the hanger anchored t o at the exterior of t he ring ,

comp ression ring is created from a solid rou nd

ported by inclined hanger cables. The inclinat ion

as tension forces are created in the ring girder.

sect ion. The W est Park Bridge in Bochum (2003,

of the hangers int roduce s hori zonta l loads into

If a very lively structu re is tolerated and th e mast

p . 112) w it h its lower com pression ring mad e of

t he bridge deck. It creates add itional compression

footi ng can be positi on ed in t he centre of gravity

a round hollow section also clearly illustrates th e

ring force s in the deck w hen support ed at the

of deck in the hor izontal plane, an interior pylon

struct ural behaviour of th e bridge . In Bochu m,

inner edge and addit ional t ension ring forces

can be completely w it hout backstays.

the tw o rings of the bridge deck are connected by

wh en suppo rt at t he o uter edge . The cable ar-

The structure will alwa ys remain stable if th e mast

diagonals to prov ide addit ional stiffn ess. It is of

rangements shown in th e foll owing figure show

fo oti ng is below t he deck.

cou rse possible t o exploit th e struct ural behaviour

only a small po rtion of t he design options avail-

of the compression and tension ring s wi tho ut

able, but demo nstrate t he mult itude of design

bring ing emphasizing the ir separation. In th e

possibilities tha t this plan form can o pen up.

120

Expenments

In

Construction

Bridge overthe Neckar in Mettingen nearEsslingen, 2006

Oberhausen-Ripshorst, bridge overthe Rhine-Herne Canal,1997

Design for a br idge in Deizisau

Such structura l solutions may not be the most

economica l solution, but the y demons trat e th at
t his engineering approac h can produce very

Kcil , Andreas,The design of curve d cable-supp ort ed footb ridges,

Ven ice footbridge co nference,

20 0 5

St r-askv, [ h-i, Stress ribbo n and cable -sup po r ted ped estrian bridges,
Lo ndon,

2 00 ~

interesting solut ions wi thout exorb itant cost.

We can also comb ine structural concepts ,
such as an edge suppo rted circular girder br idge
suspended f rom a spatial arch, The ring girder is
most preferab ly suppor ted at to the exterior to
compensate fo r at least a por t ion of the arch
thrust.

Schle ich, Jo rg and A . Seidel, Di e FuHgangerbruch' in Kchlh ci ru , in:

Bauingcn icur , 1988

Schlaich, Jorg, Der kontinuierlich gelagc rtc Kreisring unter

ant tme tr-ischc r Belastun g , in : Bet on und Stahlbe to nbau , January 1967

122

Experiments In Construction

The view into the depths of the canyon is eased by the intermediate view of the bridge structure

Traversiner Footbridge I, Rongellen, Switzerland, 1996

The old hiking trail through Viamala is one of the most beautiful in
the Swiss Alps. In order to r eanimate the hiking trail, the Cultural Association of Viamala connected one of the last gaps in the trail with a small
bridge. Unfortunately, the footbridge met with its unfortunate destiny
and fell in 1999 to the valley below due to the impact of a falling boulder.
A replacement was built several years later a bit higher up the valley, see
p.212.

The first bridge is one to remember. A stiff supporting structure

below the deck was flown by helicopter and placed in its final position.
This erection procedure determined the maximum weight of the suspension system , 4-.3 t . ]iirg Conzett designed an exceptionally lightweight
fishbelly truss from timber and steel, and a comparatively robust

1.2

wide deck with massive railings. The bridge is a truss structure with upper compression chord. The su spension cables are splayed by up to 4- m to
stabilize the compression member for side wind forces. To prevent the
suspension structure from swinging laterally from its point supports, the
railing was created as a massive railing, which can transfer torsional moments to the abutments. The two structural systems are thus overlaid .
Larchwood and chrome nickel steel would stand up to weathering conditions on site. Individual compression struts could be replaced on the unload structure due to a high level of redundancy that created multiple
load paths.

I; ,
II

1/
The footbridge would have su r ely fulfilled its purpose for many
Str uct u re as Span ', 2006,
pp.1 20 - 12 S-

db dc u tscbc hauzdlUn g,
S", 1998 , pp. 62 -6 9

Detail, 8 , 19 9 9, pp. 1481-14 86

decades, but nothing can be done against act s of nature suc h as falIing
boulders. The structure wiII re st in the memory of hik ers and in photographs for th e experts so that its historical importance is not forgotten.

~6 9

124

Experiments in Construction

Plastic Footbridge in Winterthur, Switzerland, 2001

Th e use of new materials, in pa rticular the use of h igh per for mance
plastics, is also one of the ex per iments in co nstr uction . There is alway s a
bit of uncert ainty in the first examples, as des igners learn to app ly t he ap propriate co nstruct ion meth ods and st ruct ura l systems . A suspension
bridge m ade of plasti cs, an arc h br idge , or a tru ss bridge - these are examples that show how di fficult it is to deter m ine the optim u m use of a
const ru ction ma terial is not simple to determined . T he first plasti c
bridges are sm all pedest r ian bridges - in Aberfeldy 19 9 2, Pontres in a 1995",
Kold ing 19 9 7 , Leri da 200 1, and W interthur 200 I.
Th e advantages of fibre -r einforc ed plastics - high strength , light
weight and goo d corros ion resist ance - ma ke them ver y inte resting ma terials for bri dge constructio n . T hese ma te ria ls are ver y well suited to
tempora r y and mo veable br idges, bu t unfortunat ely th e const r uction of
most of th e built examples is not pa r ti cul arl y suite d to th e ma terial. T he
fr eely for me d plast ics ar e pressed into a steel for m and bolted simi lar ly to
a me ta llic str ucture, alt ho ugh plasti cs ca n easily be glued or welded .
Most of th ese fibr e- rein for ced plast ic st r uc t ures do not eve n app ear to be
1m

plast ic. Rob er t Maill ar t not only recogniz ed th e potential of t he new

co nstruct ion materi al of hi s t ime, rein forced concret e , but also at t emp ted to develop a str uctural appro ach su ited to it . T his led to th e
development of new structura l syste ms, new const r uction approaches ,
and even a wh ole new scul pt ural vocab ulary. T he high pr ice and low fir e
res ista nce ar e surely t he reason that a material-specific st r uct u ral and
constr uc t ion app roa ch has not yet been foun d for plast ics in br idge
co nstruction . In other areas of constr uc tion, such as lon g-span roofs ,
str uct ura l forms suite d to the fibr e- reinfor ced plast ic membranes have
been foun d . We should not give up so eas ily.
T he sma ll, 16 m long footbri dge over th e River Kernp t nea r W inte r th ur is 9 0 perce nt fibreglass and weight s on ly 85"0 kg. O nly the bo lts and
ten sion ing rods are in steel. T he inte res ti ng aspect of t he structure - in
co nt ras t to the above -me ntione d exam ples - is that it s form is particul ar ly suite d to the charact er ist ics of t he ma terial. The engi nee rs at Stau bli,
Kur ath & Pa rt ner worked in cooperation with the Fede ra l Institute of
Techn ology ( ET H Z urich) and the m anufacturers on t his ex perimenta l
pr oject to gain expe r ience for th e Exp o Bridge in Yverd on . T he footbri dge re quir es only four st ressing rod s, two at th e top of the gir de r and
t wo at th e bottom . These are mostl y necessar y for erection ; fibr e -rein for ced plasti c slat s later sup po r t th e bend ing forc es . T he plast ic elements
ar e connected at cir cular di aph ragm s. Shea r is transferred w ith lugs and
slot s. Co ncr et e foun dations were not necessar y. It was possible simply to

Kruppers, Park, rooj;

Sobrinc , 2002
On Abcrfcldv, Pont rcsma,
Kolding : Struct ural Engineer ing
Inte rn ational , Vo lume 9, SEI
4.

19

99

O n Let-ida: Structural

Engineerin g Inte rn ational,

Volume 12 , SEI 2, 20 02

Fi berglass bridgewith a 16mspan and total weight of 850 kg

bur y a portion of th e girder in th e soil at the approach , since Hbreglass

do cs not rot. A ce r tain pati na has developed on th e br idge, co mpleme nt ing th e str uct ure . Th e sound o f foot step s on th e deck is slightly peculiar
but not unpl easant.

125

126

Experiments in Construction

Lighting from the interior madepossible with plastics

Moveable Bridge in Fred ikstad, Norway, 2006

This plastic moveabl e footbridge , w ith a span of 5"6 m , is an examUm

ple of a design app roach that particularly su its th e material. The bridge
crosses th e Vesterelven River. Hydraulic cylinders lift and low er th e tw o
halves of th e bridge. Each of th e

28

m long bridge halv es we ighs

20

t and is

O.8m

so light that it ca n be moved without co unte r weight . Steel is used onl y at

th e moveabl e bearing , to transfer h igh local stresses into th e girder . Th e
deck girder is a box sec t ion with doubly cu rved side s and inner longitudinal girders with trans vers e di aphragms. The undersid e of the box section
consists of one layer of

10

to 38 mm thick laminate. T he deck surface is

sandwich panel filled with an int erlayer of balsa wood. These panels can
support vehicl es with up to

t axl e load . Heating wires ar e incorporated

into th e sandwich panels , to prevent ice formation in the winter. The exterior of th e girder is tran slucent, whi ch mean s it can be lit from th e inside of th e sec tion .
This br idge dem onstrates th e po ssibilities of cont inued development in fibr e-reinforced plastic bridges .

56m

Lightweight plasticsareeasily moved.

127

City Expansion and Renovation

Ca

lUI S

The car has not completely chased away all pedestrians in our cities,

Many cities have neglected their rivers. Fallow industrial areas and

but since the Second World War, they have chased them into depressing

shipping ways and canals are beginning to be transformed into residen-

pathways and dark underpasses. City planning has been designed to suit

tial and service centres. In order to improve the quality of the environ-

traffic flows since the beginning of the 20th century, an approach that

ment along the riverbanks, pedestrians should be offered the most direct

was pursued aggresively following the world wars. The shortcomings of

routes possible. City expansion and renovation should bring improve-

this approach to urban planning were recognized early on but too late to

ment. In this development, footbridges not only create pathways, but can

be corrected. Cities were maimed, made inhospitable and lost their ori-

become attractive public spaces.

ginal spirit. As highways began to divide the landscape, there was no

choice other than to build footbridges to allow pedestrians to pass from
one side to the other. The problem was more complex in city centres, as
six- to ten-lane roads divided once-united neighbourhoods. Since the
1970s, pedestrian bridges have been preferred to underpasses, as claustrophobic users find it more difficult underground than in a structure
above the roadway. No one would expect traffic to decline - rather the
opposite. Any opportunity to keep cars and pedestrians at the same level
is to be welcomed, but with rising traffic, this is almost impossible to
maintain. This difficulty has however provided architects and engineers
opportunities to design pedestrian structures.

130

City Expansion and Renovation

Stress Ribbon Bridge in Freiburg, Germany, 1970

Sho rtly after Rene Wa lther pro ved th e efficiency of a st ress r ibbon
structure for foo tbridges, Ul r ich Fins terwa lder, who had worked on
st ress r ibbon bridge concepts pr ior t o W alther, had a chance t o bui ld his
fir st in Fre iburg, Germany. The city centre was t o be co nn ec ted with a
park over a heavily used roa dway. A br idge wit h mast or pylo ns wo uld be
u nt hi nk able in its setting in fro nt of t he Fr eiburg Cathedra l, and a fl at
m ulti -spa n stress ri bbon struct ure seem ed ideal. W h ile th e app roach
from th e pa rk remai ns a beaut iful area, th e cit y-side approach is rather
dep r essing : parking for bu ses and a low-quality sub ur ban develop m ent
dest roy th e ar ea's atmospher e, thu s lo sing th e bridge 's potentia l in th e
urb an fabr ic of t he city . T he design is by D yckerhoff & W id m ann : "This
alterna t ive deSig n was commissioned du e t o t he slen derness an d elegance
of th e st r ucture and it s integration in th e d iffi cult urban enviro nment".
Whil e to day, m an y o w ners see m focu sed on project cost , at t hat t ime th e
cu lt ural r esponsibly of civ ic wor ks was well underst ood . T he stress ribbon st r uc tu re co nsi st s of a 25 em deep co nc rete ri bbo n , pr est ressed wi th
t hr eaded D ywidag ro ds . T he ri bbon r est s on a layer of foil over th e saddles at th e in te r med iate piers an d at th e abut ments , allo w ing th e ribbon t o
lift abo ve th e sadd les dur ing st r essing. T his allo ws t he bridge t o rest on
Barsch, \Volfdict er and Heinz
Hchsc, Spannbandbrucke als
ruBgangcrsteg in Frcihurg
im Breisgau, in: Beton - und

Stahlhetonhau, March 1972,

pp 49"

z=:s===~
11 m

33 m

-----.--r-r-

39.5 m

:x:===
42 m

11 m

th e sadd le und er increased load ing w ith ou t creat ing a ki nk in th e deck ,

du e t o th e co m pe nsation of t he slend er deck . T he spans are 25.5 m

~ 30

- 34 .5 m . T he pier foo ti ngs are ar ticulat ed w it h a co nc re t e joint so t hat

th e piers can rota te under variable load s.

131

Footbridge in St uttgart, Germany, 1977

As in Fr eiburg , many inner-city roa ds are dan ger o us fo r ped est r ians t o cross . T h is is also t he cas e in Stuttgart . A prov incial gardening ex hib it io n pr ovid ed an o pportunity to connect t he mi ddle an d low er Palace
Garden s. The land scape arc hitect's inte nt ion was t hat t he pe dest ria n
wo u ld not even r eali ze t hat he or she was on a connec t ing st r uct ure. Vegetatio n was to line the pat h . T he engineers at Schlaic h Berger man n an d
Part ner designed a 5 1.2 m lon g ar ch hr idge t hat widens at th e ap proaches ,
almo st suc k ing th e user in . The park cont inues t o th e brid ge st r uct u re
and th e ,-egetation is plan ted on t he br idge . T he flat and slen der arch has
a ligh t curl at t he edge so th at it works as an arch shell . O nly aft er t he so il
for t he ,-egeta t io n was plant ed on th e br idge d id th e st ru ctu re t ake it s fi-

na l for m ; t h is weigh t help s to st abilize th e st r uct u re.

Afte r sever al years, th e brid ge d isapp ear ed u nd er it s vegeta tion
and m an y driver s belo w do no t rea lize t hat t hey are pass ing unde r a
st ruc t u re, but percei" e it as a hangin g gar den or nat ur al bridge . T he veg etat io n of co urse does not fu lly reduce t he no ise of tra ffic , but it cre ates
a ki nd of barri er bet ween hum an s and vehi cle s. T his is no ant idote for all
traffic sit uat io ns, as such lu sh vegetat ion in urban cent re s may be a bit
m uch . The Ca nstat ter Foot br idge ca n be ap preciated as part of t he
Palace Gardens -- a t ype o f br idge th at the user often docs not recogn ize
as a st ruc ture. At th e op en ing of th e garden ing exhib it io n in 1977, t he
H'get ation had grow n lush , hut was cut hack bv worker s prep ari ng for
t he ex hibitio n , wh o thought it was m erely we ed s.

8m

51.2 m

132

View towards the shopping centre

City Expansion and Renovation

Footbridge in Frauenfeld, Switzerland, 2003

This small footbridge is part of an effective and pedestrian-friendly
city planning strategy. Next to a new shopping centre, the structure sits
on an impressive site below the town castle that sits high over the River
Murg. The design by timber construction expert Walter Bieler connects
the historical city-centre tradition with the modern co nsu m er -o r ien ted
centre using elegant and refined design. The footbridge has an asymmetric cross section with the railing at a height of 1.30 m to the edge away
from the city. The railing is lower for the view towards the castle and
covered with a steel section so that the user can lean over as if looking
over a windowsill. The railings and surfacing are made oflarchwood slats
( [ 20

60

mm) , serrated at a small distance so that the v iew of the

floWing river below does not di sturb the user. Walther Bieler heeds the
fundamental rules of timber construction and follow s a holistic design
approach . The footbridge is supported by girders that are protected from
the weather that attacks on all sides: six 6S- c m high laminated spruce
beams are pressed together using prestressing bolts to form one ,,~ ern
Seraina, Carl, Schlossmiihlesteg
in Frauenfeld . Fragile Korperhaftigkeit , in: architektur aktuell ,
10 . 20 3.

pp. 122- 129

Engler, Daniel . Briicke und Bal-

ken, in: tee 21, 33-34. 200 3. pp. 7-9

wide , compact girder, wh ich spans

20

m. The steel cladding w ith a slope

of 2 percent covers the top of the girder. The su r faci ng segments consist
of steel and timber components and placed on the main girder. The foot bridge is elegantly lit at night.

133

FJl
r-'1

1.2 m

134

City Expansion and Renovation

Structure and orn ament are seldom so unified

Bridge in GrolSenhain, Germany, 2002

T he sma ller the design cha lle nge , th e cleverer t he solu tion ? Walkways in sma ll villages sho u ld also be ma de as di r ect as possible - as is see n
here in Gr os senhain , wh ere several footbri dges we re co nst r uc ted for a
gar de n ex hibit ion over th e Grosse Rod er River . Th e archi tect Martin
Sauerzap fe , to gether with t he engine ers of ifb Berlin, designed a sm all
footbridge w ith a spa n of 9 .) m , whi ch co uld car ry eme rge ncy vehicles of
up t o ) t . T he st r uc t ural syste m co nsists of t wo truss gi rd ers t hat also
for m the ra ilin gs. These girde rs are m ade fr om 8 plates. T he plate seg m ents are alm ost square , wi t h a side len gth of aro u nd

1.1 )

m . The edge s

of th e pla tes wer e bevell ed t w ice at th e factory. Plat es formi ng th e upp er

chord ( U

10 0)

and low er chord ( U

16 0)

are bolted t o th e plate segmen ts.

T he ver ticals and di agon als of th e t russ are cre ated an d in corporated in
an at t ract ive orna m entation made usin g an auto matic CA D -c on trolle d
laser c ut ter in t he 4 mm thi ck plat e . T he pla tes ar e galvanized . T he o rnam entation follo ws th e shea r diagram of the structure and t he di agon al s
becom e th icker nea r t he suppo r ts .
An up side-down chann el sec ti o n acting as a handrail is bol ted to
t he upp er cho r d of th e gir der. The bridg e playfully unites ornament ati on
and st r uc t ure . T he design is co nvinci ng and th e t ot al vis ua l effec t, including th e interplay of light and shade , ben efits fro m th e combi nati on .

135

LI

0
0

136

City Expansion and Renovation

A symbol of the revitalization of the derelict land

A smooth approach ratherthan an abrupt transition

Merchants Bridge in Manchester, UK, 1995

Wi th by & Bird offer architecture and struc tu re in o ne firm. In

Man ch est er, th e former in dust r ial zo ne of Cas tleficld was to be reju ven-

suppo rted by a steel tub and t r ansferred t o t he abutments. Alt ho ugh

th ese structures are not t he m ost efficient , they often create excit ing

ate d . As part of thi s rejuv en ati on , Wi thby & Bird design ed a swee ping

solut ions an d almost ever y con tempo rary foot br idge -buil der has

arch bridge th at won a des ign co mpeti tion for th e site w ith its po werful

design ed o ne. This book sho ws incli ned arc hes by Santiago Ca latrava,

ges ture . T he struc t ure crosses the ri ver and qu ays w ith a swe ep ing, ca n -

Jir i Strasky, W ilki nso n Eyr e wi t h Flint & Nei l an d Javier Mant erol a.

til ever ing arc. T he bridge' s eleva t ion is suc h th at th e struc t ure would be
co ntinua lly viewe d from below, so th e design of its undersid e was a pa rticular focu s. T he abut m ent s are elegantl y place d and m atc h t he for mal
langu age of th e design . A sym bol of rebirth of the indust r ial zone, th e
st r ucture is paint ed whi te.
W e sho u ld not e th at t he incli nati on of t he arches in many rece nt
bridges has been m ad e for aes t het ic r easons. The incline of th e hanger ca hIes increases wh ile t he load ing st ays th e same .
T he dead load of th e arc h no lo nger lies in th e plan e of th e arch and
has an eccentricity at t he apex , thereby re quiring the arch to be fixed at
t he footi ng to sup po r t a m om ent . An other way t o co mpe nsate for th is
m oment is to give t he arc h a spatial curvat ure to foll o w its funicu lar lin e .
O ne -side d arches are par t icul arly problematic. The in clina tion of
th e hangers creates hori zont al forces and bending abo ut t he vert ical axis
in t he deck girder. In add iti on, th e eccentric sup port creates torsion in
t he deck . In t he exam ple of th e Mercha nts Bridge, th e to rsio n is

137

138

City Expansion and Renovation

Bridge at the Royal Victoria Dock, London, UK, 1998

An yone who knew the dockland area of London in the 1980s or earlier would not recognize it today: a light railway has been constructed
that connects the port area. To the north and south, the quality of life has
greatly improved. At Royal Victoria Dock, the question was raised as to
how to allow pedestrians to cross the harbour while respecting very high
clearance requirement for the masts of yachts from a neighbouring sailing club. The architects from Lifschutz Davidson and the structural
designer Techniker Ltd won the competition with an idea from the 19th
century: a gondola with a 4o-passenger capacity would be suspended
from the underside of a high open deck. The whole design is impressive ,
with its slender structure perfectly suited to the Victoria Docks site.
The upside-down fink truss with a 128 m span gi ves the bridge its identity.
Albert Fink was a German immigrant to the United States and presented
his truss to the US market. Numerous fink trusses were built in the US
before his death in 1897, only one of which survives .'
The great difference in ele vation is bridged by stairways and elevation s. The box section is deeper at the midspan between ver t icals. This
haunch interrupts the wooden deck. The visual image from the deck
reminds one of an overturned ship.

Plowd en, David, Bridges,

Nort o n & Co mp any, 1974 .

pp. 6J -6i
D etail , 8. 1999. pp. 1474-1478

Arch itect ural Review, !i. 1999 .

vel. CCVII , No . 1239

An upside down Fink trusswith a 128 m span

128m

139

140

City Expansion and Renovation

64m

110 m

64m

Bridge over the Rio Mondego in Coimbra, Portugal, 2006

In Co im bra, Portugal, a footb r idge con nects th e historic city centre with a new resid ential ar ea, w ith parks lying scattered in between .
The st r uctu re' s u nusual geometry, choice of mater ials and colour create
an ext ravagant, uniqu e image , which ca n easily be can be calle d emblematic . T he t wo ha lves of the bridge are offset at t he m idspa n - th ose wh o
are fami lia r wi th th e t ragic love story of King Pedro and Ines who never
fou nd one anot her wou ld find resonance in th e structure . T he offset at
the m idspan cr eat es a small platform in th e bri dge . T he foot br idge is a
compo site plate ma de of rein forced co ncret e and steel decki ng. A ce ntral
paraboli c arch and two half-arcs at each appro ach support th e superstruc t u re . Offs etting th e arch and allo wi ng the dec k to cant ileve r out over the
arc h creates to rs ion and do es not mak e much st r uc t u ral sens e, but do es
not appear to affect th e structura l beh aviou r much . The br idge is 274 m
long overa ll and the central arc h has a span of 11 0 m . Cec il Balmond and
his adva nce d Geometry Un it at Ar up desig ne d th e str ucture togeth er
w ith t he st ructural design er s Antonio Adao da Fon seca with AFAssociados. T he most notable aspect of th e st ructure is the railin g. The mult icoloure d , ti lted glass panels are a type of folded co nst r uct ion in ste el and
play wit h th e refl ect ion of light - at n ight th e railings appea r crys ta lline .
The ha nd rail is in wood, as is the deck surfacing. T he care with wh ich th e
detail is execute d de monstra tes that th e ped estri an is bei ng co nsidered as
an increasingly impo rtant participa nt in city traffic . T he bo rd er betw ee n
archite ct ure and design is blur red .

Ada" de Fonseca, Antonio, Ceci l

Balm ont , Co nce pt ual design of
the new Coimbra foothr idge,
foot bridges, 20011, m d
Intern ational Co nfere nce, 200~

The arch offset at the midspan cuts the optical impression of the length of the bridge in half

141

142

City Expansion and Renovation

Passerelle Solferino over the Seine in Paris, France, 1999

No other cit y has th e sam e sens e of beauty along its riverbanks as

bridge that perfectly continues th e historic traffic routes. The construc-

Paris , wh ere legends sur rou nd the bridges. Its bridges are also the subject

tion of the bridge is another beautiful example of how the linearity of

of films - Leos Carax's

a bridge that simply connects one po int to another can be playfully

19 91

film Les Amants du Pont Nerif, for example. In

th e story, th e Pont Neuf is closed for renovation and the bridges becomes

abandoned. With his light steel arch bridge of almost

a refuge for a penniless circus performer and a painter who is going blind .

Mim ram created a str uct u re wher e both th e arch and the deck ar e

110

m span, Mar c

In the story, th e Pont Neufbecom es a footbridge, and a br eathtaking one

ped estrian walkways . In order to keep the arc h for ces within reason and

at that . The theme of urban renovation is a complex on e. To th e east of

to resp ect boat clearances belong, a certain ris e of the arch is necessary.

th e Pont Neuf follows th e ped estrian bridge Pont des Arts, th e road

The nec essary r ise leads to a slope of over 10 percent, making steps nee -

bridges Pont du Carrousel and Pont Royal, followed by the Passerelle

ded on the ar ch walkway. The deck walkway is II to 15 m wide and prac-

Solferino spanning between the Tuil eries and the Quay Anatole France,

tically horizontal. The timber sur facing of the superstructure reminds

connecting to the street of the same name. Marc Mimram, an engineer

one of a ship deck. Interesting interactions between pathways and the

and ar chitect educated in France and th e United States with a pro-

play bet ween light and shadow are the result of merging the arch and

nounced ambition for quality in design . Mimram designed an arch bridge,

deck walkways. The de ck at st reet level act s as a roofing for the ar ch

echoing the structural form nativ e to th e city as in th e Pont d'Arcole and

walkway. Th e bridge had the sam e fat e as the Mill ennium Bridge in

th e Pont Alexandre III . It sounds easy, no intermediate piers in th e Seine,

London, wh ich was also closed shortly after its inauguration du e to

effect ive connections to walkways at differ ent elevations on both sides of

dynamic vibrations, and reopened only aft er th e installation of damping

th e Seine , and creating a light structure so as to minimize the disruption

devices . This event is long forgotten and pedestrians now use th e bridge

of the view of the Seine. The execut ion is a bit more diffi cult : on e route

cont inuously.

at street level, two walkways at quay level that should meet at the midspan

this follows the contours of the arch to perfection. The merging

of the quay walkways and th e street level is particularly elegant. The

challenge of urban renovation is taken on and conquered, with a foot-

From onot, Fran coise, Marc

Mimr am /P asserelle So!fer ino,
Basel , 2001

La pessercllc Solferino, in:

Ouvragcs Mctalliques, N I ,
OTUA , Paris, 20 01

143

The approx 100 m bridge spans the Seine on two levels

-r__~

106 m

...J'--'

144

City Expansion and Renovation

Grand Bibliotheque. the Finance Ministry, the Palais Omnisport, and the new bridge- symbolsof urban transformation

Passerelle Simone de Beauvoir, Paris, France, 2007

Ber cy: thc quar ter south of the Seine where w ine was cellared for

and ten sion cho rds are join ed with a co lumn of four stee l rod s every 7 m .

ce nturies, ferm ent ing th e myth of France as th e Grande Nation du Vin .

The arc h and ten sion chord cross one ano ther ar ound th e qu arter point s

f eichtinger Architectes,

By th e t ime th e Fre nch Ministry of Fina nce had moved fro m th e Lou vr e

of th e spa n, dividing th e bri dge into three main sec tions: a 106 m lon g

Passcr cll c Sim one de Bcau voir,

with tex ts o r Arrncl lc Lavalcu ,

lenticul ar beam in th e middl e , a 47 m long ca nt ilever to th e north , and a

Fran cois e Lamarre and

[can -Pau l Ro her t, Par is,

to its new hom e in Ber cy in th e

19 90 S,

a large spor ts hall had been built

m long ca ntilever to th e south. This is how th e br idge was constr ucted .

for spec ta cular event s, th e Pa re de Bercy had been created , and finall y

41

the four tower s of the Gr and e Bibliot he que Nationale had been co n-

First , th e cant ileve rs wer e anchored to th e abutments. T he H O t mid d le

st r ucte d , th e qu art er had lost some t hi ng of it s old tranquill ity. A new

girder was fabr icated in Alsace and transported by barge fr om th e Rhin e

world of heavy publi c tra ffic em er ged to the left and ri ght of th e Seine ,

via th e No r t h Sea to the Seine and hung from th e t wo cant ile ver ti ps .

lead ing to the co nstruct ion of th e Passer elle Simon e de Beau voir. T he
commission w as awa rde d to an Aust r ian arc hitect practi sing in fra nce,
f eichtinger Arc hite kten, working w ith the eng ineers of RF R - Rice
f ra ncis Ritchie . Urban re novat ion in Ber cy ent ails a co mplete change
of neighbourhood at mos phe re .
The con nectio n of thre e ele vations at eac h side is unusual : qu ay,
street and parking or library level. Th e struct ure is worthwhile as it
allows ped est r ians to pass from the libr ar y to t he park withou t crossing
a major ro adw ay. The free span of the st ructure is 194 m long and a ver y
slende r combinat ion of arch and stress ribbon . The struct ure lies in tw o
parallel ver tical planes at a di st ance of ) . 2 m on cen tre . An arc h in co m pr ession and a tension chord lie in th ese plan es. T he arch is m ade of a
we lde d bo x sect ion co to

70

cm dee p and 1 m wide . T he te nsion chord is

a I m wide steel plat e wi th a depth var yin g betw een

10

and

I)

cm T he arch

20 0 6

La passer c llc Sim o ne de Beauvoir, in : Tr avaux , 813, Septem ber

2006

Kier an , Rice, La passcr cllc

Simo ne de Bcau voir , in : Co n -

str uct ion Mctalliquc, 4, 200 h

145

The bridge responds the three levels of the quay

47 m

106m

6m
11.7 m

41 m

146

City Expansion and Renovation

Port Bridge in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, 2004

Like may other cit ies, Barcelona negle ct ed its privileged position
near th e sea for decades . The

1992

Ol ympic Games and th e Forum

20 0 4

wer e th e catalysts to connect the city centre with th e coa st in a ped estrianfr iendly manner . An urban ma ster plan was develop ed, cre at ing a marina
with around

1000

slips in order to bring some life to the harbour. T he

main building of th e yacht harbour and the ped estrian bridge linking the
Esplanada with the Parque Litoral No r este were designed by Mam en
Domingo and Ern est Ferre and th e engine er Angel C . Apari cio .
Th e bridge has a total length of

197

197 m

m and consists of a Warren truss

with a free span of 148 m . The structure cr eate s an envelope , whi ch whil e
not providing a roof, creates th e visual impression of being in inter ior
space . The var ying depth, with an aver age of 6 m, pr events the structure
from appearing as a strict tubular gangway. Offset balc oni es and seating
make th e structure an attractive pla ce to pass th e time . As the development continues, th ere will be more and more to see from th e bridge bal conies, making the bridge a de stination in itself.

Aparicio, Angel C. and

G. Ramos, Footh ridge OH'r the
Sant Adr ia Marin a in Barcelona,
Spain, in: Proceedin gs of the
Institution of Civil Engin ecr s
Bridge Engint'erin g, 1 ~ 8 ,

pr 19 3- 20 0

20 0 ) .

With its solid portal, the bridge isdesigned as a dominating structure in the new harbor area

147

The Bridge as Interior Space

The seriousness of the loadbearinq truss

IS

evident within.

Paul Bonatz, Fritz Leonhardt

Bridges built in the same manner as housing, with a roof and sidewalls, originally served as structural timber protection. It was and still is
prudent to protect connections of sensitive material from weather. It is
no wonder that the covered bridge developed into a classical bridge
archetype in the raw mountainous settings.
Covered bridges are often also necessary in densely p..opulated cities:
When buildings are to be joined above a roadway, the bridge becomes a
de facto continuation of building space: to the foyer, corridor, conference
room. The dizzying heights of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur,
with a covered pedestrian bridge joining two 90-storey high-rises
roughly at the level of the 40th floor, have not yet been matched in Europe.
Last but not least, air traffic requires elaborate swinging, telescoping
motorized walkways so that passengers reach their seat with dry feet.
The criterion for the structure and form of such a bridge is the
interior space. The structure can create and interior space, but the user's
experience also depends on the views and on lighting. It is much more
the work of architects than engineers to set the scene of such a covered
structure. In certain settings, footbridges may be asked to house shops
and multiple pathways, as was the case for Zaha Hadid's extravagant
design direction for the 2008 Expo in Zaragoza. The line between a
complete building structure
becoming more fluid.

ala Rialto and a covered footbridge is

150

The Bridge as Interior Space

Baus, Ursula, Vcrdi chtctcr

ubcr die Areuse

bci Boudry, in : dh deut schc
bauvcitun g, 5. 2003 , p p .61~6 7
\ V('g. Brucke

The other end of the bridge is not in sight, but t he view to the exterior isconstant

Bridge over the Areuse, Boudry, Switzerland, 2002

The Ar cus c gorge in th e Jura sout h of Neu chatel presen t s num e r ou s e nt h rall ing sp ectacles of nature - but caut io n is advised in winter,
"hen many paths become completely covere d in ice and impassable . T h is
small co vere d bridge over th e Areus e can be found where the hiking trail
through th e high , narrow ca nyon merges with the wid er, op en vall ey.
A light

S~ curve

in th e plan of th e deck as well as the changes in e le vat io n

c reate an e legantly d esign ed tran sit ion . This is anot her example of th e
coo pe ra t ive e ffo r t between architect s and en gineers: G eninasca Dele fortrie of Nc uc hatc ] wer e the ar chitects of the project, and C hablais et
Polle t olEst avaver -Ic -L ac th e eng ineers .
Exceptional pilots in a Russian helicopter flew th e pr efabricat ed
tru ss g irde r into th e vall ey, wh er e th e bridge span n ing 2] .r; m wa s built
within two da ys. At t ac h me nts for the wooden slat s were in corporated
into th e ver t ica l stee l fram es.
Th e variation of t he c ros s sect io n - with a depth of between 2.r; and
J.o m and a w idt h of bet we en

I.I r;

and 3. r; m - ar e oft en imp er ceptible to

the user. Curiosity pulls on e t owards the e nd of the tunnel of th e bridge

e nc los u re , whi ch is hidden by the horizontal curvature of th e d eck until
on e has ventured a few ste ps along th e de ck . This persp e ctive do cs not
appear un canny, how ever , as the wo od en slat s allo w views outside of th e
e nclos u re to orient th e pedestrian. The bridge offe rs no protection from
rain ~ - the d esign of th e bridge space is solely to affe ct th e user 's perc ep ~
tion .

151

152

The Bridge as Int erior Space

The structure is even visible from the inside of the covered structure

Covered Footbridge in Gaissau, Austria, 1999

Timber co nst ruc t ion expe r t H ermann Kaufmann used th e br idge
enclo sure , th e original rol e of which was to protect th e struc t u re , to im prove th e quality of th e interior space . Almost t he ent ire spa n is op en so
that th e user ha s fr ee views, creat ing an asto nis hingly light int erior. Th e
44 m

bridge' s com pact volume us es th e modern archi tectu ral var iant of th e fl at
roof as th e gabl e roofs of old er covered bridges (see p. 24-) as an integral
part of th e arc hitect ure - th e product of th e co o pe rat io n between ar chitect Hermann Kaufmann and engineer Fra nk D ickbauer .
With a span of 4-4- m and a w idth of 4- ., m , th e bridge crosses t he
border between Austria and Switzerland . Although th e Swiss em ban km ent is low er than the Austrian on e , th e roof remains horizontal, giving
th e st r uct ure a conical elevation. The two main girders made of glued
timber sect io ns create th e sid es of th e enclosure . The steel tension m ember from four flat steel plates com plete s the su spended girder syst em .

153

Edge glued timber and steel are combined in optimal manner with respect to structural demands
. -.....7

Covered Footbridge in Frojach, Austria, 1992

This new ped estrian brid ge , design ed by Johann Rieb enbauer and
plane rs Lignum Consult Angerer & Par t ner, re places an obso lete ro ad
brid ge between Froj ach and Kat sch . Th e t hree

20

m lo ng bridge dcck

and roofing e leme nts ar e stressed toget her with di agon al te ns io n mem ber s of high-st rength steel. Using th e "plank pack lamin ation method",
th e mor e in exp en sivc ex ter ior sectio ns of th e t ree may be used . T he
resulting st iff, strong wood en plat es ca n be sim ply nailed toget her.
Thc st r uc t u re can be cla ssified as a Fin k tru ss. Both main tru ss
member s th er efor e lack a low er cho re . Tr an sverse g irde rs con nec t th e
bridge deck or t o th e vertical m ember s of th e fink t ru ss by stee l plates
th at do no pen etrat e any pa rt of t he vert ical sectio n d ir cctl y ex posed
to th e weath er. The loading of all st r uct ur al members increa ses as on c
approach es th e mid span . Th e di agonals are pr estressed at th c abut me nts
to add stiffness to th e syste m. Addition al pr estressing oft he syste m
co u nteracts snow load s, as th e ten sion members co ntract du e to low er
temperatures during th e wi nter mon th s.

60m

154

The Bridge as Interior Space

Royal Ballet School Bridge, London, UK, 2003

T he new Royal Ballet Schoo l and th e listed O pera House building

in Cove nt Garde n, Londo n , are separate d by only a few metres . T he
pr ospect ive da ncer s and ball er inas were to be spared the exterior cros sing at street level. T his led to t he co nstructio n of a sma ll bridge, high
above Flor al Street , to make the tr ip more comfor ta ble . T he challe nge
of th e br idge co mpe tit ion in whi ch five team s took part was to create a
structure as an ex pression of dance.
T he see mi ngly har ml ess 9 m span was co mplicated by th e fact th e
bu ildi ng suppor ts at bo th ends were offset in elevation and plan . W ilkin son Eyre con vinced th e jur y with a Simple light brid ge wit h a spectac ular
enclo sure : 23 square fram es ar e each rotat ed 4" along th e len gth of the
str ucture, creati ng a tot al rotati on of 90. T he frames are ver t ical at bot h
buildin g sup ports . Glass panels between the frames create a light t ranspare nt appea rance, th e sweeping for m of whi ch is rem in isce nt of th e
Firth , lan , New Mater ials
for Modern f ootbridges, in:
Foot br idge
OTU:\,

200 1 ,

Proceed ings,

Pl': 174 - 18 6

db dc ut schc bauzeitun g, 6, 20 04 ,

pp. S28 l

movement of a da ncer. T he geometry of the enclosure gives the bri dge its
char ming visual aspec t form both int ernally and ex te rn ally - t he str uct ure
plays an almost secondary role and is hard ly noti ced in th e int eract ion
bet ween int er ior and ex terior.

Refined geometry and a minimal structure merge to crea te an exceptional space

155

156

The Bridge as Interior Space

Science Museum Bridge, London, UK, 1997

Strictly spea ki ng , this is not a covered br idge, but it is a product of
th e interior spac e in whi ch it is sit uated . A footbridge was built in th e
London Scie nce Museu m, pr ot ect ed by wi nd and weath er. T he struc t ure
is lightly sus pended from heavy surro unding arc hitec t ure. In the gallery
s, Wilkinson Eyre created t heir first m useum proj ect. T he br idge, whic h

traverses a ce ntra l atriu m as if a spid er had spu n its a glis te n ing net ,
symbo lizes th e th em e of the gallery. T he st rength of glass and ste el were
pushed to the limit - this materi al -speci fic design approac h comes form
th e team of Wilkinson Eyre in coo pera tion w ith the engi neers W hit by
Bird . In or der to intensify th e relationship bet ween th e pedest r ian and

16 m

the st r uc t ure , th e aud io artist Ron Geesi n develop ed a co mpute r co m posit ion that react s to the movem ents of the bridge and its ped estrian s.
Th e struct ure ha s a span of 16 m and is suppor te d by 186 except ionally th in sta inless steel wires (d = I..s-8 mm) that overla p along th e dec k .
Th e dec k co nsists of a to ta l of 828 glass strips . Every fifth glass str ip is
glue d to a strip runn ing parallel to th e edge . A downward backst ay
syste m sta bilizes th e st r uct ure suffic iently against dynami c osci llations .
T he form of th e stai n less stee l w ires expands th roughout t he inter ior
spac e and provides a fabul ou s co n nec tion between th e br idge and th e
su r rounding space .

Detail, 8 , 19 9 9 ;
Pearce, 20 02, pp. 204- 20 9

The thin ca bles create a delicatespatial net that however solidly supports the walkway

157

158

The Bridge as Interior Space

Covered and Enclosed Bridges

Zaraqoza, Bridqe pavilion at the Expo, Zaha Hadid, 2008

This section w ill show that the spectrum of

coveredgreatly exceeds the traditional Alpine

structureshows high competition for these

prestigious early structures. The competition was

covered bridges and residential bridges. These

held in 1587 w ith Michelangelo and Pal ladio

bridges continue to find new application, in parti-

taking part. Antonio da Ponte won the competiti-

cular for structures in which the envelope- con-

on w ith a 27 m arch bridge.

sisting of the deck, roofing, and wall - support

loadsby acting asa tube. This creates a much

Fu nctions

larger depth-to-span ratio than for other bridges.

Theclassic wooden bridges were covered

mainly to protect the structurefrom environmenta l
effects. Theshingled roofs of the wooden alpine

Residen tial and Enclosed

bridgesprotect the structure from high snow

Some of the earliest bridges were not simply

loads, assnow wil l slide off of a steep roof. The

covered with roofing or provided with a small toll-

roofing also protectsthe structurefrom rain. With

house, but were completely covered w ith housing.

the protection provided by the roofing and lateral

London Bridge, built between 1176 and 1209,

shinglecovering, the timber has been preserved

crossed the Thames with 19 arches and developed

for centuries . A very early and picturesque example

into its own city district. The reason thesestruc-

is the Chapel Bridge in Lucerne, a simple conti-

tures were used as housing was the lack of avail-

nuousgirder bridge supported by numerous tim-

able rea l estatein the medieval citiesand the

ber pile piers . The structure was first built in 1333

hygienic advantagesof houses above water, w ith

and hasbeen rebuilt several timesafter numerous

their natural sewer systems. Some particularly

fires.

beautiful examplesremain, such asthe Kramer

Luckily, two bridgesremain from the Swiss

Bridge in Erfurt, built in 1293, the Ponte Vecchio

carpenter Hans Ulrich Grubenmann (see page 24).

in Florence, and the Rialto Bridge in Venice. This

He was able to span up to 11 8 m w ith his multi-

Kumma Bridge in Hitt isau, 172 0

Secti on t hrough a typ ical bridge

Maximum roof slope of 45

Roof overhang with an angle

st rut ted tr uss and arch structures 350 years ago.

In typ hoo n-prone areas, road and railw ay

to sighing prisoners on the Pont e dei Sospiri in

t he Doge 's palace of Venice is much diff erent t han

bridge superstructures and girders are often de-

that provided to the skimp ily dressed ballerina

signed w it h suff icient structu ral dept h t o provi de

crossing t he Bridge of Aspiration in Lo ndo n

protected lanes fo r emergency vehicles at the

(see p. 154).

interior of the struct ure. Noise po llut ion requ ire-

Passenger bridges such as the "Airport fin-

ments somet imes call for side roof ing and cov-

ger" also belong t o t his family of bridges. These

ering of urban road bridges (one examp le is the

struc tu res bridge t he distance bet ween t he airpo rt

Nesenbacht al Bridg e in Stuttgart). Other than

gat e w aiti ng area and the plane. In addit io n t o

these examples, covered bridges are practically

w eat her pro tect ion , these struc tures must provide

on ly fo und for foo tbr idges struct ures. Covered

no ise insulati o n. The no n-moveable po rt ions of

pedestr ian bridges may fulfil a mu lt itude of uses.

th ese struc tures are often glazed t o provide int er-

The most common of such structures are bridges

esting view s of t he airstrip t o the boarding pas-

connec t ing bui ldings, w here the enclosure provi-

sengers. In hotter climates, such as t he M adrid

des protection f rom the elemen ts. The pedestr ian

airpor t, t he po rtions of the enclosure subject to

should be able to pass betw een a parking garage

solar exposure are opaque t o avoid a greenhous e

and a stad ium, betw een one shoppi ng mall or

effec t in t he interior of t he bridge . Passenger

office building to anot her wi t hout getti ng his or

bridges for large ships are often completely

her feet w et. In most cases, th e enclosure does

enclosed, or at least prov ided w ith roof ing to

not simp ly provide protect io n fro m rain and wi nd

protect the passengers from w ind and rain.

but is often provided insulat ed. The level of

Unfortunate ly, as often seen in t he US, t he

pedestr ian com fo rt shou ld fu lf il t he requ irements

pedestr ians using an overpass may pose a th reat

of the owne r and the expectat ions of the user.

t o the t raffi c below or even t o t hemselves. In

One can see th at the level of comfo rt provided

t hese cases, bridges resemble cages w it h chain

159

160

The Bridqe as Ir tenor Space

Typical structures that integrate t he structure into the formal design of the bridge

lZ:= LKl
I

link enclosuresthat prevent users from throwing

Structural archetypes

architect Robert Le Ricolaisexperimented in 1962

largeobjects from the bridge or jumping off.

Ta king into account all that is mentioned

with tubular cablenetstructures in which bands

above, we might expect the bridge enclosure to be

were wrapped around stiff compression rings,

Load ing

a burden on the structure. Not all covered bridges

creating a rigid structure. The adjacent buildings

Covered bridgeshavemuch to support.

are as beautiful asthe classica l examples mentio-

must however be able to support the high anchor

Conventional bridges are not designed for snow

ned above. In bridges for which the enclosure and

forces required for thesecablestructures. In 1992

loading, as this load case is in general much lower

supporting structure are independent. the structu-

Jbrg Schla ich proposed a structure made of a glass

than live load and it is inconceivable that the maxi-

re supports the additional ballast of the enclosure

tube wrapped in cables"so that the cables follow

mum snow load and live load occur at the same

and oft en seems clumsy. Covered bridges, how-

the geometric stress trajectoriesa tube in bending"

time. For covered bridges, these load cases can co-

ever, become particularly interesting to the de-

[Oster]. The adjacent buildings that the bridge was

exist and the structure must support the additional

signer w ho tries to makevirtue of necessity and

to join served as the anchors for the prestressed

weight of the enclosure . In addition, the enclosure

integrate the enclosure into the global loadbearing

cables. A further innovation would be to anchor

creates an additional surface for the wind. The

structure of the bridge. When the roof takes part

the cables to the tube, creating compression in the

British Standard BO 29/03 calls for and minimum

in the structural behaviour, the structural depth is

glass. The recent advances in structural glazing

clea rance of 2.3 m at the interior of covered foot-

grea tly increased, allowing the designer to create

make such a structure almost within reach. A more

bridges, increasing the depth of the structure and

very transpa rent solutions. Lateral walls can

conventio nal solution would be to repla ce the

thereby increasing the wind loading acting upon it.

provide the diagonals of a truss with the roofing

cables with rigid elements or anchor them with

For covered bridges connecting buildings, the

structure acting asthe compression boom and the

horizontal steel members. This solution was

loadstransferred to the building must be taken

deck astension chord. When cables replace ten-

applied at the Corporation StreetFootbridge in

into account in the earliest stagesof the building

sion members, a multitude of variations becomes

Manchester, w hich produced a relatively heavy

design and the effects of the deformation of the

possible.

structure.

buildings on the bridge structure must be analysed .

Structura l tubes, which simultaneously pro-

One very beautiful exampleof a successful

vide structure and enclosure, haveoften beencon-

merging of enclosure and structurewas built by

sideredasa solution. The French engineer and

the Artists of the Eventstructure Research Group in

Pneuma t ic br idge, 1970

LeRicolas's gi rder

1970. A 250 m long, floating , pneumatically

Ikrzog , Tho mas, Pncumatisch c Kon struktio ncn , Stuttgar t , 1976 ,

p . l1<)

suppo rt ed tu be bridged t he Masch Lake in

Hanover. The transparent tube had a diameter of
4 m. The PVC fo il t ube had w alls on ly 0 .4 mm
thick. Prot ecti ve fibre reinf orcement provided t he
w alking surface . A w at er-fill ed hose w as attached
to the unde rside of the struc tur e to prevent rot at ion and sta bilize th e struc t ure [Herzog].

Mc-Clcar v, Pe-t er, Rob e r t Lc Ricol ai auf dcr Suc hc nach del'
un vc- rsto rb arc n Idee , in; Archplu x, ~ ,200 1, pp. f,4 - 6 oS
M ur t-av, Peter and Ma r v Anne StcH'IlS, LiYing Bridges, Munich, 19 9 6

Oster, Hans. FuBgangn hruckt.'11 von Jorg SchlaichlindRudolf

Be rgcr mann , ex hibition catalog ue,

19 9 2

Ott o , Frc i and Bodo Rasch, Gestalt findcn , Fcllb ach , 19 9 5

This tempo rary st ruct ure was rebuilt in 1970

Sc-hlaic-h, Mike ct al., Guidelines for the deSign o f foo tbridges , fib,
fede rat ion intor nano nalc du bct on , b ullet in ~ 2, Lausanne , No vember

onc e again by the same t eam fo r t he sympos ium

2 00~

" Pneumat ic Structu res" . The air pressure

necessary t o maintain th e stability of the tube can
be calculated using t he bo iler formula given in the
techn ical overview " Curved Bridges".

Wor-n er, Svcn.

Olwnbchtt Briic-kcn , D iplomarbc it , lick, l.Inivcrsit v

of Stutt gart , Sep te mbe r

200 1

161

The Call for Symbols

Hable can ella. Talk to her. Pedro Almodovar, 2002, Film

This chapter deals with an international phenomenon: almost every

extravagant and emblematic bridges. For footbridges, the emblematic

city attempted to mark the turn of the century with a special event,

component of these structures also celebrates the pedestrian reconquest

constructing Millennium parks, towers and bridges to handle them. The

of the city. Bridges with unique designs can create great local identity

attempt to mark important events with symbolic structures is nothing

and become the subject of postcards or make an area attractive for

new: in particular, the World's Fairs beginning in the nineteenth centu-

tourists. A competition develops between financial cost and the increase

ry are among the best examples of this. Footbridges were some of the

in local symbolism, which is essential for European cities.

coveted construction projects of the new millennium.

Every structural form can be made a symbolic gesture when
dramatically staged and spectacularly marketed. It is notable that high
arches have recently taken centre stage, whether they be moveable,
inclined or sculpted - the arch is linked with positive spiritual connotations and is a structural form that is relatively easy to control. The
master of the new arch is doubtless Santiago Calatrava: beginning as a
controversial figure among international engineers, his work incontestably deserves merit for breathing new wind into bridge construction
since the 1970s. His approach, to create constructions that are
experienced as sculpture, always to find a form particular to the site,
and to value the structure's lighting as an integral part of the project,
has since gained worldwide recognition. In England, the architects of
Wilkinson Eyre in cooperation with various engineers have created

164

The Call for Symbols

La Devesa Bridge over the Ter in Ripoll, Catalonia, Spain, 1991

As in all of Calatrava's proj ects , th e d iffer ent banks justify th e solitary figure of the snow-white bridge over the ri ver . The differ ence of 5 m
in elevation in spired th e conspicuous st air way, whi ch is furth er emphasized by a platform serving as a type of balcony. Th e inclined arch makes
less visual impact - in th e model, th e cantileve re d arch dominated th e
design while in th e built str uct ure, th e abutment at th e low er bank plays
a greater role. Th e ecce ntric arch has a ris e of 6.5 m and a span of 44 m .
Th e weather ed gr ey t imb er surfacing is laid upon steel girder s in the
long itudin al direction at an angl e of 65 to th e ar ch .
The unilaterally inclined ar ch is ri gidl y fixed to th e deck both at th e
abutment , and also at each cant ilever ing han ger that transfers torsional
mom ents in the box sec t ion of th e deck . The deck is br aced with diagon als to support th e horizontal for ces due to the inclination of the arc h
(for mor e on incl ined arches, see p. 136) .

Calatrava, Santiago, Des bow st rings ori gin au x, in : Bullet in

annuc l de l'AFGC, 1999 .

Fram pton , 1996, pp . 122-13'

165

The bridge creates impressive forms from many perspectives

44m

3m

166

The Call for Symbols

No fear of grand gestures: the symbolic requires courage in design with a span of 75m

Campo de Volantin Bridge in Bilbao, Spain, 1997

Fran k O . Ge hry's so-called "Bilbao effec t " on arc hitec t ure was

One essentia l point makes th e struct ure unique : the arc h and

revisi te d by Santi ago Calatrava, wi t h th e effect hi s bridge str uctu re

curved deck plate do not lie abo ve one ano ther in one plan e, but eross

opposi te th e museum had on frighte ned eng ineers . The Cata lan arc hit ec t

each other. Half of th e hanger s run abo ve t he deck and seem to offer

and civ il enginee r - born in 19S1 - st udie d in Valencia and at the Swis s

som e pr otection for th e ped estrian s. T he incli ned par abol ic arc h spans

Fed eral Inst itute of Tec hno logy ( ET H Zur ich) . A better co nste llat ion

over 7S m and cre ates a stable spatia l str uc t ure together wi th it s hanger

could not be foun d to breathe new wind into th e consciousness o f

cables . T he slen derness of t he arch indi cates that it s form is not ra ndo m,

established engineer ing

bu t is th e resul t of a co m plicate d form -fin di ng pro cedure to m in im ize

Ca latrava is familiar wit h t he Spanish bridgebu ild ing trad iti on from Jose Eugenio Riber a to Eduar do Torroja and Carlos Fernand ez

bendi ng mom ents in the arc h .

T he fact tha t sufficient room was pr ovided at eac h side for approach

Casa do - as well as th e Swiss tradi tio n where struct ure and form are not

ra m ps and abutments greatly help ed th e sculpt ura l approach of t he de -

as separate d as in Germa ny. Ca latrava - a great d raught sm an - foun ded

sign . It should be not ed that th e br idge cann ot simply stop at th e abut-

hi s own offic e in th e 1980s. Par is becam e a second or thi rd hom e; no

ment . The tran sit ion from th e promen ade to t he st r uct ure must be

probl em for th e versatil e eng ineer, who was mu ch in demand . Cosmo-

th eatrical and echo th e mo vem ent of the struct ure in th e urban environ-

poli tan ism is mor e ofte n found in engi neering th an ar chitecture.

ment. An ex hausting planning process may have been th e res u lt . Santiago

In br idge co nstruc tion, the inclined arc h domi nates Calat rava's
wor k - as seen her e in Bilbao wh er e a lively ri ver prom enade over the
Nerv ion would be co n nected to a war ehous e zone - in an attem pt, as
seen so often, to rev ita lize and re juvenate an industr ial are a. Bilbao
requ ir ed a symb oli c gest ure to cr eate an atmosphere of change in the
co untry, and Santiago Ca latrava was able to deliver it . The ex pre ssive
arc h , th e da zzling white colour, and the th eatri cal lighti ng together offer
ever yth ing necessar y to creat e a symb ol from its power ful visual image .

Ca latrava seem s not to fear such th ings.

Framp ton , 1996 ,

Torre s Arcila,

pr. 20, - 213;

pp. 2,6-2 67;

2002,

\-Vells, Pear man , 2002, Pl' : 58-63

Art ificial lighting is part of urban renew al, Calatra va's w hite bridges are predest ined for their role

~
4m

75 m

168

r-----------.,..",.-, '' O''-- -,.._- __

The Call for Symbols

Connections and vibration dampers

Millennium Bridge, London, UK, 2001

"P edestrians only. No motorcycles, pedal cycles, scooters, roll er skates, roll erblades or skateboards" - so read s the sign at th e ent rance to
th e Mill ennium Bridge in London . The list of those who may not use the
st r uct u re is long, which provokes th e qu estion of why this may be . The
bridge was closed just a few hours after its spectacular op ening in Jun e
2000

du e to vibrations. However, th e structure was the product of adept

design : the change in the ent ire urban zon e character ized by Herzog &
de Meuron's conv ersion of the old power plant into th e Tate Mod ern is
furth er symbolized by a footbridge . The new millennium brought a con nection between the south side of th e river and the city centre ; the pic tures abov e demonstrate the chall eng e facing many footbridges as part of
its rol e as a landmark and in urban ren ewal: th ey must provide a response
to complet ely differ ent urban situation s at each shore . The offices of
Fost er Asso ciat es and Arup were able to meet this challenge with th eir
competition laureat e, slend er structure .
The first bridge built in London since Tow er Bridg e in 1894 - and
th e first pedestrian bridge - was requi red to be techni cally refined in the
pr esence of th e new millennium . The bridge is 330 m long with a ce ntral
span of 144 m and a deck width of 4 m. It has be en referred to as "probably the most delicate susp ension bridge of our time". The shallow cable
sag accentuates this effec t . The ratio of span to sag is here 60, wher eas
for a normal ratio for suspension bridge is IO! This gr eatly affects its cost,
due to th e much higher cabl e forc es . The inclination of th e hangers
mak es the bridge suscept ible to lateral oscillations . Th e bridge wa s
clo sed, as mentioned abov e , due to high lateral vibration through
pedestrian excitation (see "sailor's roll", P: 101) . The problem dis app eared only after th e installation of numerous damper s.

Wells, Pearman , 200 2, pp. 86-89;

Millen nium Br idge, London :

problem s and solutions, in: The

Structural Eng ineer. 17 April
20 0 1, 11. 8 vol. 7 9

The view from the Tate Modern, the approach ramps become an observation deck - span 144 rn, total length 370 m, cable sag 2.30 m

169

170

The Call for Symbols

The contrasting form of each side of the bridge is an essential part of the design

Memorial Bridge in Rijeka, Croatia, 2003

In Rijeka, some 50 km sout h of Tri este, Ital y, this bridge serve s as

memorial to the recent violen t hi story of th e Balk an s. The reserved sym boli sm of th e br idge shapes a piece of th e u rb an environm ent without be -

36 4m

com ing too visually brazen . The approach that begins in th e h istoric cit y
centre cont inues over the riv er to th e form er po rt, whi ch has be en mad e
into a cit y park . The structure is 47 m long w ith a free span of 35.7 m .
The vertical 3.15 m and 1.15 m wid e upright con cr et e slabs proj ect to a
1.1 m

height of 12 m . The de ck co nsists of a closed bo x section in steel , an alu minium plat e surfacing, and railings from safety glass with wo od en hand -

0.7 m

rails . A specially designed cr ane was used to place th e 150 t deck ; th e ebb
5.4 m

of th e tid e help ed to allow th e deck to pass below two ex ist ing st r uct ures .
The concre te piles below th e abutments exte nd 17 m int o th e soil. Parti cular attenti on was paid to the details and surfacing.
The structure rem inds on e of the small but famous stone br idge
from 1566 in Mostar, whi ch was sens elessl y destroyed during the 1993
Balkan War; it wa s re constructed for symbolic reasons and inaugurated
in 2004 .

db dcutsche bauzeitung. ~,

pp. )8 -45

20 0 3,

Symbolic bridges can almost only be imagined with theatrical lighting systems

171

The Call for Symbols

172

Footbridge over Lake Zurich near Rapperswil, Switzerland, 2000

Walther Bieler is a timber constr ucti on spe cia list ; without intimate
knowledg e of th e materi al , one should not attempt to build such a br idge.
The 84 1 m long wood en footbri dge over Lake Zurich was inte nde d to re vit alize th e ce nt ur ies old pilg r im age Route of St Jam es. It should be said
thi s goal ha s been met given th e som etimes ten thousand daily visit ors,
most of whom are not pilgrims. The path is an event , th e bridge is not
expressive , simply a reserved sign of the ex traordinary path . Seati ng and
viewing sills denote th at ped estrian s mu st stop and look ar ound : th e sur roundings ar e simply beautiful. 233 oak piles support th e 2.4 m wid e deck .
The piles wer e driven into the lakeb ed and th en cut to th e appropriate
height ; th e lengths vary between 9 and 16 m, with diam eters of 36 to 70
ern, and th ey ar e space d 7 .,) m apart . The deck lies approx im atel y I. ') m
above th e lake and consists of steel sec ti ons that ar e hot -d ip galvaniz ed

and powd er coate d with a mi caceous iron or e. The sections lie tran sver se
to th e deck on th e piles. Continuous timber beams lie 1 em apart from
on e another and ar e sta bilized every

2 .,)

m by steel bra cket s. With its

asymmetric profile, th e footbridge causes th e user to ta ke a more suitI

3.2 m

IF

able, slower pace . No lighting is provided for the footbridge, as wildlife

ar e protect ed in this nature re serve .

The pilgrim's pathway with a high wall toward the protected natural sanctuary

173

174

The Call for Symbols

Arches - 1888 vertical, 1997 inclined

Butterfly Bridge in Bedford, UK, 1997

Cr eating a symbolic gesture with a footbr idge is not limited to urban situations , where a fun ctional improveme nt of an urban zon e is to be
expresse d . A footbridge can send a sym bolic message even in th e mo st
beautiful natural or garden enviro nment. The ar ch itect s of Wilki nson
Eyre and the enginee rs of Jan Bobrowski and Partner s won th e 199 .S" com petition for thi s footbr idge , beating 78 competi tors. A park and a festival
site re quired th at 32 m of the Ouse be bridged ; it co uld have been done
more simply, but that's not the point . The two inclined arc hes t r uly re -

32 m

sem ble insec t wings fro m afar. As one app roa ches , th e arches see m to
lure passers -by w ith an invit ing , sympat hetic gesture . They are not
co nnec te d overhe ad , leaving the sky op en above th e deck . The de sign is
completely arbitrary, and refl ects the adjac ent brid ge by J .J. Webster ,
built in 1888 . Both ar ches ar e stable du e to th eir rig id fix ation at th e abutments. T he bending moments transferred to the abutments from each
side cance l on e another ou t and do no t load the superstructure. The horizo nta l for ces from th e hang ers at each side are also equal and opposed.
Th e presence of th e bridge is further accentuated by th e professionally
developed lighting design, a requir em ent for all such symbo lic bridges .

Pearce ,

20 02,

pp. 200- 20 3

176

The Call for Symbols

Rhine Bridge in Weil am Rhein, Germany, and Huningue, France, 2007

248m

View to wards Weil am Rhein

177

Sta irsand ramps on the Weil am Rhein side with a view toward Huningue

A st r uc t u re bridgin g a borde r be twe en t wo co u ntries is by nature

sym bolic . In Europ e, st ill search ing for political id entit y, suc h str uc t ures are co nsi d ere d par ti cularl y im porta nt and wo r t h an y add itiona l

balance riverbank path w ays an d be ar in gs. The approach o n the French

side has a lift for whe elc hair user s.
T he span of 230 m m ak es t h is b ri dge t he current wo rld r eco rd -

effor t to make t he m suita ble for their ro les. T he Rhin e Bridge in Kchl -

holder for arch fo otbridges, and the ri se o f on ly

hcirn (see p . lOS) d emon strat es the d iffic ulti es tha t ar ise wh e n fu nc t io na l

e ng ineer ing cha lle nge. The bridge w as built in a manner sim ilar to the

re quirements are p r ior iti sed above d esign . In W eil am Rh ein , a co m pe -

Passerell e Simone d e Beauv oir in Par is (see p . (44) . The sections o f the

titio n was held to a footbridge between Fra nce and Germany to prov id e

b r idge nea r t he abutments we re built as can t ile ve r s, a nd the

acc ess to a sho pping centre an d re plac e fe r r y t r affi c across t he r ive r.

ce ntra l segme nt was lifted int o place and suspende d from the cantilevers .

Fe ichtinger Architects with Leon hard t , An dra an d Par t ner we re awar-

The R h ine was clos ed on

de d t he co m miss io n . T he ir p roje ct was a stee l arc h bridg e wi t h a span of

e re ct io n o f t he ce ntral section.

230

m ove r t he Rhi ne . Th e bridge d eck ac ts as a t e nsion m ember, so t ha t

II

23

m w as a co ns iderable

10 0 0

Nove mber 2006 fo r a sing le night for t he

The bridge is a sym bo l o f cross-border coexistence ; the r equire -

ess e nt ially on ly ve r t ical forc es wo u ld be t ran sferred t o th e ab ut me nts.

men t s o f both t he Ge rma n and Fr en ch co des and standa rds had to be

Th e position oft he st r uc t ure is set fr ee by the vis ua l ax is o f the asy mme -

r espected in the plan n ing . T he par t icipan t s suffe re d unde r the di sco rd

tr ic a rc h st r uct ure. Th e asy mmetry is o bv io us : the northern arch is

of bu re au cr acy.

recogn izabl y heavier and co nsis ts o f t wo hexagon al t ub e sec t io ns; the

c irc u lar t ub e of the so ut he rn arc h leans on the northern one. The for m
of t he arch was corrected according t o aes t hetic cr iteria . T he orig ina l
parab ol ic form was conside red to o stee p , so t he q uar ter point s o f th e
arch wer e r aised by 4 0 ern -- it no w ap pears rou nder and softer, an d more
steady an d qu iet whe n vie we d at an angle. T he ab ut ment s o f most such
lar ge bridges ar e ext raord ina r ily so lid : th e d esign pr esent ed by Di etmar
Feicht inger and Wol fgan g Strobl from Leo nh ar dt , And ra and Partner
ca lle d t he arc h to be se t up on a spat ial truss where t he pie rs di sapp ear in
t he wat e r below . Th is sys te m so lved the so le pr ob lem of find ing a

178

The Call for Symbols

Destroyed Church, Kassel, 1987

Temporary Bridge in Mayland, Germany, 2003

At the request of the Moyland Palace Museum , where brothers
Franz Joseph and Hans van der Grinten keep their important collection
of works by their friend Joseph Beuys , Tadashi Kawamata designed the
temporary footbridge for the exhibition Bridoeand Archil-es, which ran
from

II

May to

26

October,

2003.

In cooperation with the engineer

Werner Wiegand and the students of the Dusseldorf Art Academy,

Tadashi Kawamata built a bridge connecting the first floor of the palace
with the gate fortification building that housed the exhibition. The result
was a fascinating, transparent but voluminous footbridge, supported by
a steel structure with suspension system clad in timber. As the structure
only existed for the summer and early autumn of 2003 , the project was
documented in drawings and a series of photographs by Leo van der Kleij,
who has photographed Kawamata's work for years.
The Japanese artist Tadashi Kawamata continues to examine interior and exterior spaces with his forms from timber planks - similar to
pick-up sticks, they seem random, but of course are not. The structure
echoes his project Destroyed Church in Kassel 1987 . Kawamata's bridges
Tadashi Kawamata, Bridge and

Archives, Bielefeld, 200 J

perform their obvious function while expanding the spatial experience.

The influences of Walter Benjamin's passage works are noticeable.

179

The red arch was also spectacu larly set in scene at night

Temporary Bridge for Archit ekt urw oche A 1, Munich, Germany, 2002
T he fir st A rch itela urwoche was held in Mun ich

12 - 21

Jul y 2002 : th e

public was t o be m ade awar e t hat th e ex am inat io n of ar chitecture is im por tant for e\ 'er yone , It was clear t hat so me t hing mu st he st aged in th e
publ ic space in t he ce nt ra l ex hibit io n ar ea . Ar ch ite ct Pet er Hai merl and
eng ineers Biel meier & Wenzl create d a fir e -r ed arch footb ridge based o n
a con ce pt hv Matthi as Ca storph , r ising from street level to t he fir st floor
of t he cx hihit ion hal l.
G lued t imh er beam s - sim ila r to a bow - we re used fo r t he supporti ng spine of t he st r uct u re . T he cross sect io n (lI O x 30 em ) is co nstant
alo ng th e to ta l len gth and can be shor tene d t o any len gth . T his is im portant as, after th e Architekt urwoch e , t he hr idge was to prov ide a cr oss ing

23.5 m

wit h a spa n so m e 7 m sho rter over t he Riedb ach cree k in Viechta ch.

A suppor t ing st r uc t u re w it h galvan ized rectang ular profil es m ade t his

possihlc .

1m

Play Stations

Man is only wholly a man when he is playinq.

Friedrich Schiller, Letters Upon the Aesthetic Education of Man

Moveable bridges are not modern inventions. Already long before

Van Gogh, traffic systems and routes had to be bridged so that neither
traffic flow interfered with the other. Building bridges at an elevation

The selected projects considered here are only a fraction of the design
possibilities of small footbridges.
One aspect that a book can unfortunately demonstrate only indi-

that allowed clearance for ship masts would be absurd. A second reason

rectly, and that plays an important but often overlooked roll in the de-

would be the fear of attackers: the ancients already had drawbridges for

sign of moveable bridges: their noise. They clap, grind, squeak, crack,
snap, buzz - as with barking dogs, the loudest bridge is usually the

their fortresses.
Faustus Verantius (1551-1617) was also naturally familiar with the

smallest. The noise and movement are an allure for the designer. The

problem of moveable bridges (see p. 34). Trade boycotts and military

bridge becomes a type of toy - as everything that moves and makes noise

strategy led Napoleon to go an easily reversible route at the end of the

creates enjoyment and wakes the child in anyone.

r Sth century: during the construction of the Grand Canal du Nord that

was to connect the Rhine and Maas between Venlo and N euss, and then
in the direction of Antwerp, Napoleon had

II

moveable bridges con-

structed. However, he then annexed and controlled the Dutch ports,

making the bridges unnecessary. The Pont Transbordeur in Marseilles
is legendary, a transporter bridge from 1905.
There are many situations in which there is no other choice than to
lift, rotate or flip a bridge. These days, this cannot really be accomplished without the aid of a mechanical engineer, when public bridges
have to be moveable, and preferably by remote control. The movement
becomes a spectacle, but comes with a certain technical investment and
normally costs more than a fixed bridge. There seems to be no limit to
the inventiveness of the mechanical engineers, especially when they are
working in cooperation with structural engineers and architects.

182

Play Stations

Many ships pass through t he bridge portal daily.

Folding bridge at Firth of Kiel, Germany, 1997

It is a pri vilege for a city to be on th e water and be th e site of int er -

nation ally recogni zed sailing events . O n th e other hand, waterways subject to high traffic can be as mu ch as a swa th through th e urban fabri c as
a highw ay or ra ilway. The challe nge is to make a vir tu e of necessit y. Kiel ,
a beautiful city on th e Balti c Sea, is div ided into east and west by t he
Fir th o f Kiel. In th e early ' 9 9 0 S, th e Scan di nav ian ferries wanted to move
to th e less sought-afte r easte rn area, th ey firs t waited for a bridge to be
const ru cte d

[ 20

m over th e wat er lead ing west. To allow fer r ies and

yachts to pass, th e br idge was required to be effo rtl essly moveable. T he

head of th e plann ing office sugges ted a folding br idge with three sec t ions.
T his was constr ucted by th e engineers ofSchlaich Bergerma nn and Par tner and th e ar chitec ts von Gerkan Marg und Partner. In th e closed position, th e bridge is a classic, one -sided cable- stayed br idge with a 26 m
spa n and a wi dth of" m , suppor te d to each side by tw o cables . Th e deck
has ar t iculations at th e t hird points of the deck and can th er efore fold
together as th e cables are tensioned up ward . Th is not only mak es th e mo vem ent of th e bridge int er esting, but also decr eases th e surface ar ea for
wind loading. To ensure a robust, low-mainten ance syste m - the bridge
mu st open about ten times a day - a simple pull ey syste m was develop ed
rather th an a co mplex hydraulic or elect romec hanical syste m . During
ope n ing , all th e moveable cables , th e main stay cables and an add iti onal
cable for the movem ent of th e front of th e superst r uct ure , are co ntro lled
by one cable reel turning at a co nsta nt rat e. This does not need to be synchron ized wit h ot her systems. The rest of the movem ent is co nt ro lled by
a second cable roll r unning at a co nstan t torque , whi ch pulls both pylons
back so th at th e folded br idge has enough clearan ce. It is an asto nis hing ly
simple system for such a co mplex foldi ng mot ion . O peni ng or closin g of
the br idge ta kes about tw o minutes.

Leich t, wei t , 200 4 . pp. 26o- 26J;

Knippers. Jan and Schleich,
Jorg. Folding Mechanism of
the Kiel Ho rn Footbridge,
Ge rmany, in: Structura l
Enginl'ering lntc r national,
1, 20 0 0 ,

p. ) 0

183

Mechanical engineers are necessary for the design of such structures

Fro m th e beginning , th e co ns t r ucti on of the bridge was acc o m pan ied by

lo cal political ar guments th at are alway s detrimental to th e work of de sig n e ng ine e rs. The innovation th at is at t he hear t of th e str uct u re unl ortunat ely pla yed little ro le in th e debate .

85m

8.3 m

8.9m

9.7m

124 ml

184

Play Stations

The suspension cable lifts the deck upward, the shipping clearance isthereby increased by 8.1 m

Katzbuckel Bridge in Duisburg, Germany, 1999

Europe's largest inland port consists of a wid e, entangled network
of harbour bas ins that exte nd into industrial zon es . As part of the conv er sion of an industrial zone, an interior harbour was to be bridged to conne ct the park of the historic cit y cent re w ith a new park ar ea. The foot bridge was to be 3.5 m with a span of 74 m , and be able to be lifted to
allow larg e ships to pa ss. A suspe nsion bridge, designed by Schlai ch
Bergermann and Partner, is suspend ed from four 20 m high steel tube
ma sts (d =419 mm). The movem ent of the deck takes advantage of th e
principl e th at th e vertical sag of a taut cable decreases gr eatly as a result
of a small horizonta l displacem ent of its bea rings . Shortening of the backstay cables by 3 m with hydraulic cylinde rs causes th e top of th e masts to
tilt 1.7 m to the outside . This in turn causes the bridge deck to ri se 8.10 m,
creati ng a Katzbuckel - the German term refers to the bowing of a eat 's
spin e. T he inc reased cur vat ure of the deck would normally produce
larg e bending moments - so th e deck is conceived as a seri es of shor t ar t iculate d members acting similarly to chain links . T he deck becomes 3.65

73.7 m

m long er as it is pulled upward . Additional deck eleme nt s are pulled from

a chamber in th e abutment as th e structure ris es. The movem ent app ears
spec t acular, as it should . A lighting system was developed to em phasize
th e motion of the deck - unfortunately th is has be en out of op eration for
som e time .

Leicht , wei t, 2004, pp. 264-267

Articulation requires appropriatedetailing

185

186

Play Stations

The bridge can be inclined within seven minutesto allow shipsto pass

M illenniu m Bridge in Gateshead, UK, 2001

This sp ectacu lar st r uct ure complet es a series of bridges construc ted over th e ce nt ur ies over t he Tyn e between Gat esh ead and New castl e .

push as well as pull, as t he cent re of gravity of t he struct ure moves over

t he axi s of ro tat io n . T he hydrau lic jacks at both abutments can each

T he Millenn ium Brid ge was to be so m et hing speci al and to stand o ut

cr eate a co m pr ession for ce of 10, 000 KN and a tension force

again st t he det erior ati on of th e r iverbank area. A cur ved bridge deck

all owing th e st ru ct ure to ope n even und er heav y wind .

with par aboli c arch cre ates an impressive form . T he fact that th is form

Of 4 , ~ 0 0

KN,

Such an incre dible m ach ine , whi ch is co ns tantl y in serv ice , can no t

is m oveab le cre ates th e tru e sp ectacle : th e I O~ m span , 4 6.~ m pair of

sim ply be hidden in th e dark of night . From th e beginn ing , th e eng ines

arch es ro tate about a co m mo n ab utment . T he 30 m wid e shipping lan e

we re th erefore part o f th e light ing system that th eatrica lly accentuates

has a clearance of 2~ m .

t he arch st r uct ure and its refl ecti ons in th e wat er below.

The architects of W ilki nson Eyr e and t he engineers of Gifford &

Partners beat ~o ot her com pet it o rs with t hei r idea of two ar ches - o ne
form ing th e deck, t he other th e supporting arch - rot ating about t he
suppo r t to provide th e necessary sh ip clearance . Th e o pening is cer t ainly
a spectacle , but th e closed bridge is also impressively beautiful. The
erect io n o f t he bridge ca n be view ed o n th e Internet. A 90 m lo ng Asian
Hercu les II swimming cra ne transported th e st r uct ure 8 km from it s
manu fact urer to th e co nst r uct ion site, wh e re it was placed precisely t o
th e mi llimetre. T he st r uc t u re is not exactl y economical: du e to t he
expe nses of t ransp or t , t he engi ne of rotat ion and th e bearing, th is bridge
becom es the most expe n sive of all expe nsive bridges.
Co nt r ar y to a balan ced bridge wit h a co unter weight , which is easy
t o m ove, th e Millennium Bridge required heav y m ot ors that were able t o

Curran. Peter , Gat cshccd

MU ll-onium Bridge, U K,
in: St r uctu ral Enginc('ring
International, 4.. 200 1,

pp. 214 -2 16

The bridge movement is an event; the abutment, an engine room

187

8.2 m

188

The bridge girder islifted by 32 cables

Play Stations

Coupure Bridge in Bruges, Belgium, 2002

For onc e, it was not th e new millennium th at called for a reno vation of an urban zon e. Bruges was elect ed th e

2002

Cultural Capital of

hidd en under mov eab le cover ings. This bridge form seems primal , with
th e mechanics of its movement . The material chos en for the pilla r s and

Eu rope and used th e opportunity to cr eat e a continuous network of paths

th e surfacing is reminiscent of th e Flemish building tradition . The

for cyclis ts and ped estrians throughout th e city of canals . As part of thi s

Coupurc Bridge shows its youth mostly in th e fin e exec ution of detail.

proj ect , a bridge was necessary over th e Coupure Canal. The structure
was to be moveab le to allow ships from th e city to cro ss to the GhentO stend Canal via th e Coupure Can al. The Swiss engi nee r Jiirg Con zett
design ed a vertical lift bridge w ith a lightweight 2 .5 m wide deck for pe destrians and cyclists . The deck plat e is suspended from two stationary
steel tubes 6 m above th e deck , wh ich ca n rot ate about th eir axes . In
order to lift the superstructure, th e 17 hang er cables to each side are wound
around th e steel tubes like to a coil. The bridge can be opened with little
for ce , as the deck onl y moves up and down and sta ys in plac e. The supports for th e tubes at th e top of th e plate-shaped pillars have an elastic
pr ecamber at the midspan . Two bearings are th erefore necessary parallel

2.9m

to the longitudinal axis of th e de ck at th e head of each pilla r. The outside

bearing pulls the tube downward th er eb y creating the precamber. To ro tate th e tube , it had to be com pletely straight . Th e elastic restraint at the
cap it als of the pillars was th e on ly way to avoid defl ections of th e tubes.
The sleeves that hous e th e hang er cables during rotation ar e welded with
double fillet welds to both sides and a wat ertight connection to th e sup porting tube. The motors ar e hous ed in the two southern pillars and are

4 .75 m

Structur e as Space,

2006 ,

P: 24 1 and p. 298
dh deutschc bauzeitung. !l. rooj,
pp.4 6-n

The bridge acts like a ratation switch and rotates along wi t h th e pedestrians on the deck.

189

Ryck Bridge in Greifswald, Germany, 2004

Volkwin Marg and Schl aich Ber germann and Partner design ed th e
Ryck Brid ge in th e mus eum po r t as a sma ll sw ing bridge. T he m arit im e
charac te r of t he st r uc t ure, wi th its high m ast and two dia gon al st iffeni ng
spa rs, is in conspicu ou sly inco r po rate d into its sur ro u nd ings. T he ce nt r al
I~

m , moveable portion o f th e bridge is st iffene d by two incl in ed ten sion

sta ys - t o pr ovid e th e necessar y st rengt h whe n o pen and su bjec t t o

ca nt ileve r ing momen ts. T he ten sio n me mbe rs are design ed so th at no
bearin g forces du e to sel f-we ight ar e tran sferred t o th e fixed brid ge
approach . Only aft er t he applica t ion of supp leme ntary live loads do ver t ica l beari ng forces appea r at t his interface . T he ten sion rod s are sus pe nded from a ste el tube mast , which is fix ed t o th e dec k and create s an ax is
of ro tati on . T he deck, m ast and ten sion rod s ro tate abo ut t he foo t ing and
are suppo r te d by a rotati ng assembly. Thi s asse mbly t r an sfers all forces
in op en and clo sed sta tes to th e steel re inforce me nt at th e head of th e
pier and onwa r d t o th e pil es belo w. Two incli ned spars anc ho re d into t he
qua y wall sta bilize th e head of th e m ast. Th e spars act as th e back stavs of
a ca ble -stayed brid ge when close d. When th e bridg e is open and t he deck
swu ng to th e side, t he spa rs and m ast crea te a sta ble t r ipod - an d on e of
t he spars is subject to com pression . A hyd rauli c cyli nde r with elect ro n ic
cont ro l pro vid es th e mo to r.

i'8fS

190

Play Stations

Rolling Bridge in London, UK, 2006

At noon eve r y Friday, t h is sm all bridge is unroll ed in th e middle of
London but in a hidden site . O n Nort h Wharf St reet in Paddington , a
ge ntlema n arr ives with a co mpute r co nt ro l and sets th e bridge in motion
w ith a sim ple touch of a butto n . It is th e work of arc h ite ct s Heatherwick
Studio and th e eng inee rs SKM Anthony Hu nt s. In a ge ome tr ica lly ingen iou s m oti on, sta r ted by very quiet hydrauli cs, th e bridge roll s out over
lik e a sm all cate r pilla r over a sp an of 12 m . To o pe n the bridge , a sma ll
piece of th e handrail is elevate d o ver each of th e seven suppo r t ing elements. Th e arti st ic ide a, knowled ge of civil engi neer ing and st r uc tu ra l
design are re markably united in th e project.
The bridge is used often, but for which pap er ships th e br idg e is
op en ed eve ry Fr iday at noon rem ain s a my st ery. D ecad ent? No , th e child
in all of us loves to play and suc h ext r avagance is a welcome d iversion .
The motion of th e bridge remains in th e memor y as some t h ing extraordi nary. The design er ob viously spare d no pain s for suc h a st r uc t u re .

Smooth bridge motion requires an excessive attention to detail

191

192

Play Stations

Moveable Bridges

Leer, Bascule bridge, D, 2006

Moveable bridgesare now much more than

the military drawbridges of the past.The medieval
drawbridges that protected castles and fortresses
have been replaced by bridgesthat perform the
more peaceful function of enabling different flows
of traffic to cross .
Moveable bridgesare often over waterways,
and are the typical solution w hen providing the
necessary clearance for traffic passing below
would meana very expensive high bridge w ith
complicated ramps, stairways or lifts. In these
cases, moveable bridges may be more economical,
in spite of increased construction and maintenance
costs, which are often tw ice those for a fixed
bridge w ith the same geometry.
Moveable bridgesare one of the most fascinating fields of construction, asstructuraland
mechanical engineering is necessary for the system
changes during opening. This leads to an interdisciplinary design process. Asfootbridges are often
lighter than their road and railwaycounterparts,
they are easier to move. This section discusses the
many typesof movement for the structures and
the challenges involved in designingsuch bridges.

Bascule bridge with arm of balance

Bascule bridge

Greifswald, Wiecker Bridge, 1887

~===IF=I[==:J

~-

Types
The classic moveable bridgesare the draw-

graben Bridge built in 1997 in Berlin K6penick.

Bascule bridgesalso rotate about a horizon-

- Swing bridge: Rotation about a vertical

axis createssymmetrical loading of the foundati-

bridge and bascule bridges. A drawbridge will

tal axis. This horizontal axis lies nearthe bridge's

on. This advantage must be weighed up against

often be designed with an arm of balance.

centre of gravity, thereby dividing the bridge into

the additional surface necessary for the structure

A counterweight is used for this as well as for the

a fore and an aft arm. Bascule bridgesare often

(see p. 189).

bascule bridge system, so that the bridge's centre

moved by a downward motion of the aft span .

- Vertical lift bridge: This system does not

of gravity coincidesw ith the axis of rotation for all

The fore span is often longer than the aft, which is

require a change in structural system, simplifying

positions of the structure. The mechanism of rota-

often designed with a counterweight to minimize

the design of the foundations. A simply supported

tion thus hasonly frictional forces to overcome, so

the energy of rotation. The moment of rotation

girder is lift ed up. Theoretically, pedestrians can

that these bridges may even be moved by hand.

from the aft span under full liveload cannot ex-

stay on the bridge while it opens. Thegreat disad-

The superstructure of the drawbridge with

ceed the dead load moment of the fore spa n so

vantage of this structure is its limited vertical clea-

that the bridge will not suddenly open. Theabut-

rance. This can be avoided by having the bridge

an arm of balanceis a simply supported beam . In

the closed state, the bridge deck rests on the far

ments must be quite wide and deep to provide

lowered to the keel depth of the ship, asopposed

abutment and in the open state is lifted from the

enough space for the rotation of the counter-

to lifting the structure. This solut ion is uncommon

abutment by tension members at eachside of the

weight. The flood protection of the counter-

due to increased corrosion protection and polluti-

deck. As a function of the dominant traffic flow, a

weight chamber must be taken into account in

on of the deck. The Katzbuckel Bridge in Duisburg

light overbalance is provided so that the structure

the design. The opening of the bascule bridge

(see p. 184) is thistype of structure.

will automatically open or close if necessary.

does not interfere with any neighbouring surface

A locking mechanism is thereby necessary for

in plan.

every state of rotation. The Dutch drawb ridge was

made famous by Van Gogh's painting. The Wieker

Descriptions of the many variations of bascule bridges can be found in the literature. The

- Rolled and sliding bridges: These are

seldom used due to large space requirements.
- Folding bridges: These structures require
little additional space. Due to the complicated

Bridge in Greifswald, Germany is opened by hand.

many other types of moveable bridge can only be

mechanical mechanics necessary, they are seldom

The structurewas built and 1886 and is still in ser-

cursorily described here.

used (see p. 182).

vice. A more contemporary exampleis the Amts-

193

194

Play Stations

Swing

VerticaI lift

- --~

- Telescoping bridges: These are similar to

Folding

Pontoon

-- -

the folding bridges. These are mostly seen as air-

Transporter

frequencyof opening w ill havean influenceon the

than the more economical concrete, the density of

on fixed bearings. The locking devices also require

type of motor. Some bridges are required to be

which is a third of that of steel.

a drive system. As mentioned for bascule bridges,

port fingers. The engineers at Atelier One planned

opened several times daily under full wind loads

a 43 m long telescoping bridge for the Rolling

and in any weather situation, w hile many are

Design (Motor, Loads)

For systems w ith two cantilevers meeting at the

Stones' 1997 Bridges to Babylontour (see p. 243).

opened only a few times a year. In situations

Moveable bridgesmust of course be de-

centre of the deck, pins may be used to transfer

Passenger bridges: These are used for

changes in structural system occur during motion.

where corrosive saltwater may come into contact

signed for all strength and service requirements in

shear between cantilevers and avoid offset of the

the passage from the quay to a ship. These can be

with the bridge, it may be advantageousto site the

all positions: open, closed, and in transition. Wind

deck sections.

vertically moved at the free end to adjust to the

motor compartment well abovethe water level.

loading is often high on the structure w hile it is

Secondary responsib ilitiesmust also be taken into

open. Swingand vertical transport bridgesmay be

water level.
Portable bridges: These are oft en pon-

All early bridgeswere moved by hand.

Hydraulicdrive appeared in the beginning of the

account: If the bridge's movement is to be

subject to live loads while in motion. The drive me-

19th century. Electric motors have been used since

toons used for temporary structures, oft en military,

dramaticallyset in scene, the planner is free to

chanism, locking mechanism and controls must be

the beginning of the 20th century. Pneumatic or

in areas with poor soils. To allow ships pass, a sec-

demonstrate technicaladvances in the control,

designed, aswell as mechanical bearings or pulley

combustio n enginesare not known to be used.

tion of the bridge must be detached and floated to

mechanical and material technology, and tryout

ropes. These components are outside of the realm

Hydraulic drives today work w ith oil pressure cylin-

the side. Temporary bridges can be made so lightly

new bridge forms. The bridges on the pages 182

of experience for the designer of a fixed bridge.

ders, ascan be seen in bucket excavators. The

with modern composite materials that they can be

to 191 are examplesof this.

Dynamics, mecha nicaltolerances, and phenomena

hydraulic power unit can be safely sited on land in

such as play and wear make the designof a move-

a machine room. The bridge merely houses the

able bridge a highly challenging experience.

hydraulic cylindersand piping. Its motion is con-

flown in by helicopter. A curiousexample is the

Back Pack Bridge (see p. 231)
Transporter bridges: Seldom useddue to
their limited capacity.

Thedesigner is generally free in the choice

of building materials, although most decks are of
lightweight material in order to save the demands

Several drive mechanisms are often installed

tinuous and noiseless. A similar spatial separa tion

on the motor and the counterweight. Grid decks

in large bridges: a main drive system, a supplemen-

between drive unit and motor is not possible for

have the advantage of providing natural drainage

tary drive system for rare cases of capacity over-

electrically driven systems. Theelectric drive unit is

mined by the local framework conditions. The re-

and allow the waiting pedestrians to view through

load, and a manual drive system for repairs and

housed on the bridge and transfers power by

quired clearance dictates how much the opened

the deck w hile opened.

emergencies. Usually, the mechanism is designed

cables, gears, belts, cog-rails or shafts. This allows

The choice of moveable bridge type is deter-

bridge must keep free in the vertical direction as

Steel is most oft en used as a counterweight due

only for the movement of the bridge, and is not

a greater distance of motion. With an electric drive

well asthe horizontal distance to the banks. The

to shortage of space, as steel requiresless volume

loaded in the closed position when the bridge sits

system, there is no danger of leakage in the

Arching

Telescopi ng

Tilt ing bascule

~I
<J--

==1

hydrau lic t ubing. Precision landing of the deck is

also be determ ined who wi ll ope rate t he bridge .

extremely difficu lt due to tem peratu re expansion ,

Boat capta ins may t hemselves disembark and

wi nd and dynamic loading. The to lerances of th e

ope rate smaller, seldom frequen ted bridges above

st ructure must be chosen generously eno ugh to

canals. A bridge keeper is necessary in crit ical

prevent Jamming. At t -ie same t ime, t he brid ge

cases.

must be locked in th e closed state so th at the re

:--J

FtU

-(>

Sw ing bridge

Passenger br idge

The planner and owner shou ld consider

is no play, and to avo id impact s at the bearings

allowing the cont ractor to op t imize the drive sys-

leading t o increased wear. A distinction must be

t em, and to invite tende rs for the design of t he

made between standing and floating cables.

mechanical system. This allow s Impo rta nt details

By th e regula rly moved and dynami cally loaded

to be w orked out toge t her wi t h a mecha nical

floating cables, fat igue leads to cable failure at

consultant in the const ruct ion documents phase.

loads well below th e stat ic breaking st rength .

It must however clearly be laid out in the specif i-

The mechan ical engineer ing standa rds require

cations t hat not on ly t he mechan ical aspects of

t hat cables be replaced according t o service life,

t he contracts be f ulfilled but also t he fo rma l -

typ e and level of loadin g, diameter cable and

opt ical and acoustic - requ irements . In any case,

bend ing radius.

w it h th e mult itu de of challenges ment ioned

Fischer, Manfred, Stahlhau-Handbuch, Band 2 , Stahlko nst r uktio nc n,

Kalil, 19 8~Dietz , Wilhelm , Dc r Bru ckcnb au , Handbu ch der
Ingenicurwissenschaftcn, II. vol. , 4 . Abteilung Be wcg lichc Bruckcn .

above, the struct ural eng ineer may quickly find

Ld pzig, 1907

caught in the bridge or falling fro m t he deck

his or her limits, and wo uld be advised to Invite a

during opening and closing . It is for these reasons

mechanical eng ineer int o t he design t eam. This

Schatz, Lllrike, Bcwcglichc Fuf3gangcrbrut'k('n, Dipl om arbcit , lick,

Unive rsity o f Stuttgart, Septe mber 200 1

t hat ow ners and codes often requ ire barriers,

previously rare coope rat ion opens up a great

gates, and optica l and aud io warn ings. These

poten t ial fo r innovatio n.

There is a danger of t he user becom ing

necessary elements can great ly affect th e visual

impact of the structu re and must be ta ken int o
account at the earliest stages of design . It must

Schlaich, Mike ct al.. Guidel ines for the design of foothri dges, fib,
federation internationalc du bct on , bullet in p , Lausanne ,

Novembe r

20 0 5'

I'
r-

1-----------\ \
I"

195

Landscape, Gardens

If this isn't nice, what is? Kurt Vonnegut, Timequake

Gardens, parks and landscapes remain the reserve of pedestrians,

where motorized traffic has no place. But not all pedestrians are the
same: strollers enjoy ambling along beautiful flowers, walkers escape

The choice of materials can depend on what can be locally found and is
therefore least expensive.
The seasonal change can more readily affect such structures. Some

the city, and hikers audaciously explore the most removed areas. Every

bridges are closed in the winter or placed in storage. It is therefore re-

now and again, a footbridge creates a moment of personal reflection.

commended to gather information on the structure before any bridge visit.

The demands on such structures could not be more different. Bridges in

parks are seen as manmade ornaments that should theatrically emphasize
the surrounding natural beauty ~ a tradition continuing since the r Sth
century. In an open landscape, more reserve is required to avoid
dominating the surrounding environment. In high-altitude regions, the
bridge plays a role of assistance to the experienced climber. One must be
free from a fear of heights to cross a deep mountain canyon as the deck
slats clatter under one's feet and a sole cable at chest height provides
safety. As in many high alpine regions, this should only be recommended
for experienced climbers.
Patent remedies should be avoided for bridges in beautiful natural
environments ~ just as for more urban structures. Every site wants to
have its material, topographic and atmosphere qualities analysed and not
have the spirit of the place degraded. All materials ~ timber, stone, concrete, steel, glass ~ can be appropriate on their own or in combination.
Every structural form wants to be accounted for -- in its pure form or as
a hybrid. The erection of such structures far from traffic is generally
spectacular, whether they are built using a cableway or a helicopter.

198

Landscape, Gardens

The detailing here also deserves noti ce

Bridge over the River Esk, Scotland, UK, 20th Century

Trails o ff th e beat en track , normally o nly visite d by th e occasional
sheep, are a dim e a d ozen in Engl and and Scotland. The R iver Esk is in a
regio n that seems to have evade d building regulations. Th is sma ll bridge
is in an idy ll ic setting , wh ich m an y nature lo vers would defend aga ins t
th e int r us io n o f modern c ivilizat io n or la rge numbers o f tour ist s. How
our ph ot ographer ca me across th e st r uc t ure in these surro u nd ing is a
m yst ery, and sho u ld st ay o ne.
Sim ple, quickl y co ns t r uc te d bridges are life -saver s in areas subj ect
t o natural cat as t ro phes. Toni Ruttim ann , "To n i EI Sui zo", ha s d ed icat ed
the last

20

ye ars to th ese st ruct ures. Wi t h the hel p oflocal workers, he

ha s co ns tr uc te d m ore than

3 00

bridges w it h spa ns o f up to

260

m in areas

suc h as Ecu ad or a nd Ca m bo dia. Hi s sus pe nsion bridges are built almost

co m ple tely w it h d on at ed m at erials, suc h as tubes fro m pip elines g iven by
o il d rilling co m pa n ies and r ecycled ca bles fro m Sw iss cable ca rs .

The River Esk near Invermark in Angus, Scotland

199

200

Landscape, Gardens

Glass Bridge in a Private Garden near Nice, France, 2003

A ~o m high ca nyon was to be br idged on pri vately own ed pr op erty
in th e Haut e Pr ovence. Th e st r uct u re was not to be mor e than just a line
in th e land scape ; the English owne r found h is arc hitec t whil e reading a
glass mag azin e. The structure was required to bridge I~ m in a zo ne ver y
diffi cult to access . Ar chitect Ren at e Fehling and engineer Joh annes Liess
th ou ght of a footbridge in glass wit h a cohe re nt form crea te d with sma ll ,
easy-to- t ranspor t elem ents. Th e res ult: a steel box sect ion curve d in a
radius of 33 m , with a suspe nsion st r uct ure below th e deck that is in one
lin e in th e hori zontal plan. Glass plat es ( 830 x 24 10 mm) cant ilever ou t
fro m th e box section consisting of t hree pan es of glass, on e 20 mm TS G
and t wo 12 mm HSG . Should th e main pan e fail, th e two rem aining on es
would gua rantee th e stability of the st ru cture. A simple sta inless stee l
rod with a diamet er of 16 mm serves as a railing. Th e th eatrical approach
to th e delicat e glass crossi ng is create d w ith th e roughly hewn stone
sur facing at th e abutme nts.
Str uctu rally, th e footbridge is a pa r tially fix ed , suspen ded torsion al
be am on two support s. The beam is st abi lize d be th e spatial suspension
syste m below th e deck . Th e cant ile ver ing beam s cause a rotation in on e
d ir ection and th e suspension system crea tes rotation in th e opposite
direction . Th e construct ion of th e abutments was diffi cult . The str uct ura l
design was not carried out under th e normal standards and code s, as it
was co nside re d an ar twork rath er th an a bridge to suppo r t pedestrian
traffic .

A bridgeas a work of art: glasswalkwaywith unilateral railing

201

15 m

202

Landscape, Gardens

Bridge and park bench combined into one

Park Bridge in Baruth, Germany, 2004

The small Mark Branden burg town Baruth lies abo ut 50 km south of
Berli n . The zu Solms famil y had Pet er -Joseph Len ne build th e park th er e
in 1838 . The famil y fled to South Afri ca fro m th e Naz is, and since th en
th e local farm er s have suffere d from land d ra inage and th e Park has r un
to seed . In 204 , design com peti tions wer e held for five new 6 to 8 m long
bridges on th e site as part of a cultural proj ect. The timber bridge showed
here was th e fir st of th ese str uct ures .
The idea behind thi s wooden sculpture is su r pr isingly simple . For m
and st r uct u re ar e not directl y related to one another, as it seems to have
been mad e from a lightweight formabl e foil pull ed up from th e deck .
This form is cre ate d by rigid oak slat s, making th e str uct ure very stable .
The slats are create d from 48 mm thi ck oak planks that wer e sawed using
a template and fixed to th e st r uc t u re below with st ainless ste el bolts.
Ever v tenth plank is anchore d down. The wood has qui ckl y taken on a
silver -grey patina, but thi s change in colou r docs not affec t its st r uct ural
sta bility.
Ther e is a wonderful view of th e park fro m th e seat ing area on th e
br idge. T h is st r uc t u re signifies th e begi nni ng of small, d raping park
br idges that latch on to th e trad iti on of Kew or W 6rlitz with th eir
th eatricality and relat ion to nature.

3m

The silver grey wooden boards become part of the parklandscape

203

204

Landscape, Gardens

Park Bridge in Sophienholm, Denmark, 1993

T he Soph ienholm Park no rth of Co pe n hagen plays a unique rol e in
th e hi story of Danish gar de ns . The pa rk began in the ixth centu r y as a
romantic garden in th e st yle of Ram ee , but th e park has had man y owner s
since and has see n many changes . Sophienholm wa s built as th e cou nt ry
seat ofTheodor Holmskjold in 1] 6 9, and ser ves today as an exh ibition
hall for mod ern art . T he arti st s I-1 ein Hei nsen and th e arc hitect Torben
Sch onherr created a new obse r vati on platform for the park in 19 93. This
small br idge was create d as part of this ex pansio n in coope rat ion with
th e engi nee r Eri k Reitzel. It connects th e main path with t he obs ervation
platform , wh ere on e can enjoy a lovely view of th e sea and obse r ve a ste el
sculpt ure from many differ ent angl es .
The bridge has a spiral of mo re than

1400 :

all for ces and ten sion,

compre ssion , shear, bending and torsion moment s mu st be taken into

acc ount in th e des ign . It is d ebatable wh ether th e st r uc t ure is a bridge or
a sta ir way - as w ith Jiirg Co nzet t's Second Tr aver siner Footbrid ge , we
will classify it as a bridge .

Takenou chi, Kyo, The Aesthetics

of Dani sh Bridges, Kopcnh agcn ,
199 5"

Rin g girder and stairway In one - the bridging of the embankment protectsthe vegetation and sets the stairway in scen e

205

206

Landscape, Gardens

Not a ski-jump, but rather a secure pathway to the observation point

Observation Bridge in Aurland, Bergen, Norway, 2006

33.6m

Visitor s to th e Gra nd Ca nyon ar e led aro un d a horseshoe -shap ed

ob servation plat for m br idge cant ilever ing

22

m out above t he canyon . It

can be co nside re d a failure in terms of efficient st r uct ural design , as it

ignores th e fun dam enta ls of ring girder mechanics (as explained in th e
techn ical overview on p. II6). In Bergen in sout hweste rn Norway, th e
number of tourist s may not be co mparable to the Gra nd Ca nyon , but th e
view of th e fjords are sim ply terrific. Todd Sau nders and Tommie
Wilhelmsen wo n the compet it ion for th is observat ion platform

600

abov e th e Sog nefjord . The 4-m wid e footbr idge leads 3 0 m out from solid
ground and co uld not be more dram atic. The massive railings to th e side
give th e user a sense o f to tal security; but one may feel a sense of vertigo
as th e view st ra ight ahead lead s to a void. The swee p of th e bridge is
re m inisce nt of a ski jump , and th e visito r has to recogn ize th e bar ely
notic eable glass barrier at th e end befor e fee ling safe and enjoy ing th e
view . Th e bra vest visito rs lean over th e glass bar ri er and enjoy th e view to
th e bott om . T he struct ure is deSign ed for heavy wi nds and a snow load of
7 m - Nod e Engi neers fro m Ber gen wer e th e engineers.

207

Sovereign interplay between security and abyss

----_. _ -

4 .3 m

208

Landscape, Gardens

Steel truss wit h timber cladding

Resting Station in Lillefjord, Norway, 2006

T he Germa n expression for the sayi ng "the grass is always greener

on th e ot her side" lite rally t ran slates to "h app iness always lies on th e
ot her side of th e ri ver ". As if th e ther e were not sufficien t be aut y on th is
side , th e st ruct ure br idges a r iver not for a pure joy of hiking, but so th at
the visito rs ca n reach an attract ive wate rfall. T he park station is a combination of seat ing, brid ge, toil et s, litter bins and protecti ve st r uct u re bu ilt
by th e No r wegian Highw ay Author it y, Pu shak ar kite kter merged all of
th ese clements int o a co mplete st ru ctu ral sculpt u re , stretc hing over th e
water like a lizard . Th e build ing, br idge and seati ng banks seem as if t hey
ar e p roduct of one holi sti c mod el , even th ough th e exte r ior ste el tru ss
dominates th e visual image. The spat ial un it y is create d as th e wood en
surface th at co vers the building and acts as cladding for th e ste el t r uss,
The bank s are not treated as fu rniture and are par t of the br idge pathway.
The depth of th e rec ta ng ular steel tubes making up th e stee l t ru ss varies
between 80 and 260 em.

It is str iki ng that the separa tion between str uct ure and envelo pe
can be useful even for simple typ es of foot brid ges t hat appea r to be a single st r uct u re .

185m

209

A small paradise - still to be found in Europe. Lillefjord

H
H
H

2 10

Landscape, Gardens

The endof the bridge can hardly beseen - the path leads to the unknown

Bridge in the protected landscape Maggia Valley, Switzerland, 1997

Th e Maggia Valley is still an insid ers' tip for hikers - but you are no
long er completely alone in this Swiss valley. The bridge in Giumaglio
spans

230

m over the entire floodplain of th e river, so that hikers do not

di sturb th e enviro n ment below. The transparency of th e structure is

imperative, so as disturb the view through the valley as little disturbed as
possible .
The inh erently simple structure, by Fabio Torti

I Andreotti &

Partners, Locarno, was conceived in three sections each with a fre e span
of 82.8 m . A long suspension bridge with a sufficiently braced walking
surface, three thin cabl es as railing and handrails to protect pede strians
from th e worst, and ever y now and again a bracing guy - that's it. This is
pr ecisely th e allure of the bridge: it do es not dress itself up in an attempt
to compete with the beauty of th e landscape . The bridge swings of
course, so you can't be squeamish . Hopping and jumping create mov ement in the st ructure, but the bridge' s flexibility makes it very stable .
The view downward steers one's attention to different sections of
th e floodplain. The structure is similar to th e walkways above archaeo logical sites; it protects the natural surroundings whil e offering views of
the beauty and complexity of the environme nt. One cannot see both
ends of the bridge from any point of th e deck, so that one idyllic surprise
after another awaits the user.

Vegetation and landscape change constantly below the bridge, the view below alow the hiker to experience this

211

212

Landscape, Gardens

Second Traversiner Footbridge, Viamala, Switzerland, 2005

Aft er th e first Tr aver sin er Foot br idge was destr oyed by a falli ng
boulder (see p.

122 )

a second bri dge was built only two yea rs lat er w ith

help of comm unal and priv at e investment : th e Viamala hiking trail is too
beauti ful to stop her e. The new sta irway bridge , with a free span of 56.6 m ,
co n nec ts th e trail. Th e dia gonal length of the bridge is 61.2 m and the
main suspe nsion cable is 95 m lon g.
Inspired by th e top ography, th e Jiirg Co nze tt and Rolf Bachofn er
decid ed on a pr estressed cable tru ss in two parallel and vertical plan es.
The challe nge : th e two cable anchorag es are at different heights and the
deck leads fro m a low er approach upwards to th e oppos ite cli ff. Diagonal
cables ar e stressed between th e main suspe nsion cables and th e deck . To
find the form of the cable , th e positi on of th e cable clamps, and th e
lengt h of th e secondary cables , we require th e help of graphic str uct ura l
ana lysis and a Cre mo na d iagr am . Jiirg Co nzett is well ver sed in th ese
matter s, in th e t radition of Swiss eng inee r ing. Erec t ion procedures: a
temporary cableway was constr uc te d to transpo rt con cr et e for th e abut men ts , the cable and th e pr efabr icated br idge deck seg ments from a
for est trail to the const r ucti on site 50 m above . The lower abutment to
th e south was concrete d fir st , afte r whi ch the northern abutment was
co mplete d to serve as anchorages for th e ma in suspension cables. T he
mass of th e abutme nts, incr eased wit h soil ballast , works as a co unte rweight to th e cable forces . A sec t ion of rock was used at the nor th ern
abutmen t to aid in anchor ing the cables . The third abutment at th e
sout hern end of the bri dge deck was on ly required to transfer ver tica l
co m pression forces to the soil below .
The two main suspe nsio n cables (Ga lfan-coate d spira l strand ,
d=36 mm diam eter) ar e ancho red in th e abutments. A spe lte r soc ket is
provid ed at eac h end of th e cables, whi ch are stressed with stee l plates

Structure as Space,

2006 ,

p. ree f
Dechau , Wtlfr tcd,
Traver sinersteg. Fot ografisches

Tagebuch, BerlinlTiibingcn, 2006

A not to be recreated, magical stage- the cable structure before loading in Ju ly 2005

56.6 m

and shi ms to the abutment using hydr auli c oil jacks. Two ex pe rie nced

on ly I m , but th e co mpressed longitudin al girders at both edges of t he

cable expe r ts carefully insta lled the cable clamp s t hat join th e d iagon al

deck block an im med iate view of t he de pths below.

cables (d =lo m m) to th e suspe nsion cables . Precision is requ ired here, as

any d iffer ence be twee n calc u lated cable forc es and site execution wo uld

T his is ] iirg Conzctr's th ird br idge in t he Viama la - after th e Pu nt

da Sura nsu ns and t he Trav ers iner Footbri dge I. T he structures co uld

change th e fin al geo me try. Trans verse g irders in steel, 3.6 m long, are

hardl y be more different ; it is almost as if hi s co m man d of so many st r uc -

suspended fro m t he d iagonal cables. Ten parallel lami nated larchwood

t ura l systems is like th at of a gifte d linguist's co mmand of seve n langu a-

beam s ( 14 0 x 220 mm ) are laid longitud inally betwee n t he tra nsverse

ges. Most bridge designers stay true to one str uct ura l form th roughou t

gir ders . T hese beam s provid e sufficient stiffness to prev ent unpleasant

t heir career. T his is not the case wit h ]ii rg Co nzett, who has no fear of

dynam ic osci llations . Th e main cab les ar e also prest ressed to create

the spectac ular. His readi ness to st udy th e co mplex ity of see mi ngly

additiona l compression forces in the woo den deck. Bracing from diagon al

simp le challenge of a footbr idge has, in t he Viam ala, led th e design of a

steel tension ro ds in co njunct ion wit h the wooden beam s guara ntee t he

scarcely re p rod ucible work of struct ural ar t .

lateral sti ffeni ng effects of th e deck. Also not iceable in the sec tio n : t wo
sma ll bea ms are also bolt ed to the two in ner lamin ated beam s to serve as
attachments for th e sta irs.
T he positi on, height and design of the railin gs g re atly affect the
overa ll design of a foot bri dge of this scale . T he hand rail is at a height of

213

214

Footbridges

It is good to collect things, but It IS better to take walks.

1-1I,01Olt

France

Nothing - no picture, no description - can replace personal observation. The abundance of footbridges we have been able to see in the last
several years can no longer be stuffed between two book covers to invite
you to visit. But we want to deprive the reader of as few of these beautiful bridges as possible. The bridges described here briefly have been selected subjectively - as has the rest of the book - and are arranged alphabetically according to country, and then sorted by city name. The index
of names and places on page
and travel arrangements.

250

should ease the search for the structures

216

Footbridges

III Footbridge in Feld kirch, Vorarlberg

Erich Edegger Footbridge in Gra z

Mur Footbridge near Murau in Styria

A, 1989

A, 1992

A, 199 5

Eng ineer : Bollinger + Grohm ann , Fra nkfur t

Pedestrian and cycle bri dge over t he Mur

Covere d timber bridge between ra ilway sta t ion

Lit era ture : Schlaich , Mike (e d .) , Murst eg

Arc hitect : Mar tin Haus lc , Feldki rch

R iver between Sch loss be rg - and Mariah ilfer-

and th e city ce nt re over t he River Mur

Mu ra u , Austria (199,) , in : Guidel ines for th e

plat z

Engineer : Co nzet t Bron zini Ga r t ma n n , Chur

de Sign of footbridges, fib , Lausanne, Nove mb er

Gi rd er bridge fro m a spat ial tr uss w ith a

Eng ineer : Harald Egge r, Obelbach

Ar chitect : Marcel Meili , Markus Pet er

200" p .

triangul ar sec t ion, lighting int egrated into th e

Arc h itect : D om enig & W allner, Gr az

Ar chitekten , Zurich

Ar ch itektu r Akt uel l, 12, 199,

hand r ail

11,

wcrk , bauen

wo hn en, 12, 199,

Total lengt h : 44 m

Sim ple gird er w ith suspe nsio n syste m below

Cove re d timber bridge with a ce nt ra l lam inated

Pea rce , Martin, Bridge Bui lders, Lon do n , 2002

Maximum spa n : 36 m

deck and cant ile ver ing ends , integ rated light ing

timber

Moh sen , Most afavi (ed .), St r uc t ure as Space,

W idth : 4m

Free span: .H.8 m

To tal length : 89 .3 m

London, 200 6, p.7 0

Mat erial: st eel

Lit erature : Wettbewerbe , 90 /9 1, pp . 4 1-44

Wi dt h: 4 .4 m

Free span : 47.2 m

Mat erial: steel, Railing: fully tempered glass

Width : 3.4 m

with sta inl ess steel handrails

Mat erial : spr uce, lar ch

Schma l, Pet er C . (ed.) , workflow : St r ukt ur Arc h ite kt ur, Basel, 2002, pp . 98 -101

Lit erature : Brichaut, Fio na , Graz, Er ich

Kapfinger, Otto, Briicke iiber di e Ill, in : Bau -

Edegger Steg, in : Innovat ions in Steel. Bridg es

kunst in Vor ar lberg seit 1980 . Ein Fiihrer zu 260

aro u nd th e world, 1997, p . 13

sehe nswer ten Baute n, Ost fild ern , 2003

We lls , Mat th ew an d Hu gh Pearma n,

30 Brucken , Mu n ich , 2002, pp . 104-107
Pear ce , Mar t in , Br idge Builders, Londo n, 200 2,
pp. 7 2-77

217

Altfinstermunz Bridge in Nauders

Bridge over River Rosanna, Strengen

Fr6disch Bridge in Sulz, Vorarlberg

Zollamt Bridge in Vienna

A, 1472 , destroyed 1875, rebuilt 1949

A,17 65

A,1999

A, 1900

Brid ge in th e upp er Inn valley, th e temporar y

Brid ge in th e Stanz er Valley, or iginally used to

Brid ge con nec t ing th e co m m un it ies of Sulz and

Footbridge over a r ailway bridge and th e Wien -

re construction lies +m higher than th e or igina l,

con nec t farm s on th e r ight bank of th e River

Zwi schen wasser (Muntlix) for ped estrian s and

flu ss

a re con struction of th e or igina l bridge was ca r -

Ro sanna , r en ovat ed in ' 9 75

cycl ists

Eng inee r : Martin Paul, A. Biro

Eng ineer: M + G Ing en ieure , Feld ki rc h

Ar chitect : Jos ef Hackhofer, Fri edrich

Arch itect : Marte .Marte Architekten , W eiler

Ohman n

ri ed out in ' 9+9

C overe d wo od en bridge with double trapezoi -

Ar ch bridge

Two bridges w it h a cent ra l fortifi cation tower ,

dal kin g po st tru ss, con structed without iron

drawbridge to th e left , and cove re d su spension

co n nec ti o n elements with timber sh ingling at

Steel trough bridge from ste el plate, exte nsio n

Free span : 31.3 m

bridge to th e right

th e west ern side

of an ex ist ing ma son ry bridge

Width : 7.6 m

Tot al len gth : 37 m

Total len gth : , 8 m

Tot al len gth : +6 m

Materi al: steel

+' m

Max im um span : O stbruckc : 19 m

Maximum span: ' 3.5 m

Fr ee span:

Ma ximum width : O stb ru ckc : 3 m

Width : I .sm

Wid th : Ped estrian lan e 2.3 m , Road way 3.2 m

Mat eri al : timber , Fortification tower : Masonr y

Mat erial: timber

Material : wea t hering steel (Z shape from 30

Ein Fuhre r durch di e Baug eschi chte, Vienna /

mm thi ck plat e), Railing: weatherin g st eel (ver-

New York, 2005

l.it er ature : Caramelle , Franz , Hi storische

Literat ur e : C ara me lle , Fr anz , Hi storische

ti cal plat e of Z shape d profil e ser ves as

Briickenbauten in No rd - und O sttirol , in :

Briickenbaut en in No rd - und O sttirol, in :

balu strade)

lndusrr icar ch aolo yi c Nord -, Ost-, Siidtirol und

Industricarch aologi e No rd -, O st -, Siidtirol und

Vorarlb er g, Innsb ru ck, ' 992 , P: 82

Vorarlberg, Inn sbruck , '99 2, p . 89

Mu cha , Aloi s, Hol zbru ckcn , Wi esbaden , 199 5
Z iesel, Wolfdi et ri ch , D ream Brid ges/Traumbrucken , Vienna, 200 +, pp . '3 2-'+'

Lit erature: Pau ser , Alfr ed, Bru ckcn in Wi cn .

218

"

res

Hackinger Footbridge in Vienna

Erdberger Footbridge in Vienna

Bridge over the Ourthe in Hatton

Bridge in Woluwe Saint-Pierre

A, 1994

A, 2003

8,2003

8,2002

Footbr idge over multi-lane arteri al road and

Bridge over th e Danube Canal near th e Erdber-

Brid ge between Hotton Island and th e city

Footbridge over th e Avenu e de Ter vure n

th e Wi enflu ss canal near th e Hiitteldorf tram

ger Linde

cent re

Engineer: Ney & Partner s, Bru ssels

Architect: Pierre Blon del , Bru ssels

sta tion . Th e str uc t ure br idges th e Wi enfluss

Eng ine er : Alfred Pauser , Vien na

Eng ineer: Ney & Partner s, Bru ssels

canal and connec ts the rjth and 14th di strict s in

Arc hitec t : Z eininger Ar ch itekten , Vienna

Architect : Zi ane, Liege

Fram e str ucture fro m indi vidu al compre ssion

Sha llow ar ch brid ge

the side of th e arch, walk able arch, asym metr ic

Arc hite ct : Henk e-S chreieck Architekten ,

and ten sion clements

Total length : 30 m

cross section

Vienna

Total length: 85 m

Free span: 26 m

Free span : 70 m

Vien na.
Engineer : Wolfdi etrich Zi esel , Vienna

Deck ar ch hri dge with th e deck int egr ated to

Maximum spa n : 53 m

Width : brid ge deck : 2m

Width : 2 x 3 m

Lightweight steel structure, mostl y tension-

Width : 3.7 m

Mat erial: Ar ch : ste el , Deck girder : ste el g rid

Mat erial : ste el, Sur facing : timb er

load ed member s

Material: t imber

Total length: 64 m
Maximum span : 26 m

Literature: Steinmetz , Mark , Architektur

W idth : 4 .5 m

neues Wi en , Berl in , 2000

Material: stee l, glass

Literature : Conco urs Co nstr uc tion Acier 2004 ,

Literature: Moritz , Benoit, Passer elle Avenue

in : Staal-Acier , 5, 2004, p. 200

de Tcr vuren. Woluwe Saint Pierre , in: A+,

2002, pp . 74-75

Conco u rs Co nstr uction Acier 2002, in: StaalAcier, 2002, p. 198

Literature: Ziesel , Wolfdietrich, Dr eam

Bridg es /Traumbriicken , Vienna, 2004,
pp .14 2- 155

I,

219

Footb ridge in Basel-Bi rsigtal

Chapel Bridge in Lucerne

CH, 1865

CH,

c. 1365

Foothridge in th e Birsig vallev under th e Doren

Literat ur e : Fed eral Roads O ffice (pub. ) ,

Bridge in th e cit y ce nt re of Lucern e ,

Lit er at ure : Pa ntli, H ein z, Kapellbr iicke und

bach Viad uct , o ne of th e oldest remaining steel

H ist o r ische Vcr keh rswege, Bern, 2004 , p . 6

o r igina lly part of t he cit y fortificati on

Wasserturm , in : Den kma lpfl ege im Kanton

foothridges in Sw itz erland

Luzern 1994, [ ah rbuch der H ist orischen

Co vere d frame gir der, m ajor fire in 1993, rehu-

Gesellschaft Luzern , 1995, pp . 70-74

Lattice st r uct ur e

ilt acco rd ing t o orig ina l desig n

Flur y-Rova, Mori t z et al. , Kap ellbr uckc

Mat eri al: iron

Tot al len gth : originally 285 m, shor te ne d sever -

und Wassert u rm . Dcr Wi ede ra ufb au einc s

al times in th e 19th cent ur y t o 202 m

Wahrzeichens im Spiegel der Restau ri er un g

Maxi mu m span : 9 .3 m

und For schung , Luc erne, 1998

Width: 3.2 m

G raf, Bern hard, O f Swi ss H eroi c D eed s. T he

Mater ial : Piers : sands to ne, Frame and longitu -

Kap ellBridge in Lucern e, in : Bridges t hat

d in al girde rs : oak, Roof: silver fir and spruce

Cha nged th e World, Miin chen , 2002, pp . 34-35

220

Footbridges

..

Bhutan Bridge near Ovronnaz

CH,2005

Fibre-reinforced Plastic Footbridge

in Pontresina

Ganggelibrugg in 51. Gallen

Ru inaulta Bridge in Trin

CH, 1882

CH, planned 2007

CH, 1997

Footbr idge in Rcchen , earl ier footbridges co n-

Footbridge over the Rhi ne go rge con nec t ing

low er Valai s, ent rance to p fynwald nat u re

Foo tbridge over th e River Flaz

tinua lly destroyed by flood ing , renovated in

t he Tri n railway station with th e Ruinau lta

reser ve

Eng inee r : Otto Kiinzle , Zurich

192) and 1936

Bridge over t he Illgraben between upp er and

Nat ura l Monument

Engineer : Walt er Bieler, Bonadu z

Suspe nde d dec k st r uc t u re mod ell ed aft er

Truss bridge , w ith bolted co nnec t ions at one

Suspe nsion bri dge

Bhutanese br idges

span and glued con nec t ions at t he adjacent span

Fr ee spa n: 6). 7 m

Fr ee spa n : lJ4 m

Total length:

Wi dt h : 1 m

Mov eab le sec t ion : 2 x

2)

W idt h :

m
12 . )

Mater ial : stee l, D eck: timber ,

Width :

Abut m ent : co nc re te

Material: fibr e-reinforced plast ic

1. 9

1. 2

Materi al : iron
Literat ure: Stad elma nn, W ern er, St . Ga ller
Brii cken, S1. Gallen , 19 87 , pp . 4 6 -47

Ur s W yss, Ful3gange r br iicke Pontresina in

GF K, in: SI+A Schwei zer Ingen ieur u nd Ar chi tekt , 12, 19 9 8
Kell er, T hom as, Toward s Struct ural Forms for
Co m posite Fibr e Mater ials, in : Struct ura l
Engi neer ing Inter nat ional , vol. 9 , November
19 9 9 , pp . 297 -3 0 0

deel gird er
Tota l len gt h : 9 8 m
Maximum span : 74 m

Literature : Kell er, Thom as and O tto Kiinzle ,

Suspe nsion brid ge , deck as a horizont al vieren -

Width : qm
Mat er ial: Pylon and Cab les: stee l, Br idge deck
an d hand rail: lar ch

221

1.

Pa sserelle SOl, Val Soj in Tieino

Milk Bridge in Vals Platz

Expo-Bridge in Yverdon-Ies-Bains

Bridge over the Vltava in Prague-Troja

e H, 2006

CH, planned 200 8

CH,2002

CZ,1986

Wood en bri dge o yer th e Soja River in Bleni otal,

Moveable bridge o ver th e Valse r Rhin e in t he

Tw o par allel bridge t o t he Sw iss r eg iona l cx hib -

Th e stress ribbon bridge co n nect s th e Pragu e

repl aces a metall ic struct ure th at was dest ro yed

ce ntre of Vals Plat z

ti on Expo 2002

Zoo and th e Stromovka Park

d uri ng floo d ing in Augu st 2003

Eng ineer : COI1Zett Bron zini Gartmann , C hur

Eng ineer: Staubli , Kurath & Partner, Zurich

Eng ineer: ]i ri St ras kv, Pragu e

Engineer : Laub e , Biasca

and Swl ssfib er, Z u r ich

Ar ch it ect: D iller Sco fid io + Renfro, Ne w York

Tot al len gth : 249 m

fr am e

Co nt inuous girder, all m emb ers tran slu cent

Width: 3.8 m

cos ts , [ivc arches lying on e oyer anot he r

Total lengt h : 23 111

Total length : 2 x 120m

Mat erial : co ncre te

free spa n:

22

Fr ee span : 21111

Free span: 12 m

Wi dth :

111

Archite ct : Martin Hu gli , lr agn a

Sim ple g irder with a box sect ion , bridge ca n be

Co m press ion ar ch to minimi ze forces and

lifted during flooding, st r uc t ure work s as a

I.2

Mat eri al : laminat ed timber, Su r facing : lamin ated ti mb er plat e su r faced with bitumen ,

W idth :

1. 1

Mat eri al : ste e l

Maximum spa n : 96 m

Width : 2 , S m

Lit er ature : St ras ky, [iri , Stress ribbon and

Mat eri al: fibregl ass, Pier s: stee l: Railing: t ran s-

cable -suppo r ted ped estrian bridges, Londo n ,

lucent , lit from bel ow

2ooS, p 76

Abut m ent : co nc rete

Lit erature : O er W olk en st eg , in : Fiberglas, sup Literat ure : Lignum (pub.) , 18Ingeni eurholz -

plem ent to Hochparterre 4 , 2004 , Zurich , p . 21

bautcn , Zurich , Fe br ua ry 2007, pp . 20-21

Ent wic klunge n im Ber eich Faserkuns ts to ffe im

I{ugli , Mar tin , Einfach er geht Briickc nbau

Bauwesen an der Zurcher Hoch schule in

woh l n icht mehr, in: baucn mi t holz , s, 200 7 ,

Winterthur, in : D er Bau ingen ieu r, 12 , 2ooS

pp . 18-21
Sch\\Tize r Hol zbau 7, 2007

222

Footbridges

Bridge in Bad Homburg von der H6he

D, 2002

Bridge over the AS highway near

Baden-Baden

Footbridge in Bensheim

Gericke Footbridge in Berlin-Mitt e

D,2006

D, 1915, 1949

D, 1996

Urban footbridge above th e Hessenring high-

Ped estrian and cycle br idge over th e Highways 3

Footbrid ge at th e tram stat ion Bellevu e over th e

\\'ay

Ped estrian and cycle bridge

and 47 con net ing th e so ut hern city ce nt re wi th

Spree River , or iginally called BellevueFootbridge

Engineer: Schlaic h Ber germ ann und Partner,

Eng ineer : Ingenieur gruppe Bauen, Karl sruhe

t he western sect ion of th e city

Engineer : Br uno Moh r ing

Engineer : Schlaich Ber ger mann u nd Par tner,

Stuttgart
Simple girder, fabricated next to th e auto bahn,

Stuttgart

Longitud inal system : Frame wit h two ar tic ula-

Cable -stayed bri dge with stone mast, deck plate

lift ed int o place du ring a jc -mi nute br eak in

Arc hitect: Hein z Frassine , Ben sheim

ti on s serving as an arch system with suspend ed

Arch bridge with colum n-sup po r te d ramp

inforce d concre te plate

suspended by 16 ten sion rods

traffic

Total length : 76 m

Free spa n : 40 m

Free span : 46 m

Material : steel

deck ; Tr ansverse syste m : Girder gr id with reFree span : 30.3 m

Tot al lengt h : 5"6. 8 m

width : 6.9 m

Width : 2.5" m

Free span: 5"2 m

Material : Mast : Nero Assoluto, an ign eou s rock

Mat erial : Arch : ste el, Deck girder: reinforced

Width : 5" m

Gabbro

concre te

Material: Superstruct ure : ste el,

Surfacing: mastic asphalt, Abutment : concre te

Liter atu re : Russell , Lisa , Footbridge Awa rd s

with limestone

2005", in : Brid ge Design and Eng ine er ing, vol.

11 , 4' , 2005"

Liter ature : Senator fur Bau- und Wohnu ngswesen (pub.), Gerickest eg uber di e Spr ee, in :
Fu 13gangerbr ucken in Berlin , Berlin, ' 976,
pp . 24- 25"

223

Abtei Bridge in Berlin-Treptow

Gotenburg Footbridge, Berlin-Wedding

Nordpol Bridge in Bochum-Hamme

Murkenbach Bridge in B6blingen

D, 19 16

D,19 57

D, 1999

D, 1995

Foothridge o ver th e sout he rn tributary of th e

Bridge o ver the Panke forming an e xte nsio n of

Footb rid ge at t he e ntra nce t o th e W estpark in

Foo tbridge in th e city park

Spree co nnec t ing Tr eptow Park with

t he Gotenburger road, co n necti ng th e par k

Bochum

Engi nee r : D eck er Ingeni eur-G esellsch aft , Bob-

Abt ci Island

areas at eac h ri verb ank

Eng inee r : Boll inger + Grohm ann, Fran kfurt

lin gen

Ar chitect : H eggeI' Heg geI' Schl ei ff Plane r + Ar -

Ar chitect: Jan son + W ol frum / Ar chitektur +

chite kte n, Kassel

St adtpl anung , Muni ch

Lying tru ss g ir de r, dia gon al tuhes as bra cing,

Simple gi rde r wi th pl atform

Eng ineer : St adt isc hc Vcrkehrsbauamt

Sim ple com pos ite g ir de r, sinuso ida l guardra il

:\eukolln

filling

,6.' m

D eck arc h hridge, arc h huilt between t wo

Tot al len gth :

tow er st r uc t u res

Free spa n :

inte ract ive lighting system

Total len gth :

Tot allcn gth:

Wid th : 2,R m

Free spa n :

100

Free spa n : '3.5 m

Mat erial : st ee l, rei n forced co nc re te, Sur facing:

W idth :

m to 3.8 m

m asti c aspha lt, Railing: steel

Mater ial: Sup erstructure a nd Pier s: steel, Sur -

Materi al : laminated timber fr om larch planks

face : grating , Railing: cant ile veri ng full y t em -

o n ste el cross beam s

Fr ee span:

' 0 0 rn

7~,7

\Vidth : l .R m

, ~m

Mat eriaI: rei n forced co ncrete ,

Reinforcem ent : w r ap pe d cas t orin tubes

Lite rat ure: Sena to r fur Bau - und W ohnun gs-

2. 2

Width : 2 . 8 m

per ed glass

wcsen (pub. ), Elsens teg in Ne uko lln , in : Fu ligange rbr iicke n in Berlin , Berlin , 197 6 , pp . H -H

14 . 8

Lit e ratu re : Janson, Alban and Sophie WolfLite rat ure : Schmal, Pet er C . (cd .) , wo r kflow:
Struktur - Ar chitcktur, Basel ,

2002,

pp . 142 -'4~

rum , Garten und Landsch aft , 7,1996 , P: 4' 1'.

224

Footbridges

Bridge in Brandenburg an der Havel

Port Bridge Veg esack in Bremen

Zoo Brid ge in Dessau

Footbridge in Duisbu rg

D,2 001

D, 2000

D, 2001

D,1958

Foot brid ge over t he Jacob sgraben canal

Ped est r ian bascul e brid ge bet ween AIt-

Brid ge oyer t he Ri ver Mulde , co n nec t ing th e

Cable -st ayed br idge for th e world expost ion

Eng inee r : lngen ieurgemeinschaft Hartel &

Vegesack and th e newly buil t Ar ea l Haven Ha ft

city ce nt re wi t h th e zoo

1958 in Bru ssels, t ran sported after th e ex posit i-

Schier meyer, Bad O eynhausen

Eng ine er : Aru p, Du sseld or f

Engi neer: Ste fan Polon yi & Par t ner, Co log ne

on to th e Du isbu rg Z oo, cur re ntly co nnec ting

Land scap e ar chitect: Uw e Tiet ze & Partner ,

Design er : Design labor Brem erhaven , Brem er -

Ar chitect : Kister Scheit hauer Gross, Co log ne

th e Univer sit y cam pus with th e Muhlheim cr

Berlin

haven
Tubular arch with suspended cur ved deck

Ar chitect : Egon Eicr rnann , Sep Ruf

For est

Sim ple gir der

Closed bridge works as a co nt inuous girde r.

gi rder

Tot al lengt h : 24 .2 m

Bascul e moti on uses th e elbow lever techniqu e,

Tot al len gth : 133 m

Free span : 22.5 m

integrated lighting

Fr ee spa n : 111. 3 m

metric m ast.

Width : 2.9 m

Total leng t h : 42 m

Width: 2.8 m

Total len gth : 65 m

Mat eri al : St r uct ura l m ember s and railing: hot

Width : 3.5 m to 7 m

Material : steel

Maximu m span: 43.5 m

Liter ature : Bund esingen ieu rk amm er (pub.) ,

Mat eri al : Deck and abut me nt : rein for ced conc -

lngen ieurbaukunst in Deutschl and . Jahrbu ch

ret e , Mast , cables and railing: ste el

d ip ga lvanized steel, Surfacin g: Bon gossi tim -

Materia l: stee l, conc re te , Deck sur face: perfo -

ber

rate d stain less steel plat e

Unil aterally suppo r ted deck with a single asy m -

Width : 4 m to 4 . 4 m

20 03120 04 , Hamburg , 2003 , pp . 102-104

Literature : Walt her, Rene , Schragse ilbr uc ken,

Lausanne /D usseldorf, 19 94, pp. 154 , 157

225

Essinger Bridge, Essing, Altrnu hl Va lley

Iron Bridge in Frankfurt

Holbein Footbridge in Frankfurt

Se rie of bridges in Hamburg

D,1986

D, 1869, 1946

D,1990

D, Project

Footbr idge ove r th e Main -Danube Cana l

Footbridge over th e River Main

Engineer : Ingenieu rburo Bruninghoff und

Footbr idge between cit y ce nt re and the Sach -

Footbridges between W ill y-Brandt-StraBe and

se nhauser Mus eum bank

th e Zoll Canal

Rampf, Ulm

Truss brid ge

Enginee r: Koni g und Heunisch Planungs-

Engineer : W erner Sobek Ingenieur e ,

Architect : Buro fur [ngeni eur-Architektu r

Total lengt h : 173.6 m

gesell schaft , Frankfurt

Stuttgart

Ma xim um span: 82.5 m

Arch itect: Alb ert Speer & Partner , Frankfurt

Ar chitect : Jan Stormer Partner , Hamburg

Suspensi on bridge , stag ed lighting

Cont inuous box girder, 30 round colum ns ar e

Tota l lengt h : 214 m

continued above t he de ck pr oviding bridge

Rich ard

J.

Dietrich , Tra u nste in

Wid th : 5.4m
T im ber st ress ribb on brid ge

Material : steel

Total length : 190 m

Maxim um spa n: 73 m

Literature : Gorr, Wol fram , Fra n kfu r ter Bru -

Maximum span : 14 2 m

lighting.

Width : \ .1m

ckc n . Schleus cn , Fahr cn , Tun nels und Bruck en

Width : 2.4 m

Total length: 200 m

Materi al : timber , Railin g: larch timber with

des Main , Frankfurt, 1982, pp . " 5-13 8

Mat erial: steel

Maximum spa n : 40 m

Niro-s te el guardra il fill ing

Mack ler, Chr isto ph , Fra nkfurte r Bru ckcn , in :

Width : 2.3 m to 4 .2 m

Jahrbuch fur Ar chit ektur 1984 . Das neu e

Lite rature : Ch r istian Bartenbach , Umlenk- und

Liter ature : Briininghoff', Hein z, T he Essing

Fra n kfur t II, Berlin , 1984, pp .61-98

Spiegelwerftechnik : Hohlbeinsteg, in : Werk,

Timber Brid ge , Germany, in : St r uct ura l

Moll , Rein er , Alt stahlschw eiBen und Nicte n im

Baucn + Wohnen, Oktober 1994

Eng inee ring Intern at ional, vol. 3, Mai 1993

Zuge der Grunderneu erung des "E isern en Ste -

Setzepfandt, Wo lf-Christ ian , Arc hit ektur-

Di etrich , Rich ard J., Faszi nat ion Br iickcn , Mu -

ge s" in Fra n kf u r t am Main , in : Der Stahlbau ,

fuhr er Frankfurt am Main, Berlin , 2002, p. 85

nich , ' 998, pp . 206-2 1J

vol. 66 , Janu ar y ' 997, pp .

W ell s, Matthew and Hugh Pearman,

\0 Briicken, Muni ch , 2002, pp . 140-143

I -II

Material : steel

Footbridges

226

Skywalk in Hanover

Expo Bridges in Hanover

Nesse Bridge in Leer

B6rstel Bridge in Lehne

0 , 1998

0,2 000

0,2 006

0,2000

Pedestrian walkway between Laat zen railway

Fou r bridges on th e Han over Expo grounds

Brid ge over th e trade port co nnecti ng th e h is-

Ped estrian and cycle bri dge over th e River

statio n and th e Exp o 2000 grou nds

Engi ne er : Schlaich Bergermann und Partner ,

tori c city centre and ped est ri an zo ne wi th th e

Werre

Engi nee r : RFR Ingeni eure , St uttgart

Stuttgart

newl y co nst r ucte d Nesse grounds

Engin eer : Schlaich Ber germ ann und Partner,

Architec t: Schulitz + Partner Ar chitekten ,

Ar chitect : Gerkan Marg & Partner ,

Eng ineer : Schlaich Bergermann und Partner ,

Stuttgart

Braun schw eig

Hamburg

St uttga rt

Ar chitect : Claus Bur y, Frankfurt

Doubl e tube with on e storey-high struc t ure

Cabl e -stayed bridges, all bridges on a grid

Cable -stayed bridge with bascul e centre, deck

Stress ribbon bridge with concre te ar ch

Total len gth : 338.4- m

Of7s m x7 s m

bent in plan

Total length: 96 m

Maximum span: 28 m

Greatest total length : Eastern bridge 13S m

Total length : 82 m

Maximum span: 35 m

Width : 8.8 m

Gr eat est span: Southern bridge 4-S m

Length of th e bascul e section: 2 x 7 m

Width : 3.Sm

Mat eri al: ste el , Facad e: bent glass

Greatest width : Centra l bridge 4-S m

Width: 3 m to r m

Mat erial : Ar ch: reinfor ced co ncrete, Deck :

Material : steel, cast ste el, Deck plat e : perma-

Mat erial : Bascul e sect ion : steel, Deck girde r :

pr est ressed co ncre te

nent plat e in rei nforce d co ncre te , temporary

composite, Abutment : reinfor ced co ncrete

Liter ature : Karl

J. Hab ermann and Helmut C .

Schulitz, Werner Sobe k, Stahlbau Atl as, Mu -

plat e from surfaced lar ch t imb er planks

nich , 1999 , pp. 22S, 336 -339

Meyer , Lilr, Freakshow. D ie Archite kt ur der

Lite rat ure : Tor res Arc ila, Martha, Bridges -

Expo, in : db deutsche bauz eitung , 6, 2000,

Ponts - Bru cken, Mexi co City , 2002,

pp . 60-69

pp .4-72-4-81

Pear ce, Martin , Bridge Build er s, Lond on , 2002,

Cr uvelier, Mark , Footbr idges of th e world's

pp .ls o-IB

fair s, in: Footbridge 2002, Par is, pp . 104--105

227

Footbridge in Minden

Footbr idge in Mun ich

Bridge to the Wiesn grounds , Munich

Footbr idge in Oschatz

0 , 1994

0,1985

0,2005

0,2006

Ped est r ian and cycle b r idge oye r the Ri ver W e -

Footbridge o yer t he Mi t tl e rer R ing

Ped estr ian an d cycle bridge oye r t he Bayer stras-

Bridge oye r t he Ri ver D ollnitz , st at e bot ani ca l

Sl' r

Eng inee r : Ingen ieurbiiro Suess und Sta lle r,

sc

ex posit io n 20 0 6

Eng ineer : Sch la ich Be rger m ann un d Partn er,

G r afe lfi ng

Eng ine er : Ch r ist oph Ac ker m an n Ber at endes

Eng ine e r : Silvio W eiland and Di rk Jesse , Tech -

St uttgart

Ar ch it ec t : Biir o fiir Inge n ie u r -Arch ite kt u r

Inge n ieurbiiro fiir Bau wc sen , Mun ich

ni cal Uni versit Iy Dresd en

Ri ch ard J . D iet r ich , Trau ns t ein

Arch ite ct : Ackerma n n und Partner Ar chitek ten , Munich

Suspe nsio n bridge w it h reinforced co nc re te

Bridge co nsist ing o f ten U -spa ced prefabri cat ed

conc rete seg m ent s, each r eceiying six pres-

d eck pl at e, inclined mast s

Spati al cable suspe nsio n , suspe nsion st r uct u re

Span: aro u nd 10 5 m

from t r iang u la r cr oss sec t io n

Hyb r id polygon al arch bridge

t ress ed st eel tendon s

Wid th: j . 6 m

Fr ee span : 69 m

Fr ee span : 38 m

Tot al len gth : 9 . 1 m

M at er ial : ste el

Width : j.5m

Width : 4- m

Fr e e span : 8. 6 m

Mat erial: Super st r uct u re, cables : st e e l

Mat eri al : steel , hi gh- stren gth st ee l

Width: 2.5 m

Literatur: Det ail , 5 , 198 7

Lit erature: Brii ck enbaue n m it ncu cn W erks t o f-

Mat erial: co nc re t e w it h t extile fibre r einfor ce-

D iet ri ch, Ri ch ard J. , Fasz inat io n Br iick en , Mu -

fe n : D ie Fu flga ngerb r iick e iiber d ie Bayerstrafle

ment

ni ch , 19 9 8 , pp . 214--219

in Miinchen , in : St ah lbau, Octo ber 2005,

St ah l-In format io ns-Z ent r um (p ub .) , Hange -

pp . 7 29 - 734-

D epth : d eck plate and sides: 3 em

Lit era t u r e : Pearce , M artin , Bridge Builders,

Lon d o n , 2002 , pp . 174--177
To rres Arcila, Marth a, Bridges - Pon t s

>-

Br iick e n , Mex ico Cit y, 20 0 2, p p. 4-38-4-4-1

Lit erat ure: C u r ba ch , Manfred and Silvi o W ei -

sei lbr iic ke in Miinch en , Deu t schl an d ( 19 85) , in :

Packer, Je ffr ey A . an d Silke Wil lib ald (eds) ,

land , Fer t igt e ilbriick e fii r d ie Landesgarten -

D ok um entat io n P7 . Fuflgangerbriick en aus

Tub ula r St r uc t u res XI, Lond on, 20 06

schau 200 6 in O schatz aus t extilbeweh rtem Be -

Sta h l, Dusseld o r f, 20 04-, p . 24-

ton , in : BFT, vol. 70 , 2, 20 04-, pp . 10 2-10 3

228

Footbridges

Ladenberg Bridge in Potsda m

Dragon 's Ta il Bridge in Ronneburg

Mahlbusen Bridge in Rostock

StieberVa lley Bridge in Roth

0,2001

0,2006

0,2 002

0, 2002

Bridge over a portion of a newl y dug city cana l

Pede strian and cycle bridge over the Gessental

Pair of ste el bridges for th e Intern at ion al Bota -

The bridge crea tes the shor tes t pos sible con-

in the cent re of Potsdam

River near Ronnebu rg/ Gera for the federal bo -

nical Exposit ion 2003

nec tio n bet ween th e railway st at ion and th e city

Engineer: Fichtner + Koppl, Rosenh eim

ta nica l exposition 2007

Eng inee r: Schlaich Berger mann un d Part ner,

cent r e

Ar chi tect : Biiro fiir Ingen ieu r -Arch itekt ur

Engi neer : Ficht ner + Koppl , Rosenheim

St utt gart

Eng ineer : Gra d Ingen ieu r planungen ,

Richard j . Die tri ch, Trau nst ein

Ar chitect : Biiro fiir Ingeni eu r -Arch itektu r

Lands cap e architect : W ES & Partner Land -

Ingolstadt

Richard j . Diet rich, Tra unstein

schaft sar chitekt en , Hambu rg

Ar ch itect: Vogel + Par t ner, Mun ich

cular suspension syste m

Timber st ress ri bbon br idge with three spa ns

Co nti nuous beam girder bridge w it h two ma in

Int egral steel box gird er fixed to abutments , de-

Free span : 13 m

Total length: 2E m

gir ders , steel g irde r bridge

flect s later ally und er temperature loads.

W idth: 3 m

Max im um span : 65 m

Tot al len gth: 35.5 m and 48 m

Tota l length : 170 m

Materi al : steel, Surfacing: timb er

Width: 2.5 m to 3.8 m

Maximum spa n : 25.5 m and 2 x 24 m

Max imu m span: 36 m

Mater ial: Stress ri bho n : lami nated ti mb er

W idt h: 4 .4 m

W idth : j m

Literatu re : Dietr ich , Richard j ., Faszination

block s, Pier s: steel tubes, Sub struct ure :

Materia l: ste el, concre te

Mat erial: mechanically ga h-anized and coa ted

Briicken, Muni ch, 1998, Pl" 266- 267

concrete

Simp le girder, seri es of steel girders with lenti -

ste el

Dietrich, Richard j. , Eine neue Briicke in Pot s-

Literat ure : Decha u, Wilfri ed, Die IGA in Ro -

dam , in : Um r isse - Z eit sch r ift fiir Bauk ult ur,

Literat ure : Keirn , Mario , Briicken bau m it Sinn

stoc k, in: db de uts che bauzeit un g , 8, 2003, p. 24

Liter at ure : Hab ermann , Kar l j ., Schragseil -

2,2001 , p. 42

fiir gesta lterische Q ualitat , in : VDI -Na chrich-

Schlaich, Mik e, Die FuBgangerbriicken auf der

br iicke in Roth , in : db deut sche bauz eitung,

ten , 10 No vem ber 200 6

Int ern ationalen Gar tenausst ell ung IGA 2003 in

5, 203, Pl" 54- 61

Werner, Hartm ut , Langstes Span nband

Europas, in : bau en mit holz,

II ,

2006 , Pl" 6-[(

Rostock , in : Bauinge nieur, 10 , 20 3, p. 441

Grad, j ohan n , Stieb er ta lbrii cke in Roth /

Bayern , in: Stah lbau, 12, 20 3, Pl" 868-871

229

Bridge in Schnaittach

Queen Mary's Bridge near Schwangau

Tower Bridge in Singen am Hohentw iel

Pragsattell and II in Stuttgart-Nord

D, 2002

D, 1866, restored 1978

D, 2000

D, 199 2

Entrance b r idge to Roten burg Ca stl e

Br idg e over the Poll at' s Ca nyo n w it h a view of

Foo t br idg e fo r t he Sta te Botan ical Ex position ,

Br idg es for t he Internati on al Bot anical Ex posi-

Engin e er : Inge n ieu r - Biiro Ludwig Viczens,

Ne us chwanst ei n

connects t wo po rtions of t he city par k

ti o n 1993 over t he H eilbr onne r St ra lle

Ec ke nta l

En g in e er : Hei n ri ch Ger ber (1832- 1912)

Engineer : Bau st atik ReIl ing , Singen

Engi ne er : Sch laich Berg erman n u nd Par tn er,

Land scap e ar ch ite ct : M icha e l Pal m ,

St uttgart

W einhei rn

Arc hitect : Planu ngsg ruppe Luz, Lo hrer, Egen -

C;irder br idge wit h t ran sve rse frame for rai -

Ri vet s steel truss, t he ori g ina l t im ber fo ot -

li ngs, h ist or ic st r uc t u res are r efl ect ed in mo -

br idg e was replaced in 1866 by a fre ely span ning

de r n ti mb er co nst r uc t io n

iro n st r uct u r e, ra ilings arc o r ig ina l

Covered ti mb er tru ss bridge w ith stairway t o -

To t al lengt h : 24 .4 m

Fr ee span : 34 .9 m

wer as continuo us g ir d er on thre e su pports

W idth : l .6 m

Mat erial : iro n , Surfaci ng : ti mber

hofcr , Schlaic h , St uttgart

Bri dg e I :

w ith a cantileve r, prefabricat e d in the wo rks hop

Concrete fo otbrid ge su ppor te d b y steel tube

Mate r ial: Su per structure and substr uct ure :

in two segment s

arch , b ra nc hing st eel piers

lami nated la rch timb er , st ee l, Fou ndat io n : re -

Tota l lcngt h : 4 3.5 m

Free sp an : 52 m

ill1()IT ed co nc re te

Fr e e spa n : 28.2 m

W idth : 4 .5m

Width : 2.2 m

M ater ial : steel , co ncr et e

Literat u r e : Viczc n s, Ludwig , Briick enschl ag

Ma t eri al : t imber
Br idg e 11 :

z ur Festung , in: baucn mi t hol z, [2, 200 2,

p p . 17 - 20

Lite ra t u re : Fu Hgiingerbr iick e in Singen, in :

Branching co lum n b r idge

D eta il, 3, 2001, pp . 446 -449

To ta l length : 83.9 m

Ge de ckt e Fac hwerkbriicke m it Turm , in :

Wi dth: 4m

bau e n m it hol z, Nove m be r 2000, p p . 12 -14

M at er ial : steel , co nc rete

230

Footbridges

Footbridge in Stuttgart-Vaihingen

Heilbronner Strar5e Bridge in Stuttgart

Footbridge in Stuttgart-Pragstrar5e

D, 1992

D,1992

D, 1992
Cablen et Footb r idge for t he Int ern at ion al

Footbridge over th e Allmandring o n t he

Literat ur e: Kaag , W erner an d Rudolf Schw arz,

Bri dge for th e Int ernat ion al Botan ical Ex posi -

Un iversit y of St uttgart campus

Fuf3gangersteg in Stuttgart , in : arch plus ,

t ion 1993 near Nordba hn hof

Bot ani cal Expos it ion 1993

Engineer: Ingen ieurburo Lachen m an n,

11 8, 1993, p . 33

Engi neer : Schlaich Bergermann und Partn er,

Eng ineer : Schlaich Bergerma nn un d Partn er,

Vaihi ngen an der Enz

Kaag , Werner and Gust! Lach enmann, Fuf3gan-

St uttgart

Stuttgart

Ar chitect : Kaag + Schwa r z, St uttgart

ge rs t eg in St ut t ga r t-Vaihingen, in : arc hplus,

Ar chi tect : Planungsgr upp e Luz, Lohr er,

Ar chitect : Planungsgruppe Luz, Lehrer ,

124h 25, 1994 , p. 70

Egen hofer, Schlaich , St uttgart

Egen ho fer, Schlaich , St ut tga r t

Cable -t ens ioned polygon al ar ch bridge , eleven

Lach enmann, Gust l, Fu f3gangers teg iiber den

br idge seg me nts w ith articul at ed co n ne ct ion s

Allmandring in St uttga r t / Vaihingen , in: Stahl-

Back- and sel f-anc hored sus pensio n bridge

Cablene t footbridge , an inversely arranged

Fr ee spa n: 34 m

bau,

To ta l lengt h : 125 mh30 m

cablene t support s th e footbridge

Width : 3.2 m

Kaag, W erner and Rud olf Schwarz, Fuf3gan ger-

W idth : 5 m

Fr ee span : ca. 75 m

steg in St uttgar t, in : D eta il , 8, 1999,

Mat eri al : steel, co ncrete

Mat eri al : steel

II,

1994 , pp . 337-342

pp . 1459- 1461

Width : 3.1m
Mat erial : Cablenet : steel

Schlaich , Jor g and Mat thias Schu ller, Ingen i-

Literature : Sch laich, Jorg and Matthias Schul-

eur baul- u hrer Baden -Wii rttemberq, Berlin ,

ler, Ingen ieurbau Fuhrer Baden -Wiirtternberg,

Lit erature : Schlaich , Jo rg and Matthias Schu l-

1999, pp . 19 6 - 197

Berli n , 1999 , pp. 19 0-191

ler, Ingen ieurb auFii hrer Baden-Wii rttem ber g ,

We lls, Ma tthew an d Hu gh Pear man ,

30 Briick en , Miin chen , 2002, pp . 108-1II

Berlin , 1999 , pp . 188-189

231

La-Ferre Footbridge in StuttgartZuffenhausen

Footbridge in Waiblingen

Footbridge in Waiblingen

Backpack Bridge

D,1 978

D, 1980

D,1999

Bridge o ver t he Ri ver Rcms betwe en G ro lle r

Footbridge between G rol i er and Klein er Erlen-

Foldable bridge , can be e rec te d by a single

Er lcninsel a nd Br u h lw ies c n

ins cl

person
Architect : Ma ximilian Ruttige r, Unterwo ssen

D,200 1
Ped es t ri an and cycle bridge over the Halde n rain st raBe

Eng inee r : Ingenieu rbii r o Leonhardt und

Eng ineer : Ing enieu rbiiro Leonha rdt und

Engi neer : Pet er und Lo chner , St uttgar t

And ra , Stut tgar t

Andra, Stuttgart

Ar ch bridge

Arch bridge

est ate car

Ar ch itect: 'asp' Ar chitekten St uttgar t

Dynamic folding st r uc t u r e , fits in the boot of an

Fra me bridge , t he de ck axis is a ci rc ular ar c in

Tot al len gth : 39 m

To t al length : 23m

Fr e e span : 10 m

pla n with a radius o f 53.7 m , integral bridge

Fr ee spa n : 28 m

Free span: 18m

W eight : 38 kg
Mat er ial : alumin ium

w it ho ut be arings or joints

Wid th : 3.7 m

Width : 2.4 m

Tot al len gth: IIR.5 m

Materi al : Superst ructure : reinfo rced co nc re t e ,

Materia l: Supe rs t r uc t ure : reinforced co nc re te ,

M aximu m span : 2R.5 m

Surfacin g : urethan e su r facing , Railings : st eel

Su rfa cin g : urethan e sur fac ing, Railings: ste el

Width : J.5 m
Material: r einforced co nc re te , Pi ers: cas t st eel,
st e-el. Rail in g: st a in less ste el

Bru ck c, in : D etail, 8, 19 99 , pp.1442-1443

Lit er ature : Leonhardt , Fritz , Brii ck en /Bridges,
St uttga rt , 1994, p . 97
Schl aich, Jorg and Matthi as Sc hulle r, In geni-

Lit erature : Pete r, Jiirg and Matthias Schuller ,

e u rba ul- u hrer Bad en -Wiirttemberg, Berlin,

FuB- und Radwegbriicken iibcr di e Haldenrain -

199 9 , pp . 216- 217

st r al3e in St uttgar t , in : Bet on - und Stahl-b et on bau , No vem be r 2002, pp . 609 - 614

Lit er ature : Kalt enbach, Fr an k , Ru cksack-

232

Faathr Jges

Bridge in Assens

PontVeil in Alfarra s

Bridge in Andoain, Basque Country

Bridge in Bilbao

DK, 1850

E,2007

E, 2005

E.1 997

Bridge on th e Brahesbor g gro u nd s

Brid ge over th e Nog uera Ribaporcan a

Suspension bridge

Some rem nant s of th e or iginal bridge rem ained

Free spa n : 22 .9 m

and wer e incorporated int o th e const r uction of

Mat eri al: ir on , Surfacing : t imb er

Brid ge over th e O r ia, co nnec t ing th e city ce n-

Footbrid ge in fro nt of th e Guggenh eim

tre w it h a recr eat iona l are a

Mu seu m on th e Abandoibar ra Pr omenade

Eng ineer : Pedelt a, Barcelona

Engi neer : 10 0M , Bilbao

Architect : Frank O . Gehry and Associates,

th e new str uc t u re ; an ar ch br idge in th e olde r

Sim ple gi rder, fram e str uct u re

sect ion, the newer secti on is a co nt inuo us gir -

Tot al length : 68 m

Los Angeles

Liter at u re : Cortr ight , Rob ert S., Bridging th e

der and an arch br idge with suspended deck

Wi dth : 3.6 m

Free span:

World, Wi lson ville, 2003, p. 114

Mat er ial : Origin al remn ants: stone , New

Materi al : weathering steel , Abut ment: rein -

Width : 7.3 m

str uctu re : steel

for ced concre te

(3)

Mat eri al: ceme nt, co nc re te and expande d polystyrene

Literature: Sobrino , Ju an A. and Javier Jordan ,

Two ex amples of innovati ve design of foot br id -

Liter ature : van Bruggen , Coosje and Fra nk O .

ges in Spain , in : Footbridge 2005". znd Int ernati -

Gehr y, Guggenh eim Mu seum Bilbao, O st fil-

ona l Co nfere nce , Dec. 6-8, 2005", Venice ,

dern , 1997

pro ceedings, pp. 223-224

233

Pasarela Padre Arrupe in Bilbao

Iron Bridge in Girona

Pont d'en Gomez in Girona

Pasarela de Sant Feliu in Girona

E, 2003

E,1877

E,1916

E,1996

Footbridge over th e Ne r vion to th e

Footbrrdpe over th e Onyar in th e Pcscaterics

Bridge also known as Pont de 10 Princeso

Footbridge over th e Onyar, co n nec t ing the ol -

Uni vcrsidad d e Deusto

district , also known as Pont de les Peiscateries

Archi t ect : LUIs Holrns

d est city section ne ar Sant Feliu church and D e vesa Park

En gin eer: IDEAM , Madrid

Velles

:\ rchitect: Estudio G ua d iana , Madrid

Eng ineer : Gu stav e Eiffel , Pari s

Mat erial : reinforced co nc rete

(;irder bridge, fold ed sec t io n with ste el rib st if-

Tr uss gird er

Lit erature: see p . 55

kners, integrat ed lighting sys te m

Material : iron

Eng ine er : Pcd elta , Bar celona

Architect : Blazqucz -Guantcr Arquit cctes,

Totallcngth :

14.2. ~

Gi ron a
Simple girder frame structure

Ma ximum spa n: 84 m

Literature: Asen sio , Paco , Gu stave Alexa ndre

Fr ee span : ~8 .4 m

\V idth : 4 .1 m to

EilTel, Dusseldorf,

Width : 3 .~m

II m

20 0 3 ,

pp.

3 8 -43

Mat eri al : sta in less st eel , Interior cladding: La-

Mate rial : weathering st eel, Abutment : rein -

pa cho t im be r

forced concrete

literature : Millanes Mato , Francisco, La nou -

Lit er ature : Gomez -Pulido, M . Dolores and

ve lle pa sserell e d'Abandoibarra devant Ie musce

Juan A . Sobrino, Sant Feliu Footbridge in Giro -

Gu ggenheim , Bilbao, in : Bull et in ouvrages

mct all iqucs,

3 , 20 0 4 ,

pp.

na , Spain , in : Footbridge

2002 ,

Nov.

20 -22 , 2002,

Paris, proce edings, pp . 124 -12~

26 - 4 9

l.uro Inox (p ub .). Trogbru cke in Bilb ao,

Schlaich , Mike (ed .), Saint Feliu Footbridge ,

Spanien, in : Fuflgange rbru ck en au s Ede lst a hl

Spain

Ro stfrci , Lux embourg ,

footbridges, Lau sann e, No ve m be r 200~ , p.

20 0 4 ,

pp .

18 - 20

( 19 9 6 ),

in : Guidelines for the d esign of

Il6

234

Footbr dges

Footbridge in L1eida

Bridge over the Guadalentin in Lorca

Bridge over the Manzanares in Madrid

San Juan de la Cruz Bridge in Pa lencia

E, 2001

E, 2002

E,2003

E, 2004

Bridge over a roa dway and t wo railway track s

Foot br idge in th e cit y ce nt re

Footbridge in th e city ce nt re

Brid ge over th e Ca r r io n , co n nect ing th e Islas

approximat e ly 2 km o utside of Lleid a

Engine er : Ca rlos Fernandez Casado , Madrid

Eng ineer : Carlos Fernandez Casado , Mad r id

D os Agu as spo r ts ce nt re
Eng ine er : Fheco r Ingen ieros Co nsu lto res,

Engi neer : Ped elta, Barcelo na

Arch bridge w it h suspe nde d deck

C able-s t ayed br idge

Mad r id

Arc h bridge w it h t wo ar ches and ten sion co rds .

Fr ee span : 86 m

Fr ee span : 14 7 m

T he ent ire bridge was prefabr icat ed and lift ed

Width : 2 x 4 m

Width : 3 m

Cable -stayed br idge , cur ved br idge deck , no

Mat erial : steel

addit ional r amp s despite elevat io n differen ce of

Material : steel

and set into posit ion on site .

Free span : 38 m

th e two brid geh ead s

Width : 3 m

Fr ee spa n : 7 0. 7 m

Material : fibr eglass, Ramps and piers : rein-

Width : 3 m

for ced co nc rete

Mat erial : Brid ge gir de r: steel

Litera t ur e : Go mez-Pu lido , M . Dolores and

Litera tu re : Ra mo Mar ti n , Jose , Pasar ela sob re

Ju an A. Sobrino , A Ne w Glass-Fibre Rein -

el ri o Car r ion en Palencia, in : Un a r eflexion so -

forced -Pl ast ic Foo tbr idge , in: Footbridge

bre el proyect o de pu entes y pasar elas sobre r ios

20 02 .

D esign and dyn amic behaviour of footbridges,

Nov. 20 -2 2 ,
pp . 187 -18 8

20 02,

Paris, proceedings ,

en eI am bit o urbano, pp . 2-4

III Congreso de ingenierla civ il , territorio y

medic ambiente : Agu a, Biodi versidad e Inge -

ni eria, Z aragoza,

2;- 27

O cto ber

20 0 6

235

Bridge in Pontevedra

Bridge in Puente la Reina, Pamplona

PontTrencat in Sant Celoni

Pasarela Vallparadfs in Terrassa

E,1997

E, 11 th century

E, 2003

E, 2007

Bridge oyer t he Lcr ez

Footbr idge at t he delt a of th e Riv er Ro bo in

Reno vation of a me die val bridge ove r th e To r -

Br idge near th e r ecently ren ovated park in th e

Eng inee r : Fhecor Ingeni ero s Co ns u ltorc s,

Arga as a pat hw ay for t he pilg rim s tr avelling to

de ra, destroyed du r ing t he Napoleon ic W ars

cit y cent re

Mad r id

Santiago de Co rnpost el a, also kn ow n as

Enginee r : Alfa Pol aris, Sant Vicen c de Montalt

Engineer : Pedelta, Bar ce lon a

Puente de los Peregrinos

Arch brid ge with sus pe nde d walkway, bridge

w as co nst r uc ted par allel to th e ri verbank an d

Brid ge wi t h six ar che s

rot at ed into its fi nal positio n using t wo boats.

Arc h brid ge , box sec t ion , integrate d lighting

Contin uo us girder over four suppo r ts , simple

system

piers ser ve as supports.

Total lengt h: 72 m

G e samtla ng c : 100 m

Maximum span: 2+ m

Fr ee span : 3 x 33 m

Fr ee spa n: 82., m

Lite rat ure : Gr af, Bernh ard , Wh ence ther e is

W idt h: + m

on ly on e rou te . Pu ente la Reina : t he Pil grim s'

W idth : 3.+ m

Mat erial : ste el , Bridge gi rder : st eel and co nc -

Brid ge , in: Bri dges th at Changed t he World,

Materi al : weat hered ste el, conc r ete

r et e, Abu t ment : r ei nforced co nc re te

Materi al: stee l

Mu nic h, 2002, PI" 26-27

Lit er atur : Fon t , Xavier, Rest aurati on of th e
Pon t Tr enca t ( Bro ken Brid ge) , in : Foot bri dge
2005 . znd Internat io nal Conference, D ec . 6-8 ,
200" Ven ice , proceedings, PI" 11 9-120
Ru ssell , Lisa , Foo t br idge Awa r ds 2005, in:
Br idge D esign & Engineer ing , +1, 200 5,
PI" 35-+9

736

r:ootl:Jrldges

Bridge in Zaragoza

Expo Bridge in Za ra goza

Footbridge in Agen

Passerelle de la Fraternite. Aubervilliers

E, 2002

E, plann ed for 2008

F, 1841 , renovated 2002

F,2000

Foo t br idge over th e int er-cit y high way Ronda de

Multi-st orey footbridge over th e Ebro, ent ra nce

Bridge over th e Garonne

Ped est ri an and cycle bridge over th e

la Hispanidad co nnect ing t wo park areas

to th e W orl d' s Fair 20 08

Arc hi tect : Ca binet d 'Ar ch itecture Steph ane

C anal Saint-D en is between Q ua i Jean -M ari e

Engineer: Ar up , Madrid

Brassie , Agen

Tj iba ou and Q uai Adrien Agn es

Eng ineer : Ca rlos Fernand ez Casado, Madrid

Architect: Za ha Hadid Ar chitects, Londo n

Arch bridge wi t h incl in ed ar ch and ce nt r al deck

Ar chitect : Mimram Ingen ier ie , Pari s

Back ancho r ed susp ens ion bridge w it h d iagon al

Free spa n : 56 m

Co mb inat io n o f box gi r de r and t ru ss beam

han gers

Arc h br idge

Width : 4m

Total lengt h : 270 m

Total len gth : 263 m

Free span: 4 4 m

Mat erial: steel

Max imum spa n : 123 m

Maximum spa n: 174.3 m

Materi al : Arc h : st eel, Abutm ent and

Width : 2.3 m

platforms : reinfo rc ed co ncre te,

Literature : Astiz, Migu el A. and Mig uel A . Gil,

Material : St ru ct ure : ste el, Ex ter ior cladding :

Mat eri al : Mast and ca bles : steel

Surfaci ng: t imber

Javier Manterol a , The Ron da de la Hisp an idad

fibr eglass conc re te , Surfaci ng : sho t cre te

Width :

II

m t o 30 m

Lit eratu r : Passerelle d'Agen : le sauvetage d'un

Lit eratu r e : Footbridge ove r th e Canal Saint-

Tubular Str uct ures X , Oxford, 2003, pp . 25-32

Lit eratu r: Ar reg ui, In es, Expo Saragos se 2008,

ouv rag e h ist oriqu e , in: Chanti ers de Fr an ce ,

D en is, in : Brid ge Design & Eng ineer ing, 29,

Schlaich, Mik e (cd.) , Footbridge acros s th e

in : Le Co u rrier d' Espa gn e , Augu st 2006

Mar ch 2003, pp. 22-23

4 , 2002

" Ro nda de la Hi spanidad" , Spai n (2002), in :

Pab ell on Pu ente, in : Ar chitectu r a y critica,

Petit , Sebas t ien , D eux r ehabilita tio ns nova-

Mehu e, Pierre , D eux sie cles de passerell es

Gui del ines for th e design of footbri dges, fib ,

7,200 6

trices, in: Travaux, Novem ber 2003, pp . p -5)

metalliq ucs, in : Bull etin ouvrages m ct all iqu es,

Lec inq , Ben oit and Sebastien Petit, Rescue

2, 2002

pedes t ria n br idge in Z ar agoza (Spain), in :

Lausanne, November 2005, p . 127

Mi ssion , in : Civil Engineering Magazin e ,

Januar y 2004

237

Pont de Gresin. Bellegarde-sur-Va lserine Passerelle Mataro in Creteil

Footbridge in Dole

Cele Footbridge in Figeac

F,1 947

F, 1988

F, 200 5

F, 2003

Footbr idge oyer th e Rh one . Origina lly t here

Also kn ow n as Pont Oudry-Mesfy

Bridge oye r t he D oub s

Bri dge oyer th e Celc

were num ero us bridges here, the most rec ent

Arch itect : Santiago Ca latrava , Z uri ch

Eng in eer: Quadric, Montl uel

Arc hit ec t : Mimra m Ingcn ieri e , Pari s

wa s dest ro yed in

194 0 ;

Arch itect: Alai n Spielman n Ar ch itecte, Pari s

a renovation of th e cu r-

rent bridge is planed for

2007

Arc h br idge , suspende d deck

Tr uss arc h

Tota l lengt h : 120 m

Susp en sio n br idge with two vertica l mast s,

Tota l len gth : 4 2 m

Back-anchored susp ensi on br idge wit h t russ stif-

Maximu m span : H m

sim p le gi rder

Fre e spa ns :

fen ing girder

Mat eria l: stee l

Free spa n : 70 m

Wi dt h : 3 m t o 5 m

Tota l length : 137 .8 m

Span :

114 . 2

Wi dth : 3 m
Lit eratu re : Ca lat rava , Santiago , Des bow-

Mat erial: m etal

W idt h: J m

st rings origina ux, in : Bull et in an nue l de

Mate r ial: steel

I'AFG C , Januar y [9 9 9 , pp . S9 -6[

Literatu re: Ga nz, Hans-Rudolf, Dole D eli ght ,

Fr ampton , Ken net h, Ca lat rava Bridges, Basel,

in : Bri dge Des ign & Engineering, Nov em ber

Lit erat ure : Brocard , Mau r ice , CAin des Grands

[996, pp . 4 4 -53

2005,

Pon ts , Peronn as, 19 9 1

Mo nte ns , Serge , Cre tci l. Passcrel!e en

bow -strin g , in : Les plu s beau x pants de Fr ance ,
Pari s,

200 [ ,

p.

121

p.

13

2 x 2[

238

Footbridges

Holzarte Bridge near Larrau, Pyrenees

Passerelle du Commerce in Le Havre

Bridge in Meylan

Passerelle Debilly in Paris

F,1920

F,1969

F,1980

F,1900

Foo tbr idge ove r th e O lhadubi Riv er canyo n

Suspe ns ion bridge

Pedetrian and cycle bridge ove r th e Bassin du

Footbridge over th e Iser e

Brid ge for th e 190 0 World's Fair between Rue

Com me rce, also kn own as Pont de 10 Bourse

Eng ineer : Ca m peno n Bernard Co nst ruct ion,

de la Manutetion and Quai Branl v, r en ovat ed

Arc h ite ct : Gu illa ume Gill et

Boulogne -Bill ancourt

199 1

Arc hit ect : Cabine t Arsa c

Engi neer : Am edee Alb)', Andre -Louis Lion,

Assy m me tr ic cab le -st ayed br idge , A-sha ped

pylon

Jean Resal
Ca ble -stayed bri dge w it h up sid e down Y-shaped

To tal lengt h : 105 m

pylon

Ar ch brid ge w ith two ar t iculatio ns and inter -

Maximum spa n : 73.4 m

Total len gth : 119 m

medi at e deck girde r

Width : 5.5 m

Maximum spa n: 79 m

Total lengt h : 120 m

Width : 6.7 m

Maximum span : 75 m

Liter at ure : Gr attesat , Gu y, Ponts de Fr anc e,

Mat eri al : Cables: ste el, D eck : prestressed co n-

Width : 8 m

Pari s, 1982, pp . 266-26 7

cre te , Pylon s: reinforced co ncrete

Mater ial: steel

W alther, Rene, Schr iigseilbr iicken , Lausa nn e /

Dii sseld orf, 1985, p. 160

Lit er ature : AF PC (pub.) , Passerell e de Meylan

Lit erature : Ga illa rd, Mar c, Q uais et Ponts de

( Isere) , in: Bull et in 1980 -81-82, pp. 397-403

Paris, Am ien s, 1996, P: 169

Walther, Ren e , Sch ragse ilbr uc ken , Lausanne /

Poiss on, Jer om e , Pass er ell e D ebilly, in : Les

Diisseldorf, 1985, p . 167

Ponts de Paris, Paris, 1999, p. 223

Marrey, Bernard, Les Ponts Mod ernes - 20e

Monten s, Serge , Passer ell e de Bill)', in : Les plu s

siec le, Paris, 1995, pp . 213 -214

beau x ponts de Fra nce, Pari s, 2001, p . 115

239

Granite Footbridge in Paris-La Defense

Passerelle Bonnets Rouges in Rennes

5arre Bridge in 5arreguemines

Passerelle du Francs Moisins, St Denis

F, expected September 2007

F, 1994

F,2001

F,1 998

Footbridge at th e Societ e Generalc Tow ers con -

Brid ge some ,00 m nort h of t he T G V st ation

Pedest r ian and cycle brid ge over t he Ri ver Sar -

Ped estrian an d cycle br idg e o ver t he Canal

necting t he square of t he Grande ATche with th e

Eng ine er: Groupe Alto , Gent illy

re co nne ct ing t he cit y ce nt re w it h t he

Saint -D en is as par t of urban proj ect to revit ali -

new

Ar chit ect : Fra ncois Deslaugi ers , Mar seille

Casi no park

ze th e cana l bank

Engi neer : Jean-Louis Micho tey, Mi chel

Architect : Mi mram Ingeni er ie , Par is

Stu ttgart

Fold ing bridge , moto r sit ua te d bet ween th e bo x

Virlo geux

Archit ect : r:eicht inge r Arch itec tes , Pari s

secti on girders of t he bri dge deck

Ar ch itec t : Alain Spielma nn Arch itect e , Paris

T Ol I T

Granite in Na nte r re

Engineer : Sch laich Bergerman n un d Par tn er,

Totallcngt h : 4-0 m

Ar ch bri dg e
Free span : 4-3 m

Unil at er all y su spe nde d cu r ved cab le-stay ed

Fr ee span:

Self-anchored, asymmetric susp ens ion bridge

W idth : 3.5 m to 5 m

br idge w ith inver ted system , r uns par all el to

Leng t h of cant ilever: 8 m

w it h single ma st , di agon al han gar s

Mat erial : ste el

th e glazed facad e of t he Societe Generate, a 1.8 m

Width : 3.5 m

Total len gth :

high glass plat e offers w in d prot ecti on for t he

Mat eri al: st ainles s steel

Max imu m span: 54-. 4- m

Liter atur e : Passerelle sur Ie canal de Sain t-

Mat er ial : ste el, rei nfo rce d conc r ete

D enis , in : L'aci er pou r co nst r u ire, O ktober

ped e str-ian s

12 m

90

Fr ee spa n: 88 m

19 9 8

W idth : 4-., m

Lit er ature : Mi ch ot ey, Jean-Loui s und Alain

Mim ra m , Mar c , Passerell e pictonne au -dessus

Mat er ial: ste el, W ind protection and raili ngs:

Spielmann , Michel Virloge ux, La passer ell e de

du ca nal de Saini -Denis, in : Bull et in pont s

im pr inted glass

Sar re g uem ines, in : Bull eti n ouvrag es metalli-

m etalliqucs,

ques,
Lit erature: La passerell e Gra n it e en chant ier,
in : l.c Moniteur des Tra vaux Publics et du Bati m en t , 8 September

2006 ,

P: 20

1,2 0 01 ,

pp .

JI6 - 127

19 9 9

Mehu e , Pier re , D eux siec les de passerell es

D uclo s, T hi er ry , La passer elle de Sar re -

m et alliques, in : Bull etin ouvrages meta lliques ,

gue m ine s, in : Bull etin ann uel de I'AF G C ,

2, 2002

Janu ar y 20 0 1, pp . 59 - 63

740

FC'otbr dqes

Passerelle du Barrage in Saint-Maurice

Passerelle des Deux Rives in Strasbourg

Passerelle PSO in Toulouse

Footbridge Parc du Val Joly nearTrelon

F, 1997

F,2004

F,1988

F,1980

Footbridge over th e Marne River between th e

Bridg e co n nect ing both sides of th e park for th e

Brid ge over a beltway with an asymm etric

Engineer s: Arcora , Ar cu eil

road Fernand Saguet de Maison- Alfort and a

border cross ing 2004 Gardening Exhibition

st r uct u re, or iente d according to th e land scap e

Ar chit ect : Michel Marot

promena de

Engineers : LAP Leonhardt Andra und Partner ,

Ar chitect s: Mimram Ingeni eri e , Pari s

Architects: Mim ram Ingeni eri e , Pari s

Stuttgart and Mim ram Ingeni er ie, Par is

Arch bridge with doubl e ar ch and three braces,

Deck with a slope of up to 18 percent , less steep

depth of th e box sect ion min imi zed at th e

Back anchored suspension bridge, th in bridge

Co nso le bridge with doubl e cu r vat u re

deck

Free span : 7S m

Free span : 56 m

bridge for pedestrians and cyclis ts

Mat erial : Deck girde r : steel plat e , Surfacin g:

Width : 2.5m

ce ntre of th e bridge

Total lengt h : 390 m

timber

Material : Cables: st eel, Surfa cing: wood ,

Total length : 110 m

Fre e span : 183.4 m

Railing: textile membran

Free spa n : 3 x 37 m

Width: walkway: 2.5 m, Bike path : 3 m

Width : 3.) m to 7 m

Material: steel

Literature : Baus, Ur sul a, Super be .

Liter ature : Morgenthal, Gui do and Rein er

db deutsche bau zeitung, 7,1 989, P: 92

FuBgangerbriicke im Pare du Val Joly, in :

Material : Arch : ste el

Literature: Passer elle sur Ie barrage de Saint-

Saul, Verbindend es Elem ent der gre nziibe rg rei-

Maurice, in: L'acier pour constr uire , O ct ob er

fend en Garten schau , in: Stahlbau-Nachricht en,

1998 , pp . 36 -37

' , 2004 , pp . 9-1/

Mimram, Mar c, Passerelle de Saint-Ma urice.

Maisons-Alfort, in : Bulletin ponts metalliques,
' 9, ' 999

241

Mobius Bridge in Bristol

Dryburgh Abbey Bridge in Dryburgh

Shakkin' Briggie in Edzell

Millers Crossing Bridge in Exeter

GB , scheduled 2009/ 10

GB, 1818, 1872

GB, c. 1900

GB,2002

Footbridge over th e Ri ver North Esk , Scotland

Ped est r ian and cycle bridge between Fin zel s

Footbridge over th e Tweed, original bridge

Reach and Cas tle Park

coll apsed and was repl aced in [872

Eng ineers : Buro Happold , Londo n

Eng ineers : John und Willi am Smith

Arc hitects: Hak es Associates Ar chitects ,

London
Truss gir de r

Ped estrian and cycle bridge over th e Exe

between Exe ter and Exwick

Chain su spen sion bridg e , lat er braced w ith

En gineers : Eng ine eri ng Design Group, D evon

cant ile ver ing transverse gir ders ; four chains at

Co unty Council , Exeter

Suspension bridge with cable sta ys

eac h side

Maximum spa n : 79 m

Span : aro und 30 m

Asymmetric cable -stayed bridge , tufted form,

Width: 1.4m

Wid th : around 1.2 m

mill st one acts as cou nte r we ight

Free spa n : 60 m

Fr ee span : 54 m

Width : 2.7 m to 3 m

Lit er atu r e : Steven son , Rob ert , Description of

W idth : 3 m

Material : st ee l, Railing : glass, Handrail : steel

Suspen sion Brid ges, in : Edinbu rgh Philosophi-

Mat erial : Pylon, bridge gir der and cab les: steel,

cal Journal , vol. 5 , [0 , 182[

Mill stone : granite, Abutm ent : reinforced co n -

Lit er ature : Landmark bridge gains plan ning

Tr oit skv , M . S., C able -Staye d Brid ges. Theory

cre te

per mis sion , in : BSEE Building Services and

and design, Lond on, [977

Env iro nm ental Engin eer, 28Jul y 2005

Fernand ez Trovano , Leonardo, Tierra sobre el

Mobius Brid ge , Bri stol , in : Aro , Novembe r/

agua . Vision hi storica univer sal de los pu entes,

December 2005, p . 18

Madrid , 1999 , pp . 661-6 62

Footbridges

242

Pier 6 Airbridge in Gatwick

Union Chain Bridge in Horncliffe

Sackler Crossing Bridge in Kew

Bridge in Kingston-upon-Hull

UK, 2005

UK,1820

UK, 2006

UK, scheduled 2008

Brid ge between Pier 6 and th e Nor th Air po r t

Brid ge cross ing th e Tweed River and co n nec-

Bridge over th e Hull co nnec t ing th e city ce nt re

Term inal

ting England and Scot land

Engineer : Arup , london

Engineer : Sir Sam uel Brown

Foot br idge over a lake in th e Royal Botan ic

Ga rdens
Enginee r : Buro Happold , l ond on
Design er : John Pawson, l ond on

Archite ct : Wilkinson Eyr e Ar chitect s,

londo n

Back anchore d chain suspe nsion bridge

Maximum span:

112

Tr uss girder, bridge was pr efabricat ed at th e

Width : s.sm

limits of th e airport grounds and assembled and

Material : Brid ge girder and cha in : wrought

erec te d within ten days on site

iron, Surfacing: timber

Tot al length: 197 m

Free span:

128

Maximum width:

II.S

Mat erial : steel, glass

literature : Steven son, Rob ert, D escription of

liter atu re : Russell , lisa , Route Mast er , in :

Susp en sion Bridges, in: Ed inburgh Philosoph i-

Bridge Update, January 200 6

Walk on wat er at Kew, in : Th e O bser ver,

cal Journal , vol. S,

10 , 18 21

Prade , Marcel , l es grands ponts du monde.

literature : Gatwick Pier 6 Air Brid ge, in : New

Ponts remarquables d' Eur ope, Poit iers, 19 9 0

Steel Co nst r uctio n , Jul y 2006 , P: IS

Picon , Antoin e (ed .) , L'ar t de l'ingcni eur, Pari s,

Gatw ick Airport , new footbridge linking Pier

199 7, pp -" .>23-S 25

Six, in : Th e Architect s' Journal ,

pp 4-S

24

June

2004,

Footbridge span ning in th e longitudinal axis

Tot al length: 70 m
Free span : 7 0 m
W idth : 3 m
Materia l: Walkway: granite, Railing: bronze,
Substructure: ste el

Mill er, Gordon, Uni on Chain Bridge, in : Co nfere nce Rep ort of th e Institution of Civil Eng ineers

159 ,

May 200 6 , pp .

8 8 -95

May

14

2006

landscap e: John Pawson' s bron ze -railed br idge

is in th e tradition of landscape int er vention s at
Kew, in : Archit ecture Tod ay, Jun e 20 0 6 , p. 77

with th e development plans on th e east side of

th e r iver
Enginee r : Alan Baxt er & Assoc iates , l ond on
Architect: McD ow ell + Benedetti, l ondon
Wing bridge with 1~ m long cantilever
Free span : 6 0 m
Width : 2 m to 4 . 5 m
Mat eri al: epoxy coated steel, Surfacing: Epox y
with m ineral aggregate , Scatin g and terrace:
timber
literature : Taking a turn on th e ri ver, in : bd
Building Design , 12 May 20 0 6
Boom town, in : Building,

12

May

20 06

Swinging bridge clin ches compe tit ion , in :Plan

Magazin e , Jun e

200 6

243

New Telford Bridge in London

St Saviour's Dock Bridge in London

Bridges to Babylon in London

South Quay Bridge in London

UK, 1994

UK,1996

UK,1996

UK,1997

Footbridge in Saint Kath erine marina, or igina l

co nstr uct ion in 182 9 , parts of whi ch r emain

Footbridge over hi storic St Saviour's D ock

Bridge of for th e Rolling Stones Tour

co nnec t ion th e main stag e with an side stage in

Engine er: Jan Bobrowski & Partners, London

th e middle of th e Millennium Dome

Ar chitect : Wilkinson Eyre Ar chitect s,

Engine er : Ateli er One, London

London

alo ngside th e modern st r uc t u re

Eng ine er : Morton Partnership , London
Roll bridge
Mat erial: steel

Eng inee r: Ramboll Whitbybi rd, Londo n

Ar chitect : Nicholas Lacey & Partners,
London

Footbridge at th e Canary Wh arf grounds

D esign er: Th e Mark Fisher Studio, London

Asymmetric cable stayed bridge, di agonal

Cable -stayed bridge

Tempora ry , mov eabl e bridge structure , bridge

hangers

To ta l len gth : 34- m

is mounted to th e m ain st age , whi ch ser ves as

Fr ee span : 180 m

Maximum span: 15.2 m

a co unt er weight , in clo sed po sition, th e side

Width : 6 m
Material : st ee l

Lit er ature : Pearce , Ma rtin, Brid ge Build ers ,

London ,

20 0 2,

p . ' 39

stag e serves as a support.

Fr ee spa n: 43 m
Width : 2 m
Mat eri al : ste el
Lit erature : Lyall , Sut herla nd , Ingeni eur-Bau Kunst. Die Kon struktion der neuen Form,
Stuttgart,

2002,

pp .

1I0 -117

244

Footbr dges

Floating Bridge in London

Plashet School Footbridge in London

Hungerford Bridge in London

Bel lmouth Passage in London

UK, 1999

UK,2001

UK, 200 3

UK, Project

Bridge at th e West India Quay in London

Docklands
Enginee r : Ant hon y Hunt Associ ates , Lond on
Architect: Fut ure Syste ms, London

Footbridge connecting th e two buildings of th e

Plashet Grove School
Enginee r: Tech niker, Londo n
Architect : Bird s Portchm outh Russum
Architects , London

Two bridges one on each side of th e Charing

Cross Rail Bridge, con necting Lond on's South
Bank with th e West End
Eng ineer : W SP Group, Lond on
Architect : Lifschut z D avidson Sandilands,
London

Two bridges in Canar y Wh ar f on th e Isle of

Moveable floati ng bridge

Total len gth : 80 m
Free span : 15" m
Width : 2. 4 m to 3. 6 m
Material : Pier s and supports: stee l, Bridg e
gir de r : aluminium
Liter ature : Field , Marcus, Docklands-Br iicke

S-for m cur ved br idge , spanning over

asym metr ically formed br idge, me mbra ne
roofing
Free span : 6 7 m
Width : 2.2 m
Mat erial : ste el and Teflon , Membrane: PTF Ecoate d fibreglass

199 6 , in : Future Systems . Bauten und Proj ekt e

195"8- 20 00 , Heid elberg, 19 9 9, pp . 84 -9 1
Wells, Matthew and Hu gh Pearman,

Liter atu re : Ful3giingerbr iicke in London , in :

30 Brucken , Muni ch, 2002 , pp . 9 0- 95"

Det ail , 5", 20 0 1, pp . 8 64-867

Pearce , Martin , Bridge Build er s, London, 20 02 ,

Watan abe, Eiichi , Float ing Brid ges. Past and

Pr esent, in : Str uctural Engin eering Int ernatio-

pp . 3 0-3 5"
Wells, Matthew and Hugh Pearman,

nal, vol. 13, May 2003, pp. 128- 131

30 Briick en, Munich , 200 2, pp . 4 8-B

Co nti nuo urs girder, inclin ed mast, deck

suspended by cables
Total length : 315" m
W idth : 4 m
Material : Masts and cables: ste el , Bridge g irder :
rein for ced co ncre te , Surfacing : stone til e ,
Railing: polished st ainless steel

Dogs
Engineer : Techni ker , London
Archit ect : Birds Portchm outh Russum
Arch itects, Lond on
Moveable brid ge , Sout h bridge: Two part sw ing
br idge , No r th brid ge: bascul e bri dge
Free spa n : South bridge: 32 m , No r th bridge :
23 m

Wid th: Southbridge: 3 m to 10 m , Nor th

br idge : 1.6 m to 4 .5" m
Material : No rthbr idge: ste el folded str uct ure

245

Lockmeadow Bridge in Maidstone

William Cookworthy Bridge, St Austell

Trinity Bridge in Salford

Northbank Bridge in Stockton

UK, 1999

UK,2005

UK, 1995

UK, Project

Bridge adjace nt to t he Arch bisho p's Palace

Engineer: Flint & Ne ill Par tn ershi p, London
Arch itect : Wil kinson Eyre Arc hit ects ,
London

Bridge over Bodmi n Road

Engine er : Sustra ns, Loddiswell
Architec t : David Sheppard Architects ,
Er mingto n

Foot br idge con nec ting Salford and Manchester

Pedestrian and cycle br idge over th e Tees near

the city cent re
Engine er: W SP Group, London
Architect: Lifschu tz Davidson Sandi lands,
London

Cable stayed bridge, integrated lighting syste m ,

deck as slender as possible to m ini mize the
im pact on th e sur round ings
Tot al length : 80 m

45"0

Fre e span : 4 5" m

Width : 2.I m
Materi al : Cable and mast : steel , Brid ge girder:
alum inum

mm deep box girde r

Fre e span : 25" m
Widt h: 2.5" m
Material: weath eri ng ste el
Liter ature: Bridge, St . Auste ll, Cornwall David
Sheppard Architects, in : Arc hit ect ura l Review,
Decem ber 2005", PI" 68 - 69

Architect : Santiago Calatrava , Zurich

Asym metric cable -stayed brid ge , incli ned m ast
Tot al length : 78.5" m
Free span : 54 m
Wid th : 6 m to I I m
Mat er ial: steel
Literature : Sharp , Den ni s, Landmark link .
Arc hitec t ura l design of a cable stay bri dge in
Salford, Engla nd , in: Arc hit ectural Review,
March [9 9 6
Frampton , Kenneth (ed .), Calatrava Brid ges,

Litera ture : Firth, lan , Tale of Two Br idges , in:

Th e Str uctural Eng ineer, vol. 80 , 2002,

Basel , 1996, pp. [88 -[95

Jod idio, Philip, Sant iago Ca latrava , Co logne,

PI" 26 -3 2
Pearce , Martin , Bridge Builders, Lond on , 200 2,

199 8 ,

pp . 216 -22 1

pp . [4 8 -[5[

Cable stayed bri dge with two asym metric

consoles, bridge girder co nst r ucte d as a frame,
int egrated light ing
Maxi mum span : 27 .5 m
Mat eri al : Co nsole : concrete, weath ering steel

246

Footbridges

Bridge in Cascine di Tavola

Trepponti in Comacchio

Passerella Rari-Nantes in Padua

Passerella Olimpica in Turin

1,2003

1, 1634

I, Project

1,2006

Footbridge over th e Filimortula, or ignal bridge

destroyed by retreating German troops in 1944
Enginee r: Alessandro Adilard i, Pr ato and
Lor enz o Frasco ni, Prato

Footbridge in th e city ce nt re at th e conflue nce

of three (or iginally five) ca nals, also known as
Pont e Pallott a, rebuilt severa l times
Architect : Luca Dan ese di Ravenna

Pedestrian and cycle bridge between th e Via

Isonzo and th e Via Vitt ori o Veneto
Engineer : Enzo Siviero , Padu a
Archit ect : Progeest , Padu a

Bridge over railway platforms between th e

former Mercati Gener ali and th e Lingotto
Arch itect /E ngi nee r : Hugh Dutton Asso cies,
Pari s

Back-an chor ed suspensio n bridge , cables fixed

to th e ends of th e mast

Arc h bridge, five with stai r ways leadin g to

a high platform , flanked by tw o tow er s
Mat erial : Pietra d'lstria, a typ e of stone

Arch bridge with tw o ar t iculatio ns

Arch br idge with 6 9 m high arc h, suspe nded

deck

Free span: 18.4 m

Width: 2.6 m
Material: ste el , Surfacing: timber

Literature : Cor tr ight , Rob ert 5., Bridging th e

World, W ilsonvill e, 2003, P: 181

Free span: 75 m
Width : 4 m
Material : ste el , timber

Total length : 385 m

Maximum span : 150 m
Width : 4 .3 m
Material : Arch : st eel

Literature: Oper e 0 9 - Rivista Toscana di

Architettura, vol. 3, Jun e 2005

Literature : Aydemir, Murat , O lympic ar ch

gives Lingotto a lift , in : Brid ge Design &
Eng ineer ing , vol. 12, March 2006, p. 16
Beidel er , Juli en and Philippe Donnaes, L'arc
sous toutes ses formes, in : Le Moniteur des
Travaux Publics et du Batiment, 30 Mar ch 207,
pp.64-7 0

247

Bridge in Venice

Ponte Piazza Ie Roma in Ven ice

Nesciobrug in Amsterdam

Dunajec Footbridge, Sromowce Nizne

1,1963

I, under const ruction

NL,2 006

PL,2006

Ent rance to th e Palazzo Q uer ini Stampalia,

near Campo San Marco
Eng ineer : Pier o Maschi etto
r\ rc hitc ct: Ca rlo Scar pa , Venice

Bridge over th e Ca nal Gr and e connec t ing t he

railw ay stat ion w ith th e Piazzale Rom a

Pedestrian and cycle br idge over th e new

suburb of IJbu rg over Amsterdam's Rhin e
Cana l
Engineer : Ar up, Lond on

Foot bri dge over th e Sro mo wce Nizne in Poland

and Cc r vcnvJ Klastor in Slovakia
Enginee r: Mosty Wroclaw Design and Resear ch
Offi ce , Wr oclaw, Jan Biliszczuk

Arch br idge
Free span: 8 m
Width : 1.6 m
Material : Arch and railin g: iron, Several
stairs: stone, Surfacing and hand rail : timber

Architect : Sant iago Ca lat rava, Zurich

Total length: 94 m
Free span: 77 m
Materi al: ste el , glass

Architec t : Wilkinson Eyre Architects, London

Suspe nsion bridge with one main cable , curve d
bridge girde r
Tot al length: 790 m
Free span : 168 m
Width : Walkway: 2 m , Cycle path : 3.) m
Mater ial : Bridge : steel, Approach
ramp s: co ncre te

Cable-stayed brid ge
Tot al length : 1) 0 m
Maximum span: 9 0 m
Width: 3,) m
Material : Pylon , half frams and wind
protecti on : steel, Deck girder: laminated
timber, Sur facing: sto ne pin e timber
Liter ature : Russell , Lisa, Elega nt footbri dge
co nnects bord er resorts, in : Bridge Design &
Eng ineer ing , vol. 12 , December 200 6, p. 8

248

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Architects, Engmeers

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BLA ZQ U EZ -GUANTE R ARQUIT ECT ES

BLOND EI. , Pie rre

A BE RN ET HY, J ame s

47

B O BR O W SKI > J AN B O BR O W SK I

A CKE RMANN, C h r istoph

ACKE RMAN N , Ku rt

B O LLI N G ER + G RO HMANN

22 7

108

BONAT Z, P aul

ACK ERMANN UN D PARTN ER A RCH IT EKTEN

AD ILARDl , A le s sa n d ro

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AFA ssO C IADO S

14 0
AS SOCI AT ES

242

Stepha ne

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APA R ICIO , A n g el

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A RSA C

36

A R UP

24 4

14 6

71

28

13 6 , 16 3 ,1 64- 16 7 , 237 , 24 ) , 247

CA RLO S F ER N A ND EZ C ASAD O

26

PARTNERS

CHAB LA IS ET P O FF ET

1)0

CH AM BER S, William

28

C IVIL ENG IN EER INGS SOL UTIONS

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CO NZ ETT BRONZ IN I G ARTM ANN

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231

20 2

CO NZ ETT, J ii r g

212

C ROZ ET

B ALDI SCH W I LER , Bl a s iu s

41,42 ,44
) 4, 6 4, 13 0

&

WIDM AN N

34

)2

EIFF EL, G u s ta v e
E SSEX , J a m e s

40

224
40 , 233

22

EST UD IO G UADIANA

23 3

ET H ERID G E, William

22

F EI C H TI N G ER ARC H IT E KTEN
F EIC HTIN GE R , Di e t mar

144 ,163,16 7,2 39

F ERN AND EZ TROYANO , L e on ard o

40

F ICHNTER + K OP P L

)2

D A P O N T E, A n to nio

200

1) 8

228

138

F INLEY , J am e s

26

23 4 , 23)

10 6

36

F I N ST ER W A LD ER , Ulrich )9 ,64, 72, 82 , 130

D AR BY III , Abra ham

26

DASHWO OD, Francis

28

Fm sco

126

FI RT H, I an > FLINT & N EIL L

D AU N ER , J O LI AT & AS SO C I ES 98

F ISCH ER VO N ERLACH, J oha n n B ernha r d

B ETAN COU RT , Augusti n

D AV ID R O W EL L ENGI N EERS 4 7

F LI N T & N EILL P A RT N ER SH I P

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D AV ID S HEPPA R D A R C HIT ECTS

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BI E LM EI ER

&

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W EN Z L 17 9

BILI SZC ZU K , J AN
BI LL, M a x

92

BIR DS P ORT CH MOU TH R U SSU M

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D ESLAU GI ER S,

247

217

Francois

DE LE SSER T , B enj am in
244

239

42

D ESIG N L ABOR B RE ME RHAV EN

D EVO N C O UNTY CO UN C IL

24 1

FO HL, Klau s

24)

D ECK ER I N G ENI EUR G ESELLSC H AF T

)6

28

177

FH ECO R I N G EN I ER O S C ON SULTOR ES

J O U R DAN

D A R BY I , Abrah a m

40

B ED N A R SK I > ST U D IO B ED N AR SKI

2 16

E I ERM AN N , Egon

F IN K , Albe rt

B AZAI N E , P i e r r e- Dom i n iq u e

Dur-o uv

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D YCKE R HOFF

F EHLI NG, R e n ate

140

BA NDH AU E R , C h ristian Gottfrie d H e inrich

B ER D O LY ET

&

C ULMANN , K arl

24

46

F EEG E & G OTTHA R D )4

C O R AY, R ichard

B ALM O N D , C eci l

17 0
8 o , 122, 18 8 , 212 ,

216 ,22 1

243

BACHOF N ER, R ol f

36

E RDMANNSDOR FF , Friedrich W il helm vo n

A RZAD UN, F e rna n do H

AUMUL LER, Britta

238

III , 234, 23 6

C HALEY, J o seph 41

224,236, 242,247

226

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&

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CAMP EN O N B ER NARD C O N ST RUCTIO N

181

216

D R EW R Y, C ha r le s S t uart

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EGGE R , H a r al d

238

A R U P, ave N iq u is t

2 2)

2 10

A NTHONY H U N T A SSO C IAT ES

26

DOMEN IG & WALLNE R

38

B URY , C laus

49

22),227,22 8

D O MI N G O F ERR E A R CH IT ECT S 14 6

BU C K MI N ST ER F ULL ER, Ri chard

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48

36,242

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D ISC H ING ER , Franz )9, 6 4

A LBY, Am ed e e

23 8

1)2

DILL ER S COFID IO + R EN FR O , 22 1

236

B R U N EI. , Is a m ba rd King d o m
22)

17

DI CK BAU ER , F ra nk

D I LLO N , J a cque s

ALBE RTI, L e on Ba ttista 22

AN DR EOTTI & PARTN ER S

PART N ER

B R U NI N G H O FF U ND R A M P F I N G EN I EU R E

42

P A RT N ER

&

&

) 9 , 62 , 64

BROWN , S i r S am ue l

A LBE RT, Juliu s W ilhelm

AL BE RT SP EER

BR ASSI E ,

DIC K, Rud ol f

2 16 , 223

B R IX, Adol p h F e rdi na n d W e nzes laus

ALA N BAXT ER

&

22 7

233

218

22 4

223

96, 110,13 6, 1)4,24)

FONSECA, Ant o n io Ad a o cia

F O ST ER ASSOC IATES

16 8

F R ASCO NI , L orenz o

246

14 0

FRAN K O . G E H R Y AND ASSO C IATES

FRAS IN E , H ein z

222

34 , 38

2 32

251

FREI OTTO> OTTO

!D E A M

FR EYSSI NET, E uge ne

FU TU R E S YST EMS
Fu s s, N i ko laus

62

!D aM

ifb

24 4

40

L OHM ER , Ger d

233

62,6 4

LU T Z , LO H RE R, EGEN HOEE R

232

F RO HLO H STAFFA KiiHL EC KE R

I N G ENI EURGRUPP E BAUEN

229,23

134

22 2

M +G I N G ENIEUR E

2 17

M AI LLART, Robert

56 ,6 0, 1 24

J A N B O BR OW SKI & P ART N ER S 174, 243

M ALI N OW SKY, M AR C > G RO UPE ALTO

GEN I NAS CA D El .FO RT RI E 15 0

J A N ST()R lIIER PART N ER

M A N T ER O LA, J a vier

GERBER , H ei nri ch

J A N SO N + 'vV O LERIL\1

GE ESI N, R on

15 6

GERKA N M A RG
G I HORD

&

22 9
PA RTNER

&

18 2, 226

J ESSE, Di rk

PAR T N ER S 18 6

( ; ILL ET, G ui lla u m e

MA RG,

(~ R AD I N G ENI EURP LA NU N GE N

M ARTI N , G e org e

ClUJ'!' & P ART N E R

K AU FM AN N , H erm ann

GRO UPE A LTO

126

2 30

2 39

15 2

K IR K LA ND , A lexa n d e r

23, 159

M ASO N O R Dl SH , R ol and

H AC K H O fER , Jo se f
Za ha

H ART EL

&

2 17

SC H I ER MEYE R

I-L\u s u-:, Martin

2 16

H AL\I ER L, P eter

179

I-lA K ES ASSOC IATE S

H A,\ DI ,

KL EN Z E, L e o vo n

36

M EH RT EN S, G e org

Thorstcn

H AP PO LD, B U R o

224

224

M EN N , C h r is t ia n

22 5

KU BLER U ND LE IBBRA ND

202

K ii N Z LE, O tto

24 1,242

KU P P LER , J ohann G eorg

48

220

34

H FAT H ERWI CK ST U D IO

19 0

L ACH ENM AN N , G ust!

223

MI TI S, Ignaz v on

39
222

M O G OR AY, A n dre

44

54

LEE, R ich a rd

H O UI S, Luis

L EN l': E, P et er J o s e ph

80

HU G H DU T T O N ASSO CI AT ES

LI ESS, J oh ann e s

HU N T, A n t h o ny > AN T HO N Y HU N T A SSO CIAT ES

21

N ERV I , Lui gi
32,202

49,59 ,62 ,92

NODE ENG INEE RS

238

218
&

PAR T N ER S 243
206

13 8,244, 245
153

OHM A N N, Friedrich 217

ORDl SH, R owland M a s on

21

L ()S C H ER, Ca rl Im m anu el

4 2 ,44

60

N ICHO LAS L ACEY

LI G NUM C ON SU LT A N G ER ER & PA RT N ER
LI O N, A n d re - Lo u is

72

N EY & PAR T N ER S

200

LI FSCHU T Z DAVIDS O N SAN DI LANDS

L OD O LI , Ca rlo

M OR Y, Hans

NAV I ER, C la u de H enri

46

L EO NH AR DT, F r it z

246

8 8 E., 90 ,

243

22 1

H O AR E, H en r y 28

Hu cr .r, M art in 22 1

55

M O STY W R O CLAW D e sign and R e s e a r ch Office

L AUGI ER , M arc Antoi ne

55 ,2B

60

M O RT O N PART N ER SHI P

13 1 , 17 6, 2 3 1 , 24 0
L AUB E I N G ENI EU R E

48

239
23 6 , 23 7,239 ,2 4 0

M OHRI N G , Bruno

M O R SCH , E m i l

L AP L EO NH ARDT A NDR A U NO PAR T N ER

2 18

H EN N EBI QU E, Fra nco is 55

H ESSE, L u dw ig F erd i nan d

230

L AM BO T , J o seph L ou is

20 4

H ENK E- S CHR EI ECK ARC H ITE KTEN

HOSSDO RF , H ein z

14 2

M OR A NDI , Ric c ard o

H EG G ER H EG G ER S CH LE IFI'
H EI N SE N, Hein

MIMR AM , Marc

M O NI ER , J o se ph

H AZA R D s \ YHI T E 42

2 16

72

MIM R AM I N G ENI ERI E

54

K O NI G U N D H EU NI SCH
241

38, 48

MI CH O T EY, J e an - L ouis

K NIP P ER S H EL BIG I N G ENI EUR E

K O EN EN , M athia s

242

M El LI PETER ARC HIT EKTEN

38

K NI GH T , Marti n

14 9 , IS8 , 236

36

M cD O W EL L + B EN ED ETTI

KI ST ER S C HE ITHA UER GR OSS

Hx n m,

247

M AYR LU D ESCH ER

KIR CH ER , A t ha na s i u s~ 8

23

2 17

36

M ASCHI ETTO, Pi ero

178

K AWAl\I ATA, T ad a shi

GRUBENMAN N , H an s Ul rich

24 0

M ART E, MARTE A RC H ITE KTEN

33

228
K AAG + SC H W AR Z

GR UBE N;\ IAN N, J oh ann e s

Volkw in 18 9

MAROT, M ichel

60

Ju s s ow, H e inri ch C hr is to p h

CRA NI CH ER, Gu st av 38

III , 13 6

> CARLOS F ER NA ND EZ CASA DO

22 ~

227

J O H NSO N , Phil ipp

238

225

34

OTTO, F RE I

49

aV E AR U P

P AR T N ER S

&

36

140 , 16 8

247

Architects, Engineers

252

22, 15 8

PALLAD IO, A n drea

P ALM , M ichael

229
2[ 7

PAUL, Marti n

2[8

PAUSE R , A lfred
PAW SO N , J ohn

20

P ERRON ET, J e a n R odolphe

P O LARI S, A lfa

204

V IRLOG EUX, Michel

226

VOG EL + PARTN ER

4 2,43

42

WALTH ER, R ene

S EG U IN, Ju le s

42

WAYSS, G u stav Adolf 54

Rem v 26
&

P RI TC H AR D , Thomas F arnol

PARNT ER

26

246
20 8

PUS HAK AR KTE KTE R

246

SM EATON, J ohn

237

R EIT ZEL , Erik

R EN NI E, J ohn
R ESAL, J e a n

W EISZ, H .

SOAN E, S i r J ohn

22

W ES

W I EGA N D , W erner
WH ITB Y, BIRD

P AR T N ER

&

237,2 39
&

W IL KIN SON EY RE

174 , 186,2 4 2,243,2 4 5,247

224

WOLF ENSB ERG ER, Rudo l f

S USTRAN S

RI CO LAI S, R o b ert L e

76 , 94 , [36, 22 [

WSP

T AM MS, F rie d rich

76

Gr-ou e 24 4 , 245

Z EIN ING ER ARCHITE KT EN

227

Z IAN E

218

Z I ESEL , Wolfdietrich

3 LHD [ 70

88

24 4

T EL FO R D, T homas

36

153

T H E M ARK F ISHE R ST U DIO

RIT T ER , Karl Wilhelm

52, 5 6

T O DT , Fritz 59

RI TT ER, J o s ef 24

T ORROJ A, E duar do

R O EB LI N G , J ohann August
R UTTI GER, M a ximili an

38, 4[ ,4 2

23 I

R U ETTI MAN N , T oni 198

224

24 3

68
68 , 16 6

TO R RO JA, J ose Anton io

210

T O RTI , F abio

40

T R AI TT EUR , W ilhelm von

32

TRI EST, F e rd i n a n d von

T R O YAN O , L e onardo F ER N AN DEZ

SA U ERZAPFE, Martin
SAUND ER S, Todd
S CARPA, Carlo

'3 4

206

> FE R N AN DE Z TROYAN O , L e onardo

U W E TIETZ E

&

74

[77

245

T EC HN IK ER

160

26

ST ORME R > J AN STORME R PA RT N ER

238
[44, 226

206

STIGLAT, K lau s 59

STRASKY, J i ri

'36, 15 6 , 24 3

110 , '36, 154, 156 , 16 3,

W IL KIN SON, J oh n

STUDIO B EDN AR SKI

16 6

[7 8

PA RTNERS

WI LH ELMSEN , T ommie

[ 24 , 221

P ART N ER
P AR N T ER

&

&

225

228

PART N ER

SPE ER > ALBE RT S P EER

RI EBEN BAU ER, J ohann

RU F, S e p

&

SOBEK > W ER N ER S OB EK I N G ENI EUR E

SU ESS UNO STALLE R I N GENI E U R E

R FR RI C E FRANC IS RI CHI E

74

36, 4 7,241

229

RIIl ER A, J Os e E ugen io

74

W ENAWE SER, O tto

STROBL, Wolfgang

26

227

W EIL AND, Si lvio

36

204

R ELLI N G BAU STATIK

174

SMIT H, W i lliam

ST EFAN POLONY I

PART N ERS

&

B R OW N

&

7 2, 80 , [30

W ER N ER SOBE K I N GENI EU R E

SPIELMANN, A lai n

R AM BOLL WH ITBY BI R D

R EDPAT H

[9 0

54

STA UBLI, KU R ATH

Q UADR IC I N GENI EU R E

W EBST ER, 11

36, 4 7, 24 [

SMITH, J o hn

P O LO N YI > STEFA N P O LON YI

> W H ITBY, BIR D

239
228

S EGUIN , Marc

S KM ANT HONY HU N TS

235

POLONCEA U, A ntoine

PR O GEEST

S CHONHE RR, Torbe n

S CHULITZ + PARTN ER

S IV I ER O, E nzo

23 [

P ET ER U NO LO CHN ER
PLAGN IOL, Bru n o

229

V I EZ EN S, L u dwig

S CK ELL , Frie drich L udwig von 32

242

232,233,234

P ED ELTA

4 9 ,71 , 9 0 , 92, [3[, [6 0

S C HLA ICH, J org

PAR N T ER

224

24 7
38

S CHLA ICH B ERGE RMANN u nd PART N ER

V ERANTIUS, FA UST US

7 8,79 ,9 0 ,9 2,108,112, [ [ 4 , [82 -[85, 189 ,

V IFQ UA IN, J e an B aptiste

222,226,2 27,228 ,229,23 0,239

V ICAT, L ou is -Jo s eph 4 2, 54

39, 4 4

2 [7

2 [8

253

Index of Places

Nordpol Bridge
A(;E:--I

236

B O BLI N G E N

23 2

A .\ \S TE R D A :' \

ANG E RS

FI G EAC

I 12 , I 19

B O DMI N , C ORN W ALL

AUARRAS

B OUDR Y

24 7

231

A:--IDO A IN

223

West Park Bridge

49

AC HBE RG

AR D EZ

' 3, P

A SSE :--I S

2 )2

Holbein Footbridge

96

Iron Bridge

223

1) 0

236

F RE D R I K ST A D
FR EI BUR G

Port Bridge Vegesack

FRI BOURG

224

241

BRU G ES

C A M BR ID G E

B.-\D E N -BADE N

C ASC INE

222

Port Bridge

14 6

CO M ACC H IO

174

B ED FORD

C R ETE I L

B FI . I. H ; ARD E- SUR - VA l. SE R I N E
B E N SH EIM

D OL E

.tbtei Bridge 223

121

GR AZ

2 24

DRYIlUR GH
DU SS ELDORF

36,241

B ERLI N K O P E NI C K

DUMFRI ES
36

40

22 4

HAMBURG

22)

184

36, 47

66

DURH AM

E DZE l. 1.

Museum Bridge 232

EGG

Pasarela Padre Arrupe 233

ESS I NG

Ponce da Ribera H
BIR CHERWEID

H A N O V ER

Expo Bridqes
Skywalk

72

24 1

H ERI s Au

)0

49
24

H ITTI SAU

>

241

23,51

Kumma Bridge

2 2)

ESS LING EN
EX ETE R

226

226

H ENGSTE Y

16 6

19 3

134

GROS SENHA IN
GR E NOBLE

BI LB AO

Campo de Volancin Bridge

189

Wiecker Bridge

)4

Katzbuckel Bridge

19 3

39

)1

DUISBURG

Expo Bridge

Lion Bridqe 4 8

2 16

Ry ck Bridge

Brid,qe in the Chatl ott enburq Pare 32

Gothenbura Footbridqe 223

36

GR EIF SWAL D

2 37

Gericke Footbridge

B E RWI CK

GIU ,\l AGLlO , M AG GI A-TAL

D OR E N-A LB ERS CHWE NDE

222

233

Pont d'en Gomez 0 de la Princesa H,

) 2

G LASG OW

D ESSAU

B ERLI N

BER N E

Iron Bridge

23 7

D EIZI SAU

2 22

LI G NO N -Lo EX

Pasarela de Sant Feliu 233

36

2 37

206

B ER G E N

>

26

2 46

CO RCA POLO

2 42

GIRO N A

CON WA Y C A ST L E

2 19

G ATW I CK

18 6

G E N EVA 44

14 0

C OI M B RA

202

B ARUTH
B ASEL

10 6

24 6

)4

COA LB ROO K DALE

Las Glorias Bridge

1)2

GAT ESHEAD

22

T AVO LA

I)J

C HAZEL ET

BAR CEl. O NA

44
1S3

18 8

BAD H O .\ l B U R G VON DER H OH E 222

38

126

130

F Ro JAc H

GA ISSAU

BAMB ERG

I J2

FR AU E NF ELD

Bridge by G. Wayss H
BR IST OL

AUB ERY Il.I.IERS

224

2 25

22 5

52

FRA SC O

BR EM E N

41,1 0 0

237

FR A NK FURT

BR A N D E N BURG A N D ER HAV E L

A:--INOKA Y 4 3

2I6

F ELDKIRCH

B O CHUM

M ETTI N G E N

H OR N CLIFF
H O T TO N

15 9

242

218

HU NI N GU E

1]6

2 10

233

254

Ind ex of Places

46

I LKL EY

LYO N

44

24 6

PADU A

I N VERC AULD

47

Passerelle du CollCse 44

P A L EN CI A

I NVERM ARK

19 8

Passerelle Saint Georqes 44

PARI S

Passerelle Buttes- Chaumont 40

Passerell e Saint Vincent 4 4

32

K ASS E L

10 8

KEH LH EIM

28

K E\V G AR D EN S

51

L AN G EN ARG EN

49

38

L OH N E

19

10 0

20 8

P O STBRID G E ,

Bellm outh Passaq e 244

Brids e at th e Royal Victor ia Dock
Bridp es to Babylon

24 3

Floatmq Brids e 244

138

R APP ER SWI L

178

19

RIJ EK A

170

R IP OLL

16 4

R O N G E L L EN > T R Av ER sI N A T O BE L

Temporary Bridpe.fo r A rchitekt urwoche A 1 179

R O N N EBURG

Footb ridq e over th e Mi ttle rer RinS

MUR AU
MURC I A

227

228

R O ST O C K

Mahlb usen Bridq e 228

216
111, 216

Nort h Brids e 7 9
R OTH

228

217

N AU D E RS

Nell' Te!ford Brids e 24 3

NESSEN TAL
N ICE

Rollins Brids e

N IE N B U RG

Roy al Ballet School Brids e 154

16,

Bridoe to th e Wiesn s rounds 227

Plashet School Footbri dq e 24 4

19 0

17 2

239

R ENN ES

H uns eiford Bridse 244

Millennium Bridse 10 1, 16 8

56

54

SA I NTES

38

SALFO R D

38

N U RE M BE RG

245
235

SA N T C EL O N I

OB ERHAU SE N -RIPSH OR ST

St Sav iour's Dock Bridg e 24 3

O FF E N BACH

54

S CHA FFHAU SEN

OV R O NNA Z

220

S CH NAITTACH

LU C C A > V AGLI 0 1 SOTT O

OS CHAT Z

219

OXFORD

LU C ER N E

239

SA R R EGU EM I N ES

South Qyay Bridoe 24 3

234

24 0

SA IN T - M AU R IC E

200

Science Mu seum Brids e 156

LORCA

235

P U ENT E LA R EI N A

35

Bridqe in the Deutsches M useum

L O ND O N

2I

22 1

PR AGU E

MUN ICH

226

220

Dartmoor

22 8

P O T SD A M

227

MI ND EN
M O Y LA N D

235

P ONTR ESI N A

120

MIDD L ET O N , C U M BR IA

50

78

P O NT EV EDRA

238

M EYL A N

74

36 , 46

P FAFFIKO N > BIR CH ERW EID

89

M ETTI N G E N

238

42

PFOR ZH EIM

36

M ELRO SE

234

L L EIDA

Mercha nt s Brids e 136

20

LIG N O N-L o EX
L I L LE FJ O RD

P EEB L ES

Brough ton Bridse

19 2,2 26

LI N GENAU

P ASSY

Bn dqe over th e M3 0 motonvay 68

M A N NH EIM

LAVE RT EZZO

L E H AVR E

Brids e over the ,Han zanares 234

MAN CH EST ER

238

239

PAR IS - L A D EF E N SE

Glorias Catalano Footbr idq e

LA NG EN -Bu CH

L E ER

24 2

56

LAE R /M ESC H EDE

L ARR AU

Pont des Arts 26 , 27

M ADRI D

KI N G ST O N -U P O N -HU L L

14 2

Passerell e So!ferino

St ress Ribbon Bridse 7 6

18 2

144

Passerell e Simone de Beau voir

MA IDSTO N E

Lockm eadow Brids e 24 5

LADHOLZ

26, 238

Passerelle D ebil ly

K zw 24 2
KI E L

234

227
22

120

SASSN ITZ

15, 114 , 116

SC H W AN GA U
S IER R E

23
229

229

98

S INGEN AM HOH ENT W IE L

229

255

Picture Credits

20 4

SOP If IEN HO L M

SR O MO WCE N IZ NE

247

24~

ST A USTE LL
S T D E NI S 239

43

V A LS

Bridge orer the Sitter 17

V ENT

24

82
39

VIE NNA

Erdberger Footbridge

245

Zollamt Bridge

240

STRABOURG

Berfin : p. 103: arc h ive; pp. 106-107: Mik e Schl aic h: P: II I :

Ca rlos Fernandez Ca sad o ; p. 116, r ight : Dcu t sc-hcs Museum
Muni ch , ph ot ographi c se rv ice, Beato Harr er ; P: 11 8: Jiirgen
Schm idt ; p. 120 left , P: 121 : Sc-h laic-h RC'rgerma nn un d
Par t ner ; PI" 116 -127: Gr iff, Fircc-o : rp . 140 -14 1: Ch r ist ian
Richt cr s, Mun ste r; pp . 1 ~ 4 - 1 H : Nick \Vood, Lond on ; pp .
1 ~ 6 - I P : Jam es Morri s, Lon don; p. ~8: Renderin g Zaha
Hadi d ; P: 16" left; Svcn W or ner. Stuttgart ; r ight : Fret Ot to ,
rind ing Form, II. ; PI" 170 -171; JU ID, Zag re b ; p. 17H: Leo
van del' Klcij ; 1'. 179 : Flo r ian l iol zhcrr , Muni ch ; P' IH8; Jiirg
Con zett , Chur; P: ,89, ce nt re; Schlaich Bcr gcrmann lind
Partner; P: 19 J, Wreck er Brid ge : Brigitt e Braun ; PI" 100 101: Philippe Ruault , Nan te s; pp. 204-105: Er ik Reit zel : PI"
206-207: Todd Sau nde rs; pp . 20 8-209 : P ushak arkit ckt cr ; PI"
116-147, Graz: HelmutTezak; Naudcrs : Vcrc in Alttinster miinz;
Strengen : Mucha, Alois, Holzbruc-kcn, Wic sbadcn /Bcrlin ,
1995; Vienna, Erdbcr jjcr Foothridge : Alfred Pauscr: Horton
and Woluwc Saint -Pier re: [can-Luc Dcru (Daylight); Lucern e:
Kantonal c Denkmalpflepc Luzcrn ; l'o ntrcsin a: O tto Kunz]r-;

Ponte Ptar r ale Roma 24 7

~o

STOCK TO N

Garc ia Gr inda , Madrid ; P: 71, left ; Ren e Walth er : P' 82,

ri ght ; Leonh ard t , 1994; P: 87; Inst. F. Massivb au , TU

Palazzo Q!1erini Siampaqlia 24 7

40

S TUN 1M K UB El

22 I

V E NI C E

Ganggelibrugg 22 o
STA .vIS

histori sch cn Archi te kt u r ; Pet er s, 19 8 7 ; P' )6 and P: 42 left :

Pctcr s, 20 0) ; P: 4 0, St Pet er sburg: Ur su la Bau s; P' ~4,
Chazc lct: Klau s St iglat, Kar lsruhe ; Offenb ach : Jo rg
Rcvm endt , Darmst adt ; Du sseld orf: Stiglat, 19 96 ; Brem en ,
Tou louse , Sai ntcs : arch ive; P' ~ 6 : Bill, 19 , 5; P: 6,. left :
Dvw idag-Rcport ; P: 6H- 69: Ch r ist ina Diaz Mo ren o , Efrcn

VALSO J /T ici no 221

23

ST PETERS BURG

Reprint, Mu ni ch , 19 6 , ; Fischer von Er lach , Entwurf cinc r

62

V AIHI N G E N

ST FOR TUNAT
STGALLIN

P: 22, Old Wa lton : archi ve ; Pl': 2 ~, 2" Grub cnm ann :

Maggi / Navone , 200 3; p . H, fr om le ft : Fau st o Vera ntio ,

9,60

VAG LI DI SOTTO

2I

2 18

f-lackinger Footbridge 2 18

STlITTGART

Bridge at iV/ax Ev t]: Lake 92

94

VRANOV

Bridge on the University o.fStuttgart 23 0

Cannstatier Footbridge 131

W AIl B lI N G E N

Footbridge in Rosenstein Park 9 0

Rems Footbridge I 23 I

Heilbronner StraJ3e Bridge 230

Rems Footbridge II 231

l.a Feru: Footbridge 23 1

W E I LA M R HE IN

l.owent or Footbridge 230

W EI M A R

Praqsau cl Footbridges I and 11 22 9

W E ST WYCO M B E

Schiller Footbridge 88

WI ESBA D E N

2 17

S ULZ

W INC H

80

S URANSU NS

23
64

34

WI N C H EST E R, AV INGTONPA RK

110

S W .-\N SEA

28

49

WE TTINGEN

24,2 17

S TRENGE N

38

W ET T E R

28

STO URH EA D

176

WI N T E R T H U R

WINTE RT HUR - Wi.iLf LlNGEN

T AI N

43

WIS SEK ERK E

TA RR STE PS

TH US IS

Ex MOOR

12,2 1

2E

TERRASS A

W6R LITZ

28

124
56

39

28

W OL UW I, SA I NT -PIE RRE

218

~3

TOULO US E

Y V E R D O N - l E S- BAI N S

l'asserellc des so up i r5

~4

Passcrcllc PSG 240

To uRNo N

ZARAGOZA

Bridge overthe inter-city highway

43

T IUVERS INA TOB El ., R O N G E l L E N

Travcrsincr Footbridge I 12 2
Traversincr Footbridge II
T 1U'.LO N
T HI N 2 2 0

240

22 1

2I2

236

Bridge Pavilion at the Expo 15 8 , 236

Trin : Walter Bieler; Val So j: Martin Hugli;Yvcrdon.lcs-Batns:

Beat Widm er: Prag: Jir i Strasky: Bad Homhurg, Hanover, Expo
Bridges, Paris-La Defense : Schleich Ikrgerm ann uncl Partn er ;
Baden -Baden: Ingenieur gru ppe Baucn , Karlsruh e; Berlin ,
Ger icke Footbridge und Gothe nbu rg Foothridge : Senator fUr
Bau- und \Vohnu ngswescn tpub.). l:uf3gangcrb riicken in Berl in,
Berlin , 1976; Hohlingcn : Janson + \Volfrum ; Brandenhurg
an del' Havel: Llwc Tietze l.andschaftsarchitcktcn: Brem en :
Torstcn Wild c-Schr ot cr; Essing, Potsdam , Ronn cbu rp: Richard
J. Dietrich ; Hano ver, Skywalk: Schullt z + Part ner Architc ktcn;
Lehne: Claus Bur )'; Oschatz: Mike Schlaich; Schnaitt ach :
Ingenieur-Ruro Ludw ig Viczr-ns: Singen am Hohcnt wicl:
Michael Palm; Backpack Bridge : Maxim ilian Riitt iger; Asserts:
Cor tr ight , Br idging the World , 200 J; Andoain, Llcida,Tcrrassa:
Pcdelta : Lcrca, Madr-id, Zaragoza: Car los Fernandez Casado ;
Palencia. Pcnt cvcdra : Phccor Ingen iero s Co nsulto rcs; Agen:
Gc rr it de Vos; Aubcr-villicr s, Belkgarde-sur -Valscrtnc, Mcylan:
Jacques Mossot (www.s tr uct urac. dcu Crc tr -i l: Ger ard Mc t ro n
(ww w.structurac .dc}; Do le, Sar rcgucrnincs: Alain Spielmann
Architcct c; Figeac, St Den is, Saint-Maurice, Toulouse;
Mimram Ingenierie ; l.arrau: hom c.pl anct .nl/ r- br uit oza :
Lc Havre; Mar -rev, Lcs Pont Mod crn cs, Paris 199 5"; Rcnnc s:
Marc Malinow skv.Trclon : Gro upe At-cora; Exeter; Clive
Ryall; Gatwick, London , Sout h Q uay Bridge : W ilkinson
Eyre Architects; Kcw: Kcw Gard ens; Kingston-upon -Hull:
Mclro well + Benedetti; London, Bridges to Babylon :The Mark
Fisher Studios; London, Plashct Schoo l f oo thr idge : Nicholas
Cane; London , Hungerford Bridge : Ian Lamhot ; Stoc kton:
Lifschutz Davidson Sand ilands; Cascinc di Tavola: Alessandro
Adilardi; Com acchio : phot og raphic archives of the commune of
Co mrnacchio; Padua: Lorenzo Attoli co; Tur in : Michel Dcnancc;
Venice, Palazzo Qu erini Stampalia: Christian Hell: Venice, Pon te
Piazzalc Roma:Tobia Zor dan; Amsterdam: Ar up; Sro mowcc
Nizne: Pawcl Hawr vszko w
All ot he r photograph s; Wiifri cd [)c cha u , St uttgar t
\\"\\'\\'.wiIfr icd -d ech au .de

Authors: Ursula Baus, Mike Schlaich

Phot ographer : Wilfr ied Dcchau et al.
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