Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Roberto Casalbuoni
Dipartimento di Fisica
Universita di Firenze
Lectures given at the Florence University during the academic year 1998/99.
Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relativity and Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Noether's theorem for relativistic elds . .
Field Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 The Real Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 The Charged Scalar Field . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 The Dirac Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 The Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . .
1.5 Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 The Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Wick's theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Feynman diagrams in momentum space .
1.5.4 The cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 One-loop renormalization
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
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4
6
6
9
10
12
14
17
27
27
29
30
33
36
36
38
45
52
54
56
63
73
85
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
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. 91
. 97
. 99
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. 113
. 116
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. 123
. 127
. 129
. 135
. 137
. 142
. 145
123
152
169
180
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
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. 180
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. 196
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. 204
213
239
259
Chapter 1
Notations and Conventions
1.1 Units
In quantum relativistic theories the two fundamental constants c e /h, the light
velocity and the Planck constant respectively, appear everywhere. Therefore it is
convenient to choose a unit system where their numerical value is given by
c = /h = 1
(1.1)
For the electromagnetism we will use the Heaviside-Lorentz system, where we take
also
0 = 1
(1.2)
From the relation 0 0 = 1=c2 it follows
0 = 1
(1.3)
is given by
2
= e /
4
0 hc
(1.6)
2
= 4e
(1.7)
ct
E
E
Et
` =) time lenght
mc2 =) energy mass
pv =) energy momentum
/h =) energy (time);1 (lenght);1
(1.8)
In practice, it is enough to notice that the product ch/ has dimensions E `]. Therefore
1 eV = e 1 = 1:602 10;19 J
ch/ =
(1.9)
(1.10)
(1.11)
x = (t ~x)
p = (E ~p) = 0 1 2 3
(1.19)
where ~x and ~p are the three-dimensional position and momentum. The scalar product between two four-vectors is given by
a b = a b g = a b = a b = a0 b0 ; ~a ~b
(1.20)
where the indices have been lowered by
a = g a
(1.21)
and can be raised by using the inverse metric tensor g g . The four-gradient
is dened as
@ @
@
~
@ = @x = @t @~x = @t r
(1.22)
The four-momentum operator in position space is
~)
p ! i @x@ = (i@t ;ir
(1.23)
The following relations will be useful
(1.24)
p2 = pp ! ; @x@ @x@ = ;
x p = Et ; p~ ~x
(1.25)
The total variation keeps into account both the variation of the reference frame
and the form variation of F . It is then convenient to dene a local variation F ,
depending only on the form variation
F (x) = F~ (x) ; F (x)
(1.27)
Then we get
F (x) = F (x) + x @F (x)
(1.28)
@x
Let us now start form a generic four-dimensional action
S=
i = 1 : : : N
(1.29)
and let us consider a generic variation of the elds and of the coordinates, x0 =
x + x
@
(1.30)
i(x) = ~i(x0 ) ; i(x) i(x) + x @x
If the action is invariant under the transformation, then
S~V = SV
(1.31)
This gives rise to the conservation equation
@
L
@
L
i
i
@ Lx + @i ; x @i = 0
(1.32)
This is the general result expressing the local conservation of the quantity in parenthesis. According to the choice one does for the variations x and i, and of
the corresponding symmetries of the action, one gets dierent kind of conserved
quantities.
Let us start with an action invariant under space and time translations. In the
case we take x = a with a independent on x e i = 0. From the general result
in eq. (1.32) we get the following local conservation law
@ L i ; Lg @ T = 0
T = @
(1.33)
i
T is called the energy-momentum tensor of the system. From its local conservation
we get four constant of motion
0
P =
d3xT0
(1.34)
Q=
d3 xJ 0
(1.36)
In general, if the system has more that one internal symmetry, we may have more
that one conserved charge Q, that is we have a conserved charge for any .
The last case we will consider is the invariance with respect to Lorentz transformations. Let us recall that they are dened as the transformations leaving invariant
the norm of a four-vector
x2 = x0 2
(1.37)
For an innitesimal transformation
(1.38)
with
= ;
(1.39)
We see that the number of independent parameters characterizing a Lorentz transformation is six. As well known, three of them correspond to spatial rotations,
whereas the remaining three correspond to Lorentz boosts. In general, the relativistic elds are chosen to belong to a representation of the Lorentz group ( for instance
the Klein-Gordon eld belongs to the scalar representation). This means that under
a Lorentz transformation the components of the eld mix together, as, for instance,
a vector eld does under rotations. Therefore, the transformation law of the elds
i under an innitesimal Lorentz transformation can be written as
(1.40)
i = ; 21 ij j
where we have required that the transformation of the elds is of rst order in the
Lorentz parameters . The coecients (antisymmetric in the indices ( ))
dene a matrix in the indices (i j ) which can be shown to be the representative of
the innitesimal generators of the Lorentz group in the eld representation. Using
this equation and the expression for x we get the local conservation law
0 =
=
@L
@ L ij j
@ @i i ; Lg x + 21 @
i
1 @ T x ; T x + @ L ij j
2 @i
;
(1.41)
@ L ij j
M = x T ; x T ; @
i
(1.42)
it follows the existence of six locally conserved currents (one for each Lorentz transformation)
@ M = 0
(1.43)
and consequently six constants of motion (notice that the lower indices are antisymmetric)
Z
M = d3 xM0
(1.44)
Three of these constants (the ones with and assuming spatial values) are nothing
but the components of the angular momentum of the eld.
where the index describes both the spin and internal degrees of freedom
quantization through the requirement of the equal time canonical commutation
relations for a spin integer eld or through canonical anticommutation relations
for half-integer elds
(~x t) (~y t)] = i 3(~x ; ~y)
(~x t) (~y t)] = 0
(1.46)
(1.47)
In the case of a free eld, or for an interacting eld in the interaction picture (and
therefore evolving with the free hamiltonian), we can add the following steps
expansion of (x) in terms of a complete set of solutions of the Klein-Gordon
equation, allowing the denition of creation and annihilation operators
construction of the Fock space through the creation and annihilation operators.
In the following we will give the main results about the quantization of the scalar,
the Dirac and the electromagnetic eld.
The relativistic real scalar free eld (x) obeys the Klein-Gordon equation
( + m2 )(x) = 0
(1.48)
S=
where L is the lagrangian density
d4xL
L = 21 @ @ ; m2 2
(1.49)
(1.50)
= @ L_ = _
@
From this we get the equal time canonical commutation relations
(~x t) _ (~y t)] = i3 (~x ; ~y) (~x t) (~y t)] = _ (~x t) _ (~y t)] = 0
(1.51)
(1.52)
and
with
k0 = !k = j~kj2 + m2
(1.54)
~k = 2
~n
L
(1.55)
where
(1.57)
(1.58)
10
The solutions of eq. (1.53) are orthogonal with respect to this scalar product, for
instance
Y3
hf~k jf~k i = ~k~k nini
(1.59)
0
i=1
(x) =
or, more explicitly
(1.61)
a(~k) = i
d3~xf~k(x)@t(;) (x)
ay(~k) = i
(1.63)
(1.64)
Pi
d3xT 0i
=;
@
d3x @x
i
(P~ = ;
~ )
d3xr
(1.70)
and for the normal ordered operator P we get (the normal ordering is dened by
putting all the creation operators to the left of the annihilation operators)
d3~k kay(~k)a(~k)
(1.71)
: P : ay(~k)j0i = k ay(~k)j0i
The propagator for the scalar eld is given by
(1.72)
: P :=
implying
where
and
(1.73)
Z d4k
;ikx F (k)
F (x) = ;
e
4
(2
)
(1.74)
F (k) = k2 ; m1 2 + i
(1.75)
The charged scalar eld can be described in terms of two real scalar elds of equal
mass
2
X
1
L = 2 (@ i)(@ i) ; m2 2i
(1.76)
i=1
L = @ y@ ; m2 y
(1.77)
(1.78)
(1.79)
(1.80)
(1.81)
Q=i
d3 x y@t(;)
(1.82)
(1.83)
and
(~x t) (~y t)] = y(~x t) y(~y t)] = 0
_ (~x t) _ (~y t)] = _ y(~x t) _ y(~y t)] = 0
(1.84)
Let us notice that these commutation relations could have also been obtained directly
from the lagrangian (1.80), since
= @ L_ = _ y
= @ L_ y = _
(1.85)
@
@
Using the expansion for the real elds
y
i(x) =
we get
(1.86)
(x) =
f~k (x) p1 (a1 (~k) + ia2 (~k)) + f~k(x) p1 (ay1(~k) + iay2 (~k))
2
2
Introducing the combinations
b(~k) = p1 (a1 (~k) ; ia2 (~k))
a(~k) = p1 (a1(~k) + ia2 (~k))
2
2
it follows
i
R h
(x) = d3k f~k (x)a(~k) + f~ (x)by(~k)
d3k
h
i
R
y
3
y
~
~
(x) = d k f~k (x)b(k) + f~k (x)a (k)
(1.87)
(1.88)
(1.89)
from which we can evaluate the commutation relations for the creation and annihilation operators in the complex basis
a(~k) ay(~k0 )] = b(~k) by(~k0)] = 3(~k ; ~k0)
(1.90)
a(~k) b(~k0)] = a(~k) by(~k0)] = 0
13
(1.91)
We get also
: P :=
d3kk
Z
2
h
i
X
y
~
~
a i(k)ai(k) = d3kk ay(~k)a(~k) + by(~k)b(~k)
i=1
(1.92)
Therefore the operators ay(~k) e by(~k) both create particles states with momentum
k, as the original operators ayi. For the normal ordered charge operator we get
: Q :=
(1.93)
S=
d4 x !(i@^ ; m)
(1.95)
where we have used the following notations for four-vectors contracted with the
matrices
v^ v
(1.96)
The canonical momenta result to be
= @ L_ y = 0
(1.97)
= @ L_ = iy
@
@
The canonical momenta do not depend on the velocities. In principle, this creates
a problem in going to the hamiltonian formalism. In fact a rigorous treatment
requires an extension of the classical hamiltonian approach which was performed by
Dirac himself. In this particular case, the result one gets is the same as proceeding
in a naive way. For this reason we will avoid to describe this extension, and we
will proceed as in the standard case. From the general expression for the energy
momentum tensor (see eq. 1.33) we get
! ; g(!(i@^ ; m))
T = i
(1.98)
and using the Dirac equation
!
T = i
(1.99)
The momentum of the eld is given by
y
Pk
d3x
T 0k
=) P~ = ;i
14
~
d3 x yr
(1.100)
H=
d3x
T 00
=) H = i
d3x y@t
(1.101)
Dirac equation
(^p ; m)u(p n) = u!(p n)(^p ; m) = 0
(^p + m)v(p n) = v!(p n)(^p + m) = 0
(1.110)
Orthogonality
u!(p n)u(p n0) = ;v!(p n)v(p n0) = nn
uy(p n)u(p n0) = vy(p n)v(p n0) = Emp nn
v!(p n)u(p n0) = vy(p n)u(~p n0) = 0
0
(1.111)
X
n
X
n
(1.112)
(1.113)
(~x t) (~y t)]+ = i3 (~x ; ~y)
(1.114)
= 3(~x ; ~y)
The normal ordered four-momentum is given by
(1.115)
and
or
: P :=
XZ
n
(1.116)
If we couple the Dirac eld to the electromagnetism through the minimal substitution we nd that the free action (1.95) becomes
S=
(1.117)
(1.118)
This forces us to say that the integral of the fourth component of the current should
be the charge operator. In fact, we nd
:Q: = e
=
d3x y
XZ
n
(1.119)
The expressions for the momentum angular momentum and charge operators show
that the operators by(p~) and dy(p~) create out of the vacuum particles of spin 1=2,
four-momentum p and charge e and ;e respectively.
The propagator for the Dirac eld is given by
h0jT ((x)! (y))j0i = iSF (x ; y)
(1.120)
where
and
Z d4k
;ikx SF (k)
e
4
(2
)
^ m
1
SF (k) = k2 ;k +
=
m2 + i k^ ; m + i
(1.121)
(1.122)
The lagrangian density for the free electromagnetic eld, expressed in terms of the
four-vector potential is
(1.123)
L = ; 14 F F
where
F = @ A ; @ A
(1.124)
and
~ A0 ; @ A~ B~ = r
~ ^ A~
E~ = ;r
(1.125)
@t
from which
E~ = (F 10 F 20 F 30 ) B~ = (;F 23 ;F 31 ;F 12)
(1.126)
The resulting equations of motion are
A ; @ (@ A ) = 0
(1.127)
The potentials are dened up to a gauge transformation
particular condition on the eld A . For instance, we can perform a gauge transformation in such a way that the transformed eld satises
@ A = 0
This is called the Lorentz gauge. Or we can choose a gauge such that
~ A~ = 0
A0 = r
(1.129)
(1.130)
This is called the Coulomb gauge. Since in this gauge all the gauge freedom is completely xed (in contrast with the Lorentz gauge), it is easy to count the independent
degrees of freedom of the electromagnetic eld. From the equations (1.130) we see
that A has only two degrees of freedom. Another way of showing that there are
only two independent degrees of freedom is through the equations of motion. Let
us consider the four dimensional Fourier transform of A(x)
A (x) =
(1.131)
(1.132)
Let us now decompose A(k) in terms of four independent four vectors, which can
be chosen as k = (E ~k), k~ = (E ;~k), and two further four vectors e (k), = 1 2,
orthogonal to k
k e = 0
= 1 2
(1.133)
The decomposition of A(k) reads
A (k) = a (k)e + b(k)k + c(k)k~
(1.134)
From the equations of motion we get
(1.135)
The term in b(k) cancels, therefore it is left undetermined by the equations of motion.
For the other quantities we have
k2 a(k) = c(k) = 0
(1.136)
where
(x) =
(1.139)
(1.140)
showing that k A (k) = 0. Therefore the choice b(k) = 0 is equivalent to the choice
of the Lorentz gauge.
Let us consider now the quantization of this theory. Due to the lack of manifest
covariance of the Coulomb gauge we will discuss here the quantization in the Lorentz
gauge, where however we will encounter other problems. If we want to maintain the
explicit covariance of the theory we have to require non trivial commutation relations
for all the component of the eld. That is
with
(1.141)
A (~x t) A (~y t)] = (~x t) (~y t)] = 0
(1.142)
(1.143)
= @ L_
@ A
To evaluate the conjugated momenta is better to write the lagrangian density (see
eq. (1.123) in the following form
L = ; 41 A ; A ]A ; A ] = ; 21 A A + 12 A A
(1.144)
Therefore
@ L = ;A + A = F
(1.145)
@A
implying
It follows
= @ L_ = F 0
@ A
0 = @ L_ = 0
@ A0
We see that it is impossible to satisfy the condition
A0(~x t) 0(~y t)] = i3 (~x ; ~y)
19
(1.146)
(1.147)
(1.148)
We can try to nd a solution to this problem modifying the lagrangian density in
such a way that 0 6= 0. But doing so we will not recover the Maxwell equation.
However we can take advantage of the gauge symmetry, modifying the lagrangian
density in such a way to recover the equations of motion in a particular gauge. For
instance, in the Lorentz gauge we have
A (x) = 0
(1.149)
A ; (1 ; )@ (@ A) = 0
20
(1.157)
(1.158)
hphysj@ A jphysi = 0
(1.159)
The price to pay to quantize the theory in a covariant way is to work in a Hilbert
space much bigger than the physical one. The physical states span a subspace which
is dened by the previous relation. A further bonus is that in this way one has to
do with local commutation relations. On the contrary, in the Coulomb gauge, one
needs to introduce non local commutation relations for the canonical variables. We
will come back later to the condition (1.159).
Since we don't have to worry any more about the operator condition 0 = 0, we
can proceed with our program of canonical quantization. The canonical momentum
densities are
= @ L_ = F 0 ; g0(@ A )
(1.160)
@ A
or, explicitly
~ A~
0 = ;@ A = ;A_ 0 ; r
i = @ i A0 ; @ 0 Ai = ;A_ i + @ i A0
(1.161)
Since the spatial gradient of the eld commutes with the eld itself at equal time,
the canonical commutator (1.141) gives rise to
A (~x t) A_ (~y t)] = ;ig 3(~x ; ~y)
(1.162)
To get the quanta of the eld we look for plane wave solutions of the wave equation.
We need four independent four vectors in order to expand the solutions in the
momentum space. In a given frame, let us consider the unit four vector which
denes the time axis. This must be a time-like vector, n2 = 1, and we will choose
n0 > 0. For instance, n = (1 0 0 0). Then we take two four vectors () , = 1 2,in
the plane orthogonal to n and k . Notice that now k2 = 0,since we are considering
solutions of the wave equation. Therefore
k () = n() = 0
= 1 2
(1.163)
The four vectors () , being orthogonal to n are space-like, then they will be chosen
orthogonal and normalized in the following way
() ( ) = ;
0
21
(1.164)
Next, we dene a unit space-like four vector, orthogonal to n and lying in the plane
(k n)
n (3) : = 0
(1.165)
with
(3) = ;1
(3)
(1.166)
()
By construction (3)
is orthogonal to . This four vector is completely xed by
the previous conditions, and we get
k ; (n k)n
(3)
(1.167)
=
(n k)
As a last unit four vector we choose n
(0)
(1.168)
= n
These four vectors are orthonormal
() ( ) = g
(1.169)
and linearly independent. Then they satisfy the completeness relation
() ( ) g = g
(1.170)
In the frame where n = (1 ~0) and k = (k 0 0 k), we have
0
(3) = (0 0 0 1)
(1.171)
3
h
i
3k
X
d
() (k ) a (k)e;ikx + ay (k )eikx
A (x) = p
(1.172)
2!k (2
)3 =0
where we have included the hermiticity condition for A(x). For any xed , this
expansion is the same as the one that we wrote for the Klein-Gordon eld, with the
substitution () a(k) ! a(k). Then, from eq. (1.63)
(1.173)
with the functions f~k (x) dened as in eq. (1.53). Using the orthogonality of the
( ) 's we nd
Z
a(k) = ig d3x ( ) (k)f~k (x)@t(;) A(x)
(1.174)
0
and analogously
ay (k) = ig
22
(1.175)
00
000
i
00
000
00
000
00
000
(1.176)
j1 i =
its norm is given by
h1 j1 i =
=
Z
d3k d3k0 f ?(k)f (k0)h0ja(k)ay(k0)j0i
Z
d3k d3k0 f ?(k)f (k0)h0ja(k) ay(k0)j0i
Z
= ;g
d3k jf (k)j2
(1.179)
(1.180)
Therefore the states with = 0 have negative norm. This problem does not come
out completely unexpected. In fact, our expectation is that only the transverse
states ( = 1 2), are physical states. For the moment being we have ignored the
gauge xing condition hphysj@ A jphysi = 0, but its meaning is that only part of
the total Hilbert space is physical. Therefore the relevant thing is to show that the
states satisfying the Lorentz condition have positive norm. To discuss the gauge
xing condition, let us notice that formulated in the way we did, being bilinear in
the states, it could destroy the linearity of the Hilbert space. So we will try to
modify the condition in a linear one
@ A jphys:i = 0
(1.181)
But this would be a too strong requirement. Not even the vacuum state satises it.
However, if we consider the positive and negative frequency parts of the eld
Z d3k X
3
(+)
A (x) = p
() (k)a (k)e;ikx
A(;) (x) = (A(+) (x))y (1.182)
3
2!k (2
) =0
23
@ A(+)
(x)jphys:i = 0
(1.183)
(1.184)
To make this condition more explicit let us evaluate the four divergence of A(+)
i@ A(+)
(x) =
=03
p2!d (2k
)3 e;ikx
(1.185)
k (3)
= ;(n k)
from which
k(0)
= (n k)
a0(k) ; a3 (k)]jphys:i = 0
Notice that
a0(k) ; a3 (k) ay0(k0) ; ay3 (k0)] = ;3 (~k ; k~0) + 3 (~k ; k~0) = 0
(1.186)
(1.187)
(1.188)
Let us denote by #~k (n0 n3 ) the state with n0 scalar photons (that is with polarization
(3)
(0)
(k)), and with n3 longitudinal photons (that is with polarization (k)). Then
the following states satisfy the condition (1.183)
#~(km) = 1 (ay0(k) ; ay3 (k))m#~k (0 0)
(1.189)
m!
These states have vanishing norm
jj#~(km) jj2 = 0
(1.190)
More generally we can make the following observation. Let us consider the number
operator for scalar and longitudinal photons
N=
(1.191)
Notice the minus sign that is a consequence of the commutation relations, and it
ensures that N has positive eigenvalues. For instance
Nay (k)j0i = ;
0
(1.192)
Let us consider a physical state with a total number n of scalar and longitudinal
photons. Then
h'njN j'ni = 0
(1.193)
since a0 and a3 act in the same way on a physical state (see eq. (1.187)). It follows
nh'nj'ni = 0
(1.194)
Therefore all the physical states with a total denite number of scalar and longitudinal photons have zero norm, except for the vacuum state (n = 0). Then
h'nj'ni = n0
(1.195)
A generic physical state with zero transverse photons is a linear superposition of the
previous states
X
j'i = c0 j'0i + cij'ii
(1.196)
i6=0
h'j'i = jc0j2 0
(1.197)
The proof that a physical state has a positive norm can be extended to the case in
which also transverse photons are present. Of course, the coecients ci, appearing
in the expression of a physical state, are completely arbitrary, but this is not going
to modify the values of the observables. For instance, consider the hamiltonian, we
have
H =
Z
Z
d3x : A_ ; L] :
1 F F + 1 (@ A )2 : (1.198)
=
:
4
2
One can easily show the hamiltonian is given by the sum of all the degrees of freedom
appearing in A
d3x
#
2
~ Ai)2 ; A_ 20 ; r
~ A0 :
d3 x :
A_ 2i + (r
=1
"iX
#
Z
3
y
y
3
H = 12
=
F 0 A_ ; (@ A)A_ 0 +
"X
3
d k !k :
=1
(1.199)
Since on the physical states a0 and a3 act in the same way, we get
d3 k !k
25
2
X
=1
ay(k)a (k)jphys:i
(1.200)
The generic physical state is of the form j'T i j'i. with j'i dened as in eq.
(1.196). Since only j'T i, contributes to the evaluation of an observable quantity ,
we can always choose j'i proportional to j'0i. However, this does not mean that
we are always working in the restricted physical space, because in a sum over the
intermediate states we need to include all the degrees of freedom. This is crucial for
the explicit covariance and locality of the theory.
The arbitrariness in dening the state j'i has, in fact, a very simple interpretation. It corresponds to add to A a four gradient, that is it corresponds to perform
a gauge transformation. Consider the following matrix element
h'jA(x)j'i =
X
nm
(1.201)
Since A change the occupation number by one unit and all the states j'ni have
zero norm (except for the state with n = 0), the only non vanishing contributions
come from n = 0, m = 1 and n = 1, m = 0
(0)
p2!d (2k
)3 e;ikx (3)
(k)a3 (k) + (k)a0 (k)]j'1 i + c:c:
3
In order to satisfy the gauge condition the state j'1i must be of the form
(1.203)
(0)
? ;ikx f (~k) + c:c:]
p2!d (2k
)3 (3)
(k) + (k)]c0 c1 e
(1.204)
j'1i =
and therefore
h'jA(x)j'i =
(1.202)
from which
with
(x) =
k
(0)
(3)
+ = (k n)
(1.205)
h'jA(x)j'i = @ (x)
(1.206)
p2!d (2k
)3 n 1 k (ic?0c1e;ikx f (~k) + c:c:)
k
3
(1.207)
because the momentum k inside the integral satises k2 = 0. From the expansion
in eq. (1.172) one gets immediately the expression for the photon propagator
Z d4k e;ikx
h0jT (A(x)A (y)j0i = ;ig (2
)4 k2 + i
(1.209)
By dening
Z d4k
(1.210)
D(x) = (2
)4 e;ikx D(k)
and
we get
1
D(k) = ; k2 +
i
(1.211)
(1.212)
(1.214)
We will dene the S matrix as the operator that give us j#(+1)i once we know
j#(;1)i
j#(+1)i = S j#(;1)i
(1.215)
The amplitude Sfi is then
Sfi = h#f jS j#ii
(1.216)
27
Therefore Sfi is the S matrix element between free states (j#ii and h#f j are called
in and out states respectively). In the interaction representation dened by
0
0
0
j#(t)i = eiHS t j#S (t)i O(t) = eiHS tOS (t)e;iHS t
(1.217)
where the index S identies the Schrodinger representation and HS0 is the free hamiltonian, the state vectors satisfy the Schrodinger equation with the interaction hamiltonian (evaluated in the interaction picture)
@ j#(t)i = H j#(t)i
i @t
(1.218)
I
whereas the operators evolve with the free hamiltonian. To evaluate the S matrix
we rst transform the Schrodinger equation in the interaction representation in an
integral equation
j#(t)i = j#(;1)i ; i
Zt
;1
(1.219)
One can verify that this is indeed a solution, and that it satises explicitly the
boundary condition at t = ;1. The perturbative expansion consists in evaluating
j#(t)i by iterating this integral equation. The result in terms of ordered T -products
is
Z +1
1
n Z +1
X
; I
(
;
i
)
I
dt
dt
(1.220)
S =1+
1
n T H (t1 ) H (tn )
n!
;1
n=1
;1
The T -product of n terms means that the factors have to be written from left to
right with decreasing times. For instance, if t1 t2 tn, then
;
T H I (t1 ) H I (tn) = H I (t1 ) H I (tn)
(1.221)
This result can be written in a more compact form by introducing the T -ordered
exponential
Z +1
;i
dt H I (t)
S = T e ;1
(1.222)
This expression is a symbolic one and it is really dened by its series expansion. The
motivation for introducing the T -ordered exponential is that it satises the following
factorization property
Zt
O(t)dt
Zt
Zt
O(t)dt
O(t)dt
T e t1
= T e t2
T e t1
(1.223)
If there are no derivative interactions we have
Z +1
Z
I
;i
dt H (t) +i d4x Lint
;1
S=T e
=T e
(1.224)
It follows that if the theory is Lorentz invariant, also the S matrix enjoys the same
property.
3
28
The matrix elements of the S matrix between free particle states can be expressed
as vacuum expectation values (VEV's) of T -products. These V EV 0s satisfy an
important theorem due to Wick that states that the T -products of an arbitrary
number of free elds (the ones we have to do in the interaction representation) can
be expressed as combinations of T -products among two elds, that is in terms of
Feynman propagators. The Wick's theorem is summarized in the following equation
Z
;i d4x j (x)(x)
T e
Z
;i
=: e
d4x
Z
1
j (x)(x) ; 2 d4x d4y j (x)j (y)h0jT ((x)(y))j0i
(1.225)
:e
where (x) is a free real scalar eld and j (x) an ordinary real function. The previous
formula can be easily extended to charged scalar, fermionic and photon elds. The
Wick's theorem is then obtained by expanding both sides of this equation in powers
of j (x) and taking the VEV of both sides. Let us now expand both sides of eq.
(1.225) in a series of j (x) and compare term by term. We will use the simplied
notation i (xi). We get
T () = : :
(1.226)
3
X
i6=j 6=k=1
: 12 34 : +
4
h
X
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
(1.227)
(1.228)
(1.229)
and so on. By taking the VEV of these expression, and recalling that the VEV of
a normal product is zero, we get the Wick's theorem. The T -product of two eld
operators is sometimes called the contraction of the two operators. Therefore to
evaluate the VEV of a T -product of an arbitrary number of free elds, it is enough
to consider all the possible contractions of the elds appearing in the T -product.
For instance, from the last of the previous relations we get
4
X
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
29
(1.230)
An analogous theorem holds for the photon eld. For the fermions one has to
remember that the T -product is dened in a slightly dierent way. This gives a
minus sign any time we have a permutation of the fermion elds which is odd with
respect to the original ordering. As an illustration the previous formula becomes
4
X
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
(1.231)
where P = 1 is the sign of the permutation (i j k l) with respect to the fundamental one (1 2 3 4) appearing on the right hand side. More explicitly
(1.232)
We will discuss here the Feynman rules for the scalar and spinor QED. Let us recall
that the electromagnetic interaction is introduced via the minimal substitution
@ ! @ + ieA
(1.233)
(1.234)
(1.235)
(1.236)
but another interaction term appears (the seagull term). In the spinor case we have
a simpler situation
Lfree = !(i@^ ; m) ; 14 F F ! !(i@^ ; eA^ ; m) ; 14 F F
(1.237)
giving the interaction term
! A
Lint = ;e
(1.238)
30
In a typical experiment in particle physics we prepare beams of particles with definite momentum, polarization, etc. At the same time we measure momenta and
polarizations of the nal states. For this reason it is convenient to work in a momentum representation. The result for a generic matrix element of the S matrix can
be expressed in the following form
hf jS jii = (2
)44 (
in
pin ;
X
out
pout )
Y r
ext: bosons
1
2EV
Y rm
VE M
ext: fermions
(1.239)
Here f 6= i, and we are using the box normalization. The Feynman amplitude M
(often one denes a matrix T wich diers from M by a factor i) can be obtained by
drawing at a given perturbative order all the connected and topologically inequivalent Feynman's diagrams. The diagrams are obtained by combining together the
graphics elements given in Figures 1.5.1 and 1.5.2. The amplitude M is given by the
sum of the
P amplitudes associated to these diagrams, after extraction of the factor
(2
)44 ( p) in (1.239).
.
Fermion line
Photon line
Scalar line
Fig. 1.5.1 - Graphical representation for both internal and external particle lines.
.
QED vertex
Fig. 1.5.2 - Graphical representation for the vertices in scalar and spinor QED.
31
for each ingoing and/or outgoing external photon line a factor (or its com
Integrate over all the internal momenta with measure d4p=(2
)4. This gives
.
Fermion loop
Fig. 1.5.3 - A fermion loop can appear inside any Feynman diagram (attaching the
rest of the diagram by photonic lines).
In the following we will use need also the rules for the interaction with a static
external e.m. eld. The correspending graphical element is given in Fig. 1.5.4. The
32
rule is to treat it as a normal photon, except that one needs to substitute the wave
function of the photon
1 1=2
() (q)
(1.240)
2EV
with the Fourier transform of the external eld
Z
ext
A (~q ) = d3qe;i~q ~x Aext
(1.241)
(~x )
where ~q is the momentum in transfer at the vertex where the external eld line is
attached to. Also, sincePthe staticPexternal eld breaks translational invariance, we
loose the factor (2
)3( in ~pin ; out p~out ).
.
Let us consider a scattering process with a set of initial particles with four momenta
pi = (Ei ~pi) which collide and produce a set of nal particles with four momenta
pf = (Ef ~pf ). From the rules of the previous Chapter we know that each external
photon line contributes with a factor (1=2V E )1=2, whereas each external fermionic
line contributes with (m=V E )1=2 .PFurthermore
the conservation of the total four
P
4
4
momentum gives a term (2
) ( i pi ; f pf ). If we exclude the uninteresting
case f = i we can write
Sfi
= (2
)44
X
i
X ! Y m 1=2 Y
pi ; pf
f
fermioni
VE
bosoni
1
2V E
1=2
(1.242)
where M is the Feynman amplitude which can be evaluated by using the rules of
the previous Section.
Let us consider the typical case of a two particle collision giving rise to an N
particles nal state. Therefore, the probability per unit time of the transition is
given by w = jSfij2 with
Y
Y
Y
w = V (2
)44(Pf ; Pi) 2V1E 2V1E
(2m)jMj2
(1.243)
i
f
i
f
fermioni
33
L 3
3
(1.245)
2
d p
The cross-section is dened as the probability per unit time divided by the &ux of
the ingoing particles, and has the dimensions of a length to the square
(1.246)
In fact the &ux is dened as vrel = vrel=V , since in our normalization we have a
particle in the volume V , and vrel is the relative velocity of the ingoing particles.
For the bosons this follows from the normalization condition of the functions f~k (x).
For the fermions recall that in the box normalization the wave function is
rm
;ipx
(1.247)
EV u(p)e
from which
Z
Z
3
(1.248)
d x(x) = d3x VmE uy(p)u(p) = 1
V
Then the cross-section for getting the nal states with momenta between ~pf e p~f +d~pf
is given by
Y V d3pf
d = w vV dNF = w vV
(1.249)
(2
)3
rel
rel f
We obtain
Y V d3 pf
1 Y 1 Y (2m)jMj2
4 4 (P ; P )
V
(2
)
d = vV
f
i
4V 2 E1E2 f 2V Ef fermioni
rel f (2
)3
Y
Y 3
= (2
)44(Pf ; Pi) 4E E1 v
(2m) (2
d)3p2fE jMj2
(1.250)
1 2 rel fermioni
f
f
In fact, as it follows from the Feynman rules, M is invariant, as the factors d3p=2E .
Furthermore
~vrel = ~v1 ; ~v2 = E~p1 ; E~p2
(1.251)
1
2
but in the frame where the particle 2 is at rest (laboratory frame) we have p2 =
(m2 ~0) and ~vrel = ~v1, from which
q 2 2
j
p
~
1j
E1 E2j~vrelj = E1 m2 E = m2jp~1j = m2 E1 ; m1
=
1
m22 E12 ; m21 m22
35
(1.252)
Chapter 2
One-loop renormalization
2.1 Divergences of the Feynman integrals
Let us consider the Coulomb scattering. If we expand the S matrix up to the
third order in the electric charge, and we assume that the external eld is weak
enough such to take only the rst order, we can easily see that the relevant Feynman
diagrams are the ones of Fig. 2.1.1
.
.
p
p p
p p
p
p
pk
p pk
p
p p
p p
p
a)
p
b)
p
p
k
c)
k+q
p
k
p k
p p
p p
d)
Fig. 2.1.1 - The Feynman diagram for the Coulomb scattering at the third order
in the electric charge and at the rst order in the external eld.
36
The Coulomb scattering can be used, in principle, to dene the physical electric
charge of the electron. This is done assuming that the amplitude is linear in ephys,
from which we get an expansion of the type
ephys = e + a2 e3 + = e(1 + a2 e2 + )
(2.1)
in terms of the parameter e which appears in the original lagrangian. The rst
problem we encounter is that we would like to have the results of our calculation in
terms of measured quantities as ephys . This could be done by inverting the previous
expansion, but, and here comes the second problem, the coecient of the expansion are divergent quantities. To show this, consider, for instance the self-energy
contribution to one of the external photons (as the one in Fig. 2.1.1a). We have
2
i
0
(2.2)
Ma = u!(p0)(;ie )Aext
(p~ ; p~) p^ ; m + i ie (p) u(p)
where
Z d4k
;ig
i
2
ie (p) =
(
;
ie
)
2
4
(2
)
k + i p^ ; k^ ; m + i (;ie )
Z d4k
1
1
2
(2.3)
= ;e
2
4
(2
) k + i p^ ; k^ ; m + i
or
Z d4k
p^ ; k^ + m 1
(p) = i
(2.4)
(2
)4 (p ; k)2 ; m2 + i k2 + i
For large momentum, k, the integrand behaves as 1=k3 and the integral diverges
linearly. Analogously one can check that all the other third order contributions
diverge. Let us write explicitly the amplitudes for the other diagrams
0
(2.5)
Mb = u!(p0)ie2 (p0 ) p^ 0 ; mi + i (;ie )Aext
(p~ ; p~)u(p)
0
0
Mc = u!(p0)(;ie ) q;2 ig+i ie2 (q)Aext
(2.6)
(p~ ; ~p)u(p) q = p ; p
where
Z d4k
i
i
2
(;ie ) ^
(;ie ) (2.7)
ie (q) = (;1) (2
)4 Tr ^
k + q^ ; m + i
k ; m + i
(the minus sign originates from the fermion loop) and therefore
Z d4k 1
1
(q) = i (2
)4 Tr ^
(2.8)
k + q^ ; m k^ ; m + i
The last contribution is
0
Md = u!(p0)(;ie)e2 (p0 p)u(p)Aext
(2.9)
(p~ ; ~p)
37
where
e2 (p0 p) =
Z d4k
i
i
)
) ;ig
(
;
ie
(
;
ie
4
(2
)
k2 + i
p^ 0 ; k^ ; m + i p^ ; k^ ; m + i
or
(p0 p) = ;i
Z d4k
1
1
1
4
2
(2
) p^ 0 ; k^ ; m + i p^ ; k^ ; m + i k + i
(2.10)
(2.11)
The problem of the divergences is a serious one and in order to give some sense to
the theory we have to dene a way to dene our integrals. This is what is called the
regularization procedure of the Feynman integrals. That is we give a prescription in
order to make the integrals nite. This can be done in various ways, as introducing
an ultraviolet cut-o, or, as we shall see later by the more convenient means of
dimensional regularization. However, we want that the theory does not depend on
the way in which we dene the integrals, otherwise we would have to look for some
physical meaning of the regularization procedure we choose. This bring us to the
other problem, the inversion of eq. (2.1). Since now the coecients are nite we can
indeed perform the inversion and obtaining e as a function of ephys and obtain all
the observables in terms of the physical electric charge (that is the one measured in
the Coulomb scattering). By doing so, a priori we will introduce in the observables
a dependence on the renormalization procedure. We will say that the theory is
renormalizable when this dependence cancels out. Thinking to the regularization in
terms of a cut-o this means that considering the observable quantities in terms of
ephys , and removing the cut-o (that is by taking the limit for the cut-o going to
the innity), the result should be nite. Of course, this cancellation is not obvious
at all, and in fact in most of the theories this does not happen. However there is
a restrict class of renormalizable theories, as for instance QED. We will not discuss
the renormalization at all order and neither we will prove which criteria a theory
should satisfy in order to be renormalizable. We will give these criteria without
a proof but we will try only to justify them On a physical basis. As far QED is
concerned we will study in detail the renormalization at one-loop.
and
Aext
(~q) =
;i~q ~x
d3x Aext
(~x)e
(2.14)
is the Fourier transform of the static e.m. eld. In the case of a point-like source,
of charge Ze we have
Ze
Aext
(2.15)
(~x) = (; 4
j~xj ~0)
For the following it is more convenient to re-express the previous amplitude in terms
of the external current generating the external e.m. eld. Since we have
A = j
we can invert this equation in momentum space, by getting
A (q) = ; q2g+ i j (q)
from which
;
ig
(1)
0
M = u!(p )(;ie )u(p) q2 + i (;ijext (p~ 0 ; p~))
with
(2.16)
(2.17)
(2.18)
(2.24)
The terms omitted are proportional to q q , and since the photon is always attached
to a conserved current, they do not contribute to the nal result. The functions I (q2)
can be evaluated by various tricks (we will evaluate it explicitly in the following)
and the result is
q2z(1 ; z)
Z1
2
1
1
2
dz z(1 ; z) log 1 ; m2
(2.25)
I (q ) = 12
2 log m2 ; 2
2
0
For small values of q2 (;q2 << m2 ) one can expand the logarithm obtaining
2 + 1 q2
I (q2) 121
2 log m
2 60
2 m2
(2.26)
(2.27)
q2
q2
This relation is shown in graphical terms in Fig. 2.2.1.
.
+
M(1) + M
= u!(p0)(;ie
e2 2 e2 q2
;
i
log ;
(;iZe) (2.28)
0 )u(p) 2 1 ;
q
12
2 m2 60
2 m2
40
in the limit q ! 0 the result looks exactly as at the lowest order, except that we
need to introduce a renormalized charge eR given by
2
2
eR = e 1 ; 12e
2 log m
2
1=2
(2.29)
In term of eR and taking into account that we are working at the order e4 we can
write
e2 q2
;
i
(1)
M + Mc = u!f (ieR 0)ui q2 1 ; 60R
2 m2 (;iZeR )
(2.30)
Now we compare this result with the experiment where we measure d=d' in the
limit q ! 0. We can extract again from the data the value of the electric charge, but
this time we will measure eR . Notice that in this expression there are no more divergent quantities, since they have been eliminated by the denition of the renormalized
charge. It must be stressed that the quantity that is xed by the experiments is
not the "parameter" e appearing in the original lagrangian, but rather eR. This
means that the quantity e is not really dened unless we specify how to relate it
to measured quantities. This relation is usually referred to as the renormalization
condition. As we have noticed the nal expression we got does not contain any
explicit divergent quantity. Furthermore, also eR , which is obtained from the experimental data, is a nite quantity. It follows that the parameter e, must diverge for
! 1. In other words, the divergence which we have obtained in the amplitude, is
compensated by the divergence implicit in e. Therefore the procedure outlined here
has meaning only if we start with an innite charge. Said that, the renormalization
procedure is a way of reorganizing the terms of the perturbative expansion in such
a way that the parameter controlling it is the renormalized charge eR . If this is
possible, the various terms in the expansion turn out to be nite and the theory is
said to be renormalizable. As already stressed this is not automatically satised.
In fact renormalizability is not a generic feature of the relativistic quantum eld
theories. Rather the class of renormalizable theories (that is the theories for which
the previous procedure is meaningful) is quite restricted.
We have seen that the measured electric charge is dierent from the quantity
appearing in the expression of the vertex. It will be convenient in the following to call
this quantity eB (tha bare charge). On the contrary, the renormalized charge will be
called e, rather than eR as done previously. For the moment being we have included
only the vacuum polarization corrections, however if we restrict our problem to the
charge renormalization, the divergent part coming from the self-energy and vertex
corrections cancel out (see later). Let us consider now a process like e; ; ! e; ;.
Neglecting other corrections the total amplitude is given by Fig. 2.2.2.
We will dene the charge by choosing an arbitrary value of the square of the
momentum in transfer q , such that Q2 = ;q2 = 2. In this way the renormalized
charge depends on the scale . In the previous example we were using q ! 0. The
graphs in Fig. 2.2.2 sum up to give (omitting the contribution of the fermionic
41
.
e
eB
e
eB
eB
eB
eB
eB
eB
eB
+ eB
eB
eB
eB
Fig. 2.2.2 - The vacuum polarization contributions to the e;; ! e;; scattering.
lines,)
e2B
q2
q2
q2
q2
q2
Q2 =2
(2.31)
By considering only the g contribution to , we get
1 ; e2B I (q2) + e4B I 2(q2) + Q2=2
(2.32)
e2B ;ig
2
q
This expression looks as the lowest order contribution to the propagator be dening
the renormalized electric charge as
(2.33)
Since the fermionic contribution is the same for all the diagrams, by calling it F (Q2),
we get the amplitude in the form
(2.34)
where e2B F (Q2) is the amplitude at the lowest order in e2B . As we know I (Q2) is a
divergent quantity and therefore the amplitude is not dened. However, following
the discussion of the previous Section we can try to re-express everything in terms
of the renormalized charge (2.33). We can easily invert by series the eq. (2.33)
obtaining at the order e4
(2.35)
(2.36)
I (Q2) =
e2 (I (Q2) ; I (2))
Z1
2
2
2
= ;
dz
z
(1 ; z) log m 2 + Q2 z(1 ; z) !
0
m + z(1 ; z)
Z
1
2
2
! ; 2
dz z(1 ; z) log Q2 = ; 3
log Q2
(2.38)
0
2
MR
1 ; 3
log Q2 +
(2.39)
At rst sight MR(e) depends on , but actually this is not the case. In fact, e is
dened through the eq. (2.33) and therefore it depends also on . What is going
on is that the implicit dependecnce of e on cancels out the explicit dependence
of MR (e). This follows from MR(e) = M(eB ) and on the observation that M(eB )
does not depend on . This can be formalized in a way that amounts to introduce
the concept of renormalization group that we will discuss in much more detail later
on. In fact, let us be more explicit by writing
M(eB ) = MR (e() )
(2.40)
(2.43)
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
(2.47)
It follows that the true expansion parameter in the perturbative series is the running
coupling e(Q2 ). By using eq. (2.38) we obtain
(2)
(2.48)
2)
2
(
Q
1;
log 2
3
We see that (Q2) increases with Q2, therefore the perturbative approach looses
validity for those values Q2 of such that (Q2 ) 1, that is when
2
2
(2.49)
1 ; ( ) log Q2 = (2)
3
or
1
Q2 = e3
(2) ; 1
(2.50)
2
(Q2 ) =
44
Q2 e1281 10556
2
(2.51)
where IF and IB are the number of internal fermionic and bosonic lines. Going
through the loop one has to have a number of vertices, V equal to the number of
internal lines
V = IF + IB
(2.54)
Also, if at each vertex there are Ni lines of the particle of type i, then we have
NiV = 2Ii + Ei
from which
(2.55)
2V = 2IF + EF V = 2IB + EB
(2.56)
From these equations we can get V , IF and IB in terms of EF and EB
(2.57)
IF = 21 EF + EB IB = 21 EF V = EF + EB
from which
D = 4 ; 32 EF ; EB
(2.58)
It follows that the only one-loop supercially divergent diagrams in spinor QED are
the ones in Fig. 2.3.1. In fact, all the diagrams with an odd number of external
photons vanish. This is trivial at one-loop, since the trace of an odd number of
matrices is zero. In general (Furry's theorem) it follows from the conservation of
charge conjugation, since the photon is an eigenstate of C with eigenvalue equal to
-1.
Furthermore, the eective degree of divergence can be less than the supercial
degree. In fact, gauge invariance often lowers the divergence. For instance the
diagram of Fig. 2.3.1 with four external photons (light-light scattering) has D = 0
(logarithmic divergence), but gauge invariance makes it nite. Also the vacuum
polarization diagram has an eective degree of divergence equal to 2. Therefore,
there are only three divergent one-loop diagrams and all the divergences can be
brought back to the three functions (p), (q) e (p0 p). This does not mean
that an arbitrary diagram is not divergence, but it can be made nite if the previous
functions are such. In such a case one has only to show that eliminating these three
divergences (primitive divergences) the theory is automatically nite. In particular
we will show that the divergent part of (p) can be absorbed into the denition
of the mass of the electron and a redenition of the electron eld (wave function
renormalization). The divergence in , the photon self-energy, can be absorbed
in the wave function renormalization of the photon (the mass of the photon is not
renormalized due to the gauge invariance). And nally the divergence of (p0 p)
goes into the denition of the parameter e. To realize this program we divide up
the lagrangian density in two parts, one written in terms of the physical parameters,
the other will contain the counterterms. We will call also the original parameters
and elds of the theory the bare parameters and the bare elds and we will use an
index B in order to distinguish them from the physical quantities. Therefore the
46
.
EF
EB
we obtain
L = i!B @^B ; mZ+ A !B B ; eZ11=2 !B B AB ; 14 FB FB + gauge ; xing
2
Z2Z3
(2.64)
and putting
mB = mZ+ A eB = eZ11=2
(2.65)
2
Z2 Z3
we get
L = i!B @^B ; mB !B B ; eB !B B AB ; 14 FB FB + gauge ; xing (2.66)
So we have succeeded in the wanted separation. Notice that the division of the parameters in physical and counter term part is well dened, because the nite piece
is xed to be an observable quantity. This requirement gives the renormalization
conditions. The counter terms A, B , ... are determined recursively at each perturbative order in such a way to eliminate the divergent parts and to respect the
renormalization conditions. We will see later how this works in practice at one-loop
level. Another observation is that Z1 and Z2 have to do with the self-energy of the
electron, and as such they depend on the electron mass. Therefore if we consider
the theory for a dierent particle, as the muon, which has the same interactions as
the electron and diers only for the value of the mass (m 200me), one would
get a dierent bare electric charge for the two particles. Or, phrased in a dierent
way, one would have to tune the bare electric charge at dierent values in order to
get the same physical charge. This looks very unnatural, but the gauge invariance
of the theory implies that at all the perturbative orders Z1 = Z2. As a consequence
eB = e=Z31=2 , and since Z3 comes from the photon self-energy, the relation between
the bare and the physical electric charge is universal (that is it does not depend on
the kind of charged particle under consideration).
Summarizing, one starts dividing the bare lagrangian in two pieces. Then we
regularize the theory giving some prescription to get nite Feynman integrals. The
part containing the counter terms is determined, order by order, by requiring that
the divergences of the Feynman integrals, which come about when removing the
regularization, are cancelled out by the counter term contributions. Since the separation of an innite quantity into an innite plus a nite term is not well dened, we
use the renormalization conditions, to x the nite part. After evaluating a physical
quantity we remove the regularization. Notice that although the counter terms are
divergent quantity when we remove the cut o, we will order them according to the
power of the coupling in which we are doing the perturbative calculation. That is we
have a double limit, one in the coupling and the other in some parameter (regulator)
which denes the regularization. The order of the limit is rst to work at some order
in the coupling, at xed regulator, and then remove the regularization.
Before going into the calculations for QED we want to illustrate some general
results about the renormalization. If one considers only theory involving scalar,
48
fermion and massless spin 1 (as the photon) elds, it is not dicult to construct
an algorithm which allows to evaluate the ultraviolet (that is for large momenta)
divergence of any Feynman diagram. In the case of the electron self-energy (see
Figs. 2.1.1a and 2.1.1b) one has an integration over the four momentum p and a
behaviour of the integrand, coming from the propagators, as 1=p3, giving a linear
divergence (it turns out that the divergence is only logarithmic). From this counting
one can see that only the lagrangian densities containing monomials in the elds
with mass dimension smaller or equal to the number of space-time dimensions have
a nite number of divergent diagrams. It turns out also that these are renormalizable
theories ( a part some small technicalities). The mass dimensions of the elds can be
easily evaluated from the observation that the action is dimensionless in our units
(/h = 1). Therefore, in n space-time dimensions, the lagrangian density, dened as
dnx L
(2.67)
has a mass dimension n. Looking at the kinetic terms of the bosonic elds (two
derivatives) and of the fermionic elds (one derivative), we see that
(2.68)
dim] = dimA ] = n ; 1 dim] = n ; 1
2
2
In particular, in 4 dimensions the bosonic elds have dimension 1 and the fermionic
3=2. Then, we see that QED is renormalizable, since all the terms in the lagrangian
density have dimensions smaller or equal to 4
! ] = 3 dim
! A] = 4 dim(@ A )2] = 4
dim
(2.69)
The condition on the dimensions of the operators appearing in the lagrangian can
be translated into a condition over the coupling constants. In fact each monomial
Oi will appear multiplied by a coupling gi
L=
therefore
The renormalizability requires
from which
X
i
giOi
(2.70)
dimgi] = 4 ; dimOi ]
(2.71)
dimOi] 4
(2.72)
dimgi] 0
(2.73)
that is the couplings must have positive dimension in mass are to be dimensionless.
In QED the only couplings are the mass of the electron and the electric charge
49
Lc:t: =
X
i
giOi
(2.75)
we can choose the gi in such a way to cancel, order by order, the divergences. The
theory depends on a nite number of arbitrary parameters equal to the number of
parameters gi. Therefore the theory is a predictive one. In the non renormalizable
case, the number of divergent diagrams increase with the perturbative order. At
each order we have to introduce new counter terms having an operator structure
dierent from the original one. At the end the theory will depend on an innite
number of arbitrary parameters. As an example consider a fermionic theory with an
! )2. Since this term has dimension 6, the relative coupling
interaction of the type (
has dimension -2
! )2
Lint = ;g2(
(2.76)
At one loop the theory gives rise to the divergent diagrams of Fig. 2.3.2. The
divergence of the rst diagram can be absorbed into a counter term of the original
type
! )2
;g2 (
(2.77)
The other two need counter terms of the type
! )3 + g4(
! )4
g3 (
(2.78)
These counter terms originate new one-loop divergent diagrams, as for instance the
ones in Fig. 2.3.3. The rst diagram modies the already introduced counter term
! )4 , but the second one needs a new counter term
(
! )5
g5(
(2.79)
This process never ends.
The renormalization requirement restricts in a fantastic way the possible eld
theories. However one could think that this requirement is too technical and one
could imagine other ways of giving a meaning to lagrangians which do not satisfy this
50
a)
b)
c)
! )2.
Fig. 2.3.2 - Divergent diagrams coming from the interaction (
condition. But suppose we try to give a meaning to a non renormalizable lagrangian,
simply requiring that it gives rise to a consistent theory at any energy. We will show
that this does not happen. Consider again a theory with a four-fermion interaction.
Since dim g2 = ;2, if we consider the scattering + ! + in the high energy
limit (where we can neglect all the masses), on dimensional ground we get that the
total cross-section behaves like
g22E 2
(2.80)
Analogously, in any non renormalizable theory, being there couplings with negative
dimensions, the cross-section will increase with the energy. But the cross-section has
to do with the S matrix which is unitary. Since a unitary matrix has eigenvalues of
.
a)
b)
! )2 and (
! )4.
Fig. 2.3.3 - Divergent diagrams coming from the interactions (
51
modulus 1, it follows that its matrix elements must be bounded. Translating this
argument in the cross-section one gets the bound
2
Ec 2
(2.81)
g2E 2 c
(2.82)
(2.83)
It follows that we can give a meaning also to non renormalizable theories, but only
for a limited range of values of the energy. This range is xed by the value of the
non renormalizable coupling. It is not diculty to realize that non renormalizability
and bad behaviour of the amplitudes at high energies are strictly connected.
I4 (k) =
d4p F (p k)
(2.84)
with F (p k) p;2 or p;4 . The idea is that integrating on a lower number of
dimensions the integral improves the convergence properties in the ultraviolet. For
52
I (! k) =
d2! p F (p k)
(2.85)
Z1
0
dt e;t tz;1
dt
(2.86)
(2.87)
t1+jRe zj
Expanding the exponential in the rst integral and integrating term by term we get
Z1
1
nZ
X
(
;
1)
n
+
z
;
1
;(z) =
dt t
+
dt e;t tz;1
n
!
0
n=0
Z
1
X (;1)n n+z 1 ;t z;1
+
dt e t
(2.89)
=
n=0 n! n + z
The second integral converges for any z since > 0. This expression coincides with
the representation for the ; function for Re z > 0, but it is dened also for Re z < 0
where it has simple poles located at z = ;n. Therefore it is a meaningful expression
on all the complex plane z. Notice that in order to isolate the divergences we need
to introduce an arbitrary parameter . However the result does not depend on the
particular value of this parameter. This the Weierstrass representation of the Euler
;(z). From this example we see that we need the following three steps
Find a domain where I (! k) is convergent. Typically this will be for Re ! < 2.
Construct an analytic function identical to I (! k) in the domain of convergence, but dened on a larger domain including the point ! = 2.
At the end of the calculation take the limit ! ! 2.
53
IN =
dN pF (p2)
(2.90)
dN p = d'N pN ;1dp
(2.91)
where d'N is the solid angle element in N -dimensions. Therefore d'N = SN , with
SN the surface of the unit sphere in N -dimensions. Then
IN = SN
Z1
0
pN ;1 F (p2)dp
(2.92)
The value of the sphere surface can be evaluated by the following trick. Consider
I=
Z +1
;1
e;x dx =
(2.93)
IN
(2.94)
N=2
= SN
Z1
0
N ;1e; d
2
(2.95)
By putting x = 2 we have
N
Z1
1
1
N=
2
N=
2
;
1
;
x
x
e dx = 2 SN ; 2
(2.96)
= 2 SN
0
where we have used the representation of the Euler ; function given in the previous
Section. Therefore
N=2
SN = 2
; N
(2.97)
; 2
and
N=2 Z 1
xN=2;1 F (x)dx
(2.98)
IN = ; N
; 2 0
with x = p2.
54
IN = ; N
dx
(2.102)
; 2 0 (x + a2 )A
By putting x = a2y we get
N=2 Z 1
2
N=
2
;
A
; yN=2;1(1 + y);Adx
IN = ( a )
(2.103)
; N2 0
and recalling the integral representation for the Euler B (x y) function (valid for
Rex y > 0)
Z1
;(
x
);(
y
)
tx;1(1 + t);(x+y) dt
(2.104)
B (x y) = ;(x + y) =
it follows
2) 1
IN =
N=2 ;(A;(;AN=
) (a2)A;N=2
(2.105)
We have obtained this representation for N=2 > 0 and Re(A ; N=2) > 0. But we
know how to extend the Euler gamma-function to the entire complex plane, and
therefore we can extend this formula to complex dimensions N = 2!
A ; !) 1
I2! =
! ;(;(
(2.106)
A) (a2 )A;!
This shows that I2! has simple poles located at
! = A A + 1
(2.107)
Therefore our integral will be perfectly dened at all ! such that ! 6= A A + 1 .
At the end we will have to consider the limit ! ! 2. The original integral in
Minkowski space is then
Z d2! p
1
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! )
=
i
(2.108)
(p2 ; a2 )A
;(A) (a2)A;!
55
For the following it will be useful to derive another formula. Let us put in the
previous equation p = p0 + k and b2 = ;a2 + k2, then
Z
1
d2! p0
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! )
=
i
(2.109)
0
2
0
2
2
A
2
(p + 2p k + k ; a )
;(A) (a )A;!
from which
Z
d2! p
1
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! )
=
i
(2.110)
(p2 + 2p k + b2 )A
;(A) (k2 ; b2 )A;!
Dierentiating with respect to k we get various useful relations as
Z
A ; !) ;k
(2.111)
d2! p (p2 + 2ppk + b2 )A = i
! (;1)A ;(;(
A) (k2 ; b2 )A;!
and
Z
!
A
d2! p (p2 + 2pppk + b2 )A = i ;(A)(
k(2;;1)b2 )A;!
1
2
2
(2.112)
;(A ; !)kk ; 2 g (k ; b );(A ; ! ; 1)
Since at the end of our calculation we will have to take the limit ! ! 2, it will be
useful to recall the expansion of the Gamma function around its poles
(2.113)
;() = 1 ; + O()
where
= 0:5772:::
(2.114)
is the Euler-Mascheroni constant, and for (n 1):
n 1
(
;
1)
;(;n + ) = n! + (n + 1) + O()
(2.115)
where
(2.116)
(n + 1) = 1 + 21 + + n1 ;
The algebra of the Dirac matrices is also easily extended to arbitrary dimensions d.
For instance, starting from
]+ = 2g
(2.117)
we get
= d
(2.118)
and
= (2 ; d)
(2.119)
Other relations can be obtained by starting from the algebraic properties of the
-matrices. Let us start with the electron self-energy which we will require to have
dimension 1 as in d = 4. From eq. (2.4) we have
Z d2! k
p^ ; k^ + m 1
4
;
2
!
(p) = i
(2.120)
(2
)2! (p ; k)2 ; m2 + i k2 + i
In order to use the equations of the previous Section it is convenient to combine
together the denominators of this expression into a single one. This is done by using
a formula due to Feynman
1 =
ab
which is proven using
Z1
0
dz
az + b(1 ; z)]2
1 = 1 1;1 = 1
ab b ; a a b b ; a
and doing the change of variables
(2.121)
Z b dx
a
x2
x = az + b(1 ; z)
We get
Z 1 Z d2! k
dz
p^ ; k^ + m
2
!
2
2
2
2
(2
)
(
p
;
k
)
z
;
m
z
+
k
(1
;
z
)]
0
The denominator can be written in the following way
(p) = i4;2!
:::] = p2z ; m2 z + k2 ; 2p kz
(2.122)
(2.123)
(2.124)
(2.125)
and the term p k can be eliminated through the following change of variables
k = k0 + pz. We nd
:::] = (p2 ; m2 )z + (k0 + pz)2 ; 2p (k0 + pz)z = k02 ; m2 z + p2z(1 ; z) (2.126)
57
Z 1 Z d2! k
^
dz (2
)2! k2 ;p^(1m;2zz+) ;p2kz(1+ ;mz)]2
0
(2.127)
m z ; p2z(1 ; z)]=2
0
we obtain
(p) = 1 2 ;(=2)
m2z ; p2z(1 ; z) ;=2
Z 1 16
;
=
(2.133)
1 Z 1 dz 2A + 2B ; A h1 ; log C i
16
2 0
2
Z
1
1
2
A
16
2 0 dz ; A log C + 2B ; A
1 (^p ; 4m) ; 1 ^p ; 2m + (^p ; 4m)]
8
2Z
16
2
1
1
m2 z ; p2z(1 ; z)
dz
^
p
(1
;
z
)
;
2
m
]
log
8
2 0
4
2
1 (^p ; 4m) + nite terms
8
2
58
(2.134)
whereas
; !)
d2! p p2 ;1 a2 ] = ;i
! ;(1
2
(a )1;!
(2.144)
Therefore the rst and the third contribution to the vacuum polarization cancel out
and we are left with
Z1
Z d2! k
4
;
2
!
!
2
(q) = ;i 2 (q q ; g q ) dz 2z(1 ; z) (2
)2! k2 + q2 z(1 1; z) ; m2 ]2
0
(2.145)
Notice that the original integral was quadratically divergent, but due to the previous
cancellation the divergence is only logarithmic. The reason is again gauge invariance. In fact it is possible to show that this implies q (q) = 0. Performing the
momentum integration we have
Z1
!
; !)
4
;
2
!
!
2
(q) = ;i2 2 (q q ; g q ) dz z(1 ; z) (2i
2
;
=
2
2
(q) = 2 2 (q q ; g q ) dz z(1 ; z) (2
)4; m2 ; q;(2z=(12); z)]=2
0
m2 ; q2z(1 ; z) ;=2
Z1
2
2
;
=
2
2
2 (q q ; g q ) dz z(1 ; z);(=2)
=
16
2
4
2
0
= 162
2 (4 ; 2 log 2)(qq ; g q2)
Z1
h
i
(2.147)
dz z(1 ; z)( 2 ; ) 1 ; 2 log C
0
where C is denite in eq. (2.133). Finally
8
h i
Z
1
2
(q) = 8
2 (qq ; g q ) dz z(1 ; z) ; 4 ; 4 log 2 1 ; 2 log C
= 2
1 2 (qq ; g q2)
m2 ; q2z(1 ; z)
1 Z
(2.148)
3 ; 6 ; dz z(1 ; z) log
2
2
or, in abbreviated way
(q) = 6
1 2 (q q ; g q2 ) 1 + nite terms
(2.149)
We have now to evaluate (p0 p). From eq. (2.11) we have
Z d2! k p^ 0 ; k^ + m
^
p^ ; k + m 1
0
4
;
2
!
(p p) = ;i
(2
)2! (p0 ; k)2 ; m2 (p ; k)2 ; m2 k2 (2.150)
60
Z 1 Yn (1 ; Pn i)
= (n ; 1)!
di Pn i=1a ]n
a
i
0
i=1 i i
i=1
i=1
Yn 1
Yn 1 Z 1 Yn
i=1 ai
Z1
0
Yn 1 Z 1 Yn
=
a
i
i=1
Z 1 Yn
0
i=1
i=1
i=1
d( ;
i=1
n
X
i=1
did( ;
;
din d e
die
n
X
n
X
i=1
iai
(2.151)
iai
(2.152)
i)
n
X
i=1
(2.153)
i)e
(1 ;
n
X
i=1
n
X
i=1
iai
i)
(2.154)
The integration over i can be restricted to the interval 0 1] due to the delta
function, and furthermore
Z1
(2.155)
dn;1e; = (n ;n 1)!
0
In our case we get
Z d2! k Z 1 Z 1;x
0
4
;
2
!
dx
dy
(p p) = ;2i
(2
)2! 0
0
(^
0 ; k^ + m) (^
^
p
k2 (1 ; x ; y) + (p ; k)2x ; mp2x;+k (+p0m
; k)2y ; m2 y]3 (2.156)
The denominator is
:::] = k2 ; m2(x + y) + p2x + p02 y ; 2k (px + p0y)
(2.157)
Changing variable, k = k0 + px + py
:::] = (k0 + px + p0 y)2 ; m2 (x + y) + p2 x + p0 2y ; 2(k0 + px + p0y) (px + p0 y)
= k0 2 ; m2 (x + y) + p2x(1 ; x) + p02y(1 ; y) ; 2p p0xy
(2.158)
61
Letting again k0 ! k
(p0 p) = ;2i4;2!
Z 1 Z 1;x Z d2! k
dx
dy
(2
)2!
0
p(1 ; x) ; p^0 y ; k^ + m)
^
k(^2p;(1m;2(xy)+;yp^)x+;p2kx+(1m;)x) (^
(2.159)
2
0
0
3
+ p y(1 ; y) ; 2p p xy]
The odd term in k is zero after integration, the term in k2 is logarithmically divergent, whereas the remaining part is convergent. Separating the divergent piece,
(3)
(1)
, from the convergent one, ,
(2)
= (1)
(2.160)
+
we get for the rst term
Z 1 Z 1;x Z d2! k
(1)
0
4
;
2
!
(p p) = ;2i
dx
dy (2
)2!
0
0
k k
2 2
2
02
0 3
Z 1k ;Zm1;(xx +i
y)! (+;p1)x3 (1 ;1x) + p y(1 ; y) ; 2p p xy]
= ;2i4;2! dx
dy ;(3) ; 2 ;(2 ; !)
0
0
m2 (x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p0 2y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy]2;!
1 !
Z 1 Z 1;x
1
4
;
2
!
= 2
4
;(2 ; !) 0 dx 0 dy
(2.161)
m2 (x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p0 2y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy]2;!
Using the relation
= (2 ; d)2
(2.162)
we obtain ( = 4 ; 2!)
0
1 1 2;=2 ;(=2)( ; 2)2 Z 1 dx Z 1;x dy
2 4
0
0
1
2
2
m (x + y) ; p x(1 ; x) ; p0 2y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy]=2
2
Z 1 Z 1;x
1
= 32
2 ; 4 ; 4] dx
dy
0
0
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy ;=2
4
2
Z 1 Z 1;x
1
1
1
dy
= 8
2 ; 16
2 ( + 2) ; 8
2
dx
0
0
0
(1)
(p p) =
62
log
(2.163)
and nally
1
0
(1)
(2.164)
(p p) = 8
2 + nite terms
In the convergent part we can put directly ! = 2
Z 1 Z 1;x i
2(;1)3
i
(2)
0
(p p) = ; 8
4 dx
dy ;(3)
0
0
(^p0 (1 ; y) ; p^x + m) (^p(1 ; x) ; p^0y + m)
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02 y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy
Z 1 Z 1;x
1
= ; 16
2 dx
dy
0
0
(^p0 (1 ; y) ; p^x + m) (^p(1 ; x) ; p^0y + m) (2.165)
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02 y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy
2 (p)
SF (p) = p^ ; m 1 + ep^ ;
m
63
;1
= p^ ; m +i e2 (p)
(2.170)
Therefore the eect of the divergent terms is to modify the coecients of p^ and m:
2
2
e
e
1 + 8
2 ; m 1 + 2
2 + nite terms (2.171)
F
This allows us to dene the counter terms to be added to the lagrangian expressed
in terms of the physical parameters in such a way to cancel these divergences
!
(L1)ct = iB !@^ ; A
(2.172)
iS ;1(p) = p^ ; m + e2 (p) = p^
(L1)ct modies the Feynman rules adding two particles interacting terms. These
can be easily evaluated noticing that the expression of the propagator, taking into
account (L1)ct, is
1 ; B p^ ; A
(1 + B )^p ; (m + A)
p^ ; m
p^ ; m
p^ ;i m + p^ ;i m (iB p^ ; iA) p^ ;i m
i
(2.173)
where, consistently with our expansion we have taken only the rst order terms in
A and B . We can associate to these two terms the diagrams of Fig. 2.7.2, with
contributions ;iA to the mass term, and iB p^ to p^.
.
-iA
iBp/
Fig. 2.7.2 - The counter terms for the self-energy (/p in the gure should be read as
p^).
The propagator at the second order in the coupling constant is then given by adding
the diagrams of Fig. 2.7.3.
At this order we get
;
SF (p) = p^ ;i m + p^ ;i m ie2 (p) + iB p^ ; iA p^ ;i m
(2.174)
and the correction to the free propagator is given by
e2(p) + B p^ ; A =
e2
e2
8
2 + B p^ ; 2
2 m + A + nite terms
2
B = ; 8e
2 1 + F2 m
64
(2.175)
(2.176)
.
=
2 1
m
A = ; me
+
F
(2.177)
m
2
2
with F2 andFm nite for ! 0. Notice also that these two functions are dimensionless and arbitrary up to this moment. However they can be determined by the
renormalization conditions, that is by xing the arbitrary constants appearing in
the lagrangian. In fact, given
(2.178)
we can require that at the physical pole, p^ = m, the propagator coincides with the
free propagator
(2.179)
SF (p) p^ ;i m for p^ = m
65
which gives
e2 F = 0
;
@ p^ p^=m 8
2 2
e2 @
f (p)
(2.183)
We see that the one loop propagator has a divergent part in g , and also divergent
and nite pieces in the term proportional to the momenta. Therefore the propagator
is not any more in the Feynman gauge. It follows that we should add to Lp
L2 = ; 41 F F ; 12 (@ A )2 = 21 A g A
(2.186)
66
where
~ = e2 f + F3
(2.196)
At the second order in the electric charge we can write the propagator in the form
q
;
i
q ~
0
g +
D (q) = 2
(q)
(2.197)
q (1 + ~ (q)) q2
and we see that the propagator has a pole at q2 = 0, since ~ (q2) is nite for q2 ! 0.
Therefore the photon remains massless after renormalization. This is part of a rather
general aspect of renormalization which says that if the regularization procedure
respects the symmetries of the original lagrangian, the symmetries are preserved at
any perturbative order. An exception is the case of the anomalous symmetries, which
are symmetries at the classical level, but are broken by the quantum corrections.
All the anomalous symmetries can be easily identied in a given theory.
Also in this case we will require that at the physical pole, q2 ! 0, the propagator
has the free form, that is
~ (0) = 0
(2.198)
from which
F3 = ;e2 f (0)
(2.199)
For small momenta we can write
f
~(q) e2q2 d (2q)
(2.200)
dq q2=0
since F3 is a constant. Using the expression for f from the previous Section, we
get
f (q) ;
1 + 1 log m2
2
2 6 6
2
2
and
from which
Z1
2
1
+ 2
2
dz z2 (1 ; z)2 mq 2 + (2.201)
0
2 2
~ (q) 60e
2qm2
(2.202)
2q2
e
g
(2.203)
= ;i q 2 1 ; 60
2 m2 + gauge terms
The rst term, 1=q2, gives rise to the Coulomb potential, e2 =4
r. Therefore this is
modied by a constant term in momentum space, or by a term proportional to the
delta function in the real space
1
Z Z d4q
2
e
e2 ; e4 3(~r)
2
;
iq
(
x
;
x
)
1
2
12 = e dt
e
;
=
;
(2
)4
q2 60
2m2
4
r 60
2m2
(2.204)
D0
68
This modication of the Coulomb potential modies the energy levels of the hydrogen atom, and it is one of the contributions to the Lamb shift, which produces a
splitting of the levels 2S1=2 and 2P1=2 . The total Lamb shift is the sum of all the
self-energy and vertex corrections, and turns out to be about 1057:9 MHz. The
contribution we have just calculated is only ;27:1 MHz, but it is important since
the agreement between experiment and theory is of the order of 0:1 MHz.
We have now to discuss the vertex corrections. We have seen that the divergent
contribution is (1)
(p0 p), and this is proportional to . The counter term to add
to interacting part of Lp
!
Lint
(2.205)
p = ;e A
is
! A
(L3)ct = ;eD
(2.206)
The complete vertex is given by (see Fig. 2.7.5)
(2.207)
(counter-term)
2
D = ; 8e
2 1 + F2
(2.208)
with F2 the same as in eq. (2.7). The reason is that with this choice we get the
equality of the wave function renormalization factors Z1 = Z2. This equality follows
from the conservation of the current, and therefore we can use the arbitrariness in
the nite part of the vertex counter term to guarantee it. The one-loop vertex is
then
F
2
0
2
f
(2.209)
( ) = + e ( ; 8
2 )
One can see that this choice of F2 is such that for spinors on shell the vertex is the
free one
u!(p)()0u(p)jp^=m = u!(p) u(p)
(2.210)
69
We will evaluate now the radiative corrections to the g ; 2 of the electron. Here g
is the gyromagnetic ratio, which the Dirac equation predicts to be equal to be two.
To this end we rst need to prove the Gordon identity for the current of a Dirac
particle
p + p0 i
0
0
(2.211)
u!(p )u(p) = u!(p ) 2m + 2m q u(p)
(2.212)
and
p^u(p) = m
(2.213)
Subtracting these two expressions we obtain
p i
u(p) = m ; m p u(p)
(2.214)
An analogous operation on the barred spinor leads to the result. We observe also
that the Gordon identity shows immediately that g = 2, because it implies that the
coupling with the electromagnetic eld is just
e F (q)
(2.215)
2m
To evaluate the correction to this term from the one loop diagrams, it is enough to
evaluate the matrix element
0
e2 u!(p0)(2)
(p p)u(p)
(2.216)
(2.217)
(2.218)
Using p^ = ; p^ + 2p, and an analogous equation for p^0 , we can bring p^ to act on
the spinor at the right of the expression, and p^0 on the spinor at the left, obtaining
V = u!(p0) my + 2(1 ; y)p0 ; p^x mx + 2(1 ; x)p ; p^0 y] u(p)
(2.219)
70
Making use of
= ;2
= 4g
p^ p^0 = ;2^p0 p^
we get
(2.220)
(2.221)
(2.222)
(2.224)
from which
Z1
;(1 ; x) log x + x ; 1]
1
2
2
2
= ;x log x + x + x2 log x ; x4 + x2 ; x = 14
0
(2.226)
2
0 p)u(p) ! ; e u!(p0 )p + p0 ]u(p)
e2 u!(p0)(2)
(
p
(2.227)
16
2 m
Using the Gordon in this expression, and eliminating the further contribution in
we obtain
2
ie
2
0
(2)
0
(2.228)
e u!(p ) (p p)u(p)jmom: magn: ! 16
2m u!(p0) q u(p)
Finally we have to add this correction to the vertex part taken at p0 = p, which
coincides with the free vertex
2
p + p0 i e2
ie
0
0
u!(p ) + 16
2m q ]u(p) = u!(p ) 2m + 2m 1 + 8
2 q ]u(p) (2.229)
71
e ! e 1 +
(2.230)
2m 2m
2
This correction was evaluated by Schwinger in 1948. Actually we know the rst
three terms of the expansion
2
ath = 12 (g ; 2) = 12
; 0:32848
+ 1:49(
)3 + = (1159652:4 0:4) 10;9
(2.232)
to be compared with the experimental value
aexp = (1159652:4 0:2) 10;9
72
(2.233)
Chapter 3
Vacuum expectation values and
the S matrix
3.1 In- and Out-states
For the future we will need a formulation of eld theory showing that any S -matrix
element can be reduced to the evaluation of the vacuum expectation value of a T product of eld operators. Such a formulation is called LSZ (from the authors l
(Lehaman, Symanzik and Zimmermann). This formalism is based on a series of
very general properties as displacement and Lorentz invariance. It is interesting
to see how far one can go in determining the features of a eld theory by using
only invariance arguments. In the following we will work in the Heisenberg picture,
that is the operators will be time-dependent and evolving with the full hamiltonian.
Formally this representation can be obtained from eq. (1.217) by sending the free
hamiltonian into the full hamiltonian. It should be also kept in mind that since
no exact solution of an interacting eld theory is known, we are not sure that the
assumptions we are going to make are consistent. Said that, our assumptions are:
1. The eigenvalues of the four-momentum lie within the forward light cone
p2 = pp 0
p0 0
(3.1)
2. There exists a nondegenerate Lorentz invariant states of minimum energy.
This is called the vacuum state
#0 j0i
(3.2)
By convention, we assume that the corresponding energy is zero
P0j0i = 0
(3.3)
From eq. (3.1) we get also
P~ j0i = 0 ! Pj0i = 0
(3.4)
73
ep
gl
sin
2m
ar
tic
le
sta
te
xxx
Continuum
xxx
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xx
xx
xx
m
p
xx
xx
Vacuum
t = ;1 a system of free particles. That is assuming that they do not interact each
other (this requires that the particles are well separated in space). These particles
will interact with a target at some nite time. After that scattering process we
imagine that at t = +1 the emerging particles will behave again as free particles.
In real life the times t = 1 correspond to laboratory time. That is we prepare
the beam at some nite time ;T , the scattering process will occur around the time
t = 0 (assuming this as the time scale) and then we will measure the outgoing
particles at a time T . The ideal description considered before can be considered as
correct if the interaction time t around t = 0 is much smaller that T . For instance,
imagine an electron prepared in an eigenstate of momentum p, impinging over an
atom. Here there is a further simplication that we are doing since in a nite time or
a nite volume we cannot prepare a state of denite momentum. This is one of the
reasons why analyzing a scattering process it is always convenient to quantize in a
box of the dimension of the experiment itself (that is about the distance between the
source of the beam and the detector). The same consideration holds for the energy,
that is one has always to remember that the experiments is taking place between to
nite times ;T and T . Having prepared the electron in the initial state at the time
;T , the particle will travel since it will reach the target where it will be subject to
the interaction with the atoms of target itself. The interaction time will be of the
order of the time necessary to cross the atomic dimensions for the case of a single
scattering, or, at maximum, of the order of the thickness of the target for a multiple
scattering. After that we will let again the electron to move freely since it will reach
the detector where we will measure its properties as momentum and polarization. In
conclusion we can think to describe the particles at t = 1 in terms of free elds,
except that they will be subject to the self-interaction which, as we know, cannot
be neglected. The free elds that we are going to use will be denoted by in(x) for
t ! ;1 and by out (x) for t ! +1. The interacting eld (x)) can be thought of
as constructed in terms of these free elds operators and such that at t ! 1 it
reduces to out(x) or in(x). In order that the in- and out-elds describe correctly
the incoming and outgoing free particles we have to require some properties. In
particular we will require
1. in(x) must transform as the corresponding (x) with respect to the symmetries of the theory. In particular, with respect to translation it must satisfy
P ] = ;i @in (x)
(3.6)
@x
equivalent to require
in(x + a) = eiP ain(x)e;iP a
(3.7)
2. in(x) must satisfy the free Klein-Gordon equation (for a scalar eld, or the
Dirac free equation for a spinor eld, etc.) corresponding to the physical
mass m
( + m2 )in(x) = 0
(3.8)
75
Notice that this requirement implies that we have taken into account the selfinteractions of the eld which are responsible for the mass renormalization (we
will mention the wave function renormalization later).
The same properties are required for the out-elds. By using these two properties
it follows at once that the in-eld creates from the vacuum the physical one particle
state from the vacuum. In fact, let jpi an eigenstate ofP with eigenvalue p. We
have
;i @x@ hpjin(x)j0i = hpjP in(x)]j0i = p hpjin(x)j0i
(3.9)
By applying ;i@=@x once more, we nd
;hpjin(x)j0i = p2hpjin(x)j0i
(3.10)
(3.11)
We see that the only state that in(x) can create out of the vacuum is the one with
p such that p2 = m2 . From our starting hypotheses we have that this is the state
of single particle with mass m. Since the in- and out-elds are free elds we can
apply all the corresponding formalism. In particular they can be Fourier expanded
in(x) =
with
(3.12)
!~k = ~k2 + m2
(3.13)
(3.14)
from which
Pi ain(~k)] =
d3~x
@ @ (x) @
@ (x)
in
in
; @x0 f~k (x) @x
~k
0 @xi
i
@x
@f (x) !
#
" @f (x)
@
@
~
~
f (x)
= ; d3~x
= ;kiain(~k)
@xi
@x0 in(x)
k
; @x0 @x
i
in(x)
(3.15)
Since f~k(x) and in(x) both satisfy the free Klein-Gordon equation, we see that the
operators dened in eq. (3.14) are time independent. This follows immediately, by
76
recalling that if 1(x) and 2(x) are both solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation,
then the four-vector
@2 ; @1
j = 1 @x
(3.16)
@x 2
is a conserved current, and therefore the charge
Q=
d3~xj0
(3.17)
(3.19)
(3.20)
It follows that ayin (~k) creates states of four-momentum k whereas ain(~k) annihilates
states with momentum k. For instance,
Payin(~k1)ayin (~k2)j0i = P ayin(~k1)ayin(~k2)]j0i = (k1 + k2) ayin(~k1)ayin(~k2)j0i (3.21)
By using the condition on the spectrum of the momentum operator we get also
ain(~k)j0i = 0
(3.23)
since, otherwise, this state would have a negative eigenvalue of the energy. We get
also
hp1 pM injk1 kN ini = 0
(3.24)
unless M = N and the set (p1 pM ) is identical to the set (k1 kN ).
Let us now look for a relation between the in- and the -eld. The eld (x)
will satisfy an equation of the type
( + m2)(x) = j (x)
(3.25)
where j (x) (the scalar current) contains the self-interactions of the elds and possible
interactions with other elds in the theory. We need to solve this equation with the
77
boundary conditions at t = 1 relating (x) with the in- and out-elds. Notice that
in writing the previous equation we have included the eects of mass renormalization
inside the current j (x), but we know that at the same time we have also a wave
function renormalization. Therefore asymptotically the eldp (x) cannot
p be the
same as the in- and out-elds but it will dier by a factor Z , where Z is the
wave function renormalization. Therefore, the required asymptotic conditions are
(3.26)
(3.27)
We will see in a moment the meaning of Z in this context. The function ret (x m2 )
is the retarded Green's function, dened by
( + m2 )ret (x m2) = 4(x)
(3.28)
such that
f (t) = i
(3.30)
(3.31)
(3.32)
Similar considerations can be made for the out-eld. In particular we can nd a
relation between the in- and out-elds
(3.33)
where
with
(3.38)
where stands for the all collection of the quantum numbers of the initial state.
After the scattering process we are interested to evaluate the probability amplitude
for the nal state to be a state of non-interacting particles described by the outoperators
jp01 p0n outi = ayout (p01 ) ayout (p0n)j0 outi j outi
(3.39)
The probability amplitude is given by the S matrix elements
(3.40)
We can also dene an operator S transforming the in-states into the out-states
h injS = h outj
such that
(3.41)
1. Since the vacuum is stable and not degenerate, it follows jS00 j = 1, and therefore
h0injS = h0outj = eih0inj
(3.43)
By choosing the phase equal to zero we get
(3.44)
(3.45)
(3.46)
(3.47)
h outjout = h injinS
(3.48)
Then
S yj ini = j outi
(3.50)
(3.51)
SS y = 1
From eq. (3.50) and the unitarity of S we get
(3.52)
(3.53)
5. S is Lorentz invariant, as it follows from the fact that transform in- into outelds having the same Lorentz properties. For the same reason the S matrix
is invariant under any symmetry of the theory.
80
=
=
Z
lim ; lim
Z
d3~x
@
@
g1(x) @x0 g2 (x) ; @x0 g1(x) g2 (x)
x0 !+1 x0 !;1
+1
d4 x g1(x)g2(x) ; g1 (x)g2(x)]
;1
(3.58)
we can write
Z
By using the Klein-Gordon equation for fp~(x) we get
h out
j p ini = h ; p outj ini
Z
h
;
i
+ pi d4xh outj fp~(x)(x) ; (r2 ; m2)fp~(x) (x) j ini (3.60)
Z
Integrating by parts
(3.61)
Z
We can iterate this procedure in order to extract all the in- and out-particles from
the states. Let us see also the case in which we want to extract from the previous
matrix element an out-particle. This exercise is interesting because it shows how the
T -product comes about. Let us suppose that the out state is of the type = ( p0),
with p0 the momentum of a single particle. We want to extract this particle from
the state
@
i
; @y0 fp~ (y) h outj(out (y)(x) ; (x)in(y))j ini
0
(3.62)
h out
jout(y)(x) ;(x)in(y)]j ini
; lim h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
= p1 y lim
!+1 y !;1
Z
82
(3.63)
h out
j(x)j ini = h Zoutj(x)j ;p0 ini
h
i
@
3
; lim
d ~y fp~ (y) @y0 h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
+ p y lim
!+1 y !;1
Z@ 0 0
i
; @y0 fp~ (y) h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
= h outj(x)j ; p0 ini
Z
h
i
@ 2 T ((y)(x)) ; f (y)T ((y)(x))ij ini
+ p
d4 yh outj fp~ (y) @y
p~
2
Z
0
= h out
j(x)j ; p0 ini
Z
(3.64)
+ pi d4 yfp~ (y)( + m2 )y h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
Z
Substituting inside the (3.61)
h outj p ini
= h ;Zp outj ini
+ pi d4xfp~(x)( + m2 )xh outj(x)j ; p0 ini
Zi 2 Z
d4xd4 y
+ p
Z
fp~(x)fp~ (y)( + m2 )x( + m2 )y h outjT ((y)(x))j ini (3.65)
More generally if we want to remove all the particles in (q1 qm) and in (p1 pn)
with the condition pi 6= qj we get
hp1 pm outjq1 qn ini
i m+n Z Y
mn
= p
d4xid4yj f~qi (xi)fp~j (yj )( + m2 )xi ( + m2 )yj
Z
ij =1
h0jT ((y1) (yn)(x1 ) (xm ))j0i
(3.66)
If some of the qi's are equal to some of the pj 's, we can reduce further the matrix
elements of the type h outj ; p ini. Therefore we have shown that it is possible to
evaluate all the S matrix elements once one knows the vacuum expectation values of
the T -products (called also the n-point Green's function). The result obtained here
can be easily extended to generic elds simply by substituting to the wave functions
fp~(x) the corresponding solutions of the wave equation (for instance, for spinor elds,
spinors times plane waves) and to the Klein-Gordon operator the corresponding wave
operators (for the spinor
Dirac operator (i@/ ; m)). pIn the Dirac case one
p case the
p
halso to change i= Z to ;i= Z2 for fermions and to +i= Z2 for antifermions,
where Z2 is the wave function renormalization for the spinor eld.
0
83
84
Chapter 4
Path integral formulation of
quantum mechanics
4.1 Feynman's formulation of quantum mechanics
In 1948 Feynman gave a formulation of quantum mechanics quite dierent from the
standard one. This formulation did not make use of operators and of Schrodinger
equation, but rather it was giving an explicit expression for the quantum-mechanical
amplitude, although using a mathematical formalism which was far from being well
dened, which was obtained directly from the physical idea that the probability
amplitude to go from one state to another can be obtained by summing together
all the possible ways with an appropriate weight. This was as apply the ordinary
composition laws in probability theory, to the probability amplitudes (remember
that the probability is the square of the amplitude). The key observation to get the
appropriate weight was taken by the Dirac's book where it was shown that, for one
degree of freedom, the probability amplitude
hq0 t + tjq ti
(4.1)
for t innitesimal, is given by the eiS where S is the classical action to go from q at
the time t to q0 at the tome t + t. In fact we will show that the Feynman's formulation can be derived from the usual formulation of quantum mechanics. Although
the path integral formulation (as the Feynman's approach is usually called) is just
a dierent way of formulating quantum mechanics, at the beginning of the 70's it
turned out to be a crucial tool for the quantization of gauge theories. Also it is one
the few methods which can be used for studying situations outside the perturbative approach. In order to derive the Feynman's formulation we will start studying
a quantum system described by one degree of freedom, and we will see later how
this can be extended also to innite degrees of freedom as needed in quantum eld
theory. First of all we notice that the quantum mechanical problem is to evaluate
85
the time evolution, which is given by the propagator. This can be evaluated in any
basis, for instance in conguration space, its matrix elements are given by
hq0 t0jq ti t0 t
(4.2)
It will be convenient to work in the Heisenberg representation, that is using timedependent operators q(t). The states of the previous equation are dened as eigenstates of the operator q(t) at the time t, that is
q(t)jq ti = jq tiq
(4.3)
It follows immediately that the relation between these states at dierent times is
given by
jq ti = eiHtjq 0i
(4.4)
for a time independent hamiltonian. The matrix element (4.2) can be evaluated
by slicing the time interval t0 ; t in innitesimal pieces and using the completeness
relation. we get
hq0 t0jq ti
where
Therefore
= nlim
dq1 dqn;1hq0 t0jqn;1 tn;1ihqn;1 tn;1jqn;2 tn;2i
!1
hq1 t1jq ti
(4.5)
tk = t + k
t0 t
Z
nY
;1 !
nY
;1
k=1
dqk
k=0
tn t0
hqk+1 tk+1jqk tk i
(4.6)
(4.7)
We have still to evaluate the matrix element (4.2), but now for an innitesimal time
interval . let us use again the completeness in momentum space with states taken
at a time t~ in between tk e tk+1:
hqk+1 tk + jqk tk i =
(4.8)
(4.9)
(remember /h = 1). making use of the canonical commutation relations for p and
q, the hamiltonian can be written in such a way that all the operators q are at the
left of all the operators p. The result will be denoted by the symbol H+(q p). By
doing so we get
;
hqk+1 tk + jp t~i ' hqk+1 0jp 0i 1 ; iH+(qk+1 p)(tk + ; t~)
' hqk+1 0jp 0ie;iH+ (qk+1 p)(tk + ; t~)
(4.10)
86
and
hp t~jqk tk i ' p1 ei(;pqk ; H;(qk p)(t~ ; tk ))
(4.12)
2
where H; is the eigenvalue of the operator H;(p q) dened by putting the operators
q to the right of p by using the canonical commutation relations. By choosing
t~ = (tk + tk+1)=2 and the previous two equations, we get
Z dp
hqk+1 tk + jqk ti ' 2
ei(p(qk+1 ; qk )= ; Hc(qk+1 qk p))
(4.13)
where
Hc(qk+1 qk p) = 21 (H+(qk+1 p) + H;(qk p))
(4.14)
Since in the limit ! 0 we have
and write
(4.15)
(4.16)
Hc(qk+1 qk p) H (qk p)
(4.17)
In the same limit H (qk p) is nothing but the hamiltonian of the system evaluated
in the phase space. Therefore
Z dp
hqk+1 tk + jqk tk i ' 2
eiL(qk p)
(4.18)
where
L(qk p) = pq_k ; H (qk p)
(4.19)
is the lagrangian in phase space. Coming back to (4.7) and using (4.18) we obtain
! i X L(qk pk)
Z
nY
;1 !
nY
;1
dpk e k=0
hq0 t0 jq ti = nlim
dq
k
!1
2
n;1
k=1
k=0
87
(4.20)
In the limit, the argument of the exponential gives the integral between t and t0 of
the lagrangian in the phase space, therefore we get the canonical action
S=
Zt
dt L(q p)
(4.21)
In the limit n ! 1, the multiple integral in eq. (4.20) is called the functional
integral and we will denote it symbolically as
hq0 t0jq ti =
where
d(q(t)) =
Z q t
0
qt
Y
t<t <t
00
i
d(q(t))d(p(t))e
dq(t00) d(p(t)) =
Zt
dtL(q p)
Y dp(t00)
tt t
00
(4.22)
(4.23)
The asymmetry between the integration in q(t) and p(t) implies that the integral is
not invariant under a generic canonical transformation. Notice that the integration
is made over all the functions q(t00) such that q(t) = q e q(t0 ) = q0. On the contrary
there are no limitations on p(t00 ), as it required by the uncertainty principle.
In such a case
(4.24)
2
H+(q p) = H;(q p) = H (q p) = 2pm + V (q)
The momentum integration can be done naively
hq0 t0 jq ti
= nlim
!1
(4.25)
Z
nY;1 !
k=1
dqk
n;1
= nlim
!1
dqk
2
i
k=1
e;i(V (qk+1) + V (qk ))=2 =
88
k=0
e(;2m=i)(qk+1 ; qk ) =4
Z r m n
nY;1 !
lim
dqk
n!1
2i
k=1
nY
;1
im((qk+1 ; qk )=)2 =2 ; (V (qk+1) + V (qk ))=2]
k=0
hq0 t0jq ti =
(4.26)
Z r m n
nY
;1 !
lim
dqk
n!1
2i
k=1
n;1
X
2
i
e
k=0
(4.27)
We have also
2 V (q ) + V (q ) # Z t
n;1 "
X
m
q
k+1 ; qk
k
lim
; k+1
= dtL(q q_)
0
n!1
k=0
(4.28)
where L(q q_) is the lagrangian in conguration space. Therefore we will write
hq0 t0jq ti =
Z q t
0
qt
D(q(t))e
Zt
dtL(q q_)
(4.29)
r m n nY;1
dqk
D(q(t)) = nlim
!1
2i
k=1
(4.30)
It is the expression (4.29) (really dened by (4.27)) which was originally formulated
by Feynman. In fact it has a simple physical. But before discussing the interpretation let us notice that for N degrees of freedom and with hamiltonians of the
type
H (qi pi) =
N 2
X
pi
(4.31)
2m + V (qi) i = 1 : : : N
the expression (4.29) can be easily generalized. However for arbitrary system one
has to start with the formulation in the phase space of the previous Section, which
also can be easily generalized to an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom.
For discussing the interpretation of the expression (4.29), let us recall the boundary conditions
q(t) = q q(t0) = q0
(4.32)
i=1
89
.
t'
q'
90
2
A
Fig. 4.3.2 - The experimental probability distribution, P , with both slits open.
Each electron must go through the slit 1 or through the slit 2.
91
As a consequence the probability for the electron to reach the screen at the
point x must be given by the sum of the probability to reach x through 1 with
the probability to go through 2.
These hypotheses can be easily checked by closing one of the two slits and doing
again the experiment. The results obtained in the two cases are given in Fig. 4.3.3.
.
P2
P1
P=
Pi:
(4.34)
A=
X
i
Ai
(4.35)
P = jAj2 = j
X
i
Ai j2
(4.36)
Therefore the probability rules are strictly related to the experimental setting. There
are situations in which one may have both type of alternatives. For instance, if we
want to know the total probability of having an electron in C within the interval
(a b), having a detector in C and not looking at the slit crossed by the electrons. In
this case the total probability will be given by
P=
Zb
a
dxjA1(x) + A2 (x)j2
(4.37)
Since the alternatives of getting the electron at dierent points in C are exclusive
ones.
From this point of view it is well conceivable to speak about trajectories of the
electron, but we have to associate to each possible path an amplitude and then sum
all over the possible paths. For instance, suppose that we want to evaluate the
amplitude to go from S to the screen C when the screen B is eliminated. This can
be done by increasing the number of holes in the screen B. Then, if we denote by
A(x y) the amplitude for the electron to reach x going through the hole placed at
a distance y from the center of B, the total amplitude will be given by
A(x) =
dyA(x y)
(4.38)
We can continue by using more and more screen of type B with more and more
holes. That is we can construct a lattice of points between A and C and construct
93
all the possible paths from A to the point x on C joining the sites of the lattice,
as shown in Fig. 4.3.4. By denoting with C the generic path we get that the total
amplitude is given by
X
A(x) = A(x C )
(4.39)
C
.
D
C1
S
C2
p = mqf
_ (q)
(4.41)
(4.42)
Notice that for qk qk+1 we have f (!qk ) (f (qk ) + f (qk+1))=2, where q!k = (qk +
qk+1)=2. Therefore, form eq. (4.20) we get
Z
nY;1 !
k=1
dqk
Y dpk ipk (qk+1 ; qk ) ; p2k =(2mf (!qk )) ; (V (qk+1) + V (qk ))=2]
e
(4.43)
n;1
k=0
This expression is formally the same as the one in eq. (4.26) after sending m !
mf (!qk ). Therefore we get
Z
r mf (!qk ) !n
nY
;1 !
lim
dqk
hq0 t0 jq ti =
n!1
n;1
e
i
2i
X
k=0
k=1
(4.44)
We can rewrite this expression in a way similar to the one used in eq. (4.29)
hq0 t0jq ti =
Z q t
0
qt
Zt
D(q(t))e
dtL(q q_)
(4.45)
with L(q q_) given in (4.40), but the functional measure is now
D(q(t)) = nlim
!1
mf (!qk )
2i
!n nY;1
k=1
dqk
(4.46)
The formal expression for the path integral is always the same, but the integration
measure must be determined by using the original phase space formulation. In the
continuum limit we have
n;1
1X
nY
;1 p
2 k=0 log f (!qk )
lim
f (!qk ) = nlim
e
=
n!1
!1
k=0
= nlim
e
!1
n;1
1X
2 k=0 log f (!qk )
n ;1
X
k=0
=
Zt
hk = (t ; t )
lim
h
k
n!1
dt
95
(4.48)
Therefore the result can be also interpreted by saying that the classical lagrangian
gets modied by quantum eects as follows
L ! L ; 2i (0) log f (q)
(4.49)
The reason why we say that this is a quantum modication is because the second
term must be proportional to /h, as it follows from dimensional arguments.
An interesting question is how one gets the classical limit from this formulation.
Let us recall that the amplitude for a single path is exp(iS (C )=/h) (where we have
put back the factor h/ ). To nd the total amplitude we must sum over all the possible
paths C . Since the amplitudes are phase factors the will cancel except for the paths
which are very close to a stationary points of S . Around this point the phases
will add coherently, whereas they will cancel going away from this point due to the
fast variation of the phase. Roughly we can expect that the coherence eect will
take place for those paths such that their phase diers from the stationary value,
S (Cclass)=/h, of the order of one. For a macroscopical particle (m 1 gr and times of
about 1 sec) the typical action is about 1027 /h, and the amplitude gets contribution
only from the classical path. For instance, take a free particle starting from the
origin at t = 0 and arriving at x0 at the time t0 . The classical path (the one making
S stationary) is
xclass(t) = x0 tt
(4.50)
0
The corresponding value for S is
Z t0 1 x2
1
(4.51)
S (xclass) = 2 m q_2 = 2 m t 0
0
0
Let us now consider another path joining the origin with x0 as, for instance,
2
t
x(t) = x0 t2
0
(4.52)
2
S (x) = 32 m xt 0
0
(4.53)
2
1
x
S = S (x) ; S (xclass) = 6 m t 0
(4.54)
0
Let us take t0 = 1 sec and x0 = 1 cm. We get S = m=6. For a macroscopic particle
(say m = 1 gr) and recalling that h/ 10;27 ergsec, we get S = 1:6 1026/h and this
non-classical path can be safely ignored. However, for an electron m 10;27 gr,
and S = /h=6. It follows that in the microscopic world, many paths may contribute
to the amplitude.
96
X
m((qk+1 ; qk )=)2=2
Z r m n
nY
;1 ! i
dqk e k=0
hq0 t0jq ti = lim
n;1
2i
n!1
k=1
(4.55)
L = 21 mq_2
(4.56)
The integrations can be done immediately starting from the gaussian integral
r
2
Z1
2 + bx
ax
dxe
= ; a e;b =4a Re a 0
(4.57)
;1
which allows us to evaluate the expression
r
Z
2 + b(x ; x)2
2
a
(
x
;
x
)
1
2
dxe
= ; a + b eab(x1 ; x2 ) =(a + b)
(4.58)
let us start by integrating q1
r
Z
2
2
im(q2 ; q0 )2=(2(2)
e
dq1eim(q2 ; q1) + (q1 ; q0 ) ]=(2) = i
m
1
i
m 2 eim(q2 ; q0)2 =(2(2)
= 2m
(4.59)
2
i(2)
Multiplying by the exponential depending on q2 and integrating over this variable
we get
m 21 Z
2
i
im(q3 ; q2 )2 + (q2 ; q0)2 =2]=(2)
dq
2e
m 2
i(2)
m 21 2
i(2) 12
2
i
im(q3 ; q0 )2=(2(3))
= m 2
i(2)
e
3m
2
i 23 m 12
im(q3 ; q0 )2 =(2(3))
=
e
(4.60)
m
2
i(3)
By repeating this procedure, after n ; 1 steps we nd
X
!
i
m((qk+1 ; qk )=)2 =2
Z
nY
;1
n;1
dqk e
k=0
2
ik=1 n m
2
eim(qn ; q0 ) =(2(n))
1
2
2
i(n)
97
(4.61)
The rst factor in the right hand side of this equation cancels out an analogous
factor in the integration measure (see eq. (4.55))
2
m
im(q0 ; q)2=(2(t0 ; t))
e
(4.62)
2
i(t0 ; t)
This expression can be generalized to a free system with N degrees of freedom
hq0 t0jq ti =
hqi0 t0jqi ti = 2
i(m
t0 ; t)
N im
2
N
X
i=1
i = 1 N (4.63)
Ztm
0 ; q )2 Z t
m
(
q
m (q0 ; q)2
2
Scl =
q
_cld =
d
=
2
2 (t0 ; t)2
2 (t0 ; t)
0
(4.66)
2
iScl
hq0 t0 jq ti = 2
i(m
(4.67)
t0 ; t) e
We shall see that for all the lagrangians quadratic in the coordinates an in the
momenta this result, that is that the amplitude is proportional to the exponential
of iS with S the action evaluated along the classical path, is generally true.
Of course, one could formulate quantum mechanics directly in terms of the path
integral. It is not dicult to show that it is possible to recover all the results of the
ordinary formulation and prove that one has complete equivalence. However we will
not do it here, but we will limit ourselves to notice that the formulations agree in
the free case. we take a xed initial point of propagation, for instance (q t) = (0 0).
Then we dene the wave function as
Z q t
0
00
D(q(t))eiS
(4.68)
h m i i mq2
(q t) = 2
it e 2t
1
2
98
(4.69)
This is indeed the wave function for a free particle in conguration space, as it can
be checked by going in the momentum space
h m i 12 Z ;ipq i mq2 h m i 12 2
it 12 ;i p2 t ;iEt
2m = e
(p t) = 2
it
dq e e 2t = 2
it
(4.70)
m e
where E = p2 =2m.
qcl(t) = q
qcl(t0 ) = q0
(4.74)
We then perform the change of variables
( ) = q( ) ; qcl( )
(4.75)
which in terms of our original denition (4.29) means
k = qk ; qclk
k = 1 n ; 1
(4.76)
Since this is a translation the functional measure remains invariant. The new variable ( ) satises the boundary condition
(t) = (t0) = 0
(4.77)
The lagrangian in terms of the new variables is given by
_ ; 1 c2
L(q) = L(qcl + ) = L(qcl ) + 21 m_ 2 + b
2
+ d_ ; e + mq_cl _ + bq_cl + bq
_ cl ; cqcl
(4.78)
99
Inside the action we can integrate by parts the terms containing both qcl and . By
using the boundary conditions for we get
h
i
L(q) = L(qcl ) + 21 m_ 2 + b
_ ; 1 c2 + d_ ; e ; mqcl + b_ qcl + cqcl (4.79)
2
Recalling the equations of motion for qcl and performing a further integration by
parts we nd
h
i
_ ; 12 c2 + d_ ; e ; ;d_ ; e
L(q) = L(qcl) + 21 m_ 2 + b
= L(qcl) + 1 m_ 2 + b
_ ; 1 c2
(4.80)
2
2
Therefore we can write the path integral as follows
Zt 1
2 + b _ ; 1 c 2 )d
Z
0t
m
_
i
(
0
2
(4.81)
hq0 t0jq ti = eiScl(q q )
D(( ))e t 2
0
0t
Notice that here all the dependence on the variables q and q0 is in the classical action.
In fact the path integral which remains to be evaluated depends only on t and t0
due to the boundary conditions satised by . For the future purposes of extension
of this approach to eld theory, this term turns out to be irrelevant. However it is
important for systems with a nite number of degrees of freedom and therefore we
will give here an idea how one can evaluate it in general. First, let us notice that the
term b_ is a trivial one, since we can absorb it into a re-denition of c( ), through
an integration by part
1 1
d
b_ = d 2 b2 ; 2 b_ 2
(4.82)
and dening
c~ = c + b_
(4.83)
In this way we get
Z t 1
n;1
X
1
m
1
2
2
2
2
i
(k+1 ; k ) ; 2 c~k k
i
!1
2 m_ ; 2 c~ d = nlim
t
k=0 2
n;1
X
;
im
i
2
2
= nlim
2k ; 2k k+1 ; 2 c~k k
!1
2
k=1
T
= nlim
i
(4.84)
!1
where we have used the boundary conditions on (0 = n = 0) and we have
introduced the vector
2 3
66 12 77
= 66 77
(4.85)
0
4 5
n;1
100
;1 0
2 ;1
;1 2
0
0
0
0
Therefore
G(t0 t)
=
0
0
0
;1 2
;1
Z 0t
3 2 c~ 0 0
77 66 01 c~2 0
77 ; 66
77 2 66
4 0 0 c~n;2
2 ;1 5
0
0
0
3
77
77
77
0 5
0
0
0
D(( ))e
Zt
0 0
0
0
c~n;1
(4.86)
m n Z
nY;1 ! iT
dk e
lim
n!1 2
i
0t
(4.87)
k=1
i
i
D
p
dk e
=
dk e
=
=
det(;i)
k=1
k=1
k=1 (;ik )
(4.89)
We get
m1
12
m n
n;1 12
1
0
= nlim
(4.90)
G(t t) = nlim
!1 2
i ( 2mi )n;1 det(;i )
!1 2
i det(;i )
Let us dene
" n;1
#
2
i
det(;i)
(4.91)
f (t0 t) = nlim
m
!1
;
then
m
2
if (t0 t)
In order to evaluate f (t0 t), let us dene (for j = 1 n ; 1)
2 2 ;1 0 0 0 0 3 2 c~ 0 0
66 ;1 2 ;1 0 0 0 77 66 01 c~2 0
6
7 2 66 0 0 c~3
Pj = 66 0 ;1 2 0 0 0 77 ; m
64 0 0 0 ;1 2 ;1 75 664 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 ;1 2
0 0 0
G(t0 t) =
101
(4.92)
0
0
0
c~j;1
0
0
0 77
0 77
77
05
c~j
(4.93)
and
Clearly
pj = detjPj j
2i n;1
det(;i) = pn;1
m
For the rst values of j , pj is given by
2 c~
p1 = 2 ; m
1
2
p2 = 2 ; m c~2 p1 ; 1
2
p3 = 2 ; m c~3 p2 ; p1
Therefore we nd the recurrency relation
2
pj+1 = 2 ; m c~j+1 pj ; pj;1 j = 1 n ; 1
where we dene p0 = 1. It is convenient to put this expression in the form
pj+1 ; 2pj + pj;1 = ; c~j+1 pj
2
m
It is also convenient to introduce the nite dierence operator
pj = pj+1; pj
a time = t + j, and a function ( ) such that
lim
p = ( )
!0 j
in the limit in which we keep xed. It follows
d( )
lim
p
=
j
!0
d
The equation (4.98) can be written as
2 pj;1 = ; c~j+1pj
m
therefore we get the following dierential equation for ( )
(4.94)
(4.95)
(4.96)
(4.97)
(4.98)
(4.99)
(4.100)
(4.101)
(4.102)
(4.103)
(t) = lim
p = 0
!0 0
d( ) j = lim p1 ; p0 = lim 2 ; 2 c~ ; 1 = 1
!0
d =t !0
m1
Recalling eq. (4.91) we have
f (t0 t) = lim
p = (t0)
!0 n;1
Therefore, for quadratic lagrangian we get the general result
r m
0
0
hq t jq ti = 2
if (t0 t) eiScl
(4.104)
(4.105)
(4.106)
Examples:
The free particle.
We need only to evaluate f (t0 t). The function ( ) satises
with solution
(4.107)
( ) = ; t
(4.108)
from which
f (t0 t) = t0 ; t
in agreement with the direct calculation.
(4.109)
(4.110)
(4.111)
(4.112)
To evaluate the classical action we need to solve the classical equations of motion
mq + m!2q = 0
with boundary conditions
q(t) = q q(t0) = q0
The general solution is given by
q( ) = A sin !( ; t) + B cos !( ; t)
(4.113)
(4.114)
(4.115)
Zt
we get
Zt
2!T
d sin 2!( ; t) = 1 ; cos
2!
Scl = 21 sinm!
!T
and
hq0 t0jq ti =
2 sin !T
2
i sin !T e
(4.118)
(4.119)
(4.120)
F:
L ! R1
(4.121)
F ] F F ]
2L
(4.122)
to denote the functional of dened in eq. (4.121). Examples of functionals are
L=L1;1 +1]= the space of the integrable functions in R1 with respect to
the measure w(x)dx:
Z +1
F1] =
dxw(x)(x)
(4.123)
;1
dx2 (x)
(4.124)
n
X
@F (i)
j =1
@F
Ki = 1 @
105
@j j
(4.127)
(4.128)
F ] =
n
X
j =1
Kj j !
Kdx
K (x)(x)dx
(4.129)
(4.130)
Since (x) is the variation of the function evaluated at x, we will dene the functional derivative as
Z F
(4.131)
F ] = (x) (x)dx
In other words. to evaluate the functional derivative of a functional we rst evaluate its innitesimal variation and then we can get the functional derivative by
comparison with the previous formula. Looking at the eq. (4.128) we get
F ] = lim 1 @F (i )
!0 @i
(x)
x1 i = 1 n (4.132)
i = (xi) xi = x1 + (i ; 1)
= xnn ;
;1
let us now evaluate the functional derivatives of the previous functionals:
F1] =
giving
Then
w(x)(x)dx
F1] = w(x)
(x)
Z
1
; 2 dx2 (x) Z
(; (x)(x))
F2 ] = e
and therefore
(x)(x ; x0 )dx
(4.133)
(4.134)
(4.135)
(4.136)
(4.137)
(4.138)
then
; 21
F4] = e
Z
1
; dxdyK (x y)(x)(y)
F4] = e 2
dxdyK (x y)(x)(y)
(4.139)
(4.140)
where we have used the symmetry of the integral with respect to x $ y. We obtain
F4] = ; Z dyK (x y)(y)F ]
(4.141)
4
(x)
A further example is the action functional. In fact the action is a functional of the
path
Zt
S q] = L(q q_)dt
(4.142)
0
By varying it
Z t @L
Z t @L d @L
@L
(4.143)
S q] =
@q q + @ q_ q_ dt = t @q ; dt @ q_ qdt
t
Since we consider variations with respect to functions with xed boundary conditions, we have q(t) = q(t0) = 0. We get
S = @L ; d @L
(4.144)
q(t) @q(t) dt @ q_(t)
Starting from the functional derivative one can generalize the Taylor expansion
to the functional case. This generalization is called the Volterra expansion of a
functional
Z
1
k F ]
X
1
F 0 + 1 ] = k! dx1 dxk (x ) (x ) 1(x1 ) 1 (xk ) (4.145)
1
k =0
k=0
0
All these denitions are easily generalized to the case of a function from Rm ! Rn,
or from a manifold M to a manifold N .
(t) = (t0) = 0
for any
(t)
(t0 )
(4.146)
Factorization of the path integral. From the very denition of the path it
follows that in order to evaluate the amplitude for going from q at time t to q0
at time t0 we can rst go to q" to a time t t" t0, sum up over all the paths
fromq a q" and from q" to q0, and eventually integrating over all the possible
intermediate points q" (see Fig. 4.7.1)).
.
t'
t"
q'
q"
hq0 t0jq ti =
=
Z qt
0 0
qt
=
dq"
Z q"t"
Z q t
0
qt
0
q"t"
Z t"
Ld + i
Zt
t"
Z t"
t
Zt
t"
Ld
Ld
Ld
(4.147)
d(q( )) =
t<<t
dq( ) = dq"
0
108
t<<t"
dq( )
t"<<t
dq( )
d(p( )) =
Y
t t"
dp( ) =
Y
t t"
dp( )
dp( )
t" t
(4.148)
Z q t
0
qt
(4.149)
qt
Z q t
Z q t
Z q t
0
qt
=
dq"
Z q t
0
Z q"t"
Z q"t"
qt
(4.152)
Z q t
0
qt
= hq0 t0jq(t")jq ti
(4.153)
Therefore the average value of q(t") evaluated with exp(iS ) coincides with the expectation value of the operator q(t").
Now let us study the average value of q(t1 )q(t2) con t t1 t2 t0 . By proceeding
as before we will get the expectation value of q(t1 )q(t2) if t1 t2 , or q(t2)q(t1 ) if
109
Z q t
(4.154)
(4.155)
qt
Analogously
Z q t
0
qt
Z q t
0
qt
Z
k F q]
1
=
dt
1 dtk
q(t1 ) q(tk ) q=0
k=0 k!
1
X
Z q t
0
qt
1
X
1Z
T (F q])
Z
1
X
1
k=0 k!
k
dt1 dtk q(t ) F qq] (t ) T (q(t1 ) q(tk ))
1
k q=0
(4.157)
If the functional depends also on the time derivatives a certain caution is necessary.
For instance, let us study the average value of q(t1)q_(t2) (t t1 t2 t0):
Z q t
0
qt
= lim
!0
Z q t
0
1
0
0
hq t jT q(t1 )q(t2 + ) ; T q(t1)q(t2 ) jq ti
= lim
!0
d
0
0
=
dt2 hq t jT q(t1)q(t2 ) jq ti
Let us dene an ordered T? -product (or covariant T-product) as
T ? q(t1 )q_ (t2 ) = dtd T q(t1 )q(t2 )
2
qt
110
(4.158)
(4.159)
Then it is not dicult to show that for an arbitrary functional of q(t) e q_(t) one has
Z q t
0
qt
(4.160)
The proof can be done by expanding F q q_] in a Volterra's series of q and q_, integrating by parts and using (4.156). At the end one has to integrate again by parts.
The T? product is obtained as in (4.158),
The power of this formulation of quantum mechanics comes about when we want
to get the fundamental properties of quantum mechanics as the equations of motion
for the operators, the commutation relations and so on so forth. The fundamental
relation follows from the following property of the path integral
Z q t
0
qt
h
i
d(q( ))d(p( )) q( ) F q( ) p( )]eiS = 0
(4.161)
This is a simple consequence of the denition of the path integral and of the functional derivative
2
3
n;1
X
i L(qk pk )77
Z
nY;1 !
nY;1 dpk ! 1 @ 66
6
77 = 0
F (q1 qn;1)e k=0
lim
dqk
6
n!1
2
@q
k4
5
k=1
k=0
(4.162)
(of course we are assuming that the integrand goes to zero for large values of the qi 's.
To this end one has to dene the integral in an appropriate way as it will be shown
later on). On the other hand the previous equation follows from the invariance
under translation of the functional measure. In fact, let us introduce the following
notation
dqp = d(q( ))d(p( ))
(4.163)
It follows for an innitesimal function such that (t) = (t0) = 0
Z q t
Z q t
Z q t
Z q t
q] dt
(t) A
q(t)
qt
qt
qt
qt
(4.164)
Proving the validity of eq. (4.161). By performing explicitly the functional derivative
in eq. (4.161)we get a relation which is the basis of the Schwinger's formulation of
quantum mechanics, that is
F q]
S
0
0
?
0
0
?
ihq t jT F q] q( ) jq ti = ;hq t jT q( ) jq ti
(4.165)
The importance of this relation follows from the fact that we can use this relation
to get all the properties of quantum mechanics by selecting the functional F in a
0
dqp Aq] =
dqp Aq + ] =
111
dqp Aq]+
dqp
(4.166)
(4.167)
(4.168)
(4.169)
(4.170)
(4.171)
(4.176)
Here j0i is the ground state of system. Notice that more generally one can consider
the matrix element
1 ) q(tn ))jq ti =
Z q t
0
qt
(4.177)
These matrix elements can be derived in a more compact form, by introducing the
generating functional
hq0 t0jq ti
where
SJ =
Z q t
0
qt
Zt
(4.178)
d pq_ ; H + Jq]
(4.179)
hq0 t0 jT (q(t
1 ) q(tn ))jq ti =
1 n
0 t0 jq ti
h
q
J J =0
J (t1 ) J (tn)
n
(4.180)
i
Now we want to see how it is possible to bring back the evaluation of the matrix
element in (4.176) to the knowledge of the generating functional. Let us introduce
the wave function of the ground state
#0 (q t) = e;iE0 thqj0i = hqje;iHtj0i = hq tj0i
(4.181)
then
h0jT (q(t1) q(tn ))j0i = dq0dqh0jq0 t0ihq0 t0jT (q(t1) q(tn ))jq tihq tj0i
=
(4.182)
Next we dene the functional Z J ], the generating functional of the vacuum amplitudes, that is
Z J ] =
It follows
1 n
(4.183)
Z
J
]
(4.184)
J (t1) J (tn)
J =0
We want to show that it is possible evaluate Z J ] as a path integral with arbitrary
boundary conditions on q and q0. That is we want to prove the following relation
iE0 (t0 ; t) 0 0
e
hq t jq tiJ
(4.185)
Z J ] = t!+i1lim
t !;i1 #?0 (q )#0 (q 0 )
wit q and q0 arbitrary and with the ground state wave functions taken at t = 0. To
this end let us consider an external source J (t) vanishing outside the interval (t00 t000 )
with t0 > t000 > t00 > t. Then, we can write
n
hq0 t0jq ti
(4.186)
with
X
0 000
0 000
hq0 t0jq000 t000 i = hq0je;iH (t ; t )jq000i = #n (q0)#?n(q000)e;iEn (t ; t ) (4.187)
n
t !;i1
=
Analogously
n
000
#0 (q0)#?0 (q000)eiE0 t
hq00 t00jq ti =
and
X
n
00
#n (q00)#?n(q)e;iEn (t ; t)
X
n
(4.188)
(4.189)
00
#n(q00 )#?n(q)e;iEn t ei(En ; E0 )t =
00
(q00)#? (q)e;iE0 t
0
(4.190)
114
Let us notice again that the values q and q0 are completely arbitrary, and furthermore
that the coecient in front of the matrix element is J -independent. Therefore it is
physically irrelevant. In fact, the relevant physical quantities are the ratios
n
h0jT (q(t1) q(tn))j0i = 1 n 1
h0j0i
i Z 0] J (t1 ) J (tn) Z J ]J =0
(4.192)
Z q t
0
Z J ] = t!+i1lim
N
t !;i1
D(q( ))e
qt
Zt
(L + Jq)d
(4.193)
where N is a J -independent normalization factor. This expression suggests the denition of an euclidean generating functional ZE J ]. This is obtained by introducing
an euclidean time = it (Wick's rotation)
ZE J ] = !+1lim !;1 N
0
Z q
0
q
Z
D(q( ))e
(L(q i dq ) + Jq)d
d
2
L = 12 m( dq
dt ) ; V (q)
(4.194)
(4.195)
from which
dq ) = ; 1 m dq 2 ; V (q)
L(q i d
(4.196)
2 d
It is then convenient to dene the euclidean lagrangian and euclidean action
2
dq
LE = 12 m d
Z
SE =
+ V (q)
(4.197)
LE d
(4.198)
Notice that the euclidean lagrangian coincides formally with the hamiltonian. More
generally
dq )
(4.199)
LE = ;L(q i d
Therefore
ZE J ] = !+1lim !;1 N
0
Z q
0
q
D(q( ))e
115
;SE +
Z
Jqd
(4.200)
Since e;SE is a positive denite functional, the path integral turns out to be well
dened and convergent if SE is positive denite.the vacuum expectation values of
the operators q(t) can be evaluated by using ZE and continuing the result for real
times
nZ J ] = (i)n 1
nZE J ]
1
(4.201)
Z 0] J (t1 ) J (tn ) J =0
ZE 0] J (1 ) J (n) J =0i=iti
Since the values of q and q0 are arbitrary a standard choice is to set them at zero.
m! ; 1 m!q2 ; i !t
# (q t) =
e 2
e 2
1
4
and
m! 41 ; 1 m!q02 i !t0
?
0
0
2
#0(q t ) =
e2
Z t 1
(4.203)
(4.204)
1 m!2q2 + Jq d
SJ =
(4.205)
2
t 2
In this calculation we are not interested in the normalization factors but only on
the J dependence. Then, let us consider the argument of the exponential in eq.
(4.9 and, for the moment being, let us neglect the time dependent terms from the
oscillator wave functions
Z t 1
1
1
2
2
0
2
2
2
mq_ ; 2 m! q + Jq d
(4.206)
arg = ; 2 m!(q + q ) + i
t 2
let us perform the change of variable
q( ) = x( ) + x0 ( )
(4.207)
where we will try to arrange x0 ( ) in such a way to extract all the dependence from
the source J out of the integral. We have
arg = ; 1 m!x(t)2 + x2 (t0 )] ; 1 m!x0 (t)2 + x20 (t0 )] ; m!x(t)x0 (t) + x(t0 )x0 (t0)]
2
2
0
mq_2 ;
116
+ i
+ i
Z t 1
0
Zt t 2
0
mx_ 2 ;
mx_ x_ 0 ; m!2xx0 + Jx d
(4.208)
imxx_ 0 ]tt
;i
Zt
(4.209)
(4.212)
Zt t
(4.213)
Zt
Zt 1
Zt
1
1
i
2
2
0
2
2
2
arg = ; 2 m!x (t) + x (t )] + i 2 mx_ ; 2 m! x ]d + 2 Jx0 d (4.215)
t
t
0
117
The J dependence is now in the last term, and we can extract it from the integral.
The rst two term give rise to the functional at J = 0. We obtain
i Z t J ( )x ( )d
0
Z 0]
Z J ] = e 2 t
0
(4.216)
with x0( ) solution of the equations of motion (4.210) with boundary conditions
(4.212). For t < < t0 this solution can be written as
d2
d 2
and
+ !2
(4.217)
( ; s) = ; i ( ; s)
m
(4.218)
x0 ( ) = i
with
Zt
t
(4.219)
(4.220)
(4.221)
The constants A e B are xed by the requirement that ( ) satises eq. (4.218).
We have
_ ) = (A ; B )( ) ; iA!( )e;i! + iB!(; )e+i!
(
(4.222)
and
from which
A = B
and nally
Zt
1
; 2 dsds0J (s)(s ; s0)J (s0 )
t
Z 0]
Z J ] = e
(4.223)
(4.224)
(4.225)
118
(4.226)
We see that (s ; s0) is the vacuum expectation value of the T -product of the
position operators at the times s and s0 :
2
0
(s ; s0) = ; 1 Z J ] 0 = h0jT (q(s)q(s ))j0i
(4.227)
Z 0] J (s)J (s ) J =0
h0j0i
The analogue calculation in the euclidean version is simpler since the path integral
is of the type already considered (quadratic action)
(cl)
ZE J ] e;SE
(4.228)
Here SE(cl) is th euclidean classical action. We have already noticed that here the
boundary conditions are arbitrary and therefore we choose q( ) ! 0 for ! 1.
we have to solve the equations of motion in presence of the external source
that is
q ; !2q = ; m1 J
Let us now dene the euclidean Green's function
d2
1
2
;
!
D
E ( ) = ; ( )
2
d
m
with the boundary condition
lim D ( ) = 0
!1 E
(4.229)
(4.230)
(4.231)
(4.232)
q ( ) =
Z +1
;1
DE ( ; s)J (s)ds
(4.233)
DE ( ) =
de;i DE ( )
(4.234)
from which
(4.235)
1
1
DE ( ) = 2
m
2
+ !2
(4.236)
119
and
1 +1 d 1 e;i
DE ( ) = 2
m
(4.237)
2 + !2
;1
To evaluate this integral we close the integral with the circle at the 1 in the lower
-plane for > 0 or in the upper -plane for < 0. The result is
1 e;! (;2
i) = 1 e;!
DE ( ) = 2
m
(4.238)
(;2i!)
2m!
By doing the same calculation for < 0 we nally get
1 e;!j j
DE ( ) = 2m!
(4.239)
The classical action is given by
Z +1
Z +1
+1
SE ;
Jqd =
; 21 m q ; !2q + m1 J q ; 21 Jq d = ; 12
Jqd
;1
;1
;1
(4.240)
and therefore
Z
Z
1 +1 J (s)D (s ; s0)J (s0)dsds0
1 +1 Jqd
E
Z 0] = e 2 ;1
Z 0] (4.241)
ZE J ] = e 2 ;1
It follows
1 2ZE J ] = D (s ; s0 )
E
ZE 0] J (s)J (s0 ) J =0
and using the eq. (4.201)
1
2 Z J ] = ; 1
2ZE J ]
Z 0] J (t1)J (t2 ) J =0
ZE 0] J (1 )J (2 ) J =0i=iti
(4.242)
(4.243)
we get
(t) = DE (it)
(4.244)
To compare these two expressions let us introduce the Fourier transform of (t).
Since it satises eq. (4.218) we obtain
(t) =
with
that is
de;it ( )
(; 2 + !2)( ) = ; i
2
m
i
1
( ) = 2
m
2
; !2
120
(4.245)
(4.246)
(4.247)
Whereas eq. (4.237) does not present any problem ( 2 + !2 > 0), in eq. (4.246) we
need to dene the singularities present in the denominator. In fact, this expression
has two poles at = !, and therefore we need to specify how the integral is
dened. In order to reproduce the euclidean result, it is necessary to specify the
integration path as in Fig. 4.9.1. For instance, for t > 0 by closing the integral in
the lower plane we get
i (;2
i) 1 e;i!t = 1 e;i!t
(4.248)
2
m
2!
2m!
.
Im
Re
.
Im
+ i
i
Re
122
Chapter 5
The path integral in eld theory
5.1 The path integral for a free scalar eld
We will extend now the previous approach to the case of a scalar eld theory. We
will show later how to extend the formulation to the case of Fermi elds. Let us start
with a free scalar eld. We have denoted the quantum operator by (x). Here we
will denote the classical eld by '(x). For a neutral particle this is a real function,
and its dynamics is described by the lagrangian
Z 1
Z t Z 1
(5.1)
4
2
2
S = d x 2 @ '@ ' ; m ' dt d3~x 2 @ '@ ' ; m2 '2
V
t
A free eld theory can be seen as a continuous collection of non-interacting harmonic
oscillators. As it is well known this can be seen by looking for the normal modes.
To this end, let us consider the Fourier transform of the eld
Z
1
'(~x t) = (2
)3 d3~kei~k ~x q(~k t)
(5.2)
By substituting inside eq. (5.1) we get
Z Z d3~k d3~k0
1
S = 2 d4x (2
)3 (2
)3 q_(~k t)q_(~k0 t)
V
0
+ (~k ~k0 ; m2)q(~k t)q(~k0 t)]ei~k ~x + i~k ~x
Z t Z d3~k
1
=
dt (2
)3 q_(~k t)q_(;~k t) ; (j~kj2 + m2 )q(~k t)q(;~k t)] (5.3)
2 t
Since '(~x t) is a real eld
q(~k t) = q(;~k t)
(5.4)
and
Z t Z d3~k 1 h
i 2 ~2 2
2
2
2
~
~
(5.5)
S = dt (2
)3 2 jq_(k t)j ; !~k jq(k t)j !~k = jkj + m
0
123
2
2
4
(5.7)
S = d x 2 @ '@ ' ; m ' + J'
V
From the Fourier decomposition we get
Z t Z d3~k 1 h
i
2
2
2
S = dt (2
)3 2 jq_(~k t)j ; !~k jq(~k t)j + J (;~k t)q(~k t)
(5.8)
t
where we have also expanded J (x) in terms of its Fourier components. Let us
separate q(~k t) and J (~k t) into their real and imaginary parts
q(~k t) = x(~k t) + iy(~k t)
J (~k t) = l(~k t) + im(~k t)
(5.9)
It follows from the reality conditions that the real parts are even functions of ~k
whereas the imaginary parts are odd functions
x(~k t) = x(;~k t) l(~k t) = l(;~k t)
y(~k t) = ;y(;~k t) m(~k t) = ;m(;~k t)
(5.10)
Now we can use the result found in the previous Section for a single oscillator. it will
be enough to take the mass equal to one and sum over all the degrees of freedom.
In particular we get for the exponent in eq. (4.226)
Zt
1
; 2 dsds0J (s)(s ; s0)J (s0) !
t
Zt
Z d3~k h
1
0
! ; 2 dsds (2
)3 l(~k s)(s ; s0 !~k )l(~k s0)
t
i
+ m(~k s)(s ; s0 !~k )m(~k s0)
Zt
Z d3~k
1
0
= ;
dsds (2
)3 J (;~k s)(s ; s0 !~k )J (~k s0)
(5.11)
2 t
where we have made use of eq. (5.9). Going back to J (~x t), we get
Z
Z d3~k
1
4
4
; 2 d xd yJ (x) (2
)3 (s ; s0 !~k )ei~k (~x ; ~y)J (y)
Z
i
; 2 d4 xd4yJ (x)F (x ; y m2)J (y)
(5.12)
0
124
Z
h
1
4 x d4 x J (x ) J (x ) (x ; x ) (x ; x )
d
=
1
4
1
4
F 1
2 F 3
4
3
i
+ F (x1 ; x3 )F (x2 ; x4 ) + F (x1 ; x4 )F (x2 ; x3 )
(5.23)
It follows
h
G(4)
(
x
x
)
=
;
F (x1 ; x2 )F (x3 ; x4 ) + F (x1 ; x3 )F (x2 ; x4 )
1
4
0
(5.24)
(4)
If we represent G(2)
0 (x y ) by a line as in Fig. 5.1.1, G0 will be given by Fig.
(2n)
5.1.2 since it is obtained in terms of products of G(2)
0 . Therefore G0 is given by
a combination of products of n two point functions. We will call disconnected a
diagram in which we can isolate two subdiagrams with no connecting lines. We
see that in the free case all the non vanishing Green's functions are disconnected
except for the two point function. Therefore it is natural to introduce a functional
generating only the connected Green's functions. In the free case we can put
.
x1
x2
x2
+
x3
x4
x1
x2
x3
x4
+
x3
x4
Fig. 5.5.2 - The expansion of the four point Green's function G(4)
0 (x1 x2 x3 x4 ).
Z J ] = eiW J ]
126
(5.25)
with
Z
1
W J ] = ; 2 d4x1 d4x2 J (x1 )J (x2)F (x1 ; x2 ) + W 0]
and we have
2Z J ] = i 2 W J ] = ;i (x ; x )
1
F 1
2
Z 0] J (x1 )J (x2 ) J =0 J (x1 )J (x2 ) J =0
(5.26)
(5.27)
Therefore the derivatives of W J ] give the connected diagrams with the proper
normalization(that is divided by 1=Z 0]). In the next Section we will see that this
property generalizes to the interacting case. That is W J ] is dened through eq.
(5.25), and its Volterra expansion gives rise to the connected Green's functions
iW J ] =
where
Z
1
X
(i)n
n=0
n!
(5.28)
(5.29)
The index "conn" denotes the connected Green's functions. Notice that once we nd
the connected Green's functions the theory is completely solved, since the generating
functional is recovered by exponentiation of W J ].
On the right hand side we have used a symbolic notation by adding together the
topological equivalent congurations. To dene G(cn) (x1 xn) we decompose the
set (x1 xn) in all the possible subsets, and then we write
G(n) (x1 xn ) =
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
xxxxx
+ 3
+
c
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
+ 3
+ 6
c
c
Z J ] =
Z 0]
=
1
X
(i)n J nG(n) = ei(W J ] ; W 0])
n=0 n!
3
4
2
i
i
i
(2)
2
(3)
3
(4)
4
(1)
exp iGc J + 2! Gc J + 3! Gc J + 4! Gc J +
4
2 2 i4 (2) 2 4
3 G(1) G(2) J 3 + i G(1) G(3) J 4
+ 2!1 i2 G(1)
J
+
G
J
+
i
c
c c
4! c
3 c c
3 3 3 4 (1) 2 (2) 4
+ 1 i3 G(1)
J + 2 i Gc Gc J
c
3!
h 4 4i
+ 4!1 i4 G(1)
c J +
128
=
+
+
i2 G(2) + G(1) 2
1 + iJG(1)
+
c
c
2! c
3
i J 3 G(3) + 3G(1) G(2) + G(1) 3
c
c c
c
3!
i4 J 4 G(4) + 3G(2) 2 + 4G(1) G(3) + 6G(1) 2G(2) + G(1) 4
c
c
c c
c
c
c
4!
h
h
+ (5.32)
2
2
4
(5.33)
S = d x 2 @ '@ ' ; m ' ; V (')
V
where V (') is the interaction potential. A typical example is the theory '4 with
the potential given by
V (') = 4! '4
(5.34)
The derivation of the perturbative expansion is very simple in this formalism. We
take advantage of the following identity valid for any functional F
D('(x))F ']e
iS + i d4xJ (x)'(x)
1 Z
iS + i d4xJ (x)'(x)
= F i J D('(x))e
(5.35)
We separate in eq. (5.33) the quadratic part of the action, S0 , from the interacting
part and then we use the previous identity
Z J ] = N
= N
Z
Z
iS + i d4xJ (x)'(x)
D('(x))e
;i
D('(x))e
d4xV (')
1
;i
i J Z0J ]
(5.36)
= e
Notice that we have suppressed the temporal limits in the expression for the generating functional. Z0J ] is the generating functional for the free case, evaluated in
eq. (5.14). Therefore we get
1 i Z
Z
4
;i d xV i J ; 2 d4xd4yJ (x)F (x ; y)J (y)
iW
J
]
Z J ] = e
= Z 0]e
e
(5.37)
d4xV
129
In this expression we have suppressed the mass in the argument of F . For the
following calculation it will be useful to introduce the following shorthand notation
(5.38)
1
(5.39)
This gives rise to the following expression for the generating functional of the connected Green's functions
1 1
2
0
3
;
i
h
V
i
i J ; 1C
W J ] = ;i log 64eiW0 J ] + B
@e
A eiW0J ]75
=
1 1
2
0
3
;
i
h
V
i
i J ; 1C
W0J ] ; i log 641 + e;iW0 J ] B
@e
A eiW0J ]75(5.40)
(5.41)
we see that we can expand W J ] in a series of . Notice also that the expansion is
in term of the interaction lagrangian. At the second order in we get
1
(5.42)
W J ] = W0 J ] ; i ; 2 2 +
Let us now consider the case of '4 . the functional J ] can be in turn expanded in
a series of the dimensionless coupling
= 1 + 22 +
It follows
W J ] = W0 J ] ; i1
; i2
130
(5.43)
2 ; 21 12 +
(5.44)
4
1
i
;
iW
J
]
0
h i J ieiW0 J ]
1 = ; 4! e
1 4 1 4
1
;
iW
J
]
0
2 = ; 2(4!)2 e
h i J ih i J ieiW0 J ]
(5.45)
By using the following list of functional derivatives
eiW0 J ] = ;i(x 1)J (1)eiW0 J ]
J (x)
2 eiW0 J ] = (;i(x x) ; (x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2)) eiW0 J ]
J (x)2
3 eiW0 J ] = ; 3(x x)(x 1)J (1)
J (x)3
+ i(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)J (1)J (2)J (3) eiW0 J ]
4 eiW0 J ] = (;3(x x)2 + 6i(x x)(x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2)
J (x)4
+(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4)J (1)J (2)J (3)J (4))eiW0J ]
(5.46)
(5.47)
and therefore
h 3eiW0J ] 1
2 = 12 12 ; 2 i 4! e;iW0 J ] 4h J
(x)3 J (x) i
2 iW0 J ] 2
iW0J ] 31
+ 6h e 2 1 2 i + 4h e
J (x) J (x)
J (x) J (x)3 i
i
4
+ eiW0 J ]h J (x1)4 i
(5.50)
The 12 gives a disconnected contribution since there are no propagators connecting
the two terms. In fact the previous expression shows that 2 contains a term which
cancels precisely the term 12 in eq. (5.44). By using the expression for 1 and eqs.
(5.46) we get
2 ; 21 12 =
i i
= ; 2 4! ; 4! h4 ; 3(x x)(x 1)J (1)
4(y x)(y 4)(y 5)(y 6)J (4)J (5)J (6) + 12i(y y)(y x)(y 4)J (4)
+ 6 ; i(x x) ; (x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2) 122(y x)(y 3)(y 4)J (3)J (4)
+ 12i(y y)2(y x)
3
4
+ 4 ; i(x 1)J (1) 24 (y x)(y 2)J (2) + 24 (y x)i
(5.51)
xx
xx
x1
xx
xx
x
x2 = xx 1
xx
xx
x
x
x1
xxx
xx
y
xx
xx xx
xx
+
x2
xx
xx
x1
xx 1
x2 +
xx
xx
xx 2
xx
xx
xx
xx
x2 +
x
x
xx
xx
x
x
x1 x
xx
xx
xx
xx
y x2
Fig.
5.3.1 - The graphical expansion for the two point connected Green's function
(2)
Gc (x y).
In Fig. 5.3.1) we give a graphical form to this expression. as we see the result
has an easy interpretation. The diagrams of Fig. 5.3.1) are given in terms of
two elements, the propagator F (x ; y), corresponding to the lines and the vertex
'4 corresponding to a point joining four lines. In order to get G(cn) we have to
draw all the possible connected diagrams containing a number of interaction vertices
corresponding to the xed perturbative order. The analytic expression is obtained
associating a factor iF (x ; y) to each line connecting the point x with the point y,
and a factor (;i=4!) for each interaction vertex. The numerical factors appearing
in eq. (5.54) can be obtained by counting the possible ways to draw a given diagram.
For instance let us consider the diagram of Fig. 5.3.2. This diagram contains the
two external propagators, the internal one, and the vertex at x. To get the numerical
factor we count the number of ways to attach the external propagators to the vertex,
after that we have only a possibility to attach the vertex at the internal propagator.
There are four ways to attach the the vertex at the rst propagator and three for
the second. Therefore
1
1
4
3
=
(5.55)
4!
2
133
.
xx
xx
xx
xx
x1
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x2 = x1
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x2
Fig.
5.3.2 - How to get the numerical factor for the rst order contributions to
(2)
Gc (x1 x2 ).
where the factor 1=4! comes from the vertex. We proceed in the same way for the
diagram of Fig. 5.3.3.
.
x
xx
xx xx
xx
x1
xx
xx xx
xx
x x
x
x2= xx 1
xx
xx
xx
xx
x2
Fig. 5.3.3 - How to get the numerical factor for one of the second order contributions to G(2)
c (x1 x2 ).
.
xx
xx x 4
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x
xxxxxxx
x
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xx
x 2xx
xx
xx x
x1 xx
xx
x1 xx
+
x 2xx
xx
xx
xxxx y
x 2xx
xx
x1 xx
xx
xx
xxx 4
xx
xx
xx
xxx 4
x1
+
xx
y xx
x 2 xx
xx
xx x 3
xx x
xx
xx x 4
xx
xx
xxx
xx
xxx 4
x xx
xx
xx
x 2xx
xx
+
x 2xx
x3
xxx
x xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x 2xx
xx
y
xx
xx
x4
+
xx
xxx 3
xx x
xx
xx xxy
xx xx
xxx 3
xx
xx x 4
xx
xx
+
x
x1 xx
x1
+
xx
x1xx
x1 xx
xx
x1 xx
xxxx
yxx xx
xx
+
x
x 2xx
xx
xx
xx
x 2xx
xx
xxx 3
y
xx
x3
The four point function can be evaluated in analogous way and the result is given
in Fig. 5.3.4. Of course we can get it by functional dierentiation of W J ]. The
rst order contribution is Z
4
G(4)
c (x1 x2 x3 x4 ) = ;i d xF (x1 ; x)F (x2 ; x)F (x3 ; x)F (x4 ; x) (5.57)
where the numerical coecient is one, since there are 4 3 2 of attaching the vertex
to the four external lines.
i
4 4
G(2)(0)
c (p1 p2 ) = (2
) (p1 + p2 ) p2 ; m2 + i
1
(5.59)
G(2)(1)
c Z(p1 p2 ) =
Z d4p
i
4
4
4
ip
x
+
ip
x
;ip(x1 ; x)
2 2
= ;i
d
x
e
1 d x2 d xe 1 1
(2
)4
p2 ; m2 + i
Z
Z 2d4q
i
d4k e;ik(x ; x2 )
i
4
2
2
4
2
(2
) q ; m + i (2
)
k ; m2 + i
Z
4
4
4
= ;i 2 (2d
p)4 (2d
q)4 (2d
k)4 (2
)44 (p ; k)(2
)44 (p1 ; p)(2
)44(p2 + k)
(5.60)
p2 ; mi 2 + i q2 ; mi 2 + i k2 ; mi 2 + i
The product of the 4 functions may be rewritten in such a way to pull out the
overall four-momentum conservation
(2
)44(p1 + p2 )(2
)44(p1 ; p)(2
)44(p ; k)
(5.61)
By integrating over p and k we get
i 2 Z d4 q
i
(2)(1)
4
4
Gc (p1 p2) = ;i 2 (2
) (p1 +p2 ) p2 ; m2 + i
4
2
(2
) q ; m2 + i (5.62)
1
Also in momentum space we can make use of a diagrammatic expansion with the
following rules:
135
For each propagator draw a line with associated momentum p (see Fig. 5.4.1).
:
i
___________
_
2
p
m2 + i
, p +p +p + p = 0
: _ i __
1
4
3
2
4!
the external legs. The number of ways of drawing a given diagram is its
topological weight. The contribution of such a diagram is multiplied by its
topological weight.
After the requirement of the conservation of the four-momentum at each vertex
we need to integrate over all the independent internal four-momenta with
weight
Z d4q
(5.63)
(2
)4
A more systematic way is to associate a factor
4
X
i
4
4
; 4! (2
) ( pi)
i=1
(5.64)
to each vertex and integrate over all the momenta of the internal lines. This
gives automatically a factor
n
X
(2
)44 (
i=1
(5.65)
p1
q1
q2
q3
i 2
4432 ;
Z
i
p22 ; m2 + i
Y3
d4 qi
i
2
4
2
4!
i=1 (2
) qi ; m + i
(2
)44(p1 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 )(2
)44(q1 + q2 + q3 ; p2 ) p2 ; mi 2 + i
1
2
1
= 6 (p2 ; m2 + i)2 (2
)44(p1 + p2)
Z
Y31 d4qi
i
4 4
2
4 q ; m2 + i (2
) (p1 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 )
(2
)
i
i=1
(5.66)
; 4!
(5.69)
This rule follows because the weight in the euclidean path-integral is given by
e;SE instead of eiS .
The other rules of the previous Section are unchanged. The reason to use the
euclidean version is because in this way the divergences of the integrals become
manifest by simply going in polar coordinates.
We will now in the position to make a general analysis of the divergences. For
simplicity we will consider only scalar particles. First of all consider the number
of independent momenta in a given diagram, or the number of "loops", L. This
is given, by denition, by the number of momenta upon which we are performing
the integration, since they are not xed by the four-momentum conservation at the
vertices. Since one of this conservation gives rise to the overall four-momentum
conservation we see that the number of loops is given by
L = I ; (V ; 1) = I ; V + 1
(5.70)
where I is the number of internal lines and V the number of vertices. As in Section
2.3 we will be interested in evaluating the supercial degree of divergence of a
diagram. To this end notice that
The L independent integrations give a factor QLk=1 ddpk where d is the number
of space-time dimensions.
Each internal line gives rise to a propagator containing two inverse powers in
momenta
YI 1
(5.71)
2
2
i=1 pi + m
Given that, the supercial degree of divergence is dened as
D = dL ; 2I
(5.72)
Notice that D has to do with a common scaling of all the integration variables,
therefore it may well arise the situation where D < 0 (corresponding to a convergent
situation), but there are divergent sub-integrations. Therefore we will need a more
accurate analysis that we will do at the end of this Section. For the moment being
let us stay with this denition. We will try now to get a relation between D and
the number of external legs in a diagram. By putting VN equal to the total number
of vertices with N lines we have (see Section 2.3)
NVN = E + 2I
138
(5.73)
with E the number of external legs and I the number of internal ones (recall we
are dealing with scalar particles only). Eliminating I between this relation and the
previous one, we get
I = 21 (NVN ; E )
(5.74)
from which
D = d(I ; VN +1) ; 2I = (d ; 2)I ; d(VN ; 1) = d ;2 2 (NVN ; E ) ; d(VN ; 1) (5.75)
This relation can be rewritten as
N ; 2
1
(5.76)
D = d ; 2 (d ; 2)E + 2 d ; N VN
In particular, for d = 4 we have
D = 4 ; E + (N ; 4)VN
(5.77)
For the '4 theory this relation becomes particularly simple since then D depends
only on the number of external legs
D =4;E
(5.78)
Therefore the only diagrams supercially divergent, D 0, are the ones with E = 2
and E = 4.
As noticed before, this does not prove that a diagram with E > 4 or D < 0 is
convergent. Let us discuss more in detail this point. Let us consider the diagram of
Fig. 5.5.1, and let us suppose that the diagrams 1 and 2 have degrees of supercial
divergence D1 and D2 respectively. Since they are connected by n lines, we have
n ; 1 independent momenta, and therefore
.
1
D1
2
n
D2
(5.79)
Therefore we may have D < 0 with D1 and D2 positive, that is both divergent.
However for n > 1 we have
D D1 + D2
(5.80)
139
and therefore in order to have D < 0 with 1 or 2 being divergent diagrams, we need
D1 or D2 to be negative enough to overcome the other. To exclude the case n = 1
means to consider only the one-particle irreducible (1PI) Feynman's diagrams. In
Fig. 5.5.2 we give an example of a one-particle reducible diagram.
.
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(5.81)
.
1
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N
1
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D = D1 + D2 = 4 ; N
(5.82)
Again this requires N > 4. The second diagram has again D2 < 0 and we can iterate
the procedure. In the second case we have D1 = 0 and D2 = 2 ; N , therefore
D = D1 + D2 = 2 ; N
(5.83)
requiring N > 2. By proceeding in this way we see that truly convergent diagrams
do not contain hidden two and four point divergent functions. What we have shown
is that for the '4 theory in 4 dimensions a 1PI Feynman diagram is convergent
if D < 0 and it cannot be split up into 3- or 2-particle reducible parts containing
two-and four-point divergent functions. This turns out to be a general theorem
due to Weinberg, valid in any eld theory and it says that a Feynman diagram is
convergent if its supercial degree of divergence and that of all its subgraphs are
negative.
In the case of the 4 theory the Weinberg's theorem tells us that all the divergences rely in the two and four point functions. If it happens that all the divergent
diagrams (in the primitive sense specied above) correspond to terms which are
present in the original lagrangian, we say that the theory is renormalizable. In
general we can look at this question by studying the equation for the supercial
divergence that we got before
N ; 2
1
D = d ; 2 (d ; 2)E + 2 d ; N VN
(5.84)
141
For d = 4 we recall
D = 4 ; E + (N ; 4)VN
(5.85)
We see that D increases with VN for N > 4. Therefore we have innite divergent
diagrams and the theory is not renormalizable. We can have a renormalizable scalar
theory only for N 4, meaning that the dimension N of the vertex operator, 'N ,
must be less or equal to 4. An interesting case is the one of the theory '3 in 6
dimensions. For d = 6 we get
D = 6 ; 2E + (2N ; 6)VN
(5.86)
and for N = 3
D = 6 ; 2E
(5.87)
and the only divergent functions are the one- two- and three-point ones. In d = 6
we have dim'] = 2 and again in order to have renormalizability we must have that
the dimensions of the vertex operator must be less or equal to 6.
The scalar product among two four-vectors becomes a sum over 2! compo-
nents.
In the loop integrals we will have a factor
Z d2! p
(2
)2!
and the function in 2!-dimensions will be dened by
d2! p(2!) (
X
i
pi ) = 1
(5.93)
(5.94)
Also, we will do all the calculation in the euclidean version. Remember that
in Section 2.5 we gave the relevant integrals both in the euclidean and in the
minkowskian version.
We start our calculation from the rst order contribution to the two-point function corresponding to the diagram (tadpole) of Fig. 5.6.1. This is given by
(2
)2! (2!) (p1 + p2) p2 +1 m2 T2 p2 +1 m2
(5.95)
1
1
.
Fig. 5.6.1 - The one-loop contribution to the two-point function in the '4 theory.
with
Z d2! p 1
1
(2)2;!
! ;(1 ; !) 1
2
2
;
!
T2 = 2 (;)( )
=
;
(2
)2! p2 + m2
2
(2
)2!
(m2)1;!
2
2 2;!
m
4
;(1 ; !)
(5.96)
= ; 2 (4
)2 m2
For ! ! 2 we get
1
2
2
m
4
T2 ; 2 (4
)2 1 + (2 ; !) log m2 + (;1) 2 ; ! + (2) +
1
2
4
2
(5.97)
= 32
2 m 2 ; ! + (2) + log m2 +
143
.
p
p-k
p4
Fig. 5.6.2 - The one-loop contribution to the four-point function in the '4 theory.
This expression has a simple pole at ! = 2 and a nite part depending explicitly on
2 .
Let us consider now the one-loop contribution to the four-point function. The
corresponding diagram is given in Fig. 5.6.2, with an amplitude
(2
)2! (2!) (p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 )
Y4
2
2 T4
k=1 pk + m
(5.98)
with
Z d2! k 1
1
1
2
2
4
;
2
!
T4 = 2 (;) ( )
(2
)2! k2 + m2 (k ; p)2 + m2
p = p1 + p2
(5.99)
We reduce the two denominator to a single one, through the equation (see Section
2.6)
1
1
2
2
k + m (k ; p)2 + m2 =
=
=
Z1
Z0 1
Z0 1
0
dx
dx
dx
(5.100)
Z 1 Z d2! k
2
2
4
;
2
!
dx (2
)2! 2 2 1 2
T4 = 2 ( )
k + m + p x(1 ; x)]2
0
144
(5.102)
Z 1 dx
2
1
2
4
;
2
!
T4 = 2 ( )
;(2
;
!
)
!
2
2
m + p x(1 ; x)]2;!
0 (4
)
(5.103)
In the limit ! ! 2
Z 1 dx 1
2
2
2
;
!
2
T4 2 ( ) 1 + (2 ; !) log
2 2 ; ! + (1)
(4
)
0
2 + p2 x(1 ; x)
m
1 ; (2 ; !) log
4
Z1
2
2 + p2 x(1 ; x)
1
m
2
2
;
!
( ) 32
2 2 ; ! + (1) ; dx log
(5.104)
4
2
0
Also the x integration can be done by using the formula
Z1
p
dx log 1 + a4 x(1 ; x) = ;2 + 1 + a log p1 + a + 1 a > 0
1+a;1
0
The nal result is
2 h
2
T4 (2)2;! 32
2 2 ;1 ! + (1) + 2 + log 4m
2
q
s
i
1 + 4pm22 + 1
2
4
m
; 1 + p2 log q 4m2 +
1 + p2 ; 1
(5.105)
(5.106)
gives back the original lagrangian, if we redene couplings and elds as follows
(5.110)
2 + m2
m
= 1 + Z = (m2 + m2 )Z';1
= 4;2! ( + )Z ;2
B = 4;2! (1++Z
'
)2
m2B
In fact
(5.111)
(5.112)
(5.113)
The counter-terms are then evaluated by the requirement of removing the divergences arising in the limit ! ! 2, except for a nite part which is xed by the
renormalization conditions. From the results of the previous Section, by summing up
.
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xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xxxx
xxxx
xx
xx
1 + 1 T 1 +
=
1 + p2 ) 2
p1 + m2 p21 + m2 2 p21 + m2
(5.114)
(2
)2! 2! (p1 + p2) p2 + m12 ; T
2
1
Therefore, the eect of the rst order contribution is to produce a mass correction
determined by T2 . The divergent part can be taken in care by the counterterm m2
which produces an additional contribution to the one-loop diagram, represented in
Fig. 5.7.2. We choose the counterterm as
1 m2 '2 = m2 2 + F ! m2 '2
(5.115)
2
64
2
1
2
with = 4 ; 2! and F1 an arbitrary dimensionless function Adding the contribution
of the counterterm to the previous result we get
1
1
1
(2)
2
!
2
!
2
Gc (p1 p2) = (2
) (p1 + p2) p2 + m2 ; T + p2 + m2 (;m ) p2 + m2
2
1
1
1
(5.116)
G(2)
c (p1 p2 )
(2
)2! 2! (p
146
.
xx
_ m2
1
2! 2!
G(2)
c (p1 p2 ) = (2
) (p1 + p2 ) p2 + m2 + m2 ; T
(5.117)
Of course the same result could have been obtained by noticing that the counterterm
modies the propagator by shifting m2 into m2 +m2 . Now the combination m2 ;T2
is nite and given by
m2 F ; (2) + log m2
(5.118)
1
2=
32
2
4
2
The nite result at the order is then
1
2! 2!
h
i (5.119)
G(2)
c (p1 p2 ) = (2
) (p1 + p2 ) 2
p1 + m2 1 + 322 F1 ; (2) + log 4m22
m2 ; T
This expression has a pole in Minkowski space, and we can dene the renormalization
condition by requiring that the inverse propagator at the physical mass is
p2 + m2phys
(5.120)
This choice determines uniquely the F1 term. However we will discuss more in detail
the renormalization conditions in the next Chapter when we will speak about the
renormalization group. Notice that at one loop there is no wave function renormalization, but this comes about at two loops, as we shall see later.
Consider now the four-point connected Green's function. Its diagrammatic expansion at one loop is given in Fig. 5.7.3 (again we have included only 1PI diagrams).
From the results of the previous Section and introducing the Mandelstam invariants
s = (p1 + p2 )2 t = (p1 + p3)2 u = (p1 + p4 )2
(5.121)
we get
2! (2!)
G(4)
c (p1 p2 p3 p4 ) = (2
) (p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 )
(;4;2! )
Y4
2
2
k=1 pk + m
2
1 A(s t u) (5.122)
1 ; 323
2 2 + (1) + 2 ; log 4m
;
2
3
147
.
xx
xx
xx xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xx
xxxxxxx
xx
xxxxxxx
xx xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
+
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
Fig. 5.7.3 - The one-loop expansion for the four-point Green's function.
with
A(s t u) =
q 4m
2
1+ z
q
1 + 4m
log
z
4m
Xr
+1
1+ z ;1
The divergent part can be disposed o by the counterterm
(5.123)
z=stu
_ (2 )2
Y4
2 + m2 (;
p
k=1 k
2;4! )
2
(5.125)
1 ; 323
2 ;G1 + (1) + 2 ; log 4m
2 ; 31 A(s t u)
A possible renormalization condition is to x the scattering amplitude at some value
of the invariants (for instance, s = 4m2phys, t = u = 0) to be equal to the lowest
order value
2! (2!)
G(4)
c (p1 p2 p3 p4 ) = (2
) (p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 )
148
Y4
2
2
k=1 pk + m
(;2;4! ) (5.126)
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx xx
xx
xx
a)
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
x
x
b)
d)
c)
Fig. 5.7.5 - The two-loop expansion for the two-point Green's function.
conservation of the four-momentum, the various two-loop contributions are (notice
that a counterterm inside a loop gives a second order contribution as a pure twoloops diagram):
Contribution from the diagram a) of Fig 5.7.5
2
2
2
2
; 6(16
2)2 21 p2 + 6m2 + 6m 32 + (1) ; log 4m
2
2
2
; 4(16
2)2 42 + 2 (2) + (1) ; 2 log 4m
2
2 m2 4 + 2 (1) + F ; log m2
1
4(16
2)2
2
4
2
149
(5.127)
(5.128)
(5.129)
(5.130)
2 )2
(16
2)2 2
2(16
2)2 1
where we have used (2) ; (1) = 1. This expression is still divergent but at the
order 2 . Therefore we can make nite the diagram by modifying at the second
order the m2 counterterm
1 ;m2 + m2 '2
(5.132)
2
2 1
with m21 given in eq. (5.115) and
4 1
m2
2
2
2
(5.133)
m2 = m 2(16
2)2 2 + (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + F2 ! 2
and F2 a new dimensionless function. The further divergence in p2 can be eliminated
through the wave function renormalization counterterm, that is
1 Z@ '@ '
(5.134)
2
with the choice
2
2
2
m
Z = ; 24(16
2)2 + H2 (! 2 )
(5.135)
with H2 dimensionless. All the functions F1, F2 , G1 H2 are nite in the limit
! ! 2. Notice also that we are not introducing more and more freedom, because
only particular combinations of these functions appear in the counterterms, and are
precisely these combinations which are xed by the renormalization conditions. Also,
the function H2 is xed by the renormalization condition on the inverse propagator,
which are really two conditions: a) the position of the pole, b) the residuum at the
pole.
.
the renormalization program is just the last one. In fact consider diagrams of the
type represented in Fig. 5.7.6, where we have taken out all the possible external
lines. These diagrams contain 1= terms coming from the counterterms times log p2
terms from the loop integration. In the previous two-loop calculation we had no
such terms but we got their strict relatives log(m2 =4
2). If present the log p2
terms would be a real disaster since they are non-local in conguration space and
as such they cannot be absorbed by local operators. However if one makes all the
required subtractions, that is one subtracts correctly also the diagrams of the type
in Fig. 5.7.6, it is possible to show that the log p2 terms cancel out. For instance,
in the expression for m22 there are not such terms. In fact they cancel in adding up
the four two-loop contributions.
151
Chapter 6
The renormalization group
6.1 The renormalization group equations
For the following considerations it will be convenient to introduce the one-particle
irreducible truncated n-point functions ;(n) (p1 p2 pn) dened by removing the
propagators on the external legs and omitting the delta-function expressing the
conservation of the four-momentum
(2
)2! (2!) (
where
n
X
i=1
Yn
i=1
DF (pi);1
(6.1)
(6.2)
is the exact euclidean propagator. We have two ways of evaluating these functions,
we can start from the original lagrangian and evaluate them in terms of the bare
couplings constants (in the case of '4, B and mB ). On the other hand we can
express the bare parameters in terms of the renormalized ones, and, at the same
time, renormalizing the operators through the wave function renormalization ('B =
Z'1=2 '), obtaining the relation
;(Bn) (p1 p2 pn B mB !) = Z';n=2;(n) (p1 p2 pn m !)
(6.3)
The factor Z';n=2 originates from a factor Z'n=2 coming from the renormalization
factors in G(cn) and from n factors Z';1 from the inverse propagators. Of course, in a
renormalizable theory the ;(n) 's are nite by construction. In the previous relation
we must regard the renormalized parameters as function of the bare ones. In the
'4 case, this means and m depending on B and mB . However the right hand
side of the previous equation does not depend on the choice of the parameter .
This implies that also the functions ;(n) do not depend on except for the eld
rescaling factor Z';n=2 . These considerations can be condensed into a dierential
152
equation obtained by requiring that the total derivative with respect to of the
right hand side of eq. (6.3) vanishes
@ @ @ @m @ n @ log Z
@ + @ @ + @ @m ; 2 @ ' ;(n)(p1 p2 pn m !) = 0
(6.4)
The content of this relation is that a change of the scale can be compensated by a
convenient change of the couplings and of the eld normalization. Notice that since
;(n) is nite in the limit ! ! 2, it follows that also the derivative of log Z' is nite.
It is convenient to dene the following dimensionless coecients
m
@
@ = !
1 @ log Z' = m !
2 @ d
@m = m !
(6.5)
m @ m
obtaining
@
@
@
@ + @ + mm @m ; nd ;(n) (p1 p2 pn m !) = 0
(6.6)
We can try to eliminate from this equation the term @=@. To this end let us consider
the dimensions of ;(n) . In dimensions d = 2! the delta function has dimensions ;2!
and dim'] = ! ; 1, therefore
Z Yn
(6.9)
dim ;(n) = 4 ; n + 2 (n ; 2)
Therefore ;(n) must be a homogeneous function of degree 4 ; n + (n ; 2)=2 in the
dimensionful parameters pi, m e . Introducing a common scale s for the momenta
we get (from the Euler theorem)
@ @
@
(6.10)
@ + s @s + m @m ; (4 ; n + 2 (n ; 2)) ;(n) (spi m ) = 0
G(cn) (p1 pn) =
153
Since everything is nite for ! 0 we can take the limit and eliminate @=@ between
this equation and eq. (6.6)
@ @
@
;s @s + @ + (m ; 1)m @m ; nd + 4 ; n ;(n)(spi m ) = 0
(6.11)
This equation tells us how the ;(n) scale with the momenta, and allows us to evaluate
them at momenta spi once we know them at momenta pi. To this end one needs
to know the coecients , m and d. For this purpose one needs to specify the
renormalization conditions since these coecients depend on the arbitrary functions
F1 G1 .
In order to use the renormalization group equations we need to know more about
the structure of the functions , d and m. We have seen that the counterterms are
singular expressions in ,therefore it will be possible to express them as a Laurent
series in the renormalized parameters
"
B = a0 +
#
1
X
ak
"
k=1
m2B = m2 b0 +
"
Z' = c0 +
(6.12)
k
1 #
X
bk
(6.13)
k
k=1
1 #
X
ck
(6.14)
k
k=1
with the coecients functions of the dimensionless parameters and m=. Notice
that a0 , b0 and c0 may depend on but only in an analytical way. Recalling from
the previous Section the expressions for the counterterms at the second order in
2 2
3
= 32
2 + G1
(6.15)
2
= 32
2 m2 2 + F1 + 2(16
2)2 m2 42 + 1 (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + F2
2
2
Z = ; 24(16
2)2 + H2
we get for the bare parameters
32 2
B = + 32
2 + G1 + O(3 )
m2
154
(6.16)
(6.17)
(6.18)
m2B
=
1 + 32
2 2 + F1
4 1
2
+
+ (F + 3G1 ; 1) + F2
2(16
2)2 2 1
2 + H i + O(3 )
2
+ 24(16
2
2 )2
m2
2
2 + H + O(3)
Z' = 1 ; 24(16
2
2
2
)
Therefore the coecients are given by
32 G + O(3 )
a0 = + 32
2 1
32 + O(3)
a1 = 16
2
2
1 H ) + O(3)
b0 = 1 + 32
2 F1 + 2(16
2)2 (F2 + 12
2
2
2 + O(3 )
b1 = 16
2 + 2(16
2)2 (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + 12(16
2)2
2
b2 = (162
2)2 + O(3 )
2 H + O(3)
c0 = 1 ; 24(16
2)2 2
2 + O(3 )
c1 = ; 12(16
2 )2
(6.19)
(6.20)
(6.21)
(6.22)
(6.23)
(6.24)
(6.25)
(6.26)
(6.27)
Notice that the dependence on m= comes only from the arbitrary functions dening
the nite parts of the counterterms. This is easily understood since the divergent
terms originate from the large momentum dependence where the masses can be
neglected. This is an essential feature, since it is very dicult to solve the group
renormalization equations when the coecients , m e d depend on both variables
and m=. On the other hand since these coecients depend on the renormalization
conditions, it is possible to dene a scheme where they do not depend on m=.
Another option would be to try to solve the equations in the large momentum limit
where the mass dependence can be neglected.
Callan and Szymanzik have considered a dierent version of the renormalization
group equations. They have considered the dependence of ;(n) on the physical
mass. In that case one can show that and d depend only on . Furthermore
in their equation the terms m and =@ do not appear. In their place there is a
inhomogeneous term in the large momentum limit.
155
4
3
(6.30)
In the two point function we have omitted the nite terms coming from the second
order contributions for which we have given only the divergent part. let us now
discuss various possibilities of renormalization conditions (sometimes one speaks of
subtraction conditions)
A rst possibility is to renormalize at zero momenta, that is requiring
;(2) (p) 2 = p2 + m2A
(6.31)
p 0
pi =0
= ; A
(6.32)
Dierentiating with respect to and recalling that B does not depend on this
variable, we get
" X
#
" X
#
1
1 0
a
(
)
@
a
(
)
k
k
0= +
+ @ 1 +
(6.38)
k
k
k=1
k=1
where
k ()
a0k () = dad
(6.39)
Since = @=@ is analytic for ! 0, for small we can write = A + B,
obtaining
" X
#
" X
#
1
1 0
a
(
)
a
(
)
k
k
0= +
+ (A + B) 1 +
(6.40)
k
k
k=1
k=1
157
from which
We then get
(6.41)
a1 + A + Ba01 = 0
ak+1 + Aa0k + Ba0k+1 = 0
(6.42)
(6.43)
B = ;
(6.44)
d
A = ; 1 ; d a1
(6.45)
d a ;
() = ; 1 ; d
1
(6.46)
d a
() = ; 1 ; d
1
(6.47)
and for ! 0
and
B+=0
d a = dak 1 ; d a
1 ; d
(6.48)
k+1
d
d 1
From the expression of the previous Section for a1 at the second order in , we get
@ = () = 32
(6.49)
@
16
2
This equation can be integrated in order to know how we have to change when we
change the value of the scale . The function () is known as the running coupling
constant. Its knowledge, together with the knowledge of m() allows us to integrate
easily the renormalization group equations. In fact, let us dene
t = log s
(6.50)
and let us consider the following partial dierential equation (we shall see that the
renormalization group equations can be brought back to this form)
@ F (x t) = (x ) @ F (x t)
(6.51)
i i
@t i
@xi i
The general solution to this equation is obtained by using the method of the "characteristics". That is one considers the integral curves (the characteristic curves)
dened by the ordinary dierential equations
dxi(t) = (x (t))
(6.52)
i i
dt
158
with given boundary conditions xi(0) = x!i . Then, the general solution is
(6.53)
where
(!xi) = F (!xi 0)
(6.54)
is an arbitrary function to be determined by the condition at t = 0 required for F .
In fact we can check that satises the dierential equation
@ (x (t)) = dxi(t) @ = @
(6.55)
@t i
dt @xi i @xi
In our case the equation contains a non-derivative term
@ G(x t) = (x ) @ G(x t) + (x )G(x t)
(6.56)
i i
i
i
@t i
@xi i
with (xi ) a given function. By putting
Zt
G(xi t) = e
dt0 (xi(t0 ))
F (xi t)
(6.57)
we see that F (xi t) satises eq. (6.51) and therefore the general solution will be
Zt
G(xi t) = e
(xi(t))
(6.58)
with xi (t) satisfying eq. (6.52). For the ;(n) we get (t = log s)
;(n)(spi m ) = ;(n)(pi m(s) (s) )s4;ne
with
;n
Zs
1
0
d((s0)) ds
s0
(6.59)
s @@s(s) = ((s))
(6.60)
(6.61)
s @m@s(s) = m(s)(m((s)) ; 1)
and (s = 1) = , m(s = 1) = m.
This result tells us that when we perform a re-scaling on the momenta, the
amplitudes ;(n) do not scale only with the trivial factor s4;n due to their dimensions,
but that they undergo also a non trivial scaling, due to d 6= 0, which is necessary
to compensate the variations of and m with the scale.
159
it follows
Therefore we dene
dime] = 2 ; !
(6.64)
eB =
X !
ak
=2
e+
160
k
(6.72)
with
3
a1 = 12e
2
(6.73)
Requiring that eB is -independent, and in the limit ! 0 we get
d
@e
1
(e) = @ = ; 2 1 ; e de a1
(6.74)
from which
3
(6.75)
(e) = 12e
2
The dierential equation dening the running coupling constant is
() = (e) = e3
@e@
(6.76)
12
2
Integrating this equation we obtain
1 = ; 1 log 2 + K
(6.77)
2
e (2)
12
2
where K is an integration constant which can be eliminated by evaluating e at
another momentum scale Q2. We get
1 ; 1 = ; 1 log Q2
(6.78)
(Q2) (2)
3
2
or
( 2 )
(6.79)
(Q2 ) =
1 ; (32 ) log Q22
which agrees with the result obtained in Section 2.2.
d = 32 + O(3 )
d
16
2
(6.80)
; (1) = 163
2 log ; 1
s
s
(6.81)
(6.82)
From this expression we see that starting from = s, increases with . Suppose
that we start with a small in such a way that the perturbative expansion is sensible.
However increasing we will need to add more and more terms to the expansion
due to the increasing of . Therefore the '4 theory allows a perturbative expansion
only at small mass scales, or equivalently at large distances. In this theory we can
give a denite sense to the asymptotic states. The increasing of is related to the
sign of the () function. For the '4 theory and for QED the function is positive,
however if it would be negative the theory would become perturbative at large mass
scales or at small distances. In this case one could solve the renormalization group
equations at large momenta by using the perturbative expansion at a lower order
to evaluate the and the other coecients. However in this case the coupling is
increasing at large distances and this would be a problem for our approach based on
th in- and out- states. As we shall see this is the situation in QCD. here the elds
that are useful to describe the dynamics at short distances (the quark elds) cannot
describe the asymptotic states, which can be rather described by bound states of
quarks as mesons and baryons.
Going back to the eq. (6.82) we see that, assuming the validity of the expression
for the function up to large momenta, the coupling constant becomes innite at
the value of given by
16
2
= se 3s
(6.83)
which is a very big scale if s is small. The pole in eq. (6.82) is called the Landau
pole (see Section 2.2 in the case of QED). Of course there are no motivations why
eq. (6.82) should be valid for large values of .
Let us now discuss several possible scenarios starting from a theory where = 0
for = 0.
If () > 0 for any , than the running coupling is always increasing, and it
will become innite at some value of . If this happens for a nite we say
that we have a Landau pole at that scale.
Suppose that () is positive at small and that it becomes negative going
through a zero at = F (see Fig. 6.4.1)).
The point F is called a xed point since if we start with the initial condition
= F than remains xed at that value. To study the behaviour of around
the xed point, let us expand the () around its zero
It follows
() ( ; F ) 0(F )
(6.84)
d = ( ; ) 0( ) +
d
F
F
(6.85)
162
()
S
F
Fig. 6.4.1 - The behaviour of () giving rise to an ultraviolet xed point.
from which
d = 0( ) d
F
; F
Integrating this equation we get
(6.86)
; F = (F )
(6.87)
s ; F
s
Notice that the sign of 0(F ) plays here a very important role. In the present
case the sign is negative since () > 0 for < F and () < 0 for > F .
For large values of we have that ! F independently on the initial value
s. For this reason F is referred to as a ultraviolet (UV) xed point (see
Fig. 6.4.2)). The large scale (or small distance) behaviour of a eld theory of
0
! 0 independently on the initial value s. We say also that the xed point
is repulsive since goes away from the xed point for increasing , whereas a
UV xed point is said to be attractive.
Let us consider now the case of () < 0 for small values of and decreasing
monotonically. For instance, suppose () = ;a2 with a > 0. Integrating
the equation for the running coupling we get
() = s 1 + a1 log
(6.88)
s
s
In this case is a decreasing function of and goes to zero for ! 1 (that is
= 0 is a UV xed point). This property is known as "asymptoyic freedom"
and it holds for non-abelian gauge theories that we will describe later on in
the course. these are the only 4-dimensional theories to share this property.
In higher dimensions other theories enjoy this property. For instance in d = 6
the theory '3 is asymptotically free. Notice that also this time the running
coupling has a pole, but at a smaller scale than s
1
= e; as
(6.89)
s
Therefore the coupling increases at large distances.
Finally let us consider the case of () < 0 for small values of , becomes zero
at F and then positive. Then 0(F ) > 0. By expanding () around F we
get (by the same analysis we did before)
; F = (F )
(6.90)
s ; F
s
and we see that ! F ! 0 in a way independent on s, whereas it goes
away from s for increasing . Therefore F is an IR xed point (see Fig.
6.4.3)).
0
Let us now derive the perturbative expressions for m and d using the same
method followed for (). *e possibile ricavare. We dierentiate the eq. (6.13) with
respect to (notice that in this renormalization scheme b0 = 1)
"
1
1 0
X
X
@m
b
@
bk
k
2
0 = 2m
1+
+m
k
@
@ k=1 k
k=1
from which
" X
1 #
bk
0 = 2m 1 +
k
k=1
164
+ ()
1 0
X
bk
k
k=1
(6.91)
(6.92)
(6.46)
(6.93)
(6.94)
(6.95)
2
5
m() = 32
2 ; 12 16
2 + O(3 )
(6.96)
Let us now consider Z' (recall that although this quantity is innite in the limit
! 0, d is nite). By dierentiating eq. (6.14) we nd (c0 = 1)
or
1 0
1 0
X
X
1
@Z
1
d
c
1
'
k
Z'd = 2 @ = 2 d k = 2 () ckk
k=1
k=1
X
1 !
ck
1+
1 0
X
d = 12 (A + B) ckk
k
k=1
Using again the expression for () (see eq. (6.46)
1
d = ; 12 dc
d
165
k=1
(6.97)
(6.98)
(6.99)
d a
k+1
1 dck
dcd
= ck dc
;
1
;
d d
d 1
At the lowest order, using eq. (6.27) we get
1
d = 12
16
2
2
+ O ( 3 )
(6.100)
(6.101)
To conclude this Section, let us study the behaviour of ;(n) when the theory has
a UV xed point at = F . Since for large scales ! F we may suppose that m
and d go to m(F ) e d(F ) respectively. Then, integrating the following equation
(see eq. (6.61))
s dm
(6.102)
ds = m(m (F ) ; 1)
we have
m(s) = m(1)sm (F );1
(6.103)
Analogously
Z s ds0
(6.104)
s0 d(F ) = d(F ) log s
1
(6.105)
Therefore, if 1 ; m(F ) > 0 we can safely neglect the mass on the right hand side
of this equation. From this equation we understand also the reason why d is called
the anomalous dimension.
In non abelian gauge theories there is a UV xed point at = 0 where m = 0
and therefore one can neglect the masses at large momenta.
To justify why we have assumed that in the evaluation of m and d the only
important contribution comes from = F we notice that the integral
Z s ds0
0
(6.106)
m ((s ))
0
1 s
can be rewritten (using ds=s = d= )
Z (s) m(0)
d0
(6.107)
(0)
Therefore, barring the case in which m and have simultaneous zeroes, the integral
is dominated by the points where there is a zero of the function.
166
B
=
a0 +
a0 +
!
1
X
ak
k=1
k
!
1
X
ak
k=1
(6.108)
k
1 0
1
X
X
@
a
@
(
m=
)
0
k
+ @ a0 + k + @
a_ 0 + a_ kk = 0 (6.109)
k=1
k=1
where the dot stands for the derivative with respect to m=. Notice also that (see
eq. (6.5)
m m
@
@ = (m ; 1)
(6.110)
With a familiar procedure, we put = A + B, obtaining
a0 + Ba00 = 0
a1 + Aa00 + Ba01 + m
(m ; 1)_a0 = 0
At the second order in
3 3 ;1
3
B = ; 1 + 32
2 G1 1 + 16
2 G1 ; 1 ; 32
2 G1
and
3 3 m
2
3
32 G_
0
Aa0 = ; 16
2 + 1 ; 32
2 G1 8
2 ; (m ; 1) 32
2 1
(6.111)
(6.112)
(6.113)
(6.114)
Since the right hand side is at least of the second order in , neglecting higher order
terms we get
32 + m 32 G_
(6.115)
A = 16
2 32
2 1
and for ! 0
32 + m 32 G_
= 16
(6.116)
2 32
2 1
We see directly how the function depends on the subtraction procedure. Similar
expression can be obtained for m e d. Therefore, when using subtraction procedure
167
such that the coecients of the renormalization group equations depend explicitly
on the masses, it is convenient to look for solutions in a region of momenta where
the masses can be neglected. Another possibility is to choose the arbitrary scale
such that m= can be neglected.
Of course, changing the renormalization procedure will induce a nite renormalization in the couplings. For instance we get expressions of the type
0 = f
m
= + O(2 )
(6.117)
Therefore we obtain
0
@ f 0 + @ (m=) f_ = f 0 + m ( ; 1)f_
=
0 = @
@
@
@
m
(6.118)
(6.119)
and we see that a xed point at = F implies a xed point in 0. Therefore
the presence of a xed point does not depend on the scheme used (at least in this
approximation). It is possible to show that also the sign of the function is schemeindependent.
168
Chapter 7
The path integral for Fermi elds
7.1 Fermionic oscillators and Grassmann algebras
The Feynman's formulation of the path integral can be extended to eld theories
for fermions. However, since the path integral is strictly related to the classical
description of the theory, it could be nice to have such a "classical" description for
fermionic systems. In fact it turns out that it is possible to have a "classical" (called
pseudoclassical) description in a way such that its quantization leads naturally to
anticommutation relations. In this theory one introduces anticommuting variables
already at the classical level. This type of mathematical objects form the so called
Grassmann algebras. Before proceeding further let us introduce some concepts about
these algebras which will turn out useful in the following.
First of all we recall that an algebra V is nothing but a vector space where it
is dened a bilinear mapping V V ! V (the algebra product). A Grassmann
algebra Gn is a vector space of dimensions 2n and it can be described in terms of n
generators i (i = 1 n) satisfying the relations
i j + j i i j ]+ = 0 i j = 1 n
(7.1)
Then, the elements constructed by all the possible products among the generators
form a basis of Gn :
1 i ij i j k 12 n
(7.2)
Notice that there are no other possible elements since
i2 = 0
(7.3)
from eq. (7.1). The subset of elements of Gn generated by the product of an even
number of generators is called the even part of the algebra, Gn(0) , whereas the subset
generated by the product of an odd number of generators is the odd part, Gn(1) . It
follows
Gn = Gn(0) Gn(1)
(7.4)
169
(7.5)
Since we have no time to enter into the details of the classical mechanics of
the Grassmann variables, we will formulate the path integral starting directly from
quantum mechanics. Let us recall that in the Feynman's formulation one introduces
states which are eigenstates of a complete set of observables describing the conguration space of the system. In the case of eld theories one takes eigenstates of the
eld operators in the Heisenberg representation
h y yi
ai aj ]+ = ai aj
= 0
a ay
i j = ij
+
(7.8)
For greater simplicity take the case of a single Fermi oscillator, and let us try to
diagonalize the corresponding annihilation operator
aji = ji
(7.9)
Then, from a2 = 0, as it foillows from eqs. (7.8), we must have 2 = 0. Therefore
the eigenvalue cannot be an ordinary number. However it can be thought as an
odd element of a Grassmann algebra. If we have n Fermi oscillators and we require
aij1 ni = i j1 ni
(7.10)
170
we get
(7.20)
(7.21)
(7.22)
It follows
N ( ) = e =2
(7.23)
Let us recall some simple properties of a Fermi oscillator. the occupation number
operator has eigenvalues 1 and 0. In fact
(aya)2 = ayaaya = ay(1 ; aya)a = aya
(7.24)
from which
aya(aya ; 1) = 0
(7.25)
Starting from the state with zero eigenvalue2 for aya, we can build up only the
eigenstate with eigenvalue 1, ayj0i, since ay j0i = 0. Therefore the space of the
eigenstates of aya is a two-dimensional space. By dening the ground state as
0
j0i = 1
(7.26)
one sees easily that
0 0
0 1
y
a= 1 0 a = 0 0
(7.27)
1
j1i = 0
(7.28)
(7.29)
(7.30)
where the identity on the right hand side must be the identity on the two-dimensional
vector space. Using the explicit representation for the states
Z
Z
d djihj = d de
1 ( 1)
Z
= d de
1 1 0
Z
= d d 1 + = 0 1
(7.33)
Therefore the integration must satisfy
dd =
dd = 1
d d 1 = 0
(7.35)
These relations determine the integration in a unique way, since they x the value
of the integral over all the basis elements of G2 . The integral over a generic element
of the algebra is then dened by linearity. the previous integration rules can be
rewritten as integration rules over the algebra G1 requiring
d d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = 0
(7.36)
Then, we can reproduce the rules (7.34) and (7.35) by requiring
d d =
(7.34)
d = 1
173
d 1 = 0
(7.37)
n
X
with
Z Yn
i=1
=2
i i
n
X
e i=1
iayi
j0i
di j = ij
(7.38)
(7.39)
(7.40)
Assuming also
Let us consider the Grassmann algebra Gn. Its generic element can be expanded
over the basis elements as
X
X
X
f (1 n) = f0 + f1(i1 )i1 + f2 (11:i2)i1 i2 +
fn(i1 in)i1 in
i1
i1
in
i1 12
(7.44)
Of course the coecients of the expansion are antisymmetric. If we integrate f
over the algebra Gn only the last element of the expansion gives a non vanishing
contribution. Noticing also that for the antisymmetry we have
X
fn(i1 in)i1 in = n!fn (1 n)1 n
(7.45)
it follows
i1
in
either by the property that the integral is invariant under translations (see the previous Section and Section 4.7). Let us now consider the transformation properties
of the measure under a change of variable. For simplicity consider a linear transformation
X
i = aik k0
(7.48)
k
The eq. (7.40) must be required to hold in each basis, since it can be seen easily
that the previous transformation leaves invariant the multiplication rules. In fact,
i0 j0 = cik cjhk h = ;cik cjhhk == ;cjhcik hk = ;j0 i0
where cij is the inverse of the matrix aij . Therefore we require
di j =
By putting
we obtain
di =
dij =
ZX
hk
X
k
dk0 bkiajhh0 =
(7.50)
dk0 bki
X
hk
(7.49)
(7.51)
(7.52)
from which
bij = (a;1)ij
(7.53)
The transformation properties of the measure are
dn d1 = detja;1jdn0 d10
(7.54)
where we have used the anticommutation properties of di among themselves. We
see also that
@
(7.55)
detjaj = det @0
and
@0
;
1
0
0
dn d1 = det @ dn d1
(7.56)
Therefore the rule for a linear change of variables is
d0
d0 f (0 ) =
1
dn d1
0
@ f (i0 (i))
det;1 @
This rule should be compared with the one for commuting variables
@x0
Z
Z
0
0
0
dx1 dxnf (xi) = dx1 dxndet @x f (x0i (xi))
175
(7.57)
(7.58)
We see that the Grassmann measure transforms according to the inverse jacobian
rather than with the jacobian itself. As in the commuting case, the more important
integral to be evaluated for the path integral approach is the gaussian one
X
Aij ij =2 Z
Z
T
ij
I = dn d1e
dn d1e A=2
(7.59)
The matrix A is supposed to be real antisymmetric
AT = ;A
(7.60)
As shown in the Appendix a real and antisymmetric matrix can be reduced to the
form
2 0 0 0 3
66 ;1 01 0 0 77
66 0 0 0 2 77
As = 66 0 0 ;2 0 77
(7.61)
66
4
77
5
we get
(7.63)
(7.64)
(7.65)
From eq. (7.46) we get contribution nto the integral only from the term in the
expansion of the exponential (0T As0) 2 for n even. In the case of n odd we get
I = 0 since 0T As0 does not contain n0 . Therefore, for n even
Z
0 T A 0 =2 Z 0
0
0
I = dn d1 e s = dn d10 ( n1)! ( 12 0T As0 ) n2
2
Z
1
n
= dn0 d10 ( n )! ( 2 )!1 n2 10 n0
p2
= 1 n2 = detA
(7.66)
176
p
T
dn d1 e A=2 = detA
(7.67)
This result is valid also for n odd since in this case detjAj = 0. A similar result
holds for commuting variables. In fact, let us dene
J=
T
dx1 dxne;x Ax=2
(7.68)
I (A ) =
T
T
dn d1 e A=2 +
(7.70)
= 0 + A;1
(7.71)
We get
1 T A + T = 1 (0 T ; T A;1)A(0 + A;1) + T (0 + A;1 )
2
2
= 21 0 T A0 + 21 T A;1
(7.72)
where we have used the antisymmetry of A and T 0 = ;0 T . Since the measure
is invariant under translations we nd
Z
p
0T 0
T ;1
T ;1
I (A ) = dn0 d10 e A =2 + A =2 = e A =2 detA (7.73)
again to be compared with the result for commuting variables
T
T
T ;1
I (A J ) = dx1 dxne;x Ax=2 + J x = eJ A J=2 p(2
)
n
2
detA
(7.74)
(7.75)
and
y
y
y
y ;1
d1 d1 dndn e A + + = e; A detjAj
(7.76)
The second of these equations follows from the rst one as in the real case. we will
prove the rst one for the case n = 1. Starting from
and putting
T
d2 d1e A=2 = A12
(7.77)
1 = p1 ( + ) 2 = ; pi ( ; )
2
2
we get
(7.78)
1 T A = ;i A
(7.79)
12
2
and recalling that (remember that here one has to use the inverse of the jacobian)
(7.80)
T
d2d1 e A=2 = i dde;i A12
and
dde (;iA12 ) = ;iA12
(7.81)
(7.82)
h0 t0j ti =
Z (t )=
(t)=t
where
and
0
t
0 0
D( )e (t )=2 + (t)=2 + iS
D( ) =
S=
Z t i
0
dd
(7.83)
(7.84)
dt
(7.85)
where, for the Fermi oscillator H = . The expression is very similar to the
one obtained in the commuting case if we realize that the previous formula is the
analogue in the phase space using complex coordinates of the type q ip. It should
be noticed the particular boundary conditions for the variables originating from
the fact that the equations of motion are of the rst order. Correspondingly we
can assign only the coordinates at a particular time. In any case, since at the end
we are interested in eld theory where only the generating functional is relevant
and where the boundary conditions are arbitrary (for instance we can take the elds
vanishing at t = 1), and in any case do not aect the dependence of the generating
functional on the external source. The extension to the Fermi eld is done exactly
as we have done in the bosonic case, and correspondingly the generating functional
for the free Dirac theory will be
Z
Z
!]
i !(i@/ ; m) + ! +
Z !] = D( !)e
(7.86)
where and ! are the external sources (of Grassmann character). Using the integration formula (7.73) we get formally
;(i!) i@/ ;;i m (i)
;i! i@/ ;1 m
Z !] = Z 0]e
= Z 0]e
(7.87)
where the determinant of the Dirac operator has been included in the term at zero
source. In this expression we have to specify how to take the inverse operator. We
know that this is nothing but the Dirac propagator dened by
(i@/ ; m)SF (x ; y) = 4 (x ; y)
(7.88)
It follows
Z
;i d4xd4 y!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)
Z !] = Z 0]e
(7.89)
with
Z d4k /k + m
Z d4k
1
;
ikx
e
= lim
e;ikx
SF (x) = lim
!0+ (2
)4 k2 ; m2 + i
!0+ (2
)4 /k ; m + i
(7.90)
The Green's functions are obtained by dierentiating the generating functional with
respect to the external sources (Grassmann dierentiation). In particular, the two
point function is given by
1
Z
= 1 h0jT ((x)!(y))j0i = iSF (x ; y)
(7.91)
Z 0] !(x)(y) ==0 h0j0i
The T -product in this expression is the one for the Fermi elds, as it follows from
the derivation made in the bosonic case, taking into account that the classical eld
of this case are anticommuting.
We will not insist here further on this discussion, but all we have done in the
bosonic case can be easily generalized for Fermi elds.
179
Chapter 8
The quantization of the gauge
elds
8.1 QED as a gauge theory
Many eld theories possess global symmetries. These are transformations leaving
invariant the action of the system and are characterized by a certain number of
parameters which are independent on the space-time point. As a prototype we can
consider the free Dirac lagrangian
L0 = !(x)i@/ ; m](x)
(8.1)
which is invariant under the global phase transformation
(x) ! 0(x) = e;iQ (x)
(8.2)
If one has more than one eld, Q is a diagonal matrix having as eigenvalues the
charges of the dierent elds measured in unit e. For instance, a term as !2 1 ,
with a scalar eld, is invariant by choosing Q(1 ) = Q() = 1, and Q(2 ) = 2.
This is a so called abelian symmetry since
e;iQ e;iQ = e;i( + )Q = e;iQ e;iQ
(8.3)
It is also referred to as a U (1) symmetry. The physical meaning of this invariance
lies in the possibility of assigning the phase to the elds in an arbitrary way, without
changing the observable quantities. This way of thinking is in some sort of contradiction with causality, since it requires to assign the phase of the elds simultaneously
at all space-time points. It looks more physical to require the possibility of assigning
the phase in an arbitrary way at each space-time point. This invariance, formulated
by Weyl in 1929, was called gauge invariance. The free lagrangian (8.1) cannot be
gauge invariant due to the derivative coming from the kinetic term. The idea is
180
!
D
(8.5)
will be invariant as the mass term under the local phase transformation. To construct the covariant derivative, we need to enlarge the eld content of the theory,
by introducing a vector eld, the gauge
eld A , in the following way
D = @ + ieQA
(8.6)
The transformation law of A is obtained from eq. (8.4)
(@ + ieQA )]0 = (@ + ieQA0 )0(x)
= (@ + ieQA0 )e;iQ(x)
1
;
iQ
(
x
)
0
= e
@ + ieQ(A ; e @ )
(8.7)
from which
(8.8)
A0 = A + 1e @
The lagrangian density
! A
L
= !iD/ ; m] = !i (@ + ieQA ) ; m) = L0 ; eQ
(8.9)
is then invariant under gauge transformations, or under the local group U (1). We see
also that by requiring local invariance we reproduce the electromagnetic interaction
as obtained through the minimal substitution we discussed before.
In order to determine the kinetic term for the vector eld A we notice that eq.
(8.4) implies that under a gauge transformation, the covariant derivative undergoes
a unitary transformation
D ! D0 = e;iQ(x) D eiQ(x)
(8.10)
Then, also the commutator of two covariant derivatives
D D ] = @ + ieQA @ + ieQA ] = ieQF
(8.11)
F = @ A ; @ A
(8.12)
(8.13)
with
transforms in the same way
181
The last equality follows from the commutativity of F with the phase factor. The
complete lagrangian density is then
L = L
+ LA = !i (@ + ieQA ) ; m] ; 41 F F
(8.14)
The gauge principle has automatically generated an interaction between the gauge
eld and the charged eld. We notice also that gauge invariance prevents any
mass term, 21 M 2 A A . Therefore, the photon eld is massless. Also, since the
local invariance implies the global ones, by using the Noether's theorem we nd the
conserved current as
@ L =
! (Q)
j = @
(8.15)
from which, eliminating the innitesimal parameter ,
! Q
J =
(8.16)
L0 =
N
X
!
a=1
a (i@/ ; m)a
(8.17)
(8.18)
U = e;iA T
A
U 2G
(8.19)
where T A denote the generators of the Lie algebra associated to G, Lie(G), (that is
the vector space spanned by the innitesimal generators of the group) in the fermion
representation. The generators T A satisfy the algebra
T A T B ] = ifCAB T C
182
(8.20)
where fCAB are the structure constants of Lie(G). For instance, if G = SU (2), and
we take the fermions in the fundamental representation,
+ = 1
2
we have
T A = 2
A
A = 1 2 3
(8.21)
(8.22)
where A are the Pauli matrices. In the general case the T A's are N N hermitian
matrices that we will choose normalized in such a way that
Tr(T AT B ) = 21 AB
(8.23)
To make local the transformation (8.19), means to promote the parameters A to
space-time functions
A ! A(x)
(8.24)
Notice, that now the group does not need to be abelian, and therefore, in general
A
A
A
A
e;iA T e;iA T 6= e;iA T e;iA T
(8.25)
Let us now proceed to the case of the local symmetry by dening again the concept
of covariant derivative
D = @ + igB
where B is a N N matrix acting upon +(x). In components
(8.26)
(8.27)
(8.28)
(8.29)
(8.30)
(8.31)
therefore
and
183
U (x) 1 ; iA(x)T A
(8.32)
(8.33)
(8.34)
(8.35)
The dierence with respect to the abelian case is that the eld undergoes also a
homogeneous transformation.
The kinetic term for the gauge elds is constructed as in the abelian case. In
fact the quantity
D D ]+ igF +
(8.36)
in virtue of the eq. (8.26), transforms as + under gauge transformations, that is
(D D ]+)0 = igF0 +0 = igF0 U (x)+
= U (x)(D D ]+) = U (x) (igF ) +
(8.37)
This time the tensor F is not invariant but transforms homogeneously, since it
does not commute with the gauge transformation as in the abelian case
(8.38)
(8.39)
or
in components
(8.40)
(8.41)
F = FC T C
(8.42)
184
with
where
Z
1
SA = ; 2 d4x Tr(F F )
V
SA = ;
Z
V
d4xTr(F F )
(8.46)
(8.47)
SA = ;2
Z
V
(8.48)
(8.49)
where we have taken into account the antisymmetry properties of F . Integrating
by parts we obtain
SA = ;2
= 2
=
Z
V
(8.50)
where we used the cyclic property of the trace. By taking into account also the free
term for the Dirac elds and the interaction we nd the equations of motion
@ F A + igB F ]A = g+! T A+
(i@/ ; m)+ = gB +
(8.51)
From the rst equation we see that the currents +! T A+ are not conserved. In fact
the conserved currents turn out to be
JA = +! T A+ ; iB F ]A
(8.52)
The reason is that under a global transformation of the symmetry group, the gauge
elds are not invariant, said in dierent words they are charged elds with respect
to the gauge elds. In fact we can verify immediately that the previous currents are
precisely the Noether's currents. Under a global variation we have
AC = fCAB AAB + = ;iA T A+
(8.53)
and we get
j = @@+L + + @A@ L AC
(8.54)
from which
C
invariance of the theory. In this Section we would like to discuss how these diculties arise also in the path integral quantization. To this end let us recall the general
scheme of eld quantization in this approach. First of all we will deal only with the
perturbative approach, meaning that the only thing that one needs to evaluate is
the generating functional for the free case. The free case is dened by the quadratic
part of the action. Therefore the evaluation of the path integral reduces to calculate
a Gaussian integral of the type given in eqs. (7.73) and (7.73) for the fermionic and
bosonic case respectively. For instance, in the bosonic case one evaluates
Z
T Ax=2 + J T x
T A;1 J=2 (2
) n2
;
x
J
p
(8.59)
I (A J ) = dx1 dxne
=e
detA
In our case the operator A appearing in the gaussian factor is nothing but the wave
operator. The result of the integration is meaningful only if the operator A is nonsingular (it needs to have an inverse) otherwise the integral is not well dened. This
is precisely the point where we run into problems in the case of a gauge theory.
Remember from eq. (1.132) that the wave operator for the electromagnetic eld in
momentum space is given by
(;k2 g + k k )A (k) = 0
(8.60)
(8.61)
and therefore it is a singular operator. This is strictly related to the gauge invariance,
which in momentum space reads
(8.63)
with F A ] = F A ] (here A is the gauge transformed of A). But being the action
and the functional F gauge invariant, it follows that the integrand is invariant along
the gauge group orbits. The gauge group orbits are dened as the set of points, in
the eld space, which can be reached by a given A via a gauge transformation. In
other words, given A , its orbit is given by all the elds A obtained by varying the
parameters of the gauge group (that is varying '), see Fig. 8.3.1. For instance, in
the abelian case
A = A + @ '
(8.64)
187
A'
A'
Fig. 8.3.1 - The orbits of the gauge group in the eld space.
Since the orbits dene equivalence classes (or cosets) we can imagine the eld space
as the set of all the orbits. Correspondingly we can divide our functional integral
in a part parallel and in one perpendicular to the orbits. Then, the reason why our
functional integral is not well dened depends from the fact that the integrand along
the space parallel to the orbits is innite (the integrand being gauge invariant does
not depend on the corresponding variables). However this observation suggests a
simple solution to our problem. We could dene the integral by dividing it by the
integral along the part parallel to the orbit (notice that is the same as the volume
of the gauge group). In order to gain a clear understanding of this problem let us
consider the following very simple example in two dimensions
Z +1
; 21 a2(x ; y)2
Z=
dxdye
(8.65)
;1
This is as reducing the space-time two two points with x and y the possible values of
the eld in those points. At the same time the exponent can be seen as an euclidean
action with the (gauge) symmetry
x = x + ' y = y + '
(8.66)
The integral (8.65) is innite due to this invariance. In fact this implies that the
integrand depends only on x ; y, and therefore the integration over the remaining
variable gives rise to an innite result. In order to proceed along the lines we have
described above, let us partition the space of the eld, that is the two-dimensional
space (x y) in the gauge group orbits. Given a point (x0 y0), the group orbit is
given by the set of points (x = x + ' y = y + ') corresponding to the line
x ; y = x0 ; y0, as shown in Fig. 8.3.2 We can perform the integral by integrating
188
.
y
(x , y )
(x 0 , y 0)
x
f(x,y) = 0
x+y=c
Fig. 8.3.2 - The eld space (x y) partitioned in the orbits of the gauge group. We
show also the line x + y = c and the arbitrary line f (x y) = 0 (dashed).
along the perpendicular space, the line x + y = c (c is a constant), and then along
the parallel space. It is this last integral which gives a divergent result, since we are
adding up the same contribution an innite number of times. therefore the obvious
way to do is to introduce as integration variables x ; y and x + y, integrating only
on x ; y. Or, said in a dierent way, perform both integrals and dividing up by
the integral over x + y, which cancels the divergence at the numerator. This can be
done in a more systematic way by using the following identity
Z +1
1
d' 2 (x + y) + '
Then we multiply Z per by this factor obtaining
1=
Z=
;1
2Z
1
; 1 a2(x ; y)2 3
5
d' 4 dxdy 2 (x + y) + ' e 2
(8.67)
(8.68)
The integral inside the parenthesis is what we are looking for since it is evaluated
along the line x + y = constant. Of course the result should not depend on the choice
of this constant (it corresponds to translate the integration line in a way parallel to
the orbits). In fact, by doing the change of variables
x ! x + '
y !y+'
189
(8.69)
we get
Z=
2Z
; 1 a2(x ; y)2 3
1
5
d' 4 dxdy 2 (x + y) e 2
(8.70)
As promised the innite factor is now factorized out and we see also clearly that
this nothing but the volume of the gauge group (' parameterize the gauge group,
which in the present case is isomorphic to R1). Then, we dene our integral as
1
; 1 a2(x ; y)2
Z
Z
0
Z = V = dxdy 2 (x + y) e 2
(8.71)
G
with
VG =
d'
(8.72)
In this way the integral is dened by integrating over the particular surface x + y = 0.
Of course we would get the same result integrating over any other line (or surface
in the general case) having the property of intersecting each orbit only once. For
instance, let us choose the line (see Fig. 8.3.2)
f (x y) = 0
(8.73)
Then, proceeding as in eq. (8.67) we consider the following identity, which allows
us to dene a gauge invariant function f (x y)
1 = f (x y)
d' f (x y ) = f (x y) d' f (x + ' y + ')]
(8.74)
In the previous case we had f (x y) = (x + y)=2 = 0 giving rise to f (x y) =
(x + y)=2 + ' = 0, from which f (x y) = 1. Multiplying Z by the expression (8.74)
we get
3
1
Z 2Z
2
2
; a (x ; y) 5
Z = d' 4 dxdyf (x y) f (x + ' y + ')] e 2
(8.75)
Let us show that f (x y) is gauge invariant. In fact by the transformation x !
x + '0 , y ! y + '0 we obtain
1 = f
(x + '0 y + '0)
(8.76)
(x + '0 y + '0)
190
(8.77)
(8.78)
The integral inside the parenthesis in eq. (8.75) does not depend on ' (that is is
gauge invariant). This can be shown exactly as we did before in the case f (x y) =
(x + y)=2. Therefore we can again factorize the integration over ', being the sum
of innite gauge copies
3
1
Z 2Z
2
2
; a (x ; y ) 5
Z = d' 4 dxdyf (x y) f (x y)] e 2
(8.79)
and dene
1
Z = Z dxdy (x y) f (x y)] e; 2 a2 (x ; y)2
(8.80)
f
VG
The function f (x y) (called the Faddeev-Popov determinant) can be calculated
directly from its denition. To this end notice that in (8.79), f (x y) appears
multiplied by f (x y)]. As a consequence, we need to know f only at points very
close at the surface f (x y) = 0. But in this case, the equation f (x y) = 0 has
the only solution ' = 0, since by hypothesis the surface f (x y) crosses the gauge
orbits only once. Therefore we can write
f (x y)] = @f 1 ']
(8.81)
@ ' =0
giving rise to
(8.82)
f (x y) = @f
@ ' =0
where f = f (x y). Clearly f represents the answer of the gauge xing f = 0
to an innitesimal gauge transformation. As a last remark, notice that our original
integral can be written as
Z ; 1 xiAij xj
Z = d2 xe 2
(8.83)
Z0 =
with
1 ;1
(8.84)
;1 1
a singular matrix. As we have already noticed the singularity of A is related to the
gauge invariance, and the solution we have given here solves also the problem of the
singularity of A. In fact, integrating over x ; y only, means to integrate only on the
eigenvectors of A corresponding to non zero eigenvalues.
A = a2
191
Since the solution we have found to our problem is of geometrical type, it is very
easy to generalize it to the case of a gauge eld theory, abelian or not. We start by
choosing a surface in the gauge eld space given by
fB (AB ) = 0
B = 1 n
(8.85)
where n is the number of parameters of LieG. Also, this surface should intersect the
gauge orbits only once. To write down the analogue of equation (8.74) we need also
a measure on the gauge group. This can be obtained as follows. We have seen that
we are interested in the solutions of
fB (A ) = 0
(8.86)
around fB (A) = 0, therefore it is enough to know the measure around the identity
of the gauge group. In such a case the transformation ' can be written as
' 1 + iA (x)T A
(8.87)
Since at the rst order in the group parameters
''0 1 + i(A + A0 )T A
(8.88)
we see that the invariant measure of the group, around the identity, is given by
d(') =
Y
Ax
dA(x)
(8.89)
1 = f A ] d(')fA(A )]
(8.90)
(8.91)
0;
]=
d(')fA(A(
0;
0;
)=
d('00'0 )f
A (A
192
00
)] =
) ]
d(')fA(A )]
(8.93)
(8.94)
Z=
D(A )F A]e
i LAd4x
(8.95)
where F is a gauge invariant functional. Since in the following F will not play any
particular role we will discuss only the case F = 1, but all the following considerations are valid for an arbitrary gauge invariant F . We multiply Z by the identity
(8.91)
Z
2
3
4
Z
Z
i LAd x
Z = d(') 64 D(A )e
fA(A )]f A ]75
(8.96)
The functional measure is invariant under gauge transformations
A ! 'A ';1 + gi (@ ')';1
(8.97)
since the homogeneous part has determinant one, and the inhomogeneous part gives
rise to a translation. Then by performing the change of variables A ! A , and
using the gauge invariance of D(A), LA and f A ], we get
Z=
Z
2
3
4
Z
i LAd x
d(') 64 D(A)e
fA(A)]f A ]75
(8.98)
i LAd4x
Z
Z
Z ! V = R d(') = D(A)e
fA(A )]f A]
(8.99)
G
The evaluation of f goes as before. Since in the previous equation it appears
multiplied by fA(A )], the only solution of fA(A ) = 0 in this neighborhood is
' = 1, or A = 0. therefore
)
f
(
A
A
A]
(8.100)
fA(A )] = det;1
B A =0
from which
fA(A )
f A ] = det =0
(8.101)
B
Once again, the Faddeev-Popov determinant f A ] is the answer of the gauge-xing
to an innitesimal gauge transformation. The nal expression that we get for Z is
Z=
i Z L d4x
A (A )
e A
D(A )fA(A)]det f
B A =0
193
(8.102)
This expression gives the right measure to be used in the path integral quantization
of the gauge elds. In particular, the vacuum expectation value (v.e.v.) of a gauge
eld functional will be dened as
Z
h0jT (F A])j0if = D(A)f ]f eiS F A]
(8.103)
where the index f species the gauge in which we evaluate the v.e.v. of F . About
this point, we can prove an important result, that is: if F A] is a gauge invariant
functional
F A] = F A]
(8.104)
than its v.e.v. does not depend on the gauge xing fA = 0. We will prove this
result by showing the relation between the v.e.v.'s of F A] in due dierent gauges.
Consider the identity
f1
(8.105)
where we have used eq. (8.91)and dened f2A] f2 A]. By change of variable
A ! A , we get
f1
=
=
Z
Z
d(') D(A)f1
Z
Z
where in the second line we have made a further change of variables ' ! ';1 and
used the invariance of d('). Then
f1
(8.107)
This is the relation we were looking for. If F is gauge invariant we get at once
(8.108)
Zf A] =
i d4xAAA
iS
D(A)f ]f e e
(8.109)
which is not gauge invariant, but in terms of which we can easily construct the
v.e.v.'s of gauge invariant quantities, since it is built up in terms of the correct
functional measure.
For the purpose of building up the perturbative theory it is convenient to write
the integrand of eq. (8.109) in the form exp(iSe ), where Se is an eective action
194
taking into account the gauge xing f = 0 and the Faddeev-Popov determinant.
We will discuss later the exponentiation of f . As far as f ] it is concerned, we
can exponentiate it by using its Fourier representation, or, more conveniently by
choosing the gauge condition in the form fA(A) ; BA(x) = 0, with BA(x) a set of
arbitrary functions independent on the gauge elds. Then
(f A] ; B )
f A]
A
A
A = f A]
(f ;B) A] = det
=
det
B
B A =0
A =0
and therefore
Z
1 = f A] d(')fA ; BA]
(8.110)
(8.111)
We can further multiply this identity by the following expression which does not
depend on the gauge elds
Z X
i
; 2 d4x BA2 (x)
Z
A
(8.112)
constant = D(B )e
We get
Z X
i
; 2 d4x (fA(x))2
Z
A
constant = f A] d(')D(B )e
(fA ; BA)
Z
X
; 2i d4x (fA(x))2
Z
A
(8.113)
= f A] d(')e
Multiplying this expression by the functional (8.95)we can show as before that the
gauge volume factor factorizes, allowing us to dene a class of generating functionals
Z
X
Z
i d4x(LA ; 21 (fA)2 ) i d4xA AA
Z
A
Z A] = D(A)f A]e
e
(8.114)
Z X
1
Sf = ; 2 d4x (fA(x))2
A
we nd the analogue of eq. (8.107) is
Finally, dening
f1
(8.115)
(8.116)
showing again that the v.e.v. a gauge invariant functional gives rise to a gauge
invariant v.e.v. for the corresponding operator.
195
f (A) = @ A (x) = 0
(8.120)
(8.121)
f (A )
= 1 x 4(x ; y)
(8.122)
(y) =0 e
Then the Faddeev-Popov determinant turns out to be eld-independent and it can
be absorbed into the normalization of the generating functional, which is given by
Z ! ] = N
D( !)D(A )e
d4xL
@
! + A ]d4x
i ! +
A ]e
Z0 ! ] = N
Writing
D( !)D(A)e
SA = ; 14
F
F d4x =
d4xL
1
2
196
(8.123)
(8.124)
@
! + A ]d4x
i ! +
A ]e
(8.125)
(8.126)
using @ A] and integrating over the Fermi elds we get
@
A ] =
D(C )eihC (x)@ A (x)i =
D(C )e;ih@ C (x)A (x)i
(8.128)
(8.131)
i @@
1 h ; i @ (+i) ; i @ i = e 2 h 2 i
e2
i h g ; @ @ i
;
2
Z0 ! ] = Z 0]e;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)ie 2
197
(8.132)
(8.133)
Z d4k g
G = lim
;
(2
)4
!0+
we write
+ 2kk 2 e;ikx
2
k + i (k + i)
(8.134)
(8.135)
e
! + A
d4x ! +
(8.139)
In this case the only eect of the gauge xing is to change the lagrangian L to
L0 = L ; (@ A )2=(2 ). Of course, the addition of this term removes the problem
of the singular wave operator. In fact we can write
Z
Z
1
1
4
4
0
(8.140)
d xL = 2 d xA g ; (1 ; )@ @ A
Therefore we have to evaluate the functional integral
Z 1
4
Z
i d x 2 A K A + A
Z0 ! ] = Ne;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)i D(A )e
(8.141)
198
with
obtaining
1@ @
K = g ; ;
(8.142)
This can be solved by writing the most general second rank symmetric tensor function of k
G (k) = Ag + Bk k
(8.147)
with the coecients such that
; 1 A ; 1 Bk2 = 0
(8.148)
;Ak2 = 1
Solving these equations
G (k) = ; gk2 + (1 ; ) kkk4
(8.149)
The singularities are dened by the usual i term, and we get
Z d4k g
k
k
G (x) = lim
; k2 + i + (1 ; ) (k2 + i)2 e;ikx
(8.150)
!0+ (2
)4
The discussion made at the beginning of this Section corresponds to = 0 (the so
called Landau gauge). In fact for ! 0
Z
i
; 2 d4x(@ A )2
! @ A]
(8.151)
lim e
!0
The choice corresponding to the quantization made in Section 1.5.3 is = 1. In
this case
G (x) = ;g F (x m2 = 0)
(8.152)
199
This is called the Feynman's gauge. As we see the parameter selects dierent
covariant gauges. As already stressed the physics does not depend on since the
! , which is conserved in the abelian case,
photon couples to the fermionic current
and as a consequence the dependent part of the propagator, being proportional
to kk does not contribute. The situation is quite dierent in the non-abelian case
where the fermionic current is not conserved since the gauge elds are not neutral.
Therefore we need further contributions in order to cancel the dependent terms.
Such contributions arise from the Faddeev-Popov determinant.
"
1 X(@ A )2 Z 4 A
i d4 x
Z
2 A A i d xA A
Z0 ] = N D(A)e
e
f A ]
(8.155)
Consider now f A ]. In the Lorentz gauge
L(2)
A ;
fAA ] = @ AA
200
(8.156)
"
1 X(@ A )2 + AA
i d4x L(2)
;
A
A
2 A A
e Z
(8.164)
The integration over AA like in the abelian case. For the ghost eld we use eq.
(7.76) with the result
i
A )i
A
Z
A 1 Ai
;h
(
i
)
;
(
i
A
A
;
i
h
D(c c)eihcAcA + cA + cAi = e
=e
(8.165)
Dening
Z d4k e;ikx
AB (x) = ;AB lim
(8.166)
!0+ (2
)4 k2 + i
we get
Z0
with
G
AB = AB G (x ; y )
It is then easy to read the Feynman's rules. For the propagators we get
(8.168)
.
k
, A
, B
1
g ; (1 ; ) kk2 +ki k2 +
i
(8.169)
k
A
1
iAB k2 +
i
(8.170)
The Feynman's rules for the vertices are obtained by taking the Fourier transform
of the interaction parts (here we have written fCAB fABC ).
202
.
, A
k1
k3
, C
, B
k2
, D
k1
k4
k3
, B
, C
k2
;ig2 (2
)44 (
i=1
(8.172)
.
, A
k
(8.173)
When we have fermions coupled to the gauge elds we need to add the rule
for the vertex (the propagator is the usual one). By a simple comparison with the
coupling in QED we see that in this case the rule for the vertex is
.
, A
k
p'
, c
, b
(8.174)
As we shall see, one of the dierences with QED is that now Z1 6= Z2. As a consequence we will need to evaluate all the three renormalization constants. Let us start
with the fermion self-energy. The one-loop contribution is given in Fig. 8.6.1.
.
k
p
p _k
X
A
(T AT A)
QED (p) =
X
A
(T AT A)
ab
(T AT A)
X A A
A
2 2
ab
= 34 ab
(8.176)
(8.177)
2;1
N
C2(F ) = 2N
(8.179)
P
This result is justied by the observation that the operator A T AT A (called the
Casimir operator) commutes with all the generators and therefore it must be proportional to the identity matrix. From the previous expression for we nd immediately
(see Section 2.7)
2
Z2 = 1 ; 8g
2 C2(F )
(8.180)
205
.
=
+
a)
+
c)
b)
+
d)
+
e)
f)
The next task is the evaluation of Z3. To this end we need the one-loop expansion
of the gauge particle propagator (the vacuum polarization diagram). This is given
in Fig. 8.6.2.
Since we are using dimensional regularization we can see immediately that the last
three diagrams (diagrams d), e) and f)) of Fig. 8.6.2 are zero (this is not true in
other regularizations). In fact all these diagrams involve the integral
Z d2! k
(8.181)
k2
which, in dimensional regularization gives (including a mass term)
Z d2! k
!
2 !;1
(8.182)
k2 ; a2 = ;i
;(1 ; !)(a )
By taking the limit a ! 0, we see that for ! > 1 the integral vanishes.
Let us begin our calculation from the gauge particle contributions to the vacuum
polarization. The kinematics is specied in Fig. 8.6.3. We will evaluate the truncated Green's function which diers by a factor ig2 from the vacuum polarization
vacuum as dened in Section 2.1. We have
a)
ig2(AB
Z d2! k
1
;i ;i
2
ADC
DBC
= 2 (;g) f f
E
2
!
(2
)
(p + k)2 k2
206
(8.183)
The factor 1=2 is a symmetry factor associated to the diagram and the tensor E
comes from the trilinear vertices. It is given by
D,
B,
Z1
0
with
(8.188)
k = k0 ; pz
(8.189)
Operating this substitution into the tensor E , taking into account that the integration over the odd terms in k0 gives zero, and that for symmetry we can make the
substitution
k0 k0 ! g2! k02
(8.190)
207
E
= g
1 ; 21! + g p2 (1 + z)2 + (2 ; z)2
;
(8.191)
Performing the integral over k with the formulas of Section 2.5 and putting everything together, we get
! Z 1
1
i
2
= ; g (;C2 (G))AB 2! dz !z(1 ; z)p2 ;(1 ; !)a + ;(2 ; !)b
2
(2
) 0
(8.192)
By taking only the 1= term ( = 4 ; 2!) in the expansion and integrating over z
we get
19
2
11
g
(a)
2
2
ig AB = i 16
2 C2 (G)AB 6 g p ; 3 p p
(8.193)
As we see this contribution is not transverse, that is it is not proportional to
(p p ; g p2 ), as it should be. in fact, we will see that adding to this diagram
the contribution of the ghost loop we recover the transverse factor. The ghost contribution is the part b) of the expansion of Fig. 8.6.2. The relevant kinematics is
given in Fig. 8.6.4.
.
a)
ig2(AB
p+k
D
A,
p
B,
C
k
Z d2! k
(p + k) k
(2
)2! (p + k)2 k2
(8.194)
= ;g 2 C
(2
)2! (k02 + z(1 ; z)p2 )2
208
(8.195)
where we have eliminated the terms linear in k0. Then, we perform the integral over
k0
1
Z1
!
(b)
2
2
2
ig AB = ;ig (2
)2! C2(G)AB dz z(1 ; z) 2 p ;(1 ; !) ; pp ;(2 ; !)
0
(8.196)
We perform now the integral in z. Then taking the limit ! ! 2, and keeping only
the leading term, we get
1
2
1
g
(b)
2
2
ig AB = i 16
2 C2(G)AB 6 p g + 3 p p
(8.197)
Putting together this contribution with the former one we get
2 5
g
(a)
(b)
2
ig (AB + AB ) = ;i 8
2 3 C2 (G)AB p p ; g p2
(8.198)
The fermionic loop contribution is given in Fig. 8.6.5, and except for the group
factor is the same evaluated in Section 2.6.
.
p+k
A,
p
B,
2
c) = ig 2 Tr(T AT B )QED = i g n p p ; g p2
ig2(AB
12
2 F AB
(8.199)
where we have used the conventional normalization for the group generators in the
fermionic representation
(8.200)
Tr(T AT B ) = 12 nF AB
where nF is the number of fundamental representations. For instance, in the case
of QCD, we have three dierent kind of quarks corresponding to dierent &avors.
Then, the one-loop leading term contribution to the vacuum polarization is given
by
a) + (b) + (c) )
ig2AB = ig2((AB
AB
AB
2 5
2
g
(8.201)
= ;i 8
2 3 C2(G) ; 3 nF pp ; g p2
209
2
g
Z3 = 1 + 8
2 53 C2(G) ; 32 nF
(8.202)
We are now left with the vertex corrections. The fermion contribution is given by
the diagram of Fig. 8.6.6.
.
A
p' + k
p+k
p'
3
= ;i g 2 C2 (F ) ; 1 C2(G) T A
(8.205)
8
2
The nal diagram to be evaluated is the vertex correction from the trilinear gauge
coupling given in Fig. 8.6.7.
We get (q = p0 ; p)
Z d2! k ik^ ;i
3
A
B
;ig g = (;ig T ) (2
)2! k2 (p0 ; k)2
(;g)f ABC g (q + p0 ; k) ; g(p + p0 ; 2k) + g(p ; k ; q) ]
(p ;;ik)2 (;igT C )
(8.206)
;ig3A
f
210
A,
p' - k
p-k
C
k
p
p'
Fig. 8.6.7 - One-loop vertex correction from the trilinear gauge coupling.
Since we are interested only in the divergent piece, the calculation can be simplied
a lot by the observation that the denominator goes as (k2 )3, whereas the numerator
goes at most as k2 . Therefore the divergent piece is obtained by neglecting all the
external momenta. Therefore the expression simplies to
Z d2! k k^(g k ; 2gk + gk )
3
A
3
ABC
B
C
;ig g = ig f T T (2
)2!
(8.207)
(k2 )3
The group factor gives
(8.208)
f ABC T B T C = 2i f ABC f BCD T D = 2i C2(G)T A
whereas the numerator gives simply ;3k2 . Then we have
Z d2! k
3 3
3
g
3
A
A
;ig g = ; (2
)2! 2 C2(G)T (k2 )2 = ;i 8
g 2 32 C2(G)T A (8.209)
Adding up the two vertex contributions we obtain
3
A ) = ;i g (C (F ) + C (G)) T A
(8.210)
;ig3A = ;ig3 (A
+
2
g
f
8
2 2
Again, comparison with Section 2.7 gives
2
Z1 = 1 ; 8g
2 (C2 (F ) + C2 (G))
(8.211)
Using eq. (8.175) we have
(8.212)
gB = =2g(1 + Z1 ; Z2 ; 12 Z3) = =2 g + a1
and collecting everything together we get
3 11
g
2
a1 = ; 16
2 3 C2(G) ; 3 nF
(8.213)
211
The evaluation of (g) goes as in the QED case (see Section 6.3), that is
() = ; 1 1 ; g d a = ; 1 (a ; 3a ) = a
(g) = @g@
1
1
2
dg 1
2 1
that is
3
2
g
C
(g) = ; 16
2 11
2 (G) ; nF
3
3
In the case of QCD where the gauge group is SU (3) we have
C2(G) = 3
and therefore
3
QCD(g) = ; 16g
2 11 ; 23 nF
We see that QCD is asymptotically free ( (g) < 0) for
nF < 33
2
212
(8.214)
(8.215)
(8.216)
(8.217)
(8.218)
Chapter 9
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
9.1 The linear -model
In this Section and in the following we will study, from a classical point of view,
some eld theory with particular symmetry properties. We will start examining the
linear -model. This is a model for N scalar elds, with a symmetry O(N ). The
lagrangian is given by
N
N
X
X
1
1
2
L = 2 @ i@ i ; 2 ii ; 4
i=1
i=1
X
N
i=1
ii
!2
(9.1)
This lagrangian is invariant under linear transformations acting upon the vector
~ = (1 N ) and leaving invariant its norm
X
j~j2 = ii
N
i=1
(9.2)
T = ;
(9.12)
implying that S is an orthogonal transformation. The matrices S form the rotation
group in N dimensions, O(N ).
The Noether's theorem implies a conserved current for any symmetry of the
theory. In this case we will get N (N ; 1)=2 conserved quantities. It is useful for
further generalizations to write the innitesimal transformation in the form
i = ij j = ; 2i AB TijAB j i j = 1 N A B = 1 N
(9.13)
which is similar to what we did in Section 3.3 when we discussed the Lorentz transformations. By comparison we see that the matrices T AB are given by
TijAB = i(iAjB ; jAiB )
(9.14)
It is not dicult to show that these matrices satisfy the algebra
T AB T CD ] = ;iAC T BD + iAD T BC ; iBD T AC + iBC T AD
(9.15)
This is nothing but the Lie algebra of the group O(N ), and the T AB are the innitesimal generators of the group. Applying now the Noether's theorem we nd
the conserved current
j = @ (@@L ) i = ; 2i iAB TijAB j
(9.16)
i
since the N (N ; 1)=2 parameters AB are linearly independent, we nd the N (N ;
1)=2 conserved currents
JAB = ;ii TijAB j
(9.17)
In the case of N = 2 the symmetry is the same as for the charged eld in a real
basis, and the only conserved current is given by
J12 = ;J21 = 1 2 ; 21
(9.18)
214
One can easily check that the charges associated to the conserved currents close
the same Lie algebra as the generators T AB . More generally, if we have conserved
currents given by
jA = ;iiTijAj
(9.19)
with
T A T B ] = if ABC T C
(9.20)
then, using the canonical commutation relations, we get
QA QB ] = if ABC QC
with
QA
d3x j0A(x) = ;i
d3x _ iTijAj
(9.21)
(9.22)
M = + i~ ~
(9.24)
where ~ are the Pauli matrices. Noticing that 2 is pure imaginary, 1 and 3 real,
and that 2 anticommutes with 1 and 3, we get
M = 2 M 2
(9.25)
j~j2 = 2 + j~
j2 = 21 Tr(M yM )
(9.26)
M ! LMRy
(9.28)
Using this it is easy to write the lagrangian for the -model in the form
;
L = 41 Tr(@M y @ M ) ; 14 2Tr(M yM ) ; 161 Tr(M yM ) 2
(9.27)
This lagrangian is invariant under the following transformation of the matrix M
where L and R are two special (that is with determinant equal to 1) unitary matrices,
that is L R 2 SU (2). The reason to restrict these matrices to be special is that
only in this way the transformed matrix satisfy the condition (9.25). In fact, if A is
a 2 2 matrix with detA = 1, then
2AT 2 = A;1
215
(9.29)
(9.30)
(9.31)
since the L and R are independent transformations, the invariance group in this
basis is SU (2)L SU (2)R. In fact this group and O(4) are related by the following
observation: the transformation M ! LMRy is a linear transformation on the
matrix elements of M , but from the relation (9.26) we see that M ! LMRy leaves
the norm of the vector ~ = (~
) invariant and therefore the same must be true
for the linear transformation acting upon the matrix elements of M , that is on
and ~
. Therefore this transformation must belongs to O(4). This shows that the
two groups SU (2) SU (2) and O(4) are homomorphic (actually there is a 2 to 1
relationship, since ;L and ;R dene the same S as L and R).
We can evaluate the eect of an innitesimal transformation. To this end we
will consider separately left and right transformations. We parameterize the transformations as follows
L 1 ; 2i ~L ~ R 1 ; 2i ~R ~
(9.32)
then we get
LM = (; 2i ~L ~ )M = (; 2i ~L ~ )( + i~
~
) = 21 ~L ~
+ 2i (~L ^ ~
; ~L ) ~ (9.33)
where we have used
i j = ij + iijk k
(9.34)
Since
L M = L + iL~
~
(9.35)
we get
L = 21 ~L ~
L~
= 21 (~L ^ ~
; ~L)
(9.36)
Analogously we obtain
R = ; 12 ~R ~
R~
= 12 (~R ^ ~
+ ~R )
(9.37)
The combined transformation is given by
= 21 (~L ; ~R ) ~
~
= 21 (~L + ~R ) ^ ~
; (~L ; ~R )]
(9.38)
216
(9.41)
We see that the transformations corresponding to the diagonal SU (2) are the rotations in the 3-dimensional space spanned by ~
. These rotations dene a subgroup
O(3) of the original symmetry group O(4). From the Noether's theorem we get the
conserved currents
(9.42)
jL = 21 ~L ~
+ 21 ~
(~L ^ ~
; ~L )
and dividing by L =2
J~L = ~
; ~
; ~
^ ~
(9.43)
and analogously
J~R = ;~
+ ~
; ~
^ ~
(9.44)
Using the canonical commutation relations one can verify that the corresponding
charges satisfy the Lie algebra of SU (2)L SU (2)R
QLi QLj] = iijk QLk QRi QRj ] = iijk QRk QLi QRj ] = 0
(9.45)
By taking the following combinations of the currents
(9.46)
J~V = 21 (J~L + J~R ) J~A = 12 (J~L ; J~R )
one has
J~V = ~
^ ~
(9.47)
and
J~A = ~
; ~
(9.48)
The corresponding algebra of charges is
QVi QVj ] = iijk QVk QVi QAj] = iijk QAk QAi QAj] = iijk QVk
(9.49)
These equations show that QVi are the innitesimal generators of a subgroup SU (2)
of SU (2)L SU (2)R which is the diagonal subgroup, as it follows from
QVi
j ] = iijk
k QVi ] = 0
(9.50)
217
"X
N
"
Z
N
X
@
L
1
3
_
~ ij2 ) + V (j~j2)
i ; L = d x 2 (_ 2i + jr
H=
_
i=1
i=1 @ i
(9.51)
Since in the last member of this relation the rst two terms are positive denite,
it follows that the absolute minimum is obtained for constant eld congurations,
such that
@V (j~j2) = 0
(9.52)
@i
Let us call by vi the generic solution to this equation (in general it could happen that
the absolute minimum is degenerate). Then the condition for getting a minimum is
that the eigenvalues of the matrix of the second derivatives of the potential at the
stationary point are denite positive. In this case we dene new elds by shifting
the original elds by
i ! 0i = i ; vi
(9.53)
The lagrangian density becomes
L = 21 @ 0i@ 0i ; V (j~0 + ~vj2)
(9.54)
Expanding V in series of 0i we get
2 V
@
1
2
(9.55)
V = V (j~vj ) + 2 @ @ ~=~v 0i0j +
i j
This equation shows that the particle masses are given by the eigenvalues of the
second derivative of the potential at the minimum. In the case of the linear -model
we have
V = 21 2 j~j2 + 4 (j~j2)2
(9.56)
Therefore
@V = 2 + j~j2
(9.57)
i
i
@i
In order to have a solution to the stationary condition we must have i = 0, or
2
(9.58)
j~j2 = ;
d3x H =
d3 x
218
This equation has real solutions only if 2 = < 0. However, in order to have a
potential bounded from below one has to require > 0, therefore we may have non
zero solutions to the minimum condition only if 2 < 0. But, notice that in this
case, 2 cannot be identied with a physical mass, these are given by the eigenvalues
of the matrix of the second derivatives of the potential at the minimum and they
are positive denite by denition. We will study this case in the following Sections.
In the case of 2 > 0 the minimum is given by i = 0 and one can study the
theory by taking the term (j~j2)2 as a small perturbation (that is requiring that
both and the values of i, the &uctuations, are small). The free theory is given
by the quadratic terms in the lagrangian density, and they describe N particles of
common mass m. Furthermore, both the free and the interacting theories are O(N )
symmetric.
P j0i = j0i
(9.61)
(9.62)
from which
h0jj0i = 0
(9.63)
Things change if the fundamental state is degenerate. This would be the case in the
example (9.60), if
2
(9.64)
V (2) = 2 2 + 4 4
with 2 < 0. In fact, this potential has two minima located at
2
v = ;
(9.65)
By denoting with jRi e jLi the two states corresponding to the classical congurations = v, we have
P jRi = jLi 6= jRi
(9.66)
Therefore
hRjjRi = hRjP ;1PP ;1P jRi = ;hLjjLi
(9.67)
which now does not imply that the expectation value of the eld vanishes. In the
following we will be rather interested in the case of continuous symmetries. So let
us consider two scalar elds, and a lagrangian density with symmetry O(2)
L = 21 @ ~ @ ~ ; 21 2~ ~ ; 4 (~ ~)2
(9.68)
where
~ ~ = 21 + 22
(9.69)
For 2 > 0 there is a unique fundamental state (minimum of the potential) ~ = 0,
whereas for 2 < 0 there are innite degenerate states given by
j~j2 = 21 + 22 = v2
(9.70)
with v dened as in (9.65). By denoting with R() the operator rotating the elds
in the plane (1 2), in the non-degenerate case we have
R()j0i = j0i
(9.71)
and
h0jj0i = h0jR;1RR;1 Rj0i = h0j j0i = 0
(9.72)
since 6= . In the case 2 < 0 (degenerate case), we have
R()j0i = ji
(9.73)
where ji is one of the innitely many degenerate fundamental states lying on the
circle j~j2 = v2. Then
(9.74)
h0jij0i = h0jR;1()R()iR;1()R()j0i = hji ji
= v
220
with
i = R()iR;1() 6= i
(9.75)
Again, the expectation value of the eld (contrarily to the non-degenerate state)
does not need to vanish. The situation can be described qualitatively saying that the
existence of a degenerate fundamental state forces the system to choose one of these
equivalent states, and consequently to break the symmetry. But the breaking is only
at the level of the solutions, the lagrangian and the equations of motion preserve
the symmetry. One can easily construct classical systems exhibiting spontaneous
symmetry breaking. For instance, a classical particle in a double-well potential.
This system has parity invariance x ! ;x, where x is the particle position. The
equilibrium positions are around the minima positions, x0 . If we put the particle
close to x0 , it will perform oscillations around that point and the original symmetry
is lost. A further example is given by a ferromagnet which has an hamiltonian
invariant under rotations, but below the Curie temperature exhibits spontaneous
magnetization, breaking in this way the symmetry. These situations are typical for
the so called second order phase transitions. One can describe them through the
Landau free-energy, which depends on two dierent kind of parameters:
Control parameters, as 2 for the scalar eld, and the temperature for the
ferromagnet.
Order parameters, as the expectation value of the scalar eld or as the
magnetization.
The system goes from one phase to another varying the control parameters, and the
phase transition is characterized by the order parameters which assume dierent
values in dierent phases. In the previous examples, the order parameters were zero
in the symmetric phase and dierent from zero in the broken phase.
The situation is slightly more involved at the quantum level, since spontaneous
symmetry breaking cannot happen in nite systems. This follows from the existence
of the tunnel eect. Let us consider again a particle in a double-well potential, and
recall that we have dened the fundamental states through the correspondence with
the classical minima
x = x0 ! jRi
x = ;x0 ! jLi
(9.76)
But the tunnel eect gives rise to a transition between these two states and as a
consequence it removes the degeneracy. In fact, due to the transition the hamiltonian
acquires a non zero matrix element between the states jRi and jLi. By denoting
with H the matrix of the hamiltonian between these two states, we get
H= 0 1
1 0
221
(9.77)
(0 + 1 0 ; 1)
(9.78)
We have no more degeneracy and the eigenstates are
(9.79)
jS i = p1 (jRi + jLi)
2
with eigenvalue ES = 0 + 1 , and
jAi = p1 (jRi ; jLi)
(9.80)
2
with eigenvalue EA = 0 ; 1 . One can show that 1 < 0 and therefore the fundamental state is the symmetric one, jS i. This situation gives rise to the well known
eect of quantum oscillations. We can express the states jRi and jLi in terms of
the energy eigenstates
jRi = p12 (jS i + jAi)
jLi = p12 (jS i ; jAi)
(9.81)
Let us now prepare a state, at t = 0, by putting the particle in the right minimum.
This is not an energy eigenstate and its time evolution is given by
;iES t
1 ;iES t
1
;
iE
t
;
it
E
A
jR ti = p e
jS i + e
jAi = p e
jS i + e
jAi (9.82)
2
2
with E = EA ; ES . Therefore, for t =
=E the state jRi transforms into the
state jLi. The state oscillates with a period given by
T = 2
E
(9.83)
In nature there are nite systems as sugar molecules, which seem to exhibit spontaneous symmetry breaking. In fact one observes right-handed and left-handed sugar
molecules. The explanation is simply that the energy dierence E is so small that
the oscillation period is of the order of 104 ; 106 years.
The splitting of the fundamental states decreases with the height of the potential
between two minima, therefore, for innite systems, the previous mechanism does
not work, and we may have spontaneous symmetry breaking. In fact, coming back
to the scalar eld example, its expectation value on the vacuum must be a constant,
as it follows from the translational invariance of the vacuum
h0j(x)j0i = h0jeiPx(0)e;iPx j0i = h0j(0)j0i = v
(9.84)
and the energy dierence between the maximum at = 0, and the minimum at
= v, becomes innite in the limit of innite volume
2 4 Z
Z
4
3
H ( = 0) ; H ( = v) = ; d x 2 v2 + 4 v4 = 4 d3x = 4 V (9.85)
V
V
222
The character of the stationary points can be studied by evaluating the second
derivatives
@ 2 V = (2 + j~j2) + 2
(9.89)
l m
@l @m lm
We have two possibilities
2 > 0, we have only one real solution given by ~ = 0, which is a minimum,
since
@ 2 V = 2 > 0
(9.90)
lm
@ @
l
(9.91)
m4 + 1 m2 2 + m2
V = 16
2
2
NX;1
a=1
2a + 2
+ 4
NX;1
a=1
2a + 2
!2
(9.96)
(here O(N ; 1)), and in the so called broken generators, each of them corresponding
to a massless Goldstone boson. In general, if the original symmetry group G of the
theory is spontaneously broken down to a subgroup H (which is the symmetry of
the vacuum), the Goldstone bosons correspond to the generators of G which are left
after subtracting the generators of H . Intuitively one can understand the origin of
the massless particles noticing that the broken generators allow transitions from a
possible vacuum to another. Since these states are degenerate the operation does
not cost any energy. From the relativistic dispersion relation this implies that we
must have massless particles. One can say that Goldstone bosons correspond to &at
directions in the potential.
L = 21 @ ~ @ ~ ; 2 ~ ~ ; 4 (~ ~)2
2
(9.99)
and let us analyze the spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism. If 2 < 0 the
symmetry is broken and we can choose the vacuum as the state
2
v = ;
~ = (v 0)
225
(9.100)
After the translation 1 = + v, with h0jj0i = 0, we get the potential (m2 = ;22 )
2 = 1
(9.102)
from which
= ;2
2 = + v
(9.103)
We see that the Goldstone eld undergoes a rotation plus a translation, v. This
is the main reason for the Goldstone particle to be massless. In fact one can have
invariance under translations of the eld, only if the potential is &at in the corresponding direction. This is what happens when one moves in a way which is tangent
to the surface of the degenerate vacuums (in this case a circle). How do things change
if our theory is gauge invariant? In that case we should have invariance under a
transformation of the Goldstone eld given by
2(x) = (x)(x) + (x)v
(9.104)
Since (x) is an arbitrary function of the space-time point, it follows that we can
choose it in such a way to make 2(x) vanish. In other words it must be possible
to eliminate the Goldstone eld from the theory. This is better seen by using polar
coordinates for the elds, that is
q2 2
= 1 + 2
(9.105)
sin = p 22 2
1 + 2
Under a nite rotation, the new elds transform as
!
!+
(9.106)
It should be also noticed that the two coordinate systems coincide when we are close
to the vacuum, as when we are doing perturbation theory. In fact, in that case we
can perform the following expansion
q
= 22 + 2 + 2v + v2 v + v +2 v2
(9.107)
Again, if we make the theory invariant under a local transformation, we will have
invariance under
(x) ! (x) + (x)
(9.108)
226
By choosing (x) = ;(x) we can eliminate this last eld from the theory. The only
remaining degree of freedom in the scalar sector is (x).
Let us study the gauging of this model. It is convenient to introduce complex
variables
(9.109)
= p1 (1 + i2) y = p1 (1 ; i2)
2
2
The O(2) transformations become phase transformations on
! ei
(9.110)
and the lagrangian (9.99) can be written as
(9.111)
We know that it is possible to promote a global symmetry to a local one by introducing the covariant derivative
@ ! (@ ; igA)
(9.112)
from which
(9.113)
(9.114)
(9.115)
(9.117)
In this way the Goldstone boson disappears. We have now to translate the eld
h0jj0i = 0
= + v
227
(9.118)
and we see that this generates a bilinear term in A , coming from the covariant
derivative, given by
1 g 2 v 2 A A
(9.119)
2
Therefore the gauge eld acquires a mass
m2A = g2v2
(9.120)
It is instructive to count the degrees of freedom before and after the gauge transformation. Before we had 4 degrees of freedom, two from the scalar elds and two
from the gauge eld. After the gauge transformation we have only one degree of
freedom from the scalar sector, but three degrees of freedom from the gauge vector,
because now it is a massive vector eld. The result looks a little bit strange, but
the reason why we may read clearly the number of degrees of freedom only after the
gauge transformation is that before the lagrangian contains a mixing term
A @
(9.121)
between the Goldstone eld and the gauge vector which makes complicate to read
the mass of the states. The previous gauge transformation realizes the purpose of
making that term vanish. The gauge in which such a thing happens is called the
unitary gauge.
We will consider now the further example of a symmetry O(N ). The lagrangian
invariant under local transformations is
2
(9.122)
L = 21 (D)ij j (D)ik k ; 2 ii ; 4 (ii)2
where
(D)ij = ij @ + i g (T AB )ij WAB
(9.123)
2
where (T AB )lm = i(lAmB ; mA lB ). In the case of broken symmetry (2 < 0), we
choose again the vacuum along the direction N , with v dened as in (9.100)
i = viN
(9.124)
Recalling that
(9.125)
(9.126)
Therefore, the elds WaN associated to the broken directions T aN acquire a mass
g2v2=2, whereas Wab , associated to the unbroken symmetry O(N ; 1), remain massless.
In general, if G is the global symmetry group of the lagrangian, H the subgroup
of G leaving invariant the vacuum, and GW the group of local (gauge) symmetries,
GW 2 G, one can divide up the broken generators in two categories. In the rst
category fall the broken generators lying in GW they have associated massive vector
bosons. In the second category fall the other broken generators they have associated
massless Goldstone bosons. Finally the gauge elds associated to generators of GW
lying in H remain massless. From the previous derivation this follows noticing that
the generators of H annihilate the minimum of the elds, leaving the corresponding
gauge bosons massless, whereas the non zero action of the broken generators generate
a mass term for the other gauge elds.
The situation is represented in Fig. 9.4.1.
G
GW
Fig. 6.1 -This gure shows the various groups, G, the global symmetry of the
lagrangian, H 2 G, the symmetry of the vacuum, and GW , the group of local sym-
We can now show how to eliminate the Goldstone bosons. In fact we can dene
new elds a and as
aN
i = e;iT a ( + v)
(9.127)
iN
iN
(9.128)
i (a + v)
(9.129)
showing that the a's are really the Goldstone elds. The unitary gauge is dened
through the transformation
aN
i ! eiT a j = iN ( + v)
(9.130)
ij
aN
aN
aN
aN
W ! eiT a We;iT a ; gi @ eiT a e;iT a
(9.131)
This transformation eliminates the Goldstone degrees of freedom and the resulting
lagrangian depends on the eld , on the massive vector elds WaN and on the
massless eld Wab. Notice again the counting of the degrees of freedom N +2N (N ;
1)=2 = N 2 in a generic gauge, and 1 + 3(N ; 1) + 2(N ; 1)(N ; 2)=2 = N 2 in the
unitary gauge.
with
~k ~ni = 0 j~nij2 = 1
Then we can decompose W (k) as follows
(9.136)
(9.137)
(9.138)
implying
=0
0
=1
() () = ;g + kmk2
(9.142)
( + m2) ; @ @
G(x) = ig4(x)
(9.143)
for the renormalizability of the theory based on power counting does not hold any
more. Although in the unitary gauge a spontaneously broken gauge theory does not
seem to be renormalizable, we have to take into account that the gauge invariance
allows us to make dierent choices of the gauge. In fact we will show that there
exist an entire class of gauges where the theory is renormalizable by power counting.
We will discuss this point only for the abelian case, with gauge group O(2), but the
argument cab be easily extended to the non-abelian case. Let us consider the O(2)
theory as presented in Section 9.4. Let us recall that under a transformation of O(2)
the two real scalar eld of the theory transform as
whereas the second term is the mixing between the W and the Goldstone eld, that
we got rid of by choosing the unitary gauge. However this choice is not unique. In
fact let us consider a gauge xing of the form
f ; B = 0 f = @ W + gv
(9.155)
where is an arbitrary parameter and B (x) is an arbitrary function. By proceeding
as in Section 8.3 we know that the eect of such a gauge xing is to add to the
lagrangian a term
2
; 21 f 2 = ; 21 (@ W + gv)2 = ; 21 (@ W)2 ; gv@ W ; 2 g2v22 (9.156)
The rst term is the usual covariant gauge xing. The second term, after integration
by parts reads
+ gvW@
(9.157)
and we see that with the choice
=
(9.158)
it cancels the unwanted mixing term. Finally the third contribution
; 12 g2v22
(9.159)
is a mass term for the Goldstone eld
m2 = g2v2 = m2W
(9.160)
However this mass is gauge dependent (it depends on the arbitrary parameter )
and this is a signal of the fact that in this gauge the Goldstone eld is ctitious.
In fact remember that it disappears in the unitary gauge. We will see later, in an
example, that evaluating a physical amplitude the contribution of the Goldstone
disappears, as it should be. Finally we have to consider the ghost contribution from
the Faddeev-Popov determinant. For this purpose we need to know the variation of
the gauge xing f under an innitesimal gauge transformation
(9.161)
f (x) = g1 (x) + gv(x)((x) + v)
giving
f (x) = 1 4 (x ; y) + gv ((x) + v)4(x ; y)
(9.162)
(y) g
Therefore the ghost lagrangian can be written as
c c + g2v2cc + gvcc
(9.163)
Notice that in contrast with QED, the ghosts cannot be ignored, since they are coupled to the Higgs eld. We are now in the position of reading the various propagators
from the quadratic part of the lagrangian
233
The propagator for the vector eld is more involved. let us collect the various
quadratic terms in W
(9.164)
; 41 F F + 21 m2W W 2 ; 21 (@ W )2
In momentum space wave operator is
(g k2 ; k k ) ; m2W g + 1 kk
(9.165)
which can be rewritten as
k
k
g ; k2 (k2 ; m2W ) + kkk2 1 (k2 ; m2W )
(9.166)
The propagator in momentum space is the inverse of the wave operator (except for
a factor ;i). To invert the operator we notice that it is written as a combination of
two orthogonal projection operators P1 and P2
P1 + P2
The inverse of such an operator is simply
1P + 1P
1 2
Therefore the W propagator is given by
k
i
k
; k2 ; m2 g ; k2 ; k2 ;im2 kkk2
W
W
k
i
k
= ; k2 ; m2 g ; k2 ; m2 (1 ; )
W
(9.167)
(9.168)
(9.169)
We see that for this class of gauges the asymptotic behaviour of the propagator is
1=k2 and we can apply the usual power counting. Notice that the unitary gauge
is recovered in the limit ! 1. In this limit the W -propagator becomes the one
discussed at the beginning of the Section. Of course, the singularity of the limit
destroys the asymptotic behaviour that one has for nite values of . Also, for
! 1 the ghost and the Goldstone elds decouple since their mass goes to innity.
234
To end this Section we observe that with this approach one is able to prove at the
same time that the theory is renormalizable and that it does not contain spurious
states. In fact the theory is renormalizable for nite values of and it does not
contain spurious states for ! 1. But, since the gauge invariant quantities do not
depend on the gauge xing, they do not depend in particular on , and therefore
one gets the wanted result.
9.6
-cancellation
in perturbation theory
In this Section we will discuss the cancellation of the dependent terms in the
calculation of a simple amplitude at tree level. To this end we consider again the
O(2) model of the previous Section, and we add to the theory a fermion eld. We
will also mimic the standard model by making transform under the gauge group
only the left-handed part of the fermion eld. That is we decompose as
= L + R
where
L = 1 ;2 5 R = 1 +2 5
and we assume the following transformation under the gauge group
L ! ei L R ! R
(9.170)
(9.171)
(9.172)
A fermion mass term would destroy the gauge invariance, since it couples left-handed
and right-handed elds. In fact
!L =
and therefore
1 ;
= y 1 ;2 5 0 = ! 1 +2 5
(9.173)
! = ! 1 + 5 + 1 ; 5 = !L R + !R L
(9.174)
2
2
Therefore we will introduce a Yukawa coupling between the scalar eld and the
fermions, in such a way to be gauge invariant and to gives rise to a mass term for
the fermion when the symmetry is spontaneously broken. We will write
^ L + !R i@^R ; f (!L R # + !R L # )
Lf = !L iD
(9.175)
with
D = @ ; igW
(9.176)
Here we have used again the complex notation for the scalar eld, as in eq. (9.109),
and we remind that it transforms as
# ! ei #
(9.177)
235
W
+
q
p
k'
236
2
Mf = pf
(9.181)
2
W
where q = p ; p0 = k0 ; k. The Feynman rule for the W-fermion vertex is given in
Fig. 9.6.3.
.
where we have made use of eq. (9.180). Substituting this result in MW we get
1 ; 5 u(p) ;i
; q q u!(k0 ) 1 ; 5 u(k)
MW =
g
2
q2 ; m2W
m2W
2
2
2
2
i g v pf u!(p0) u(p)!u(k0) u(k)
(9.186)
+ q2 ;;m
5
5
2 m2
2
W W
Finally, using m2W = g2v2 we see that the last term cancels exactly the M amplitude. Therefore the result is the same that we would have obtained in the unitary
gauge where there is no Goldstone contribution.
Now let us make some comment about the result. In QED we have used the
fact that the q q terms in the propagator do not play a physical role,since they
are contracted with the fermionic current which is conserved. In the present case
this does not happens, but we get a term proportional to the fermion mass. In
! (1 ; 5)=2 it is not conserved because the fermion
fact the fermionic current
acquires a mass through the spontaneous breaking of the symmetry. On the other
hand, the term that one gets in this way it is just the one necessary to give rise to
the cancellation with the Goldstone boson contribution. It is also worth to compare
what happens for dierent choices of . For = 0 the gauge propagator is transverse
;i g ; kk
(9.187)
k2 ; m2W
k2
(ig)2u!(p0)
This corresponds to the Lorentz gauge. The propagator has a pole term at k2 = 0,
which however it is cancelled by the Goldstone pole which also is at k2 = 0. For the
choice = 1 the gauge propagator has the very simple form
;ig
(9.188)
k2 ; m2W
This is the Feynman-'t Hooft gauge. Here the role of the Goldstone boson, which
has a propagator
i
(9.189)
2
k ; m2
W
it is to cancel the contribution of the time-like component of the gauge eld, which
is described by the polarization vector (0)
. In fact the gauge propagator can be
rewritten as
3
3
;ig = ;i X
i X
;i k k
() ( ) g =
() () +
k2 ; m2W k2 ; m2W =0 k2 ; m2W =1 k2 ; m2W m2W
0
(9.190)
The rst piece is the propagator in the unitary gauge, whereas the second piece is
cancelled by the Goldstone boson contribution.
238
Chapter 10
The Standard model of the
electroweak interactions
10.1 The Standard Model of the electroweak interactions
We will dscribe now the Weinberg Salam model for the electroweak interactions.
Let us recall that the Fermi theory of weak interactions is based on a lagrangian
involving four Fermi elds. This lagrangian can be written as the product of two
currents which are the sum of various pieces.
LF = GpF J(+) J (;)
(10.1)
2
Limiting for the moment our considerations to the charged current for the electron
and its neutrino (here e)), the current is given by
(10.2)
(10.5)
(10.6)
= 1 2 i2
the i 's being the Pauli matrices. Analogously
J(;) = 2L! + L
(10.7)
In the fties the hypothesis of the intermediate vector bosons was advanced. According to this idea the Fermi theory was to be regarded as the low energy limit
of a theory where the currents were coupled to vector bosons, very much as QED.
However, due to the short range of the weak interactions these vector bosons had to
have mass. The interaction among the vector bosons and the fermions is given by
We can write
and
(!e)L(e)L = L! 00 01 L = L! 1 ;2 3 L
(10.15)
! R
(!e)R (e)R = R
(10.16)
Qi
(10.22)
Qi Qj ] = iijk Qk
(10.23)
Qi QY ] = 0
(10.24)
This is the Lie algebra of SU (2) U (1), since the Qi's generate a group SU (2),
whereas QY generates a group U (1), with the two groups commuting among themselves. To build up a gauge theory from these elements we have to start with an
initial lagrangian possessing an SU (2) U (1) global invariance. This will produce
241
4 gauge vector bosons. Two of these vectors are the charged one already introduce,
whereas we would like to identify one of the the other two with the photon. By
evaluating the commutators of the charges with the elds we can read immediately
the quantum numbers of the various particles. We have
Z
i
Lc Q ] = d3 x Lc Lya i Lb ] = i Lb
(10.25)
2 ab
2 cb
and
R Qi] = 0
(10.26)
Lc QY ] = ;Lc R QY ] = ;2R
(10.27)
These relations show that L transforms as an SU (2) spinor, or, as the representation
2, where we have identied the representation with its dimensionality. R belongs to
the trivial representation of dimension 1. Putting everything together we have the
following behaviour under the representations of SU (2) U (1)
L 2 (2 ;1)
R 2 (1 ;2)
(10.28)
The relation (10.18) gives the following relation among the dierent charges
Qem = Q3 + 12 QY
(10.29)
As we have argued, if SU (2) U (1) has to be the fundamental symmetry of
electroweak interactions, we have to start with a lagrangian exhibiting this global
symmetry. This is the free Dirac lagrangian for a massless electron and a left-handed
neutrino
! @^R
L0 = L! i@^L + Ri
(10.30)
Mass terms, mixing left- and right-handed elds, would destroy the global symmetry.
For instance, a typical mass term gives
1 + 1 ; 1 ; 1 +
5
5
5
5
y
!
!
!
+
m = m
0
0
2
2
2
2 = m(R L + LR ) (10.31)
We shall see later that the same mechanism giving mass to the vector bosons can be
used to generate fermion masses. A lagrangian invariant under the local symmetry
SU (2) U (1) is obtained through the use of covariant derivatives
0
! (@ + ig0Y ) R
@ ; ig 2i Wi + i g2 Y L + Ri
The interaction term is
~ g0
! RY
Lint = gL! 2 W~ L ; 2 L! LY ; g0R
L = L! i
242
(10.32)
(10.33)
(10.38)
Expressing g0 through g0 = g tan , the coecient of Z can be put in the form
g cos + g0 sin ]j3 ; g0 sin jem = cosg j3 ; cosg sin2 jem
(10.39)
from which
LNC = ejemA + cosg j3 ; sin2 jem]Z ejemA + cosg jZ Z
(10.40)
where we have introduced the neutral current coupled to the Z
jZ = j3 ; sin2 jem
243
(10.41)
The value of sin2 was evaluated initially from processes induced by neutral currents
(as the scattering ; e) at low energy. The approximate value is
sin2 0:23
(10.42)
This shows that both g and g0 are of the same order of the electric charge. Notice
that the eq. (10.37) gives the following relation among the electric charge and the
couplings g and g0
1 = 1+ 1
(10.43)
e2 g2 g02
+
# = 0
(10.44)
(10.45)
(10.46)
Since QY and Qi commute, both the components of the doublet must have the same
value of QY , and using again eq. (10.45), we get
Qem(+) = 12 + 21 = 1
(10.47)
which justies the notation + for the upper component of the doublet.
244
The most general lagrangian for # with the global symmetry SU (2) U (1) and
containing terms of dimension lower or equal to four (in order to have a renormalizable theory) is
LHiggs = @ #y@ # ; 2#y# ; (#y#)2
(10.48)
where > 0 and 2 < 0. The potential has innitely many minima on the surface
2
2
v
2
j#jminimum = ; 2 = 2
(10.49)
with
2
2
(10.50)
v =;
Let us choose the vacuum as the state
0
(10.51)
h0j#j0i = v=p2
By putting
with
we get
from which
+
# = v=0p2 + (h + i)=p2 #0 + #0
(10.52)
h0j#0j0i = 0
(10.53)
(10.54)
2
4
1
1
1
2
2
+
2
2
2
+
2
2
2
VHiggs = ; 4 + v h + 2vh j j + 2 (h + ) + j j + 2 (h + )
(10.55)
From this expression we read immediately the particle masses (; = (+)y)
m2 = m2 + = m2 = 0
(10.56)
and
245
According to our rules the exponential should contain the broken generators. In fact
there are 1 , and 2 which are broken. Furthermore it should contain the combination
of 1 and 3 which is broken (remember that (1 + 3 )=2 is the electric charge of the
doublet #, and it is conserved). But, at any rate, 3 is a broken generator, so the
previous expression gives a good representation of # around the vacuum. In fact,
expanding around this state
0 1 + i =v i( ; i )=v 0
~
3
1
2
i
~
=v
p
p
e
(v + h)= 2 i(1 + i2 )=v 1 ; i3=v
(v + h)= 2
i( ; i )
1
(10.62)
p (v +1h ; i2 3)
2
p
and introducing real components for # (+ = (1 ; i2)= 2)
; i
1
2
# = p v +1 h + i
(10.63)
2
we get the relation among the two sets of coordinates
(1 2 h) (2 ;1 ;3 h)
(10.64)
By performing the gauge transformation
# ! e;i~ ~ =v #
(10.65)
the mass terms for the scalar elds can be read by substituting, in the kinetic term,
# with its expectation value
# ! pv #d
(10.69)
2
We get
g
g
0 v
0 v
g
g
g
3
;
+
~
;i 2 ~ W + 2 Y p #d = ;i p (; W + +W ) + 2 3 W + 2 Y p #d
2
2
2
= ;i pv pg W +#u ; 1 (gW 3 ; g0Y )#d
(10.70)
2
2 2
Since #d and #u are orthogonals, the mass term is
v2 g2 jW +j2 + 1 (gW 3 ; g0Y )2
(10.71)
2 2
4
From eq. (10.37) we have tan = g0=g, and therefore
0
sin = p 2g 02 cos = p 2g 02
(10.72)
g +g
g +g
allowing us to write the mass term in the form
mh, and the expectation value of the eld #, v. The Higgs particle has not been yet
discovered, and at the moment we have only an experimental lower bound on mh,
from LEP, which is given by mh > 60 GeV . The parameter v can be expressed in
terms of the Fermi coupling constant GF . In fact, from eq. (10.9)
2
G
pF = 8Mg 2
(10.77)
2
W
using the expression for MW2 , we get
v2 = p 1 (246 GeV )2
(10.78)
2GF
Therefore, the three parameters g, g0 and v can be traded for e, sin2 and GF .
Another possibility is to use the mass of the Z
e2
=p
(10.79)
MZ2 = 14 p 1
2
2
2GF sin cos
2GF sin2 cos2
to eliminate sin2
" s
#
1
4
sin2 = 2 1 ; 1 ; p
(10.80)
2GF MZ2
The rst alternative has been the one used before LEP. However, after LEP1, the
mass of the Z is very well known
MZ = (91:1863 0:0020) GeV
(10.81)
Therefore, the parameters that are now used as input in the SM are , GF and MZ .
The last problem we have to solve is how to give mass to the electron, since it is
impossible to construct bilinear terms in the electron eld which are invariant under
the gauge group. The solution is that we can build up trilinear invariant terms in
the electron eld and in #. Once the eld # acquires a non vanishing expectation
value, due to the breaking of the symmetry, the trilinear term generates the electron
mass. Recalling the behaviour of the elds under SU (2) U (1)
(10.82)
L 2 (2 ;1) R 2 (1 ;2) # 2 (2 +1)
we see that the following coupling (Yukawian coupling) is invariant
+
!
!
!
LY = geL#R + h:c: = ge ( )L (e)L ] 0 (e )R + h:c:
(10.83)
In the unitary gauge, which is obtained by using the transformation (10.65) both
for # and for the lepton eld L, we get
0
LY = ge (! )L (!e )L ] (v + h)=p2 (e )R + h:c:
(10.84)
248
from which
Since
(10.85)
Jd() = 2+! L +L
with
+L =
u
L
dL
= 1 ;2 5 ud
249
(10.90)
(10.91)
Phenomenologically, from the hyperon decays it was known that it was necessary a
further current involving the quark s, given by
Js() = 2+! 0L +0L
(10.92)
with
u
(10.93)
= 1 ; 5 us
L=
2
Furthermore the total current contributing to the Fermi interaction had to be of the
form
Jh = Jd cos C + Js sin C
(10.94)
where C is the Cabibbo angle, and
+0
L
sL
(10.95)
The presence of the angle in the current was necessary in order to explain why the
weak decays strangeness violating (that is the ones corresponding to the transition
u $ s, as K + ! +) where suppressed with respect to the decays strangeness
conserving. Collecting together the two currents we get
Jh() = 2Q! L QL
(10.96)
with
and
(10.97)
Therefore, the hadronic neutral currents contribution from quarks u d s are given
by
(10.103)
j3 = Q! L 23 QL
jY = 13 Q! L QL + 43 u!R uR ; 32 d!CR dCR
(10.104)
Since the Z is coupled to the combination j3 ; sin2 jY , it is easily seen that the
coupling contains a bilinear term in the eld dC given by
2
(10.105)
; cos2 Z d!CL dCL + 13 sin2 Z d!CR dCR
! and s!d which produce strangeness changing
This gives rise to terms of the type ds
neutral current transitions . However the experimental result is that these transitions
are strongly suppressed. In a more general way we can get this result from the simple
observation that W3 is coupled to the current j3 which has an associated charge Q3
which can be obtained by commuting the charges Q1 and Q2
Q1 Q2 ]
Z
Z
y
y
3
3
d ~xd ~y QL1 QL QL 2QL ] = d3~x QyL 1 2 ]QL
Z
Z
= i
d3~x QyL 3 QL = i
(10.106)
The last term is just the charge associated to a Flavour Changing Neutral Current
(FCNC). We can compare the strength of a FCNC transition, which from
d
K
Fig. 10.3.1 - The neutral current avour changing process K 0 ! +; and he
charged current avour changing process K + ! + .
is the combination orthogonal to dCL . As a consequence the expression of Q3 gets
modied
Z
3
Q = d3~x (uyLuL + cyLcL ; dCL ydCL ; sCL ysCL )
(10.111)
But
(10.112)
(10.113)
(10.114)
allowing to get a rough estimate of the mass of the charm quark, mc 1 3 GeV .
The charm was discovered in 1974, when it was observed the bound state c!c, with
J PC = 1;;, known as J=. The mass of charm was evaluated to be around 1:5 GeV .
In 1977 there was the observation of a new vector resonance, the -, interpreted as
a bound state !bb, where b is a new quark, the bottom or beauty, with mb 5 GeV .
Finally in 1995 the partner of the bottom, the top, t, was discovered at Fermi Lab.
The mass of the top is around 175 GeV . We see that in association with three
252
leptonic doublets
e
(10.115)
e; L
; L
; L
there are three quark doublets
u c t
(10.116)
d L
s L
b L
We will show later that experimental evidences for the quark b to belong to a doublet
came out from PEP and PETRA much before the discovery of top. Summarizing
we have three generations of quarks and leptons. Each generation includes two
left-handed doublets
u
A
A
A = 1 2 3
(10.117)
e;
d
A L
A L
and the corresponding right-handed singlets. Inside each generation the total charge
is equal to zero. In fact
2 1
X
tot
(10.118)
Qi =
Qf = 0 ; 1 + 3 3 ; 3 = 0
f 2gen
where we have also taken into account that each quark comes in three colors. This
is very important because it guarantees the renormalizability of the SM. In fact, in
general there are quantum corrections to the divergences of the currents destroying
their conservation. However, the conservation of the currents coupled to the YangMills elds is crucial for the renormalization properties. In the case of the SM for
the electroweak interactions one can show that the condition for the absence of these
corrections (Adler, Bell, Jackiw anomalies) is that the total electric charge of the
elds is zero.
We will complete now the formulation of the SM for the quark sector, showing
that the mixing of dierent quarks arises naturally from the fact that the quark
mass eigenstates are not necessarily the same elds which couple to the gauge elds.
We will denote the last ones by
0
u0
0
0
A
`AL = e0 qAL = d0A A = 1 2 3
(10.119)
A L
A L
and the right-handed singlets by
e0AR u0AR d0AR
(10.120)
We assume that the neutrinos are massless and that they do not have any righthanded partner. The gauge interaction is then
Y (fL )
X!
~
Q
0
~+g
L =
fAL i@ + g 2 W
Y fAL
2
fL
Y (fR )
X!
Q
0
+
fAR i@ + g 2
fAR
(10.121)
fR
253
0 , and fAR = e0 u0 d0 . We recall also the weak hyperwhere fAL = `0AL qAL
AR AR AR
charge assignments
0 )= 1
QY (`0AL) = ;1 QY (qAL
3
QY (e0AR ) = ;2 QY (u0AR) = 43
(10.122)
QY (d0AR ) = ; 23
Let us now see how to give mass to quarks. We start with up and down quarks, and
a Yukawian coupling given by
(10.123)
wherep# is the Higgs doublet. When this takes its expectation value, h#i =
(0 v= 2), a mass term for the down quark is generated
gpd v ;d! d + d! d = gpdv dd
!
(10.124)
2 LR R L
2
#?
(0)?
=
+ ?
(10.125)
; ( )
giving mass to the up quark, mu = ;guv= 2. The most general Yukawian coupling
among quarks and Higgs eld is then given by
LY =
X e
AB
u q!0 #
0
d 0
0
gAB `!0AL#e0BR + gAB
AL ~ uBR + gAB q!AL #dBR
(10.127)
(10.129)
These matrices give mass respectively to the charged leptons and to the up and
down of quarks. They can be diagonalized by a biunitary transformation
Mdi = S yM i T
(10.130)
where S and T are unitary matrices (depending on i) and Mdi are three diagonal
matrices. Furthermore one can take the eigenvalues to be positive. This follows
from the polar decomposition of an arbitrary matrix
M = HU
(10.131)
(10.132)
with T = U ;1 S is a unitary matrix. Each of the mass terms has the structure
!L0 MR0 . Then we get
!L0 MR0 = !L0 S (S yMT )T yR0 !LMd R
(10.133)
where we have dened the mass eigenstates
L0 = SL
R0 = TR
(10.134)
We can now express the charged current in terms of the mass eigenstates. We have
0 q 0 = 2!u0 d0 = 2!
J+(h) = 2!qAL
uAL((S u);1S d )AB dBL
; AL
AL AL
Dening
we get
with
V = (S u);1S d
V y = V ;1
V)
Jh(+) = 2!uALd(AL
(10.135)
(10.136)
(10.137)
V) = V d
d(AL
(10.138)
AB BL
The matrix V is called the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix, and it
describes the mixing among the down type of quarks (this is conventional we could
have chosen to mix the up quarks as well). We see that its physical origin is that,
in general, there are no relations between the mass matrix of the up quarks, M u,
and the mass matrix of the down quarks, M d . The neutral currents are expressions
which are diagonal in the "primed" states, therefore their expression is the same also
in the basis of the mass eigenstates, due to the unitarity of the various S matrices.
In fact
jh(3) u!0Lu0L ; d!0Ld0L = u!L(S u);1S uuL ; d!L(S d );1S ddL = u!LuL ; d!LdL (10.139)
255
For the charged leptonic current, since we have assumed massless neutrinos we get
0 e
J`(+) = 2!AL(S e)AB eBL 2!AL
(10.140)
AL
where L0 = (S e)yL is again a massless eigenstate. Therefore, there is no mixing
in the leptonic sector, among dierent generations. However this is tied to our
assumption of massless neutrinos. By relaxing this assumption we may generate a
mixing in the leptonic sector producing a violation of the dierent leptonic numbers.
It is interesting to discuss in a more detailed way the structure of the CKM
matrix. In the case we have n generations of quarks and leptons, the matrix V ,
being unitary, depends on n2 parameters. However one is free to choose in an
arbitrary way the phase for the 2n up and down quark elds. But an overall phase
does not change V . Therefore the CKM matrix depends only on
n2 ; (2n ; 1) = (n ; 1)2
(10.141)
parameters. We can see that, in general, it is impossible to choose the phases in such
a way to make V real. In fact a real unitary matrix is nothing but an orthogonal
matrix which depends on
n(n ; 1)
(10.142)
2
real parameters. This means that V will depend on a number of phases given by
number of phases = (n ; 1)2 ; n(n ; 1) = (n ; 1)(n ; 2)
(10.143)
2
2
Then, in the case of two generations V depends only on one real parameter (the
Cabibbo angle). For three generations V depends on three real parameters and
one phase. Since the invariance under the discrete symmetry CP implies that all
the couplings in the lagrangian must be real, it follows that the SM, in the case
of three generations, implies a CP violation. A violation of CP has been observed
experimentally by Christensen et al. in 1964. These authors discovered that the
eigenstate of CP , with CP = ;1
;
jK20i = p1 jK 0i ; jK! 0i
(10.144)
2
decays into a two pion state with CP = +1 with a BR
BR(K20 !
+
;) 2 10;3
(10.145)
It is not clear yet, if the SM is able to explain the observed CP violation in quantitative terms.
To complete this Section we give the experimental values for some of the matrix
elements of V . The elements Vud and Vus are determined through nuclear -, K ;
and hyperon-decays, using the muon decay as normalization. One gets
jVudj = 0:9736 0:0010
(10.146)
256
and
(10.147)
The elements Vcd and Vcs are determined from charm production in deep inelastic
scattering + N ! + c + X . The result is
(10.148)
(10.149)
The elements Vub and Vcb are determined from the b ! u and b ! c semi-leptonic
decays as evaluated in the spectator model, and from the B semi-leptonic exclusive
decay B ! D! ?`` . One gets
jVubj = 0:08 0:02
(10.150)
jVcbj
and
jVcbj = 0:041 0:003
(10.151)
More recently from the branching ratio t ! Wb, CDF (1996) has measured jVtb j
(10.152)
A more recent comprehensive analysis gives the following 90 % C.L. range for the
various elements of the CKM matrix
0 0:9745 ; 0:9757 0:219 ; 0:224 0:002 ; 0:005 1
V = @ 0:218 ; 0:224 0:9736 ; 0:9750 0:036 ; 0:046 A
(10.153)
0:004 ; 0:014 0:034 ; 0:046 0:9989 ; 0:9993
the better choice of the input parameters. Before LEP1, the better choice was to
use quantities known with great precision related to the parameters (g g0 v). The
choice was to use the ne structure constant
1
(10.154)
= 137:0359895(61)
and the Fermi constant
(10.155)
as measured from the -decay of the muon. Then, most of the experimental research
of the seventies and eighties was centered about the determination of sin2 . The
other parameters as (mt mh) aect only radiative corrections, which, in this type of
experiments can be safely neglected due to the relatively large experimental errors.
Therefore, in order to relate the set of parameters ( GF sin2 ) to (g g0 v) we can
use the tree level relations. The situation has changed a lot after the beginning of
running of LEP1. In fact, the mass of the Z has been measured with great precision,
MZ =MZ 2 10;5. In this case the most convenient set is ( GF MZ ), with
(10.156)
Also the great accuracy of the experimental measurements requires to take into
account the radiative corrections. We will discuss this point in more detail at the end
of these lectures. However we notice that one gets informations about parameters
as (mt mh) just because they aect the radiative corrections. In particular, the
radiative corrections are particularly sensitive to the top mass. In fact, LEP1 was
able to determine the top mass, in this indirect way, before the top discovery.
258
Appendix A
A.1 Properties of the real antisymmetric matrices
66
4
77
5
Notice that if n is odd, Ad has necessarily a zero eigenvalue, that we will write as
(Ad )nn. We will assume also to order the matrix in such a way that all the i are
positive.Each submatrix of the type
0
i
(A.5)
0 ;i
259
In fact
Dening
V2
0 ii
;ii 0
V2 = p1 1i 1i
2
(A.6)
(A.7)
0 V y = 0 ii
0 ;i 2
;ii 0
i
2V 0
66 02 V2
V = 66
4
(A.8)
77
77
5
2 0 i 0 0
66 ;i1 01 0 0
66 0 0 0 i20
y
V Ad V = 66 0
0 ;i 0
66 1
4
(A.9)
77
77
77 = iAs
77
5
(A.10)
(A.11)
(V U )(A)(V U )y = As
(A.12)
But A and As are real matrices, and therefore also V U must be real. However being
V U real and unitary it must be orthogonal.
260