Thermal Expansion Trainer

(Pullingers Apparatus)
NV6043

Operating Manual
Ver 1.1

141-B, Electronic Complex,

Pardeshipura, Indore- 452 010 India
Tel.: 91-731- 4211500
email: info@nvistech.com
Toll free : 1800-103-5050

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NV6043

Thermal Expansion Trainer

NV6043
Table of Contents
1.

Introduction

2.

Features

3.

Technical Specifications

4.

Theory

5.

Experiments
Experiment 1

24

Determination of the Co-efficient of Linear Expansion of a given Sample

Experiment 2

27

Comparison of the coefficient of thermal expansion of given samples

of material and verification of :
copper < brass < aluminium
6.

Warranty

28

7.

List of Accessories

28

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NV6043

Introduction
NV6043 Thermal Expansion Trainer (Pullingers Apparatus) illustrates the
concept of conduction of heat in solids. With the help of this product one can
understand how Linear Thermal Expansion occurs in solids. Pullingers Apparatus is
use to determine Coefficient of Linear Expansion of a given sample. Thermal
Expansion Coefficient is a thermodynamic property of a substance or we can say
Thermal Expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature.
During the heat transfer, the energy that is stored in the intermolecular bonds between
atoms, changes. When the stored energy increases, so does the length of the molecular
bond. As a result, solids expand in response to heating and contract on cooling; this
response to temperature change is expressed as its coefficient of thermal expansion.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is used in two ways; as a volumetric thermal
expansion and linear thermal expansion coefficient. These characteristics are closely
related. The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be measured for all
substances of condense matter (liquid and solid state). The linear thermal expansion is
a quantity of the solid and common in engineering applications.

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Features

Precise measurement by Spherometer

For heating Electric Oven

Buzzer indicator

Samples for study Copper, Brass, Aluminum

Self- contained and easy to operate

e-Manual

Two Year Warranty

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Technical Specifications
Steam Jacket :
Type

Brass

Length

50 cm

Diameter

Inner 2.5 cm
Outer 3 cm

Sample :
Type

Copper, Brass, Aluminium

Length

51.2 cm

Diameter

1 cm

Main Scale

10-0-10 mm

Circular Scale

100 divisions

Least Count

0.01 mm

Buzzer Indicator

1.5-15 V DC

Mains Supply

230 V 10%, 50 Hz

Adaptor Output

5 V, 500 mA

Spherometer :

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Theory
Linear Thermal Expansion :
Why Study Thermal Expansion :
An object doesn't change size very much with temperature, but the change can be
quite inexorable when we are dealing with solids or liquids. Very large forces can
arise if thermal expansion effects occur. Some examples:

A glass jar will break if you fill it half-full of very hot water. The top and
bottom of the jar want to be different sizes.

Concrete roads and sidewalks are built in sections, with space left between the
panels. Otherwise, they would crack on very cold days and heave and buckle on
very hot days.

The traditional way to fasten an iron rim to a wooden wheel (or put an iron hoop
around a wooden barrel) was to heat the rim red hot. This made it slightly
larger, so that the wheel could be forced into the rim; after the rim cooled and
shrank, it was firmly held in place. The modern version of this is that one should
not mix bolts and nuts made of different metals there will be a temperature
range in which the bolt is larger than the nut (and the nut is then frozen in
place), and another range where the nut is bigger than the bolt (and then it is not
held in place securely).

A modern application of thermal expansion is in the design of the power plants

for nuclear submarines. Instead of trying to control the power level by pushing
in and pulling out control rods, the reactor is designed so that when it is too hot,
it expands (which decreases the rate of reaction), and when it is cool, is
contracts (which increases the rate of power production). Thermal expansion
eliminates the need for an operator that never gets distracted or a complicated
electrical circuit.

If the ocean becomes 1 oF warmer, its volume will increase by 0.01%. Since the
ocean is several miles deep, this implies that the surface will rise about a foot,
giving a change in the sea level. In the process, the beach line moves landwards
20 feet. People owning beach houses (or even living close to the ocean) find this
alarming.

However, the real importance of thermal expansion to this Virtual Workshop on

temperature and heat is that the most common kinds of thermometers use thermal
expansion as a way to sense temperature, it isn't a very big effect, but it is very
reliable.

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Thermal Expansion :
Thermal Expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its constituent particles move
around more vigorously and by doing so generally maintain a greater average
separation. Materials that contract with an increase in temperature are very
uncommon; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature
ranges. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the
material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Common engineering solids usually have thermal expansion coefficients that do not
vary significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used,
so where extremely high accuracy is not required, calculations can be based on a
constant, average, value of the coefficient of expansion.
Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals and composites, will generally
have different expansion coefficients in different orientations.
To more accurately calculate thermal expansion of a substance a more advanced
equation of state must be used, which will then predict the values of the thermal
expansion at all the required temperatures and pressures, along with many other state
functions.
For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate of the
amount of thermal expansion can be described by the thermal ratio of strain:
thermal =

(Lfinal Linitial)
Linitial

Lfinal is the initial length before the change of temperature and

Linitial is the final length recorded after the change of temperature.
For most solids, thermal expansion relates directly with temperature:
thermal T
Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by:
thermal = T
where
T = (Tfinal Tinitial )
and
is the coefficient of thermal expansion in inverse Kelvin.
T is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains,
measured in Celsius or Kelvin.

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A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; we

usually speak of negative thermal expansion, rather than thermal contraction, in such
cases. For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is
cooled to roughly 4 C and then becomes negative below this temperature, this means
that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of
water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of
sub-zero weather.
Common polymers expand roughly 4 times more than metals, which expand more
than ceramics. Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy,
which also has an effect on the hardness of solids, so, harder materials are more likely
to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids.
In many common materials, changes in size can also be due to water (or other
solvents) being absorbed/desorbed, and many organic materials change size much
more due to this effect than they do thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to
water can, in the long term, expand many percent.
Heat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering. A
few examples are:

Metal framed windows need rubber spacers

Metal hot water heating pipes should not be used in long straight lengths

Large structures such as railways and bridges need expansion joints in the
structures to avoid sun kink

One of the reasons for the poor performance of cold car engines is that parts
have inefficiently large spacings until the normal operating temperature is
achieved.

This phenomenon can also be put to good use, for example in the process of thermal
shrink-fitting parts are assembled with each at a different temperature, and sized such
that when they reach the same temperature, the thermal expansion of the parts forces
them together to form a stable joint.
Thermometers are another example of an application of thermal expansion most
contain a liquid which is constrained to flow in only one direction (along the tube)
due to changes in volume brought about by changes in temperature. A bi-metal
mechanical thermometer uses a bi-metal strip and registers changes based on the
differing coefficient of thermal expansion between the two materials.
Thermal expansion can be defined for a substance depending on whether the
expansion is measured by:
1.

Linear thermal expansion

2.

Area thermal expansion

3.

Volumetric thermal expansion

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These characteristics are closely related. The volumetric thermal expansion can be
defined for both liquids and solids. The linear thermal expansion can only be defined
for solids, and is common in engineering applications. Some substances expand when
cooled, such as freezing water, so they have negative thermal expansion.
Linear thermal expansion is generally occurring in the nature and used in engineering
application, so in our trainer we will describe about linear thermal expansion. In our
experiment today we use a Spherometer with buzzer indicator to measure the change
the expansion in sample rod.
1. Linear Thermal Expansion :
When heat is added to most materials, the average amplitude of the atoms' vibration
within the material increases. This, in turn, increases the separation between the atoms
causing the material to expand. If the temperature change T , is such that the material
does not go through a phase change, then it can be shown that the change in the
object's length, L , is given by the equation

L = L i T . (1)
where Li , is the initial length of the object before heat is added, and , is the linear
expansion coefficient of the material. Accepted values of several common
materials are given below in Table 1.
This effect, however, is not simply limited to materials whose temperature has
increased. If energy is removed from the material then the object's temperature will
decrease causing the object to contract. The temperature change T , from Equation 1,
it is always found by subtracting the initial temperature of the object from the final
temperature, or T = Tf Ti . Therefore, if T <0, L will also be negative,
indicating a length contraction.
From Equation 1, we see that L , is not only dependent on T , but also on the initial
length of the object Li . So, the longer the object, the greater change in its length.
Although the phenomena of linear thermal expansion can be problematic when
designing bridges, buildings, aircraft and spacecraft, it can be put to beneficial uses.
For instance, household thermostats and bi-metallic strips make use of the property of
linear expansion.
Table 1: Accepted Linear Expansion Values of Common Materials
Material

(x10-6 C-1)

Glass (ordinary)

00.9

Glass (Pyrex)

03.2

Iron

11.1

Steel

12.4

Nickel

12.8

Copper*

17.6

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Silver

18.8

Brass*

19.0

Tin

20.0

Aluminum*

23.4

Lead

29.0

Zinc

39.7

Important points :

Most materials expand when heated through a temperature range that does not
produce a change of phase. The added heat increases the vibrational kinetic
energy of the atoms in the material, which in turn increases the distance between
the atoms. In an isotropic material, the expansion occurs equally in all
dimensions.

If an object of length L1 is heated through a small temperature change T, the

change in length L is proportional to the original length L1 and to the change in
temperature:

L = L1 T
The proportionality constant is known as the coefficient of linear expansion.

In analogy to the coefficient of linear expansion, we also define coefficients of

areal and volume expansion ( and , respectively) as follows:
A = A1 T
V = V1 T

. The coefficient can vary with temperature, so that the amount of expansion
not only depends upon the temperature change but also upon the absolute
temperature of the material. Some materials are not isotropic and have a
different value for the coefficient of linear expansion dependent upon the axis
along which the expansion is measured. For instance, with increasing
temperature, calcite (CaCO3) crystals expand along one crystal axis and contract
( < 0) along another axis.

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion :

When the temperature of a substance changes, the energy that is stored in the
intermolecular bonds between atoms changes. When the stored energy increases, so
does the length of the molecular bonds. As a result, solids typically expand in
response to heating and contract on cooling; this dimensional response to temperature
change is expressed by its coefficient of thermal expansion.

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The linear thermal expansion coefficient is a thermodynamic property of a substance.

It relates the change in temperature to the change in a material's linear dimensions. It
is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. The change in
length with temperature can be written:
L
= LT
L0
=

Or

1 L
L0 T

Where is called the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, L0 is the original length,
L the new length, and T the temperature. The linear thermal expansion is the onedimensional length change with temperature.
2. Area Thermal Expansion :
When the area of the solid change with the temperature, it is called as area thermal
expansion and can be written as :
A
= T
A0
Hear is known as a coefficient of the area thermal expansion, A is change in area.
For exactly isotropic materials, the area thermal expansion coefficient is very closely
approximated as twice the linear coefficient.
2
A
= 2T
A0
3. Volumetric Thermal Expansion :
When the volume of the solid or liquid change with the temperature, it is called as
volumetric thermal expansion and can be written as:
V
= T
V0
The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient () can be written
=

1 V
1

=
V T P
T P

where T is the temperature, V is the volume, is the density, derivatives are taken at
constant pressure P; measures the fractional change in density as temperature
increases at constant pressure.
Proof:

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V
m
1 V
1

= 2
=

T P
V T P
m P T P m T P
where m is the mass.
V =

For exactly isotropic materials, the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is very
closely approximated as three times the linear coefficient.
3
T
= 3T
V0
Proof:
V =

1 V 1 L3 1 L3 L 1 2 L
1 L
= 3 3L
= 3

= 3
=3
= 3L
V T L T L L T L
T
L T

This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions.
Thus, in an isotropic material, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis
(a very close approximation for small differential changes). Note that the partial
derivative of volume with respect to length as shown in the above equation is exact,
however, in practice it is important to note that the differential change in volume is
only valid for small changes in volume (i.e., the expression is not linear). As the
change in temperature increases, and as the value for the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion increases, the error in this formula also increases. For non-negligible
changes in volume:

( L + L )

= L3 + 3L2 L + 3LL2 + L3

Note that this equation contains the main term, 3L2, but also shows a secondary term
that scales as 3LL2 = 3L3 2 T 2 , which shows that a large change in temperature can
overshadow a small value for the linear coefficient of thermal expansion. Although
the coefficient of linear thermal expansion can be quite small, when combined with a
large change in temperature, the differential change in length can become large
enough that this factor needs to be considered. The last term, L3 is vanishingly small,
and is almost universally ignored

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Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) variation with materials:

The magnitude of the CTE depends on the structure of the material. As can be
visualized from figure 1, the atoms would only stay at a constant separation at
absolute zero; above that, their increasing thermal energy generates some movement
about the mean, and the mean itself increases slightly because the bond energy curve
has an asymmetric shape.

Plot of bonding energy against inter-atomic distance after Shackelford 1999

Figure 1
Figure 1 also helps us to visualize why strongly-bonded insulators, such as ceramics
have relatively low CTEs compared to metals, and why loosely-bonded structures
such as polymers generally have high CTEs, especially those that are thermoplastics
or elastomers.
Negative Thermal Expansion :
Negative Thermal Expansion (NTE) is a physicochemical process in which some
materials contract upon heating rather than expanding as most materials do. Materials
which undergo this unusual process have a range of potential engineering, photonic,
electronic, and structural applications. For example, if one were to mix a negative
thermal expansion material with a "normal" material which expands on heating, it
could be possible to make a zero expansion composite material.
Applications :
There are many potential applications for materials with controlled thermal expansion
properties, as thermal expansion causes many problems in engineering, and indeed in
everyday life. One simple example of a thermal expansion problem is the tendency of
dental fillings to expand by an amount different from the teeth, for example when
drinking a hot drink, causing, toothache. If dental fillings were made of a composite
material containing a mixture of materials with positive and negative thermal
expansion then the overall expansion could be precisely tailored to that of tooth
enamel.
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Heat and Thermal Energy :

When scientists originally studied thermodynamics, they were really studying heat
and thermal energy. Heat can do anything: move from one area to another, get atoms
excited, and even increase energy. Did we say energy? That's what heat is. When you
increase the heat in a system, you are really increasing the amount of energy in the
system. Now that you understand that fact, you can see that the study of
thermodynamics is the study of the amount of energy moving in and out of systems.
Heat of Atoms :
Now all of this energy is moving around the world. You need to remember that it all
happens on a really small scale. Energy that is transferred is at an atomic level. Atoms
and molecules are transmitting these tiny amounts of energy. When heat moves from
one area to another, it's because millions of atoms and molecules are working
together. Those millions of pieces become the energy flow throughout the entire
planet.
Energy Movement :
Energy moves from one system to another because of differences in the systems. If
you have two identical systems with equal amounts of energy, there will be no flow of
energy. When you have two systems with different amounts of energy (may be
different temperatures) the energy will start to flow. Air mass of high pressure forces
large numbers of molecules into areas of low pressure. Areas of high temperature give
off energy to areas with lower temperature. There is a constant flow of energy
throughout the universe. Heat is only one type of that energy.
Increasing Energy and Entropy :
Another big idea in thermodynamics is the concept of energy that excites molecules.
Atoms have a specific amount of energy when they are at a certain temperature. When
you change the system by increasing pressure of temperature, the atoms can get more
excited. That increase in excitement is called entropy. Atoms move around more and
there is more activity. That increase in activity is an increase in entropy.
Heat :
In physics and thermodynamics, heat (symbolized by Q) is any flow of energy from
one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature. In thermodynamics,
the quantity TdS is used as a representative measure of the (inexact) heat differential
Q, which is the absolute temperature of an object multiplied by the differential
quantity of a system's entropy measured at the boundary of the object. Heat can flow
spontaneously from an object with a high temperature to an object with a lower
temperature.
The transfer of heat from one object to another object with an equal or higher
temperature can happen only with the aid of a heat pump. High temperature bodies,
which often result in high rates of heat transfer, can be created by chemical reactions
(such as burning), nuclear reactions (such as fusion taking place inside the Sun),
electromagnetic dissipation (as in electric stoves), or mechanical dissipation (such as
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friction). Heat can be transferred between objects by radiation, conduction and

convection. Temperature is used as a measure of the internal energy or enthalpy that
is the level of elementary motion giving rise to heat transfer. Heat can only be
transferred between objects, or areas within an object, with different temperatures (as
given by the zeroth law of thermodynamics), and then, in the absence of work, only in
the direction of the colder body (as per the second law of thermodynamics). The
temperature and phase of a substance subject to heat transfer are determined by latent
heat and heat capacity. A related term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy
of a body that increases with its temperature.

Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the heat from the sun is the driving force of life. The science of heat
and its relation to work is thermodynamics. Heat flow can be created in many ways.
Laws of Thermodynamics :
When talking about thermal energy we must also talk about the laws of
thermodynamics which express the laws of the interaction of energy and matter.

First Law of Thermodynamics :

Energy and matter are interchangeable but cannot be created or destroyed. The total
amount of energy in the whole universe remains constant, only changing from one
form to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics :

This law states that any system always tends to move toward its probable state of
energy. For example, a spring watch will run until the potential energy in the spring is
used up. If no new energy is input into it (in the form of winding the spring up) then it
has returned to its most probable state, which is really not to run. The most
misunderstood law.

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Third Law of Thermodynamics :

This law is a little more complicated and deals with the state of a system of atoms and
molecules at an absolute zero temperature. Absolute zero is theoretically impossible
to achieve considering any force acting upon the atoms and molecules to remove heat
from them are not at absolute zero and therefore cannot make anything else reach
absolute zero. The third law says that entropy of atoms and molecules at absolute zero
is zero.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of a closed system is
conserved. Therefore, to change the energy of a system, energy must be transferred to
or from the system. Heat and work are the only two mechanisms by which energy can
be transferred to or from a control mass. Heat is the transfer of energy caused by the
temperature difference. The unit for the amount of energy transferred by heat in the
International System of Units SI is the joule (J), though the British Thermal Unit and
the calorie are still occasionally used in the United States. The unit for the rate of heat
transfer is the watt (W = J/s).

Figure 3
Heat Q can flow across the boundary of the system and thus change
its internal energy (U)
Heat transfer is a path function (process quantity), as opposed to a point function
(state quantity). Heat flows between systems that are not in thermal equilibrium with
each other; it spontaneously flows from the areas of high temperature to areas of low
temperature. When two bodies of different temperature come into thermal contact,
they will exchange internal energy until their temperatures are equalized; that is, until
they reach thermal equilibrium. The adjective hot is used as a relative term to
compare the objects temperature to that of the surroundings (or that of the person
using the term). The term heat is used to describe the flow of energy. In the absence
of work interactions, the heat that is transferred to an object ends up getting stored in
the object in the form of internal energy.

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Figure 4
A red-hot iron rod from which heat transfer to the surrounding environment will
be primarily through radiation
Specific heat is defined as the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or from
one unit of mass or mole of a substance to change its temperature by one degree.
Specific heat is a property, which means that it depends on the substance under
consideration and its state as specified by its properties. Fuels, when burned, release
much of the energy in the chemical bonds of their molecules. Upon changing from
one phase to another, a pure substance releases or absorbs heat without its temperature
changing. The amount of heat transfer during a phase change is known as latent heat
and depends primarily on the substance and its state.
Heat Transfer :
Heat transfer is the movement of energy due to a temperature difference. There are
three physical mechanisms or modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection,
radiation. Heat normally flows from an area of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature. Heat can be made to flow from a cooler area to a hotter area, but
this is not a spontaneous phenomena, work must be done on the system. Commonly
found examples of this are refrigerators and heat pumps.
The conduction mode of heat transfer occurs when there is a temperature difference in
a stationary medium. On a molecular level, the high temperature area has a higher
vibrational energy, and this energy is transferred molecule to molecule to the cooler
region. There is no movement in the bulk media. An example of this is a coffee cup.
When it is filled with hot coffee, the inside wall temperature is raised. The increased
vibrational energy is diffused through the wall until the warmth of the coffee is felt on
the outside surface.
Convection occurs when heat is transferred due to diffusion and bulk motion, most
commonly between a fixed surface and a moving fluid, liquid or gas. Convection can
be further subdivided into free convection and forced convection. For free convection,
the flow of the fluid is induced by buoyancy forces, whereas in forced convection the
fluid flow is due to some outside means such as a fan, blower, or pump. An example
of free convection is the draft felt by a oven door. At the oven door surface, heat is
diffused into the air. The increased temperature of the air causes it to expand. As it
expands, it has a lower density than the cooler surrounding air causing it to rise.

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As the air moves up, heat is transported away from the oven door. An example of
forced convection can be found under the hood with the car radiator. Air is forced by
a fan over the fins of the radiator which has been heated by the engine coolant. Heat is
diffused into the air as it comes into contact with the surface of the radiator, and is
then transported away by the bulk motion of the air flow.
Thermal radiation occurs when thermal energy is exchanged via electromagnetic
waves. A bulk media is not required in between the hot and cool regions for heat
transfer to occur with radiation. For example, the earth receives thermal energy from
the sun via radiation even though the void of space is in between. Radiation becomes
the dominant mode of transfer at higher temperatures. For example, when standing in
front of a camp fire you are warmed primarily by radiation. Heat is not diffused to
you by conduction because the air surrounding you is still cool. Heat is transferred to
the air by convection, but just in the draft above the fire which rises upwards. The
warmth you feel when standing beside the fire is from infrared radiation intercepted
by your clothing.
There are three ways that heat may be transferred between substances at different
temperatures - conduction, convection, and radiation. We consider each of these in
turn.
1.

Conduction :

The flow of heat by conduction occurs via collisions between atoms and molecules in
the substance and the subsequent transfer of kinetic energy. Let us consider two
substances at different temperatures separated by a barrier, which is subsequently
removed, as in figure 5.

Heat transfer by conduction

Figure 5

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When the barrier is removed, the fast (hot) atoms collide with the slow (cold)
ones. In such collisions the faster atoms losses some speed and the slower ones gain
speed; thus, the fast ones transfer some of their kinetic energy to the slow ones. This
transfer of kinetic energy from the hot to the cold side is called a flow of heat through
conduction.
Different materials transfer heat by conduction at different rates - this is measured by
the material's thermal conductivity. Suppose we place a material in between two
reservoirs at different temperatures, as in figure 6.

Measurement of thermal conductivity

Figure 6
Let us now measure the flow of heat through the material over time. Knowing the
material's cross-sectional area and length, the thermal conductivity of the material is
then defined as
Heat flow over time = Thermal conductivity (Area/Length)
(Temperature difference between reservoirs)
Thus, for a given temperature difference between the reservoirs, materials with a large
thermal conductivity will transfer large amounts of heat over time - such materials,
like copper, are good thermal conductors. Conversely, materials with low thermal
conductivities will transfer small amounts of heat over time - these materials, like
concrete, are poor thermal conductors. This is why if you throw a piece of copper and
a piece of concrete into a campfire, the copper will heat up much more quickly than
the concrete. It is also why fiberglass insulation, and also feathers and fur, have air
pockets - dead air is a poor thermal conductor, and so the air pockets aid in cutting
back on the heat loss through the material.
Home insulation is thus a poor thermal conductor, which keeps as much heat in as
possible. Instead of being rated in terms of thermal conductivity, insulation is
therefore usually rated in terms of its thermal resistance, which is defined as
Thermal Resistance = Length/Thermal conductivity

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Materials having high thermal conductivity are of low thermal resistance - they are
poor heat insulators. On the other hand, materials with a low thermal conductivity
have a high thermal resistance - they are good heat insulators. Good insulating
materials therefore should have a high thermal resistance. In fact, the R value
quoted for insulation is the thermal resistance (in British units).
2.

Convection :

Convection is the flow of heat through a bulk, macroscopic movement of matter from
a hot region to a cool region, as opposed to the microscopic transfer of heat between
atoms involved with conduction. Suppose we consider heating up a local region of air.
As this air heats, the molecules spread out, causing this region to become less dense
than the surrounding, unheated air. For reasons discussed in the previous section,
being less dense than the surrounding cooler air, the hot air will subsequently rise due
to buoyant forces - this movement of hot air into a cooler region is then said to
transfer heat by convection.
Heating a pot of water on a stove is a good example of the transfer of heat by
convection. When the stove first turned on, heat transferred first by conduction
between the elements through the bottom of the pot to the water. However, eventually
the water starts bubbling - these bubbles are actually local regions of hot water rising
to the surface, thereby transferring heat from the hot water at the bottom to the cooler
water at the top by convection. At the same time, the cooler, more dense water at the
top will sink to the bottom, where it is subsequently heated. These convection currents
illustrated in figure 7.

Convection currents in boiling water

Figure 7

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NV6043

Consider now two regions separated by a barrier, one at a higher pressure relative to
the other, and subsequently remove the barrier, as in figure 8.
When the barrier removed, material in the high-pressure (high-density) area will flow
to the low-pressure (low-density) area. If the low-pressure region originally created by
heating of the material, one sees that movement of material in this way is an example
of heat flow by convection.

Flow of material through a pressure difference

Figure 8
An important example of convection currents that interpreted in this manner is the
creation of breezes over landmasses next to large bodies of water. Water has a larger
heat capacity than land, and subsequently holds heat better. It therefore takes longer to
change its temperature, either upward or downward. Thus, during the day the air
above the water will be cooler than that over the land. This creates a low-pressure area
over the land, relative to the high-pressure area over the water, and subsequently one
finds breezes blowing from the water to the land. On the other hand, during the night
water cools off more slowly than the land, and the air above the water is slightly
warmer than over the land. This creates a low-pressure area over the water relative to
the high-pressure area over the land, and breezes will blow from the land to the water.
These illustrated in figure 9.

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NV6043

Formation of breezes near large bodies of water

Figure 9
3.

Radiation :

The third and last form of heat transfer we shall consider is that of radiation, which in
this context means light (visible or not). This is the means by which heat is
transferred, for example, from the sun to the earth through mostly empty space - such
a transfer cannot occur via convection nor conduction, which require the movement of
material from one place to another or the collisions of molecules within the material.
Often the energy of heat can go into making light, such as that coming from a hot
campfire. This light, being a wave, carries energy, and so can move from one place to
another without requiring an intervening medium. When this light reaches you, part of
the energy of the wave gets converted back into heat, which is why you feel warm,
sitting beside a campfire. Some of the light can be in the form of visible light that we
can see, but a great deal of the light emitted is infrared light, whose longer wavelength
is detectable only with special infrared detectors. The hotter the object is, the less
infrared light is emitted, and the more visible light. For example, human beings, at a
temperature of about 37 oC, emit almost exclusively infrared light, which is why we
do not see each other glowing in the dark. On other hand, the hot filament of a light
bulb emits considerably more visible light.

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NV6043

Thermal Energy :
Thermal energy is a term often confused with that of heat. When heat is added to a
thermodynamic system its thermal energy increases and when heat is withdrawn its
thermal energy decreases. In this point of view, objects that are hot are referred to as
being in possession of a large amount of thermal energy, whereas cold objects possess
little thermal energy. Thermal energy then is often mistakenly defined as being
synonym for the word heat. This, however, is not the case: an object cannot possess
heat, but only energy. The term "thermal energy" when used in conversation is often
not used in a strictly correct sense, but is more likely to be only used as a descriptive
word. In physics and thermodynamics, the words heat, internal energy, work,
"enthalpy" (heat content), "entropy", "external forces", etc., which can be defined
exactly, i.e. without recourse to internal atomic motions and vibrations, tend to be
preferred and used more often than the term "thermal energy", which is difficult to
define.
The ultimate source of energy available to man is the sun, the huge thermo-nuclear
furnace that supplies the earth with the heat and light that are essential to life. The sun
produces thermal energy (heat energy) in the form of radiation. Thermal energy is
heat energy in transfer. Heat is a form of energy. When heat it is in the process of
being transfered, it is called thermal energy.
At a more basic level, thermal energy comes form the movement of atoms and
molecules in matter. It is a form of kinetic energy produced from the random
movements of those molecules.
When you put your hand over a hot stove you can feel the heat. The atoms and
molecules in the metal of the burner are moving so rapidly that they transfer the
electrical energy from the wall outlet to thermal (heat) energy thru friction. We all
know what happens when we rub our hands together. The same way, atoms and
molecules rubbing against each other produce heat. Scientists like to call that heat
thermal energy.

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NV6043

Experiment 1
Objective :
Determination of the Co-efficient of Linear Expansion of a given Sample
Procedure :
1.

Arrange the setup as shown in figure 10 below.

Figure 10
2.

Take one sample rod from accessories box and note the initial length of the rod
whose coefficient of linear expansion has to be determined. Let it be L0.

3.

Now insert sample rod into the steam jacket.

4.

Take thermometer and put it into the hole provided in steam jacket, confirm that
it touches to the sample rod.

5.

Connect adaptor to the buzzer and supply then switch On the mains.

6.

Now connect two patch cords from buzzer to Spherometer and body of steam
jacket.

7.

Fill the water in the steam container near about half of it.

8.

Take a pipe from the assessory box and connect it between inlet of the steam
jacket and steam container.

9.

Connect another pipe to the outlet of the steam container.

10.

Put steam container on the heater.

11.

Now put the Spherometer on the upper end of the rod and make a fine touch.
Now buzzer will make sound.

12.

At this position note the reading of Spherometer. Let it be S1.

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NV6043

13.

Now make some space between rod and Spherometer by moving its knob.

14.

Note the initial temperature of the rod by thermometer. Let it be T1.

15.

Connect heater plug into the mains socket and On the heater.

16.

Wait for 10-15 minutes until the steam generates.

17.

As steam reach in jacket, the temperature of steam jacket will increase and rod
starts to expand. If rod touches the Spherometer, buzzer gives a sound.

18.

Now again move Spherometer in such a manner so that buzzer stops sounding
(give little space between rod and Spherometer).

19.

After some time the temperature of rod becomes constant (i.e. saturation stage
will occur). Note the final temperature of the rod by thermometer. Let it be T2.

20.

Again note the reading of Spherometer. Let it be S2.

21.

Tabulate all the readings in the observation table.

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Observations :
Pitch of the screw of Spherometer (p)

= ...mm

Number of division on the circular scale (n) =

Least count of the Spherometer (p/n)

S. Sample
No.

Initial
length
L0 in
meter

Initial
Temp.

=mm

Initial Spherometer
reading S1
in mm

T10C
M.S.

1.

Copper

2.

Brass

3.

Alumin
um

C.S.

Final
Temp.

Final Spherometer
reading S2
in mm

T2 0 C
T.R.

Rise in temperature, T = T2-T1

=......................... oC

Increase in length of rod, L = S2-S1

=...mm

M.S.

C.S.

T.R.

=m
Now put the all above values in following formula for sample 1:
=

1 L
L 0 T

=.x 10-6/ oC
Similarly calculate the coefficient of thermal expansion for each sample.

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NV6043

Experiment 2
Objective :
Comparison of the coefficient of thermal expansion of given samples of material
and verification of :
copper < brass < aluminium
Procedure :
1.

Arrange the setup as shown in figure 11 below.

Figure 11
2.

Repeat all the procedure of Experiment 1 and find the coefficient of thermal
expansion of each material.

copper

= .

brass

= ..

aluminium =..
3.

Compare all the values of thermal coefficient.

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NV6043

Warranty
1)

We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.

2)

The guarantee will become void, if

a)

The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the operating
manual.

b)

The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.

c)

The customer resells the instrument to another party.

d)

Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.

3)

The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving

full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.

4)

The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.

List of Accessories
1.

Pullingers Apparatus................................................................................1 No.

2.

Spherometer with Buzzer Indicator ........................................................... 1 No

3.

Safety jacket .............................................................................................1 No.

4.

Adapter 5 V DC. .......................................................................................1 No.

5.

Patch cords 12....................................................................................... 2 Nos.

6.

Heater with Mains Cord. ...........................................................................1 No.

7.

Steam Container........................................................................................1 No.

8.

Sample Rods (Copper, Brass, Aluminium)................................................1 No.

9.

Plastic Pipes............................................................................................ 2 Nos.

10.

Thermometer 1000C..................................................................................1 No.

11.

e-Manual ..................................................................................................1 No.

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