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immediately to the south is also entered through a gopura on the east side.
Access corridors and free-standing mandapas occupy much of the outermost
compound.

TEMPLES OF THE MADURAI NAYAKAS AT THE CAPITAL

Of all the Nayakas, those of Madurai were by far the greatest builders; their
careers spanned the second half of the sixteenth century and the whole of
the
seventeenth century, and even continued into the first decades of the
eighteenth century. During much of this time these rulers controlled a
substantial portion of the Tamil country, from the Kaveri to Kanyakumari.
Madurai had been furnished with a major temple in Pandya times, but this
was
largely demolished when the city became the headquarters for a local fine of
Sultans. After the recovery of the city by Kumara Kampana, the twin shrines
dedicated to Minakshi, tutelary goddess of Madurai, and her consort
Sundareshvara, were substantially rebuilt. Renovation of the monument
continued throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but by far the
greatest efforts were made from the middle of the sixteenth century onwards
under the direction of the local Nayakas. Almost all of the Madurai rulers,
their wives and ministers made donations to the Minakshi- Sundareshvara
temple; many parts of the monument are associated with one or other of
these
patrons.

The Madurai complex is contained within high enclosure walls that create a
vast rectangle of 254 by 238 metres; lofty gopuras are positioned in the
middle
of each side (Fig. 63, see also Fig. 42). The towers of these gateways have
elongated proportions and curved profiles that achieve a dramatic sweep
upwards; that on the south is almost 50 metres high (Fig. 64). The lower
granite portions have pilasters with slender, part-circular and fluted shafts;
many of these define projections without niches headed by shala and kuta
pediments (Fig. 6 5). The carvings here are confined to miniature animals and
figures at the bases of pilasters and on wall surfaces in between. The brick
superstructures have pronounced central projections with openings at each of
the nine ascending storeys. The lowest of these openings, immediately above
the eaves sheltering the entrance passageways, are distinguished by freestanding colonettes. Plaster sculptures, reworked and brightly painted in
recent years, are applied to almost all of the architectural elements to create
vivid polychrome effects. Enlarged yali heads with protruding eyes and horns
mark the arched ends of the capping shala roofs; the ridges have rows of potlike finials in brass.

The Minakshi temple is usually entered from the east through a porch
projecting outwards beyond the enclosure wall. This porch was erected by
Rudrapati and Toli Ammai, consorts of Tirumala Nayaka. Four columns on

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Porch of the Viravasantaraya Airakkal

Eight Goddesses I Mandapa Mandapa

63 Plan, Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex, Madurai, seventeentheighteenth centuries

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6 4 South gopura, Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex,

seventeenth century

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ARCHITECTURE AND ART OF SOUTHERN INDIA

6 5 Wall detail, north gopura, Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex

either side have carvings of different goddesses; the curved vault above is
covered with paintings of recent workmanship. A doorway flanked by images
of Ganesha and Subrahmanya leads into a vast columned hall used for shops
and stores. This structure was added in 1707 by Sanmugam Minakshi,
minister
of Vijayaranga Chokkanatha. Its piers have lion-like brackets carrying
suspended beams. At the far end of this mandapa is a doorway contained

within a towered gateway that was erected in 1569 by a son of Ariyanatha

Mudaliyar, minister of Kumara Krishnappa. Beyond is a small corridor
flanked by columns with sculptured figures. This gives on to the courtyard of
the Potramarai Kulam, a rectangular reservoir with stepped sides and a gilded
lamp-column in the middle (Fig. 66). The north and east walls of the
surrounding colonnade are covered with murals, now sadly dilapidated. Royal
portraits adorn two columns on the north side of the tank; a painted
composition of the marriage of Minkashi and Sundareshvara covers the
ceiling
of a small portico on the west.

A long corridor defines the transverse north-south axis of the MinakshiSundareshvara complex. The columns lining its central aisle have threedimensional sculptures of deities, heroes and rearing yalis. The Minakshi
shrine, together with several subshrines, stands inside a rectangular
compound
to the west. A gopura at the northern end of the corridor provides access to
the Sundareshvara shrine. This too is contained within a rectangular
enclosure,

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66 Potramarai Kulam, Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex

marked by towered gopuras in the middle of each side. The granite

basements,
pilastered niches and brick superstructures of these gateways resemble those
on the periphery of the complex, except that they are not as high. A
colonnaded corridor entirely surrounds the Sundareshvara compound. On the
east it meets the Kambattadi Mandapa, an addition of the early eighteenth
century. In the middle of this hall is a group of eight piers with fully sculptured
figures set within cutout pilasters (see Fig. 135). The piers surround the flagpole, altar and small Nandi pavilion, the last with its own ornate domed roof,
aligned with the main sanctuary to the west.

Beyond the Kambattadi Mandapa, in the outermost enclosure of the

Madurai complex, is the Viravasantaraya Mandapa, another project of
Vijayaranga Chokkanatha (Fig. 67). Its central corridor, which is no less than
75 metres long, is lined with piers displaying yalis alternating with quartets of

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ARCHITECTURE AND ART OF SOUTHERN INDIA

67 Viravasantaraya Mandapa, Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex,

eighteenth century

part-square colonettes in shallow relief; leaf-like motifs and crouching animals

adorn the brackets. To the north is the thousand-pillared hall, now converted
into an art museum. Of the exactly 985 elaborately decorated columns
incorporated into this mandapa, some have fully modelled figures, both
divine
and royal. Yalis line the central aisle that leads to the raised dais at the
northern
end of the mandapa. At the southern end is a porch with finely carved
columns, those at the corners being surrounded by dense clusters of slender
colonettes.

Outside the complex, directly on axis with the east gopura leading to the
Sundareshvara shrine, stands the Pudu Mandapa. This major construction is
the work of Tirumala and was completed in 1635; it is now a market for
textiles and household goods. The hall, which is almost 100 metres long, is
reached by steps flanked by balustrades with vigorously posed yalis. Its broad
central aisle is flanked by piers carved with portraits of the Nayakas and their
queens. Carvings at the eastern and western extremities of the hall represent
horses and yalis with riders on the outside faces of the piers, with major
deities
on the inside. A small pavilion fashioned out of polished black granite with a
wooden roof stands at one end. Further east, beyond the mandapa, are the

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lowest portions of Tirumalas unfinished Raya Gopura; this is more than twice
the dimensions of any other gateway at Madurai, the door jambs alone being
1 5 metres high.

Further evidence of building activities under the Nayakas is found in

Madurai. Unlike the Minakshi-Sundareshvara complex, the Kudal Alagar
Perumal temple belongs to a single phase of construction that represents the
mid-seventeenth-century style at its finest (Fig. 68). The central shrine of this
monument is an unusual conception, with three superimposed sanctuaries of
diminishing size containing seated, standing and reclining images of Vishnu
(bottom to top). The passageway around the lowest shrine is lit by pierced
stone screens with graceful designs, including those with figures in entwining
stalks (Fig. 69). The outer walls are raised on an elaborate basement, with
varying sequences of mouldings beneath the principal projections. Slender
pilasters with fluted, multi-faceted and circular shafts have miniature yalis at
their bases, and double capitals with pendant lotus brackets at their tops.
Miniature temple-like towers in high relief cap single pilasters standing in
pots;
the same motifs occur over niches and windows. Above rises the steeply
pyramidal tower dominated by a crowning hemispherical roof. The core of the

monument is approached through two mandapas, the outer one of which is

preceded by a porch with staircases on the north and south flanked by
elephant and yali balustrades. Its central piers have yalis, while those at the
corners have clustered elements; the overhanging eaves have deeply
undercut
ribs.

The Teppakulam at the eastern edge of Madurai was initiated by Tirumala in

1636 as a setting for festivals in which sacred images were floated in
illuminated barges. The square reservoir has steps flanked by animal and bird
balustrades leading down to the water in the middle of each side. A sixteencolumned pavilion with a pyramidal tower stands on an island at the centre; it
is capped with a kuta roof (Fig. 70). Portrait sculptures adorn the four central
columns; slabs cut into the shape of arched openings are placed in between.
Smaller but similar pavilions mark the islands four corners.