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WHYDIGITAL?
The first chapterprovides an overview of an analog telephonenetwork and a brief introduction to digital ffansmission and switching technology introduced to replace
older analog equipment.This chapterdiscussesthe basic technical advantagesof digi'
tal implementationsthat stimulated the replacementof the analog systems.

OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
2.1 ADVANTAGES
A list of technical featuresof digital communicationsnetworks is provided in Table
2. L Thesefeaturesare listed in the order that the author considersto be their relative
importancefor generaltelephony.In particular applications,however, certain considerationsmay be more or lesssignificant. For instance,the last item, easeof encryption,
is a dominant feature favoring digital networks for the military.
Most of the featuresof digital voice networks listed in Table 2.1 and discussedin
the following paragraphspertain to advantagesof digital hansmission or switching
relative to analog counteryarts.In some instances,however, the featurespertain only
to all-digital networks. Encryption, for example,is practical and generallyuseful only
if the secureform of the messageis establishedat the sourceand translatedback into
the clear form only at the destination.Thus an end-to-enddigital systemthat operates
with no knowledge of the nature of the traffic (i.e., provides transparenttransmission)
is a requirement for digital encryption applications. For similar reasonsend-to-end
digital transmissionis neededfor direct transmissionof data (no modem)-When a network consistsof a mixture of analog and digital equipment, universal use of the network for servicessuch as datatransmissiondictatesconformanceto the leastcommon
denominator of the network: the analog channel.

2.1.1 Ease of Multiplexing

werefirst appliedto generaltelephony
As mentionedin Chapterl, digitaltechniques
thesesystems
in interofficeT-carrier(time divisionmultiplex)systems.In essence,
pathfor thecostof multiplepairs
tradedelectionicscostsattheendsof a transmission
73

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74

WHYDIGITAL?
TABLE 2.1 Technical Advantages ot Dlgltar communlcations Networks

1. Ease0l multiplexing
2. Easeof signaling
3. U$eof moderntechnology
4. lntegration
of kansmission
andswitching
5. Signalregeneration
6. Performance
monitorability
7. Accommodation
of otherservices
8. Operability
at lowsignal-to-noi$e/intederence
ratios
L Easeof encryption'

of wires betweenthem.(A hade that is morecost effectiveeveryyear.)Although

FDM of analogsignalshadalsobeenusedto reducecablecosts,FDM equipmentis
muchmoreexpensivethanTDM equipment,
evenwhenthecostof digitizationis included.After voicesignalshavebeendigitized,TDM equipmentcostsarequitesmall
by comparison.
Sincedigitizationoccursonly at thefirst levelof theTDM hierarchy,
high-leveldigitalTDM is evenmoreeconomicalthanhigh-levelFDM counrerpans.
It shouldbe pointedout thatTDM of analogsignalsis alsovery simpleanddoes
not requiredigitizationof rhesamplevalues.Thedrawbackof analogTDM lies in the
vulnerabilityof nanow analogpulsesto noise,distortion,crosstalk,andintersymbol
interference.
Thesedegradations
cannotbe removedby regeneration
as in a digital
system.Hence,analogTDM is not feasibleexceptfor noiseless,
distortion-free
environments.*
In essence
theability to regenerate
a signal,evenat theexpenseofgreater
bandwidth,is almosta requirement
for TDM fransmission.
2.1.2 Eaeeof Slgnating
control information(e.g.,on-hook/off-hook,
addressdigits,coin deposits)is inherentlydigital and,hence,readilyincorporated
into a digitalFansmission
system.one
meansof incorporatingcontrolinformationinto a digital transmission
link involves
time division multiplexingthe control as a separatebut easilyidentifiablecontrol
channel'Anotherapproachinvolvesinsertingspecialcontrolcodesinto themessage
channelandhavingdigital logic in thereceivingterminalsdecodethat controlinformation'In eithercase,as far asthe transmission
sy$temis concerned,
controlinformationis indistinguishable
from message
haffic.
In contrast,analogtransmission
sy$tems
requiredspecialattentionfor controlsignaling.Many analogtransmission
systemspresented
uniqueandsometimes
difficult
environments
for insertingcontrolinformation.An unfortunateresultwasthatmany
varietiesof controlsignalformatsandprocedures
evolvedfor theanalognetwork.The
controlformatsdependon thenatureof boththetransmission
systemundit, terminal
.Aoulog

TDM has been used in a fbw telephone applications. Farinon's SubscriberRadio System
[l ], for
example, used'pulse-width-modulatedTDM. As discussedin Chapter 5 some older PBXs also used analog
TDM.

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VOICENETWORKS 75
OF DIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES

controlinformationhad
equipment.In someinterfacesbetweennetworksubsystems
to be convertedfrom one format to another.Signalingon analoglinks thereforerepandfinancialburdento the operatingtelephone
resenteda significantadministrative
companies.
signalingremovedmostof the signalingcostsa$The moveto common-channel
sociatedwith interofficetrunksbut did not changethe situationfor individualsubchannel.
scriberlines,which mustcarrysignalingon the samefacility asthemessage
thesignalingcostsrelativeto analog
lines(DSLs)reduces
Theuseof digitalsubscriber
lines,which helpsoffsetthehighercostof a DSL anda digitaltelephone'
subscriber
DSLsarea fundamentalaspectof ISDN, asdescribedin ChapterI l.
In summary,digital systemsallow controlinformationto be insertedinto andexmedium
of thenatureof thetransmission
streamindependently
ffactedfrom a message
(e.g., cable,fiber, microwave,satellite).Thus the signalingequipmentcan (and
system.It thenfollowsthatconfrom thetransmission
should)bedesignedseparately
subsysof thetransmission
independently
modified
can
be
and
trol functions formats
tem. Conversely,digital transmissionsystemscan be upgradedwithout impacting
controlfunctionsat eitherendofthe link.
2.1.3

Use of Modern TechnologY

A multiplexer or switching matrix for time division digital signals is implemented

with the samebasic circuits used to build digital computers:logic gatesand memory.
The basic crosspoint of a digital switch is nothing more than an AND gate with one
logic input assignedto the mes$agesignal and other inputs usedfor control (crosspoint
selection).Thus the dramatic developmentsof digital integratedcircuit technology for
computer logic circuits and memory are applicable directly to digital transmissionand
switching fiystems.In fact, many standardcircuits developedfor use in computersare
directly usable in a switching matrix or multiplexer. Figure 2.1 shows the basic implementation of a l6-channel, bit-interleaved, digital time division multiplexer using
common digital logic circuits. As indicated, the multiplexing function involves nothing more than cyclically sampling the 16 input data streams.Such an operation assumesall of the data streamsare synchronizedto eachother. As discussedin Chapter
7, the processof synchronizing the data sffeamsrequires logic circuitry that is much
more complicatedthan that shown. Nevertheless,the implementationof TDM is much
less expensivethan analog FDM.
Even greateradvantagesof modern technology have been achievedby using largescaleintegrated(LSD circuits designedspecifically for telecommunicationsfunctions
such as voice encoding/decoding,multiplexing/demultiplexing, switching matrices,
and special-purposeand general-purposedigital signal processing(DSP). Digital signal processingfunctions are describedin Section 2'2.
The relative low cost and high performanceof digital circuits allows digital implementationsto be used in some applicationsthat are prohibitively expensivewhen implemented with comparableanalog components.Completely nonblocking switches,
for example, are not practical with conventional analog implementations, except in

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76

WHYDIGITAL?

f;TATA*l
.rr BA F

a t t

BA

4 Bit Gounter

Figure 2.1 Sixteen-to-one

TDM multiplexer.
small sizes.In a modern digital switch the cost of the switching matrix itself is relatively insignificant. Thus, for medium-size applications,the size of the switch matrix
can be increasedto provide nonblocking operations,if desired.The automaticcall distributor developedby collins-Rockwell [2] is an early exampleof a digital switch operating in an analog environment. A digital implementation was chosen largely
becauseit could economically provide a nonblocking operation.
The benefits ofmodern device technology arenot confined to digital circuits alone.
Analog integrated circuits have also progressed significantly, allowing traditional
analog implementationsto improve appreciably.one of the primary requirementsof
an analog component, however, is that it be linear. It appears,if only becauseof researchand developmentemphasis,that fast digital componentsare ea$ierto manufacture than linear analog counterparts.In addition, digital implementations appear to
have an inherent functional advantageover analog implementations.This advantage
is derived from the relative easewith which digital signals can be multiplexed. A major limitation with the full use of LSI componentsresults from limited availability of
external connectionsto the device. with time division multiplex techniques,a single
physical pin can be used for multiple-channel accessinto the device. Thus the same
technique usedto reducecostsin transmissionsystemscan also be usedwithin a local
module to minimize the interconnectionsand maximize the utilization of very large
scaleintegration. In the end, a "switch on a chip" is possibleonly if a great number of
channelscan be multiplexed onto a relatively small number of external connections.
The technological development to have the most significant impact on the telephonenetwork is certainly fiber optic transmission.Although fibers themselvesdo not
favor digital transmissionover analogtransmission,the interface electronicsto a fiber

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VOICENETWORKS 77
OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES

systemfunction primarily in an on-off (nonlinear)modeof operation.Thus digital

althoughanalogopticaltechnologyis comfiberapplications,
dominates
transmission
monlyusedin analogvideodistribution.
2.1.4 Integratlon of Transmis$lon and $wltching
and switchingsystemsof telephonenetworks
Traditionallythe analogtransmission
weredesignedandadministeredby functionallyindependentorganizations.In theopthesetwo equipmentclassesarereferredto as outside
eratingtelephonecompanies,
plant and inside plant, respectively.Theseequipmentsnecessarilyprovide standequipmentwasfunctionallyindebut,otherthanthat,transmission
ardizedintdrfaces,
pendentof switchingequipment.
When TDM of digital voice signalswas introducedinto the exchangeareaand
engineersbeganconsideringdigital switching,it becameapparent
communications
thatTDM operationswerevery similarto time divisionswitchingfunctions.In fact,
as describedin laterchapters,the first stagesof digital switchesgeneratefirst-level
links.Thusthe
TDM signalsby nature,evenwheninterfacedto analogtransmission
into the
integrated
can
be
easily
system
multiplexingoperationsof a transmission
switchingequipment.
of integratingthetwo systemsis shownin Figure2.2.ThedeThebasicadvantage
and
multiplexingequipment(channelbanks)at the swirchingofficesis unnecessary,
first-stageswitchingequipmentis eliminated.If bothendsof thedigitalTDM trunks
are integratedinto a digital switch, the channelbanksat both endsof the trunk are
eliminated.In a totally integratednetworkvoice signalsaredigitizedat or nearthe
sourceandremaindigitizeduntil deliveredto their destination.Furthermore,all interoffice trunksandintemallinks of a switchingsystemcarryTDM signalsexclusively'
Thusfirst-level multiplexinganddemultiplexingarenonexistentexceptat theperiphery of the nerwork.Althoughintegrationof DSI signalsinto $witchingmachinesis

Figure 2.2 Integration of transmission and switching: (a) nonintegrated nansmission and
swirching, (b) integrated time time division switching and transmission.

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78

WHYDIGITAL?

commonplace,
integrationof higherlevel signalsis complicatedby higherlevelmultiplexingformats(pulsestuffing)describedin chapter7. A newermultiplexingformat (soNET) describedin chapter 8 has someoperationalmodesthar are more
amenable
to directinterconnection
into a switchingsy$tem.
Integrationof transmissionand switchingfunctionsnot only eliminatesmuch
equipmentbut alsogreatlyimprovesend-to-endvoicequality.By eliminatingmultiple analog-to-digital
and digital-to-analog
conversionsand by using low-error-rate
transmissionlinks, voicequaliryis determined
only by theencoding/decoding
pnxesses.
In summary,theimplementation
benefitsof a fully integrateddigitalnetworkare:
I' Long-distance
voicequalityis identicalto local voicequality in all aspectsof
noise,signallevel,anddistortion.
2. since digital circuits are inherentlyfour-wire,network-generated
echoesare
eliminated,andtruefull-duplex,four-wiredigitalcircuitsareavailable.
3. Cableentrance
requirement$
andmainframedistributionof wire pairsis greafly
reducedbecause
all trunksareimplemented
assubchannels
of a TDM signal.
2.1.5 Signal Regeneration
As described
morefully in thenextchapter,therepresentation
of voice(or anyanalog
signal)in a digitalformatinvolvesconveftingthecontinuousanalogwaveforminto a
sequence
of discretesamplevalues.Eachdiscretesamplevalueis represented
by some
numberof binarydigitsof information.when transmitted,eachbinarydigit is representedby only oneof two possiblesignalvalues(e.g.,apulseversusnopulseor apositive pulseversusa negativepulse).The receiver'sjob is to decidewhich discrete
valueswereffansmittedandrepresentthe message
asa sequence
of binary-encoded
discretemessage
samples.If only smallamountsof noise,interference.
or distortion
areimpressed
uponthesignalduringtansmission,thebinarydatain thereceiverare
identicalto thebinarysequence
generated
duringthedigitizationor encodingprocess.
As shownin Figure2.3,thetransmission
process,despitetheexistence
of certainimperfections,
doesnot altertheessential
natureof theinformation.Of course,if theimperfections
causesufficientchanges
in thesignal,detectionerrorsoccurandthebinary
datain thereceiverdoesnot represent
theoriginaldataexactly.
A fundamentalattributeof a digital systemis that theprobabilityof transmission
errorscanbemadearbitrarilysmallby insertingregenerative
repeaters
atintermediate
pointsin the transmission
link. If spacedcloseenoughtogether,theseintermediate
nodesdetectandregenerate
the digital signalsbeforechannel-induced
degradations

H:gmretiw
rGgdtr

Figure 2.3

Ftfttratiw
rlPcrtcr

Signal regenerationin a digital repeaterline.

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VOICE
NETWORKS79
OFDIGITAL
2.1 ADVANTAGES
becomelarge enoughto causedecision effors. As demonshatedin Chapter4, the endto-end error rate can be made arbitrarily small by inserting a sufficient number of regenerationnodesin the transmissionlink.
The most direct benefit of the regenerationprocessis the ability to localize the effects of signal degradations.As long as the degradationson any particular regenerated
segmentof a transmissionlink do not causeerrors, their effects areeliminated. In contrast, signal impairments in analog transmissionaccumulatefrom one segmentto the
next. Individual subsystemsof a large analog network must be designed with tight
controls on the transmissionperformance to provide acceptableend-to-end quality.
An individual subsystemof a digital network, on the other hand, need only be designed to ensurea certain minimum error rate-usually a readily realizable goal.
When an all-digital network is designedwith enough regenerationpoints to effectively eliminate channel errors, the overall ffansmissionquality of the network is determined by the digitization process and not by the transmission systems' The
analog-to-digital conversion process inherently introduces a loss of signal fidelity
sincethe continuousanalogsourcewaveform can only be representedby discretesample values.By establishingenoughdiscretelevels, however, the analog waveform can
be representedwith as little conversion error as desired.The increasedresolution require$ more bits and consequentlymore bandwidth for transmission.Hence, a digital
transmission sy$tem readily provides a trade-off between transmission quality and
bandwidth. (A similar trade-off exists for frequency-modulatedanalog signals.)

2.1.6 PerformanceMonitorability
An additional benefit of the source-independentsignal structurein a digital transmission systemis that the quality of the received signal can be ascertainedwith no knowledge of the nature of the traffic. The transmission link is designed to produce
well-defined pulseswith discretelevels. Any deviation in the receive signal, other than
nominal amount$planned for in the design,representsa degradationin transmission
quality. In general,analog systemscannot be monitored or testedfor quality while in
service since the transmitted signal sfucture is unknown. FDM signals typically include pilot signals to measurechannel continuity and power levels. The power level
of a pilot is an effective meansof estimatingthe signal-to-noiseratio-only in a fixednoise environment.Hence, noise and distortion are sometimesdeterminedby measuring the energy level in an unusedmessageslot or at the edge of the signal passband'
In neither case,however, is the quality of an in-service channel being measureddirectly.
One common method of measuring the quality of a digital transmissionlink is to
add parity, or cyclic redundancycheck (CRC), bits to the messagestream.The redundancy introduced to the data streamenablesdigital logic circuits in a receiver to readily ascertainchannel error rates. If the error rate exceedssome nominal value, the
transmissionlink is degraded.
Another technique for measuring in-service transmission qualiry is used in T-cartier
lines. This techniqueinvolves monitoring certainredundanciesin the signal waveform

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80

WHYDIGITAL?

itself' Whentheredundancy
patternat thereceiverdeviatesfrom normal.decisionerrorshaveoccurred.A completedescriptionof theline codingformatusedin T-carrier
$ystems
is providedin Chapter4. Othermethodsof measuringtransmission
qualityin
digital systemsarediscussed
in Chapters4 and6.
2.1.7 Accommodatlon of Other Services
It waspreviouslypointedoutthata digitaltransmission
systemreadilyaccommodates
conffol(signaling)information.This factis representative
of a fundamental
aspectof
digital transmission:any digitally encodedmessage(whetherinherentlydigital or
conveftedfrom analog)presentsa coillmonsignalformatto thetransmission
system.
Thusthetransmission
systemneedprovideno specialattentionto individualservices
andcan,in fact, be totally indifferent to the natureof the traffic it carries.
In an analognetworkthetransmission
standard
is the4-kHzvoicecircuit.All special servicessuchasdataor facsimilemustbetransformed
to ,,looklike voice."In particular,datasignalsmustbeconvertedto ananalogformatthroughtheuseof modems.
Thestandard
analogchannelwa$necessarily
optimizedfor voicequality.In sodoing, certaintransmissioncharacteristics
(suchas the phaseresponseand impulse
noise)receivedlessattentionthanmorenoticeablevoicequalityimpairments.Some
lessemphasized
considerations,
phasedistortionin particular,arecriticalfor high-rate
dataservices.Useof an analognetworkfor nonvoiceservicesoftenrequiresspecial
compensation
for variousanalogtransmission
impairments.If the analogchannelis
toopoor,it maybe unusable
for a particularapplication.In contrast,themainparameter ofquality in a digital systemis theerrorrate.Low-error-ratechannelsarereadily
obtainable.Whendesired,theeffectsof channelerrorscanbe effectivelyeliminated
with errorcontrolprocedures
implemented
by theuser.
An additionalbenefitof the commontransmission
formatis ttrattraffic from differenttypesof sources
canbeintermixedin a singletransmission
mediumwithoutmutual interference.
The useof a commonffansmissionmediumfor analogsignalsis
sometimes
complicated
because
individualservicesrequiredifferinglevelsof quality.
For example,televisionsignals,whichrequiregreatertransmission
qualitythanvoice
signals,werenot usuallycombinedwith FDM voicechannelsin a widebandanalos
transmission
system[3].
2.1.8 Operabillty at Low Slgnal-to-Noiee/tnteileronceRailos
Noise and inted'erence
in an analogvoice networkbecomemost apparentduring
pauseswhenthesignalamplitudeis low. Relativelysmallamountsof noiseocspeech
curing duringa speechpausecanbe quiteannoyingto a listener.The samelevelsof
noiseor interference
arevirtuallyunnoticeable
whenspeechis present.Henceit is the
absolutenoiselevelof anidle channelthatdetermines
analogspeechquality.Subjective evaluationsof voice quality t4, 5l led to maximumnoiselevel standards
of 2g
dBmcO(-62 dBm0)for short-haulsystemsand34 dBrnc0 (-56 dBm0)for long-haul
systems.For comparison,
the powerlevel of an activetalkeris typically -16 dBm0.

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2.2 DIGITALSIGNALPBOCESSING

81

ratiosin analognetworksare46 and

end-to-endsignal-to-noise
Thusrepresentative
ratioson indiSignal-to-noise
respectively.
systems,
long-haul
for
shortand
40 dB
highervidualhansmissionsystemsarenecessarily
In a digital systemspeechpause$are encodedwith a particulardatapatternand
virBecausesignalregeneration
transmittedat thesamepowerlevelasactivespeech.
medium,idle channelnoiseis detuallyeliminatesall noisearisingin thetransmission
link. Thusspeechpauses
terminedby the encodingprocessandnot thetransmission
do not determinemaximumnoiselevelsastheydo in an analogsystem.As discussed
at signalin Chapter4, digitalfansmissionlinks providevirtuallyerror-freeperformance
to-noiseratiosof 15-25 dB, dependingon thetypeof line codingor modulationused'
more
systemto rejectcrosstalkis sometimes
The ability of a digital transmission
significantrhanits ability to operatein relativelyhigh levelsofrandomnoise.Oneof
of theanalognetin thedesignandmaintenance
considerations
themosttroublesome
The problemwas
work was the needto eliminatecrosstalkbetweenconversations.
mostacuteduringpauseson onechannelwhile an interferingchannelwas at maximum power.At thesetimesrelativelylow level crosstalkwould be noticeable.The
crosstalkwas particularlyundesirableif it was intelligible and thereforeviolated
someone'sprivacy.Again, speechpau$esdo not producelow-amplitudesignalson
digilinks maintaina constant-amplitude
links.Thetransmission
digitaltransmission
process
in
the
regeneration
by
are
eliminated
levels
of
crosstalk
tal signal.Thus,low
a digital repeateror receiver.Evenif thecrosstalkis of sufficientamplitudeto cau$e
detectionerrors,theeffectsappearasrandomnoiseand,as$uch,areunintelligibleConsideringthe fact that a digital systemtypically needsa greaterbandwidththan
a comparableanalogsystemandttratwider bandwidthsimply greatercrosstalkand
noiselevels,the ability to operateat lower SNRsis pafily a requirementof a digital
systemandpartlyan advantage.
2.1.9 Ease of Encryptlon
Althoughmost telephoneusershavelittle needfor voice encryption,the easewith
[6] meansthata digital
which a digitalbit $treamcanbe scrambledandunscrambled
network(or a digitalcellularsystem)providesan extrabonusfor userswith sensitive
In contrast,analogvoiceis muchmoredifficult to encryptandis genconversations.
erally not nearlyassecurea$digitally encryptedvoice.For a discussionof common
seereferences
[7], [8], and[9]. As mentionedpreanalogvoiceencryptiontechniques,
viously,easeof encryptionstimulatedearlyuseof digital voicesystemsby themilitary.

2.2 DIGITALSIGNAL PROCESSING

The precedingparagraphsemphasizethe advantagesof digital technologyin impleof a network.Anothersignificantapmentingthetansmissionandswitching$ystems
plication of digital technologyis the areaof signalprocessing.Basically,signal

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82

WHY DIGITAL?

processingrefers to an operationon a signal to enhanceor transform its characteristics.

Signal processingcan be applied to either analogor digital waveforms. Amplif,rcation,
equalization, modulation, and filtering are cofilmon examples of signal processing
functions.
Digital signal processing(DSP) refers to the use of digital logic and arithmetic circuits to implement signal processingfunctions on digitized signal waveforms. sometimes analog signals are converted to digital representationsfor the expresspurpose
ofprocessing them digitally. Then the digital representationsofthe processedsignals
are converted back to analog. These operationsare illustrated in Figure 2.4, where a
sine wave comrpted by noise is digitally filtered to remove the noise. The main advantagesof digitally processingsignal waveforms are listed in Table 2.2.
It is important to point out that DSP in this context refers to the technology usedto
condition, manipulate, or otherwise transform a signal waveform (a digitizert representationthereof). In another context signal processingrefers to the interpretation of
conffol signalsin a network by the control processorsof switching $ystems.In the latter casethe logical interpretationofa control code is processedand not an underlying
signal waveform

2.2.1 DSPApplications
The following four sectionsidentify applications of DSP that either representlower
cost solutions to functions that have beentraditionally implementedwith analogtechnology or are functions that have no practical implementationcounterpartwith analog
technology.

Echo Cancellers
The cost and pedormanceof DSP echo cancellershave improved to the point that they
can be justified for any long-distancecircuit, thereby providing full-duplex circuits
(no echo suppression)and no artificial attenuation (no via net loss). A particularly
critical needfor echo cancellationoccur$in high-speed,full-duplex data modemsthat
incorporate near-end echo cancellation-an unnece$saryrequirement for voice circuits. Furthermore, low-cost echo canceling enablespacket-switchedvoice applications that inffoduce artificial delays that are not accommodatedin normal analoe

Anrlog
input

Anelog
to
digitrl

Figure 2.4

Dieitd
dFrl
procarEof

Digit l
to
fido0

Digital signal processingof an analog signal.

Anrlog
ouFut

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srcNALPHocE$slNG 83
a.a DrcrrAL
TABLE2.2 DigltalSlgnalProceeslngFeatures
and parasiticelements
The immunityof digitalcircuit$to smallimperfections
Reproducibilitltr
withoutline
characteri$tics
operational
withconsistent
imiliesthatcircuitscanbe pioducdd
or agingtolerances.
adjustments
A single
basicstructurecanbe usedfor a varietyof signaltype.sand
Programmability
-changing
in a digitalmemory.
specification
or parameilic
an algorithmic
by'merely
applications
signalsby
circuitcanbe usedfor multiple
A singledigitalsignalprocessing
Timesharing'.
each
memoryandprocessing
storingtemforaryretuftsbfeachprocessin random-access
lashion.
signalin a cyclic(time-divided)
circuitaredigital.
Automatic
fesfiSincethe inputsandoutputsof a digitalsignalprocessing
storedin
to datapatterns
testresponses
routinely
by comparing
data,testscanbe perlormed
memory.
of digitallogic,digital.signal
capahilities
Because
of thedecision-making
versatititr.
withanalog
or impractical
thatareimpossible
processing
canporformmanyfunctions
implementations.

intedaces. The aclaptationlogic and delay requirementsof a switched network echo

canceller virfually preclude any type of analog implementation.

Tone Receivers
Detectionof DTMF, MF, SF,or otheranalogtonesis easilyandeconomicallyrealized
for the explicitpurposeof
by convertingthe analogsignalsto digitalrepresentations
is evenmoreeconomicalwhen
detectingthe tone.Of course,a DSPimplementation
thetonesarealreadydigitized,whichis thecasewithin a digitalswitch.Theprogrammability featureof a DSPcircuit is particularlyusefulfor tonereceiversbecauseone
canbeusedfor multiplefunctionsby selectingdifferentfilhardwareimplementation
ter options(programs)dependingon the application[10].
Hlgh-Spead Modems
(e.g.,?8.8-kbps)voicebandmoReliableoperation(low bit errorrates)of high-speed
modulation
dems[tI] over the switchedtelephonenetworkrequiressophisticated
signalconditioningreferredto
techniques(describedin Chapter6) anttsophisticated
Theonly practicalway to implementthesefunctionsis with
asadaptiveequalization.
DSPcircuitry.Referenceil21 describesan earlyapplicationof DSPto a 14,400-bps
the useof DSPfor adaptiveequalizationof a 400modem.Reference[13] describes
Mbps digital radio.Previousdigital radiosusedanalogadaptiveequalizersbecause
equalizthey werecheaper.Very-high-ratedigital radiosrequiremoresophisticated
ers,whichareeasierto implement(perhapsonly possible)with DSP.
Low-Bit-Rate Voice E ncodi n g
The realizationof low-bit-ratevoiceencodingalgorithmsdescribedin Chapter3 involve$extensivenumericalprocessingto removeredundancyin the digitizedvoice
samples.DSPtechnologyis the only economicalmeansof implementingthesealgorithmson a real-timebasis.References
[14], [15], and[16] describeDSPimplemenReference
respectively.
voicecoders,
[17]describes
tationsfor32-,16-,and4.8-kbps
to
voice
compression'
of
DSP
application
general
theory
and
moreof the

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84

WHYDIGITAL?

2.3 DISADVANTAGES
OF DIGITALVOICENETWORKS
The first pafr of this chapterdiscussed
the basictechnicaladvantages
of digital networks.To balancethe discussion,
this sectionreviewsthe basictechnicaldisadvantagesof digitalimplemenrarions
aslistedin Table2.3.
2.3.1 IncreaeedBandwidth
In thebrief introductionto voicedigitizationpresented
in Chapter1,mentionis made
thattransmission
of samplesof ananalogwaveformrequiresno morebandwidththan
theunderlyingwaveform(at leastin theory).Thebandwidthexpansioncomeswhen
thesamplesareencodedintobinarycodesandffansmittedwith anindividualpulsefor
eachbit in the code.Thus a Tl systemrequiresapproximatelyeight timesas much
bandwidthasdo 24 analogvoicechannelssinceeachsampleis represented
by an8-bit
codewordandeachbit is transmittedasa separate
discretepulse.Althoughmoresophisticateddigitizationalgorithmscanbe usedto encodevoiceat a lowerbit ratethan
thatusedon Tl systems(64 kbps),eventhemostsophisticated
algorithms(described
in chapter3) cannotprovidecomparable
voicequalitywithoutat leasta rwo-to-one
bandwidthpenalty.
In someportionsof theanalognetwork,suchasthelocalloops,thebandwidthincreasedid not represent
muchof a penaltysincethe inherentbandwidthwas(andis)
underutilized.
In long-haulradiosystems,
however,bandwidthwasat apremium,and
digital systemswererelativelyinefficientin termsof the numberof voicechannels
provided.one mitigatingaspectof a digital radio systemis its ability to overcome
higherlevelsof noiseandinterference,
which sometimes
providescompensation
for
the bandwidthrequirements,
particularlyin congestedtransmissionenvironments
wheremutualinterference
canbecomea limiting consideration
[3]. The inherentrobustnessof a digital systemwith respectto interference
is oneimportantattributeof
digitalcellularsy$tems
describedin Chapter9.
Thebandwidthpenaltyimposedby voicedigitizationis directlydependenr
on the
form of transmission
codingor modulationused.With greatersophistication
in the
modulation/demodulation
equipment,greaterefficiencyin termsof the bit ratein a
givenbandwidthis achievable.
Basically,greatertransmission
efficiencyis achieved
by increasingthenumberof levelsin theline code.With limitedtransmitpower.however,thedistances
betweendiscretesignallevelsin thereceiverarereduceddramatiTABLE2.3 Dlsadvantagesof Digitallmplementatlona
1. Increased
bandwidth
2. Needfortimesynchronization
3. Topologically
restricted
muttiplexing
4. Needfor conference/extension
bridges
5. Incompatibilities
withanaloglacitities

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VOICE
NETWORKS85
OFDIGITAL
2.3 DISADVANTAGES
cally. Thus, the transmitted signal is no longer as immune to noise And other imperfections as it is with lower information densities
Using a combination of advanceddigital modulation, lower rate digitization, and
error-correcting codes,point-to-point digital radios could provide voice channel efficiencies comparableto or even better than analog microwave systems.Full development along these Iines never occuffed, however, becausethe emergenceof optical
fiber transmission eliminated the incentive to do so.

2,3.2 Needfor TimeSynchronlzation

Wheneverdigitalinformationis transmittedfrom oneplaceto another,a timing reference,or "clock," is neededto controlthehansfer.Theclock specifieswhento sample the incomingsignalto decidewhich datavaluewas transmitted.The optimum
to themiddleof thetransmittedpulses.Thus,for opiampletimesusuallycorrespond
to thepulsearrivaltimes'In
timumdetection,the sampleclockmustbe synchronized
ofa localtimingreferencefor detectingthedigitalsignalis not
general,thegeneration
neededto establish
someof the designconsiderations
aimcutt. Chapter4 discusses
linft'
propersampleclockingin thereceiverof a digital transmission
links
More subtleproblemsanse,however,whena numberof digitaltransmission
to form a network.Not only musttheindividualeleandswitchesareinterconnected
mentsof thenetworkmaintaininternalsynchronization,but alsocertainnetworkwide
can
beforetheindividualsubsystems
procedures
mustbe established
synchronization
rethesebasicnetworksynchronization
properly.Chapter7 discusses
interoperate
quirements
andimplementations.
is not uniqueto digital nefivorks'Single'
Theneedfor someform of synchronization
for carriersynchrosystemspresentsimilarrequirements
FDM transmission
sideband
nization in analog networks.In analog sy$tems,however,the synchronization
arelesscriticalby abouttwo ordersof magnitudeI I 8]'
requirements
2.3.3 Topologically Restricted Multlplexing
To the generalpublic,themostapparentuseof multiplexingis broadcastservicesfor
radioandtelevision.In thesesystemstheairspaceis sharedby usingFDM of individual broadcastchannels.With this systemthereare no operationalrestrictionsto the
confine
andreceivers.As long asthetransmitters
geographic
locationof transmitters
theii emissionsto their assignedbandwidthandeachreceiverusesa sufficientlyselective filter to passonly the desiredchannel,the networkoperateswithout mutualinterference.On the other hand, TDM is not nearly as amenableto applications
Sincethe time of ardvalof datain a
involvingdistributedsource$anddestinations.
distributedTDM systemsrequirea
of
havel,
distance
on
the
time slot is dependent
betweenthe
guardtime betweentime slots.FDM systemsalsorequireguardbands
Thewidth ofthe FDM guardbands,
channelseparation.
channelsto achieveadequate
In a TDM
on the geographiclocationof the transmitters.
however,is not dependent
betweentransseparation
asthegeographic
$ystemtheguardtimesmustbe increased

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86

WHY DIGITAL?

mitters increases.Furthermore,eachtime division sourcemust duplicate the synchronization and time slot recognition logic neededto operatea TDM $ystem.For these
reason$,TDM has been usedprimarily in applications(e.g., interoffice trunks) where
all of the information source$are centrally located and a single multiplexer controls
the occurrenceand assignmentof time slots.
Time division multiple access(TDMA) satellites and cellular systemsare examples of applicationsof TDM for distributed sources.These systemsuse sophisticated
synchronizationtechniquesso that each ground station or mobile unit times its hansmission to arrive at the satelliteor basestation at precisely defined times, allowing the
use of small guard times between time slots. Notice that these applications involve
only one destination; a satellite or a base station. If an application involves multiple,
distributed solurcesand destinatians (with transmissionin more than one direction),
larger guard times are unavoidable. Figure 2.5 shows such an application but uses
FDM insteadof TDM. The main engineeringconsiderationfor this systemis to ensure
that the FDM channelshave sufficient isolation to allow a high-powered sourceto be
adjacentto a receiverwith the worst-casereceivelevel. obviously, adequateFDM isolation require$a certain amount of bandwidth overhead,but it is usually fairly easyto
design filters with adequateisolation for a large rangeofsignal levels so distanceconsiderationsare minimized.

2.3.4 Needfor Conference/Extension

Brldges
The processof combining multiple analog signals to form a conferencecaII or function as multiple extensionson a single telephoneline can be accomplishedby merely
bridging the wire pairs togetherto superimposeall signals.Nowhere is this more convenient than when multiple extensions share a single two-wire line, as indicated in
Figure 2.6. When digitized voice signalsare combined to form a conference.either the
signals must be converted to analog so they can be combined on two-wire analog
bridges or the digital signals must be routed to a digital conferencebridge, as shown
in Figure 2.l.The digital bridge selectively adds the (four-wire) signals together (using digital signal processing)and routes separatesumsback to the confereesas shown.
FDM srbchrnnels

Multipoint
trmcni$ion
line

Figure 2.5 Frequencydivisionmultiplexingon distributedmultipointline,

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VOICENETWORKS 87
OF DIGITAL
E.3 DISADVANTAGES

to two-wireline'
connected
Figure 2.6 Analogtelephones
When conferencing is implemented in associationwith a switching system, the
needfor a digital conferencebridge is not much of a disadvantageand in fact can significantly improve the quality of a conferenceby eliminating echoesand signal loss
causedby power division. However, when digital extensionsneedto have their signals
combined so multiple extensionscan be active in a conversation,the need for a centralized bridge can be an onerousproblem. Residentialtelephonewiring typically follows a daisy-chain pattern, as indicated in Figure 2.6. Thus the need to rewire all
outlets and install a centralizedconferencebox is a significant impediment to the deployment of digital station equipment in residential applications'

2.3.5 Incompatibllltieswith Analog Faclllties

Whendigital equipmentwas first usedin privateandpublic telephonenetworks,it
analoginterfacesto therestof thenetwork.Sometimes
providedstandard
necessarily
The foremostexa majorcostof the digitat subsystem.
theseinterfacesrepresented
loop
analogsubscriber
ampleof thissituationarosein digitalendoffices.Thestandard
switching
electronic
in Chapter1 is particularlyincompatiblewith
interfacedescribed
its
machines(analogor digital).Anotheraspectof digital switchingthatcomplicates
mahix'
digital
a
typical
inserted
by
delay
aftificial
is
the
usein analogenvironments
in Chapter5'
Both of theseaspectsof digital switchingarediscussed
Oneway to eliminatetheproblemswith the analoginterfaceis to usedigital subUnfortunately,the overwhelminginvestmentin
scriberloopsanddigital telephones.
deploymentof digital
a widespread
complicates
telephones
plant
for
analog
the loop
thatcomplicate
Practices
equipment.Most notableof thelong-established
subscriLer

Digital
Conference
Bridge
bridgefor digitaltelephones.
Figure 2.7 Useof conference

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88

WHYDIGITAL?

a transitionto digital loopsaresinglewire pairs,loadingcoils,bridgedtaps,-highresistance

or intermittentsplices,and wiring gaugechanges.The digital subscriber
loop systemsdescribedin ChapterI I accommodate
mostof the aboveimpediments
but do sowith very sophisticated
DSp circuip.

REFERENCES
I sft-15-76subscriberRadio,TechnicalDescription,
FarinonsR systems,euebec,

Canada,1977.
2 R. J. Hirvela,"The Applicationof computerconkolled pcM swirchingto Automatic
call Disfibution," IEEE communicafions ,sysfernsand Technology conference,
Dallas,TX, May 1974.
3 M. R. Aaron, "Digital communicarions-The silent (R)evorution?"IEEE
Communications
Magafine,Jan.197g,pp. 16_26.
4 I. Nasell,"The lg62 survey of Noise and Loss on Toll connections."Bel/,svsrern
TechnicalJoumal,Mar. 1964,pp. 697-718.
5 Technical staff, Bell relephone L,aboratories, Transmission systems
for
communications,
westem Electriccompany,winston-salem,North carolina. Feb.
1970.
6 H. J. Hindin, "LSI-BasedDataEncryptionDiscourages
the Data Thief,,,Electronics.
June21, 1979,pp. 107-120.
7 N. S.Jayant,B. J. McDermott,s. w. chrisrensen,
andA. M. Quinn,.-AComparison
of
Four Methods for Analog speech Encryption," Intemational communication,
Conference
Record,1980,pp. 16.6,l-16.6.5.
I A. GershoandR. steele,Ed., "specialIssueon Encryptionof Analogsignals,"rEEE
fournal on Selected
Areasin Communicariorrs,
May 19g4.
9 H. J. Bekerand F. Piper,"speechscrambring,"speechTechnology,Mar,/Apr.
r9g7,
pp.40-45.
l0 A. Fukui andY. Fujihashi,"A single-chip,4-channelMFATFC/PBReceiver,"IEEE
GlobecomConference Remrd, 1987,pp. I 2.6.I - I 2.6.4.
I I "A Modemoperatingat DatasignalingRatesUp to 2g,gfi)bpsfor use on rheGeneral
switchedTelephoneNetwork and on Leasedpoint-to-point2-wire Telephone_Type
Circuits,"ITU-T Rec.V.34, Geneva,Switzerland,Sept.1994.
12 T. Kamitake,K. uehara,M. Abe, and s. Kawamura,"rrellis coding 14.4kb/s Dara
ModemImplemented
with a single-chip High-speedDigital signatilocessor,"rEEE
GlobecomConferenceRecord,I 987,pp. I 2.9.I - I 2.9.6.
13 H. Matsue,T. shirato, and K. watanabe,"256 eAM 400 Mb/s MicrowaveRadio
system with DSP Fading countermeasures,"
IEEE International conferenceon
Communications,
I 988,pp.41.5.l-41.5.6.
14 J' L. so' "Implementarionon an NIC (Nearly Insrantaneous
companding)
32 kbps
Transcoderusing the TMS320cz5 Digital signal hocessor," IEEE Globecom
ConferenceRecord,1988,pp. 43.4.1-43.4.5.
A bridg+'d tap is an unused pair of wires connected at some point to an in-use pair as alother
extension or
for possible future reassignment of a cable pair.

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