CMR

INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY

USN

Internal Assessment Test 1 March 2016

Computer Networks II

Sub:
Date:

15/ 03/ 16

Duration:

90 mins

Max Marks:

50

Sem:

VI Sem

Code:
Branch:

10CS64
ISE

Note: Answer any five questions.

1

Explain the internal network operation of the network with a neat diagram
Essential function of network:
The essential function of network is to transfer information among the users that are
attached to the network.
Transfer of information may be single block of information or sequence of blocks as
shown in below figure. 1.

Fig.1.a. A network transfers information among users

In case of single block of information, we are interested in having the block delivered
correctly to destination and also interested in delay experienced in traversing the network.
In case of sequence of blocks, we are interested not only in receiving the blocks correctly
and in right sequence.
Network service can be Connection-oriented service or connectionless service
Connectionless service:
Connectionless service is simple with two basic interactions (1) a request to network
layer that it send a packet (2) an indication from the network layer that a packet has
arrived
It puts total responsibility of error control, sequencing and flow control on the end
system transport layer
Connection-oriented service

The Transport layer cannot request transmission of information until a connection is

established between end systems

Network layer must be informed about the new flow
Network layer maintains state information about the flows it is handling
During connection set up, parameters related to usage and quality of services may be
negotiated and network resources may be allocated
Connection release procedure may be required to terminate the connection

It is also possible for a network layer to provide a choice of services to the user of
network like:

best-effort connectionless services

Low delay connectionless services
Connection oriented reliable stream services
Connection oriented transfer of packets with guaranteed delay and bandwidth

End To End argument for system design

The end to end argument in system design state that an end-to-end function is best
implemented at higher level than at a lower level.
The reason is that the correct end-to-end implementation requires all intermediate
low-level components to operate correctly.
The higher-level components at the ends are in better position to determine that a
function has been carried out correctly and in better position to take corrective
action if they have not.
Keeping the core of the network simple and adding the necessary complexity at the edge
enhances the scalability of the network to larger size and scope
Internal network operation

The fig 1.b. above shows the relation between the service offered by the network and the
internal network operation
The internal operation of the network is connectionless if packets are transferred within
the network as datagrams
Each packets are routed independently
Packets follow different paths from end to end and arrive out of order
The internal operation of the network is connection-oriented if packets follow a virtual
circuit along a path that has been established from source to destination.

 Virtual circuit setup is done once, then packets are simply forwarded
If resources are reserved then bandwidth, delay and loss guarantees are provided.
Network layer essentials
The Functions that need to be carried out at every node in the Network Layer are: Routing: mechanisms for determining the set of best paths for routing packets requires
the collaboration of network elements
Forwarding: transfer of packets from NE inputs to outputs
Priority & Scheduling: determining order of packet transmission in each NE
Optional: congestion control, segmentation & reassembly, security
2

For the network given bellow

a) Use the Dijkstras algorithm to find the set of shortest paths from node 1 to other nodes.
b) Find the set of associated routing table entries.

Suppose that ATM cells arrive at the leaky bucket policing device at time slots
t=2,3,6,9,11,16,23,24 ,25. Assume I=4 and L=6. Plot the bucket content and identify any
non confirming cells.
Ans : 11 is non confirming cell

Explain the leaky bucket algorithm for policing the traffic at flow level
Traffic Management at the Flow Level
Management of individual traffic flows & resource allocation to ensure delivery of QoS (e.g.
Delay, jitter, loss)
Traffic management at flow level operates on the order of milliseconds to seconds.
It is concerned with managing the individual traffic flow to ensure the QoS (e.g. delay,
jitter, loss) requested by user is satisfied.
The purpose of Traffic Management at the Flow Level is to control the flows of traffic
and maintain performance even in presence of traffic overload.
The process of managing the traffic flow in order to control congestion is called
congestion control.
Congestion occurs when a surge of traffic overloads network resources
Open-loop control and closed-loop control are the two logical approaches of congestion
control.
Open-Loop Control

It prevents congestion from occurring.

It does not depend on feedback information to react to congestion.

Network performance is guaranteed to all traffic flows that have been admitted
into the network
It depends on three Key Mechanisms and they are:-

Admission Control
Policing
o Traffic Shaping
o
o

Policing

Network monitors traffic flows continuously to ensure they meet their traffic contract.

The process of monitoring and enforcing the traffic flow is called policing.
When a packet violates the contract, network can discard or tag the packet giving it
lower priority
If congestion occurs, tagged packets are discarded first.
Leaky Bucket Algorithm is the most commonly used policing mechanism

Bucket has specified leak rate for average contracted rate

Bucket has specified depth to accommodate variations in arrival rate
o Arriving packet is conforming if it does not result in overflow
o
o

Leaky Bucket algorithm can be used to police arrival rate of a packet stream
Fig. 4. a. Leaky Bucket

Let X = bucket content at last conforming packet arrival

Let ta be last conforming packet arrival time = depletion in bucket

Fig.4.b. Leaky bucket algorithm used for policing

The above figure shows the leaky bucket algorithm that can be used to police the
traffic flow.
At the arrival of the first packet, the content of the bucket is set to zero and the last
conforming time (LCT) is set to the arrival time of the first packet.
The depth of the bucket is L+I, where l depends on the traffic burstiness.
At the arrival of the kth packet, the auxiliary variable X records the difference
between the bucket content at the arrival of the last conforming packet and the
inter arrival time between the last conforming packet and the kth packet.
If the auxiliary variable is greater than L, the packet is considered as
nonconforming, otherwise the packet is conforming. The bucket content and the
arrival time of the packet are then updated.
Leaky Bucket Example: - The operation of the leaky bucket algorithm is illustrated in
the below figure.7.c.

Fig. 7.c. Behavior of Leaky Bucket

Here the value I is four packet times, and the value of L is 6 packet times.

The arrival of the first packet increases the bucket content by four (packet times).
At the second arrival the content has decreased to three, but four more are added to
the bucket resulting in total of seven.
The fifth packet is declared as nonconforming since it would increase the content to
11, which would exceed L+I (10).
Packets 7, 8, 9 and 10 arrive back to back after the bucket becomes empty. Packets
7, 8 and 9 are conforming, and the last one is nonconforming.
Non-conforming packets not allowed into bucket & hence not included in
calculations.

Explain with a neat diagram TCP/IP architecture.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite has four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport,
and application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-tonetwork layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers. The
internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly
doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers with the transport layer
in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer.

Fig.5. TCP/ IP model and its protocol suite

TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides
a specific functionality. TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols
that can be mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system. The term
hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one or more lower-level
protocols

host to-network layers

The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens here, except
to point out that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can send
IP packets to it. This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to
network. It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP
internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.
Internet Layer
At this layer, TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The
term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assumes the
unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmission through to its
destination, but with no guarantees.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be
duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however. IP
provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilities
necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a
physical address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface
card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address
is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected
to a network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.
Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and
gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends
query and error reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layer
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and

UDP. IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical
device to another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process. A new transport layer
protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
User Datagram Protocol : The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two
standard TCPIIP transport protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only
port addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper
layer.
Transmission Control Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context,
means connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.
At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units
called segments. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are
carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each
datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines
the best features of UDP and TCP.
Application Layer
The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early
ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP),
as shown in Fig.1. The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto
a distant machine and work there. The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data
efficiently from one machine to another. Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file
transfer, but later a specialized protocol (SMTP) was developed for it. Many other
protocols have been added to these over the years: the Domain Name System (DNS) for
mapping host names onto their network addresses, NNTP, the protocol for moving
USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World
Wide Web, and many others.
6

What is the need of hierarchical routing? Explain the advantages of hierarchical routing
with an example
The hierarchical approach reduces the size of the routing tables at the routers in assigning
the addresses.
Hosts that are near each other (i.e. a group) should have addresses that have common
prefixes. The routers examine only part of the address (i.e.. the prefix) to decide
how a packet should be routed.
Figure 6. gives an example of hierarchical address assignment and a flat address
assignment.

 In figure (a) the hosts at each of the four sites have the same prefix. Thus the two routers
need only maintain tables with four entries as shown.
On the other hand, if the addresses are not hierarchical (Figure 6), then the routers
need to maintain 16 entries in their routing tables.

7.a.

Explain traffic management at packet level. Consider packet-by-packet fair queuing with 3
logical buffers and with a service rate of 1 unit/second. Show the sequence of
transmissions for this system for the following packet arrival pattern.
Buffer1: Arrival at time t=0, Length=2, arrival at t=4, length=1
Buffer2: Arrival at time t=1, Length=3, arrival at t=2, length=1
Buffer 3: Arrival time t=3, Length=5

Solution: The packet-by-packet fair queueing system selects the order of packet
transmission according to the finish times in an emulated fluid flow system. The
first figure below shows the times at which the various packets arrive and the
length of the packets. The red triangles indicate packet arrivals at buffer 1; blue at
buffer 2; and green at buffer 3. The rate at which packets are serviced is the
reciprocal of the number of active buffers at the time. The second figure below
shows how the round number R(t) grows as a function of time. The slope of R(t) is
the reciprocal of the number of active stations. A given packet finishes service in
the fluid flow system when the round number reaches the finish time computed for
the given packet.

7.b

Explain fair queuing at the packet level. show the transmission sequences for field flow
and packet by packet system considering the two logical buffers(buffer1, buffer2).Assume
each has a single L bit packet to transmit at t=0 and no sub sequent packets arrive, assume
C=L bits/second =1packet/second

8.a.

A host in an organization has an IP address150.32.64.34 and a subnet mask 255.255.240.0.

What is the address of this subnet? What is the range of IP addresses that a host can have
on this subnet?

8.b

Perform CIDR aggregation on the /24 IP address 200.96.86.0/24,200.96.87.0/24,

200.96.88.0/24,200.96.89.0/24