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Chapter 4: E-Learning

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4.1 Preamble
4.2 What is e-learning?
4.3 Why e-learning?
4.4 Continuum of approaches in
e-learning
4.5 E-learning pedagogical
framework
4.6 Learning outcomes

4.7 Learning outcomes achieved

with technology - Jonassen
and others
4.8 Learning outcome achieved
with technology Bloom
4.9 Conclusion
Summary
Key Terms
Reference

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

Define what is e-Learning

Explain the benefits of e-learning
Evaluate the components of the e-learning framework
Justify the use of learning outcomes
Explain what is meaningful learning
Discuss the six levels of Blooms taxonomy

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Chapter 4: E-Learning
4.1 PREAMBLE
This chapter introduces the concept of e-learning and how it has been variously
defined and its benefits. Focus is on an E-Learning Framework and the different
components that interact to produce the desired learning outcomes. Emphasis is on
how e-learning can be implemented at all levels of education; from preschool to
university.
4.2 WHAT IS E-LEARNING?
The emergence of web technologies and tools has seen a resurgence in the
adoption of e-learning in education and training. Besides web technologies, the vast
amount of resources available on the web (for which much is free) has prompted
several educational institutions to aggregate and re-package them for use as learning
materials in various disciplines and areas of study. Despite these advancements,
technology is not being used innovatively in education though it may sit quite
comfortably within current teaching and learning. It may partly be due to the lack of
conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of these tools and technologies in enhancing
teaching and learning. At the very best, e-learning tends to be confined to a small
circle of individuals, which is representative of the situation in Malaysia.
The word has been written in many different ways: e-Learning, eLearning,
ELearning, E-Learning. Besides that, other terms have been used interchangeably
with e-learning and they include:

online learning
online education
technology-based learning/ training
web-based learning /training
computer-based training (generally thought of as learning from a CD-ROM)

To add to the confusion there are also many definitions on what it means and the
following are some examples:

E-Learning is instruction delivered on a computer by way of CD-ROM,

internet or intranet with the following features: includes content relevant to the
learning objective, uses instructional methods such as examples and practice
to help learning, uses media elements such as words and pictures to deliver the
content and methods, builds a new knowledge and skills linked to individual
learning goals or to improved organisational performance.
[R.C. Clark and R.E.Mayer, 2003]

E-Learning is the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of

solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. It is networked, delivered
to the end-user via a computer using standard internet technology and focuses
on the broadest view of learning [Marc Rosenburg, 2001]

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

The convergence of the Internet and learning, or Internet-enabled learning.

The use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate
learning, anytime and anywhere [CISCO Systems, 2007].

E-Learning covers a wide set of applications and processes, such as web-based

learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital
collaboration. It includes the delivery of content via internet, intranet/extranet
(LAN/WAN), audio- and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and
CD-ROM [ASTD Learning Circuits, 2004].

E-Learning is the confluence of three social and technical developments:

distance learning, computer-conveyed education, and internet technologies. ELearning does not change how humans learn, but is does change how we teach
them [Horton, 2000].]

Nick can Dam (2004) argue that e-Learning is no longer a new phenomenon,
but has not ceased to be a hot topic. Many educational institutions and industrt are
discovering what works and what doesn't work in the brave new world of e-learning.
E-Learning is a broad term used to describe learning done at a computer. The use of
network technologies has enabled developers to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate
learning, anytime and anywhere. It has made learning accessible to more people and
to keep ahead of the rapidly changing global economy.
E-learning allows one to learn anywhere and usually at any time, as long as
you have a properly configured computer. E-learning can be CD-ROM based,
network-based, intranet-based or internet-based. It can include text, video, audio,
animation and virtual environments. It can be a very rich learning experience that can
take place in primary school, secondary school, colleges, universities and training
organisations.
4.3 WHY E-LEARNING?
Why e-Learning? E-learning has certain benefits compared to traditional classroom
teaching. The most obvious being flexibility with learners not having to leave their
place of work or having to travel long distances. The other benefits are as follows:

Self-Paced Good e-Learning courses are self-instructional in that they allow

the learners to learn at his or her own pace accommodating the different
learning styles of learners through a variety of activities. It allows learners to
skip what they already know and understand and focus on parts that they need
to learn. For example, at Khan Academy there are hundreds of video clips
teaching key concepts in algebra, calculus, physics, chemistry and biology
which learners can study at their own pace. [http://www.khan.academy]

Consistency E-Learning provides a consistent message and eliminates

problems associated with different instructors teaching different things on the
same subject which can be critical for some disciplines.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

Easy to Update Content E-Learning permit content developers to update

content using resources from the web. Content developers an package and
repackage essential information for learners to access by simply uploading to a
server.

Provision of Content With most learning materials made available to

learners, instructors can then concentrate on high-level activities.

Increased Understanding E-Learning may lead to a stronger grasp of the

subject because content is organised based on principles and elements that are
combined to reinforce the message, such as video, audio, quizzes, interaction,
feedback and so forth. There is also the ability to revisit or replay sections of
the lesson that might not have been clear the first time around. Try that in a
crowded auditorium!

Increased Participation It is possible that learners who would not normally

talk in class may be encouraged to participate in online discussion because of
the anonymity. Records of discussion allow for later reference through the use
of threaded discussion on online forums.

Encourages Independent Learning e-Leaning encourage learners to take

responsibility for their learning and succeeding builds self-knowledge and
self-confidence. It also encourages students to browse information through
hyperlinks to sites on the worldwide Web and there by find information
relevant to their personal situations. It allows students to select learning
materials, or to be directed to content that meets their level of knowledge,
interest and what they need to know to perform more effectively.

4.1 LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Based on the several definitions of e-learning, identify the

words that are common in these definitions.
b) To what extent do you agree on the benefits of e-learning?
Is this true of your educational institution?

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Chapter 4: E-Learning
4.4 CONTINUUM OF APPROACHES IN E-LEARNING

Implementation of e-learning can be seen as a continuum, depending on the

approach adopted by the educational or training organisation. See Figure 4.1 which
shows the two ends of the continuum; i.e. conventional face-to-face teaching &
learning and fully online teaching & learning. For convenience, the phrase
conventional teaching is used to denote teaching is conducted solely face-to-face
whether it be in the classroom, tutorial room, laboratory or workshop at the primary,
secondary or tertiary level of education. The extent to which e-learning is adopted
together with conventional teaching may vary with the institution and pedagogical
strategy adopted.
In the Conventional Teaching approach, all content is provided by the
teacher in face-to-face sessions with learners. He or she interacts with students in the
class, answering questions, demonstrating and solving problems. This is common in
schools, colleges and universities. The instructor-centred approach has also been
described as instructivist in which the instructor is in charge and learners are
passive recipients of information.

Degree of Blending

Figure 4.1 Conventional and Online Teaching Continuum

On the other hand of the continuum, is what is termed as Online Distance

Learning, where the learner has access to all learning materials (notes, powerpoint
slides, e-books, video & audio clips) from the web. There is no face-to-face
interaction and the learner is left all alone and independently goes through the content.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

However, the learner interacts with the tutor and other students through the online
forum and chat room or even through video and audio conferencing.
In between these extremes, are several variations of e-learning and this has
termed as the blended approach. It depends on the design of the e-learning approach
adopted. For example, an institution may adopt a blended approach which combines
both face-to-face teaching and e-learning. The blend can vary from 70% face-to-face
and 30% e-learning where learners are encouraged to spend time discussing key
concepts and principles online or doing a group project online using a wiki or chatting
live with an online tutor. Computer-mediate communication in the form of discussion
forum, chat room, audio and video conferencing are available in which learners
interact with the instructor and other learners. There is still face-to-face interaction but
the contact time has been reduced. The role of the instructor fades to that of a
facilitator. The facilitator/instructor meets learners at specific intervals (such as once
every 4 week over a 14 week semester). All learning materials are made available on
the web which learners can download. Learners are given freedom to purse topics
which they want to and schedule their own time between face-to-face sessions.
Some e-Learning courses deliberately shift between the instructor-centred to
learner-centred approach during the progress of the course. The course may start with
the instructor firmly in charge, setting the pace, giving assignments, presenting
information and grading results. As the course progresses, the instructors role fades,
with the instructors responsibilities being taken up by learners discussing among
themselves. By the end of the course, learners are prepared to apply their learning
alone.
Research has shown that most people enjoy and learn better through social
interaction, and that there is a basic truth in the statement that learning is a social
activity [Remember this was mentioned by Vygotsky in Chapter 2]. As technical and
infrastructural issues associated with the Internet and computing become less of a
constraint it may be possibly for learning to migrate more toward collaborative
learning.

4.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY

B0

a) Compare the differences between conventional and online

teaching
b) What is blended learning? Do you think more schools
would be adopting blended learning? Why not?

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Chapter 4: E-Learning
4.5 E-LEARNING PEDAGOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Some people think that e-learning is transplanting the classroom model to a

virtual space. It is not!. It is a teaching-learning environment that requires a change in
mindset among educators where teachers and learners cannot see one another, at
least not in the physical sense or at least reduced face-to-face contact. The body-less
realm of interaction has huge implications for traditional ways of teaching and
communicating. Laurillard (2006) argues that e-learning has the potential to be
disruptive because it calls upon educators to shift their thinking and attitudes from
current practice. It has the potential to support and promote a transformative view of
learning. It is not another fad or another swing of the pendulum, but more a way to
achieve the educational ideas of a post-industrial or knowledge society. Hence, there
is an urgent need for all levels of education (primary, secondary, tertiary) to take
advantage of these emerging tools and technologies while keeping in mind how
humans learn to propose innovative pedagogical strategies.
The e-learning pedagogical framework proposed is based on a cognitiveconstructivist theory of learning facilitated by web tools and technologies. It provides
a comprehensive framework guiding the design and development of e-learning or
online courses that engage learners in meaningful learning. The framework consists of
the following 3 key components (see Figure 4.1):

Technology Design
Content Design
Learning Design

The framework emphasises the transformative interaction between technology design,

content design and learning design.
a) Technology Design
Technology design specifically refers to the technological tools adopted that
will facilitate meaningful learning. Examples of these tools is the Learning
Management System (LMS), social media tools, online testing tools and so
forth. For example, Moodle which is an open source learning management
system has been adopted in many school, colleges, universities and training
institutions in Malaysia and all over the world. Together with Moodle are a
wide range of tools to support meaningful learning such as tools to manage
resources (documents, lessons, glossary), tools to support communication
(forums, chat, blog, wiki), tools to enable group work (wiki, database, forums,
glossary), tools to support assessment (quizzes, assignments, Turnitin
integration, gradebook) and tools to manage administration (groups, calendar,
usage reports, gradebook, questionnaires [This component of the E-Learning
Framework is explained in more detail in Chapter 5 Technology Design]

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

b) Content Design
Content design refers to the development and aggregation of content that will
promote the desired learning boutcomes. This includes profiling the learner,
stipulation of the aims, objectives & learning outcomes of the course,
principles guiding selection of content and sequencing of content, guidelines
on writing style, user-friendliness and physical layout presentation [This
component of the E-Learning Framework is explained in more detail in
Chapter 6 Content Design]

VIRTUAL
LEARNING
PLATFORM
LEARNING
ACTIVITIES

Technology
Design

Learning
Design

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

Content
Design

E-CONTENT PRINCIPLES

Figure 4.2: An E-Learning Pedagogical Framework Promoting

Meaningful Learning

c) Learning Design
Learning design is the deliberate choices about what, when, where and how to
teach. It is the task of getting learners to interact with the content supported by
appropriate tools and technologies. It may be summarised as the design of
activities that will spur:
Learner-Content interaction
Learner-Learner interaction; and
Learner-Teacher interaction

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Chapter 4: E-Learning
Learning design is facilitated though Learning Activities which are the
tasks and exercises that assist students in making meaning from the contents
of a subject or course. Learning activities which may include small group
discussion, project work, debates, role playing, simulations, games and so
forth are designed to ensure that the learner grasps the knowledge easily,
retains the knowledge successfully, and is capable of transferring the
knowledge through application in a real world situation (Teo & Williams,
2006). [This component of the E-Learning Framework is explained in more
detail in Chapter 7 Learning Design]
d) Learning Outcomes
Whatever one does in the classroom, the key question that will be asked by
teachers; is whether learning will be enhanced or improved. The framework
predicts that the interface between technology, content and learning design
will result in enhanced learning (Jonassen, Howland, Mara & Crismond,
2007; Laurillard, 2003). Teachers will not be persuaded to use technology
unless they can be convinced that their students will understand better, are
able to remember, are able to apply concepts, are able to solve problems, are
able to create and so forth. [This component of the E-Learning Framework
is explained in more detail in this chapter]
4.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY

B0

a) What is the difference between technology & content

design?
b) Do you agree that teachers will only be convinced to use
technology if it can be shown that they enhance learning?

4.6 LEARNING OUTCOMES

A) WHAT ARE LEARNING OUTCOMES?

If you ask teachers what they expect from their students. The following are some
likely responses:

I want kids to tell me all about what they have learned.

Most important is that they can learn and grasp the information.
They can pass exams with flying colours.
The leave my classroom as knowledgeable individuals.
I want my students to be independent learners.
I expect my students to use punctuation correctly and have good grammar.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

Learning outcomes are statements of what a learner can be expected to know,

understand and/or demonstrate after completion of a subject, course or module.
In other words, it describes the knowledge, skills, value, attitudes and abilities
that will be developed after students had completed a subject or course. Learning
outcomes are stipulated not only at the subject, course or module level; but also at the
level of individual lessons. For example, at the end of a 40 minute lesson, students
should be able to differentiate between living things & non-living things in a primary
science class. Here, a learning outcome has been translated from the Programme level
to the level of a single lesson.

Lesson
Learning
Outcomes

Subject
Learning
Outcomes

e.g. Science

Curriculum
Learning
Outcomes
e.g. Primary
School
Curriculum

e.g. Difference between

living & non-living
things

[source: adaptation of Academic info. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

http://akademik.upsi.edu.my]
Figure 4.2 Translation of learning outcomes from the programme level
to the lesson level

The Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) defines learning outcomes as specific,

doable, measurable, assessable and student-centered statements as to what a student
will be able to do at the end of a period of study. Note the key words in the statement:

Specific
Doable
Understandable
Measureable

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

The creation of learning outcomes is not a precise science and they require
considerable thought to write. It is easy to get them wrong and create a learning strait
jacket. Dror, Schmidt & OConnor (2011) argue that technology can be a very
powerful tool in achieving these learning outcomes, but only if it is used correctly.
B) WHY STATE LEARNING OUTCOMES?

It is not what you teach (content design) or what technology

(technology design) you use that counts; the focus must be on what
the students learn (learning outcomes). What knowledge and skills
the learners acquire, what they will remember in the long term and
apply to their practice.
- Dror, Schmidt & OConnor, 2011

The above statement is the crux of the E-Learning Framework and is the concern of
most teachers. Teachers will be motivated to incorporate technology in their
classroom if they enhance and contribute to learning; i.e. ..the focus must be on what
the students learn...what they will remember in the long term and apply to their
practice. The stipulation of learning outcomes tends to make your teaching more
student-centred; a shift from the content of a subject (what you teach) and towards
what students will be able to do on successful completion of your lesson, topic or
subject.
Learning outcomes can:
help to guide students in their learning in that they explain what is expected
of them, in turn helping them to succeed in their studies.
help teachers to focus on exactly what they want students to achieve in terms
of both knowledge and skills.
provide a useful guide to inform the community what students should be able
to do. Example; what knowledge and skills does a student who has completed
UPSR possess; what knowledge and skills does a student who has completed
PMR possess and so forth [Not so much the number of As obtained!].

B) CHECKLIST ON LEARNING OUTCOMES

Table 4.1 is a checklist that you can use to evaluate whether your learning
outcomes meet the criteria of a good learning outcome.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

YES

NO

Does the outcome support the program objectives?

Does the outcome describe what the program intends
for students to know (cognitive), think (affective, attitudinal), or
do (behavioral, performance)?
Is the outcome important/worthwhile
Is the outcome detailed and specific?
Is the outcome Measurable/identifiable?
Is the outcome A result of learning?
Do you have or can you create an activity to enable students to
learn the desired outcome?
Can the outcome be used to make decisions on how to improve
the programme?
Table 4.1 Checklist to evaluate learning outcomes
[source: Lora Scagliola, URI Student Affairs, 6/24/2007 Drawn in part from: Keeling &
Assiciates, Inc. (2003, January). Developing Learning Outcomes That Work. Atlanta, GA]

4.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY

B0

a) What are learning outcomes? Do you agree that learning

outcomes are beneficial?
b) List the characteristics of good learning outcomes
c) Do you agree that teachers are too busy trying to complete
the syllabus rather then focusing on what learners can do?

4.7 LEARNING OUTCOMES ACHIEVED WITH TECHNOLOGY

Jonassen and others

David Jonassen, Distinguished Professor of Education at the School of

Information Science and Learning Technologies,

University of Missouri-Columbia suggests that
technology can be a powerful tool to facilitate
meaningful learning. He laments over the fact that
American schools have become testing factories
where students from kindergarten till secondary
schools are too preoccupied in taking tests [Isnt
this the same complain in Malaysian schools!]. He
is most concerned that the current generation of

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

students will complete their schooling knowing only how to take tests....with no
attempt to understand the knowledge being tested (Jonassen, Howland, Marra &
Crismond, 2008).

The tests assess skills and knowledge that are detached from their
everyday experience, so they have little meaning. The testing process
is individual, so students are enjoined from cooperating with others.
The tests represent only a single form of knowledge representation,
so students are not able to develop conceptual understanding, which
requires representing what you know in multiple ways. Simply stated,
learning to take tests does not result in meaningful learning (Jonassen,
Howland, Marra & Crismond, 2008, p.2).

In their book. Meaningful Learning with Technology (2008), Jonassen,

Howland, Marra & Crismond argue that technology can provide students with
opportunities to engage in meaningful learning. What is meaningful learning?
MEANINGFUL LEARNING takes place when the activities or the teaching
techniques students engage in are intentional or goal directed, allow for active
learning, lead to the construction of knowledge, tasks are authentic, and learners
work collaboratively (see Figure 4.2).

Intentional

Colloborative

Authentic

Active

Constructive

Figure 4.2 Types of Learning Outcomes and Meaningful Learning

[source: Jonassen et. al. Meaningful learning with technology, p. 3, 2008]

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

INTENTIONAL
Learning is goal-directed, i.e. everything that we do is intended to fulfil some goal.
Students learn to achieve a goal and technology can be used to enable learners to
understand better and learning meaningfully.
ACTIVE
Meaningful learning requires learners to be actively engaged in a meaningful task in
which they manipulate objects and the environment they are working in and observing
the results of their manipulations.
CONSTRUCTIVE
Besides being active, the learner should be involved in the construction of meaning on
what they have learning. Learners should reflect on their experiences by integrating
their new experiences with their prior knowledge.. Essential that learners articulate
what the lessons thy have learned from the learning activity. The active and
constructive parts of the meaning making process are symbiotic. They both rely on
the other for meaning making to occur.
AUTHENTIC
Most learning in school and higher education tends to involve the memorisation of
concepts and principles that are then applied to canned problems, meaning that they
are far removed from their natural context. Meaningful learning has to be is embedded
in real-life and authentic situations to allow learners to practice using the concepts and
principles learned.
COLLABORATIVE
Humans build knowledge in groups or as a community. In the real world, humans
work with others to help solve problems and perform tasks. Then why do educators
insist that learners work independently so much of the time? Schools generally
function based on the belief that learning is an independent process, so learners
seldom have the opportunity to "do anything that counts" in collaborative teams
despite their natural inclinations. When students collaborate . without permission,
educators may even accuse them of cheating.

4.4 LEARNING ACTIVITY

B0

a) What is meaningful learning?

b) What did Jonassen et.al mean by learning should take
place in authentic situations?
c) Do you agree that collaborative learning is important
today? Why?

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

Based on the concept of meaningful learning, Jonassen et. al (2008) suggests the
following roles for technologies in supporting meaningful learning:

Using technology to access information from the vast resources available on

the web; for comparing perspectives, beliefs and worldviews. e.g. the different
opinions on how young children should be taught to read
Using technology to provide authentic situations such as simulations, case
studies, real-world problems and so forth
Using technology to support knowledge construction such as making available
opportunities for students to contribute towards the construction of ideas and
knowledge
Using technology as a social medium to support collaborative learning which
allows for discussion, arguments and building consensus among students
Using technology as an intellectual partner to support learning by reflection
by allowing students to reflect on what they have learned and how they come
to know it
Using technology to allow students to articulate (to show) and represent what
they know

4.8 LEARNING OUTCOMES ACHIEVED WITH TECHNOLOGY

Benjamin Bloom
When one is discussing about learning outcomes, the works of Benjamin
Bloom and associates in 1956 cannot be ignored. It is perhaps the most widely used
taxonomy guiding the design and development of learning outcomes. It has stood the
test of time and is used at all levels of education; from primary to tertiary education;
even though several other taxonomies have been introduced since the 50s. Bloom
proposed a taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes consisting of SIX levels (see
Figure 4.2). There are six levels in Blooms classification with the lowest level termed
remembering which is followed by five increasingly difficult levels of mental
abilities: understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating.

REMEMBERING:
Obviously, when we teach a particular lesson, we want students to be able to
remember what has been taught. What is remember? It is the ability to
list, define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell, label, underline, locate,
select, and so forth. For example, you could a learning in which you want
students to be able to list the factors leading to the downfall of the Melaka
Sultanate; or define photosynthesis, state the formula for calculating specific
density, and label the parts of the human eye.

UNDERSTANDING:
Another phrase that is often used by teachers is, I want students to
understand. What do you mean by understand? Oftentimes, we equate
understanding with being able to recall or identify. According to Bloom, it is

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Chapter 4: E-Learning
much more than remembering, because it involves a higher mental ability.
When a student understands something, he or she is able to explain,
distinguish, infer, interpret, convert, generalise, defend, estimate, extend,
paraphrase, retell in using own words, predict, rewrite, summarise, translate
and so forth. For example, to infer is to go beyond the given information; to
paraphrase is to translate words and phrases into ones own words and so
forth. For example, students should be able to explain in their own words the
meaning of a poem; be able to interpret a graph.

Figure 4.3 Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes

[source: B. Bloom & others. Taxonomy of cognitive outcomes, 1956]

APPLYING:
You often hear that students are unable to apply the concept learned to the real
world! The ability to apply is a significant learning outcomes in many
different subjects. It requires the learner to apply a concept, principle, or rule
learned in the classroom to into novel or new situations in the real world.
How do you identify a student is able to apply? According to Bloom, a
student is able to apply when he or she is able to compute, demonstrate,
discover, manipulate, modify, give an example, operate, predict, prepare,
produce, relate, show, solve, use and so forth. For example, students should be
able to use the formula for projectile motion to calculate the maximum
distance a long jumper can jump; be able to apply statistics to evaluate the

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

reliability of a written test, be able to predict the consequences of continued

government subsidies.

ANALYSING:
The ability to analyse is a powerful thinking skill that should be inculcated at
all levels of education. What is analysing? Generally, analysing requires the
student to identify component parts and describe their relationship; break
down material or concepts into its component parts, distinguishes between
facts and inferences and so forth. According to Bloom, the student who is able
to analyse is able to break down, compare, contrast, deconstruct, dissect,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select,
separate and so forth. For example, students should be able to troubleshoot a
piece of equipment by using logical deduction; should be able to recognise
logical fallacies in reasoning; should be able to gather information from a
company and determine needs for training.

EVALUATING:
Evaluating is often associated with critical thinking. In other words, students
who are able to evaluate are good critical thinkers. What is evaluation or
critical thinking? Generally, evaluating is making judgment about events,
materials and methods; and making judgment about the value of ideas or
materials. In other words, it involves judging whether a statement or idea is
good or bad and being able to defend ones position. According to Bloom, the
student who is able to evaluate is able to appraise, compare, conclude,
contrast, criticise, defend, rank, give an opinion, discriminate, explain,
interpret, value, justify, relate, summarise, support and so forth. For example,
students are able to evaluate and decide on the most effective solution to a
problem, justify the choice of a new procedure or course of action.

Figure 4.4 Knowledge creation requires one to

acquire first

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

CREATING:

Creating is often associated with creative thinking should be developed at all

levels of education. Generally, creating require the learner to build a
structure or pattern from diverse elements, put parts together to form a whole
with emphasis on creating new meaning, structure, object or procedure. It has
been suggested that before one can create something new or novel, one must
acquire knowledge and then to critically evaluate the knowledge, i.e.
knowledge deepening (see Figure 4.4). According to Bloom, the student who
is able to create is one who can categorise, combine, compile, compose,
create, devise, design, explain, generate, modify, organise, plan, rearrange,
reconstruct, relate, reorganise, find an unusual way, formulate, revise,
rewrite, summarise, tell, write and so forth. For example, students are able to
write a creative short story, design a method to perform a specific task,
integrate ideas from several sources to solve a problem, revise and process to
improve the outcome.

EXAMPLE OF LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

EXAMPLE OF THE CONTENTS OF A

SUBJECT:

Facts
Concepts
Graphs
Diagrams
Artefacts
Movement
Theories

Numbers
Principles
Tables
Pictures
Procedures
Drawings
Laws

Formulae
Generalisations
Maps
Equipment
Sound
Animation
Methods

History, Science,
Economics, Mathematics,
Geography, Commerce,
Biology, Physics, Civics,
Art, Music and so forth

Figure 4.5 Learning Outcomes

Desired by Learning a Subject
WHAT LEARNERS ARE ABLE
TO DO WITH THE CONTENTS
OF A SUBJECT

Compare
Explain
Evaluate
Solve

Analyse
Apply
Draw
Interpret

Predict
Reflect
Feel

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

Every subject, whether it be history, science, geography, economics, or

mathematics has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations,
theories, laws, procedures, methods, etc. that is you want learners to acquire. The
learning outcomes that you write for a lesson, topic or subject seeks to state what
learners will be able to do with these facts, concepts, principles, generalisations,
theories, laws, procedures, methods, etc (see Figure 4.5).
For example, what do you want students to do with the concepts of a subject.
Do you want them to explain the concept or apply the concept. Take another
example. You introduced students to a formula. What do you want them to do with
it? Do you want your students to simply state the formula or do you want your
students to solve a problem using the formula.
THE HELPFUL HUNDRED
Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs that may be
used in the development of learning outcomes which are observable and measurable.
This is not to say that these 100 verbs are the only ones but they definitely are a great
reference for educators. Table 4.2 below displays the verbs that would be appropriate
to use when you are writing learning outcomes at each level of Blooms taxonomy.

add
alphabetise
analyse
apply
arrange
assemble
attend
bisect
build
cave
categorise
choose
classify
color
compare
complete
compose

compute
conduct
construct
contrast
convert
correct
cut
deduce
defend
define
demonstrate
derive
describe
design
designate
diagram
distinguish

drill
estimate
evaluate
explain
extrapolate
fit
generate
graph
grasp
grind
hit
hold
identify
illustrate
indicate
install
kick

label
locate
make
manipulate
match
measure
modify
multiply
name
operate
order
organise
outline
pack
paint
plot
position

predict
prepare
present
produce
pronounce
read
reconstruct
reduce
remove
revise
select
sketch
ski
solve
sort
specify
square

Table 4.2 The Helpful Hundred

state
subtract
suggest
swing
tabulate
throw
time
translate
type
underline
verbalise
verify
weave
weigh
write

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

4.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is the difference between evaluate & create?

b) To what do Malaysian schools provide opportunity for
students to analyse and evaluate concepts & principles?
c) Are sufficient opportunities provided for students to be
creative in the Malaysian classroom?

4.9 CONCLUSION
In this chapter an E-Learning Framework was proposed involving the
interaction of three components technology design, content design and learning
design leading to realisation of several desired learning outcomes. In others words,
what knowledge students would acquire and what skills they would be able
demonstrate. Jonassen, Howland, Marra & Crismond (2008) proposed FIVE types of
learning outcomes while and Benjamin Bloom & associates way back in 1956
proposed SIX types of learning outcomes. Interestingly, Andrew Churches (2006)
proposed a Blooms Digital Taxonomy which emphasised Collaboration as a
separate element because collaboration is not a 21st century skills but is a 21st century
essential. Collaboration using technological tools is adopted throughout the six levels
to facilitate higher order thinking and learning. Collaboration is facilitated by tools
such as e-mail, chat rooms, video-conferencing, audio-conferencing, blogging,
twittering and others.
If we combine and accordingly adapt the two proposals, we get a more
comprehensive list of the desired learning outcomes of the E-Learning Framework
which are listed as follows:
NINE LOs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Remembering / Intentional
Understanding
Analysing
Applying
Evaluating / Critical thinking
Creating / Construction / Creative thinking
Collaborating / Cooperating
Authentic / Real-world situations
Active

In the chapters that follow, we will discuss how technology, content and learning is
designed or integrated to achieve the NINE LEARNING OUTCOMES.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

4.6 ACTIVITY

a) Do you agree that that Blooms taxonomy is a hierarchy

of cognitive abilities, which means one level should follow
before another?
b) How useful is the helpful hundred for learning outcomes
in you subject area?

KEY TERMS
E-Learning
Blended learning
Online learning
Instructivist
Self-paced
Consistency
Constructive

Collaborative
Learning outcomes
Meaningful learning
Authentic
Analysis
Evaluation
Active

SUMMARY

The emergence of web technologies and tools has seen a resurgence in the
adoption of e-learning in education and training.

E-learning has been used interchangeably with online learning, technologybased learning/ training, web-based learning /training and computer-based
training.

E-Learning is the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of

solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.

E-learning has certain benefits compared to traditional classroom teaching and

the most obvious being flexibility with learners not having to leave their place
of work or having to travel long distances.

Good e-Learning courses are self-instructional in that they allow the learners
to learn at his or her own pace accommodating the different learning styles of
learners through a variety of activities.

Learning is goal-directed, i.e. everything that we do is intended to fulfil some

goal.

Besides being active, the learner should be involved in the construction of

meaning on what they have learning.

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Chapter 4: E-Learning

Creating is often associated with creative thinking should be developed at all

levels of education.

Evaluating is often associated with critical thinking.

The helpful hundred suggested 100 verbs that may be used in the
development of learning outcomes which are observable and measurable.

Humans build knowledge in groups or as a community and in the real world,

humans work with others to help solve problems and perform tasks.

REFERENCES
Adam, S., 2004, Using Learning Outcomes, Report for United Kingdom Bologna
Seminar 1-2 July 2004, Heriot-Watt University (Edinburgh Conference Centre)
Edinburgh. Scotland.
Dror, I, Schmidt, P. & OConnor, L. (2011). A cognitive perspective on technology
enhanced learning in medical training: Great opportunities, pitfalls and challenges,
Medical Teacher. 33: 291296
Churches,
A.
(2009).
Blooms
Digital
Taxonomy.
http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/21st+Century+Learners

New

Zealand.

Jonassen, D., Howland, J., Marra, R. and Crismond, D. (2008). Meaningful learning
with technology. New Jersey: Pearson.