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Flipping to Teach the

Conceptual Foundations of
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Article January 2016
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BCQXXX10.1177/2329490615608847Business and Professional Communication QuarterlyFlipped Classrooms

Article

Flipping to Teach the

Conceptual Foundations
of Successful Workplace
Writing

Business and Professional

Communication Quarterly
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2015 by the Association for
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DOI: 10.1177/2329490615608847
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Kim Sydow Campbell1

Abstract
Flipping originated in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields, where
didactic transmission of conceptual knowledge has been the standard pedagogy.
Flipping has resulted in additional focus on procedural knowledge within class
meetings. This article argues that business and professional writing pedagogy, which
already focuses largely on procedural knowledge within class meetings, would benefit
from flipping because it could create an additional focus on conceptual knowledge
outside of the classroom. The article explains why we need to teach conceptual
foundations, why video is a good choice for that teaching, and what challenges we
face in creating those instructional videos.
Keywords
business writing, curriculum design, feedback, instructional interventions, knowledge
types, lectures, video, writing pedagogy

Introduction
Flipping is big. A Google search for the phrase flipped classroom in July of 2015
identified around 2.5 million results, an impressive number considering the earliest
references to it appear to be the now-famous 2006 YouTube videos by Salman Khan, a
2006 PowerPoint presentation (Tenneson & McGlasson, 2006), and a 2007 dissertation
(Strayer, 2007). In simple terms, flipping refers to inverting the in-class and out-ofclass activities of students (Lage, Platt, & Treglia, 2000). To understand the popularity
1University

of Alabama, USA

Corresponding Author:
Kim Sydow Campbell, University of Alabama, Box 870225, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0225, USA.
Email: kcampbel@cba.ua.edu

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Business and Professional Communication Quarterly

of flipping, it is important to note its originators were all involved in STEM (science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics) teaching. Because of the poor showing of
U.S. students in international comparisons of math and science competence, STEM
educators are under tremendous pressure to improve learning as measured by the
Programme for International Student Assessment (Ostler, 2012).
To explore the potential of flipping for business and professional writing education,
this article answers four questions: (a) What types of knowledge are emphasized in
teaching across disciplines? (b) Why do we need to teach conceptual knowledge about
business and professional writing? (c) Why should we use video to teach conceptual
knowledge? and (d) What are the challenges to flipping conceptual foundations of
business and professional writing?

What Types of Knowledge Are Emphasized in

Disciplinary Pedagogies?
Research in developmental psychology and cognitive science identifies the possession
and utilization of an organized body of conceptual and procedural knowledge as the
key to thinking and problem solving (Glaser, 1983, p. 12). Conceptual knowledge has
also been called declarative knowledge and knowledge about a topic, while procedural
knowledge has been called deep knowledge and knowledge of a topic (Day, Arthur, &
Gettman, 2001; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). Star (2000) argued convincingly that
both conceptual and procedural knowledge can be deep, as well as superficial. Because
of their closer connection with a professional practice, disciplines like business and
professional writing naturally lean toward a pedagogy focused on procedural knowledge of topics like message organization, while disciplines like biology lean toward a
pedagogy focused on conceptual knowledge of topics like cell organization.
Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Krathwohl, 2002) and Kolbs
Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb & Kolb, 2009) support the distinction between
conceptual and procedural knowledge. To illustrate, the discipline of biology is primarily concerned with conceptual knowledge about mitosis, which is different from
medicine, which has a related concern with procedural knowledge of choosing a chemotherapy dose that will inhibit mitosis. The basic conceptual knowledge of biology
is clear by scanning the table of contents for a basic textbook. However, the conceptual
knowledge for medicine is presented somewhat differently in a textbook, where the
emphasis is on how biochemistry is involved in understanding human diseases.
Regardless of when and how conceptual knowledge is presented to students, there is
evidence that it has a causal relationship with procedural knowledge (Rittle-Johnson
& Alibali, 1999).
Clearly, pedagogic norms differ by academic area (Berthiaume, 2009). STEM pedagogy has a relatively short history. As DeBoer (2000) wrote about the beginnings of
science education in 19th-century Europe and the United States,
The humanities were firmly entrenched as the subjects that were thought to lead to the
most noble and worthy educational outcomes. Scientists had to be careful when arguing

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Flipped Classrooms
the utility of science not to present science as too crassly materialistic and without higher
virtue. (p. 583)

STEM pedagogy was primarily focused on national security concerns by the post
World War II period (DeBoer, 2000). This focus, along with the growth of knowledge
from sponsored research in STEM areas, resulted in a default pedagogy of transmission consisting of too much repetition, copying notes from the board and a lack of
space for students to engage personally or discursively with the subject (Osborne,
2007, p. 176). Labs were created to provide active learning experiences about topics
like cell organization in biology, but didactic transmission of knowledge via the lecture has been standard practice. As Osborne (2007) wrote about the worldwide situation, science is taught as dogma and not as a body of knowledge to be approached,
discussed, and evaluated (p. 182).
In stark contrast, writing instruction in the United States has deep classical roots,
going back through the British educational system to the Roman practices focused on
Greek literature and rhetoric. Classical education may have taken place within a clear
power hierarchy, but it also demanded active student participation: recitation, Socratic
discussion, in-class writing, and other activities (Clarke, 1959). At the start of the 20th
century, an emphasis on professional preparation meant college English faculty began
teaching writing for journalism, public relations, agriculture, law, engineering, and
business; eventually, many formed or moved into other academic units across campus
(Adams, 1993). Regardless of its academic home, writing instruction has continued to
emphasize active student participation. Whether you visited a business and professional writing classroom in 1898 (Cuban, 1984), 1958 (Wallace, 1958), or today, you
would be unlikely to witness a meeting-long lecture by the instructor.
There is evidence that flipping adds to, rather than simply inverts, pedagogy in
STEM disciplines. From a comprehensive review of flipped classroom research,
Bishop and Verleger (2013) have concluded,
The flipped classroom label is most often assigned to courses that use activities made up
of asynchronous web-based video lectures and closed-ended problems or quizzes. In
many traditional courses, this represents all the instruction students ever get. Thus, the
flipped classroom actually represents an expansion of the curriculum, rather than a mere
re-arrangement of activities. (p. 4)

Thus, for flipped classrooms in STEM disciplines, there is now space during class
meetings to apply, analyze, and evaluate (Krathwohl, 2002) conceptual knowledge,
and that means a new focus on procedural knowledge.
Because of its close connection to both the humanities and to professional practice,
business and professional communication naturally leans toward a pedagogy focused
on procedural knowledge. As Brame (2013) wrote, The flipped classroom approach
has been used for years in some disciplines, notably within the humanities (What is
it? section, para. 1). One study of flipped classrooms across diverse disciplines (STEM,
social science, and humanities) discovered that students in the humanities course

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Business and Professional Communication Quarterly

perceived the flipped classroom as inauthentic because they were already engaged in
activities focusing on active, procedural knowledge inside the classroom (Kim, Kim,
Khera, & Getman, 2014). In order to provide evidence that flipping has potential value for
our business and professional communication classrooms, we need to identify what conceptual knowledge our students need. That will be the focus of the following section.

Why Do We Need to Teach Conceptual Foundations for

Writing?
Every teacher of business and professional writing knows that our raison dtre is
developing our students procedural knowledgeeven if we do not label it that way.
But what conceptual knowledge forms the foundation for that procedural knowledge?
One window on our disciplines conceptual knowledge is the feedback we provide
students on their writing performances. For example, if I tell my student the tone or the
organization of her draft email is not likely to be effective in meeting her goals, I am
providing formative feedback intended to diagnose a gap between her current and the
ideal performance. I intend the use of terms like tone and organization to transform knowledge of those concepts into instruction for this individual student in her
current performance (Parr & Timperley, 2010). I pursue the connection between conceptual knowledge and the quality of feedback on student writing in this section.
Research has established that writing teachers often provide feedback that is unclear
and unusable (Crews & Wilkinson, 2010; Ferris, 2014). In a small but instructive
study, think-aloud protocols of 12 students processing teacher feedback on a business
and professional writing assignment revealed that 40% of the total usability problems
identified were related to conceptual understanding (Still & Koerber, 2010).
Researchers provided the following examples:
Two students commented that they did not know the meaning of the term verb
tense. When asked about this problem during the posttest interview, both students confirmed that they were not familiar enough with this grammatical concept to make the fix themselves and would prefer that the instructor indicate the
correct verb tense instead of just pointing out the error.
One student commented that he did not know the meaning of pronoun reference. He confirmed in the posttest interview that he was unfamiliar with the
term and would prefer that the instructor offer a specific recommendation for
correcting the problem.
One student commented that she did not know what the instructor meant by
tone. When asked about this comment in the posttest interview, she claimed to
have a general understanding of the term but did not know how to improve that
aspect of her writing (Still & Koerber, 2010).
Not surprisingly, these students rarely attempted to interpret or use comments they
found unclear. We can conclude that simply naming the category of problem in our
feedback is unlikely to help our student writers.

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To improve feedback quality on writing performance, as well as teacher efficiency

(Kryder, 2003), instructors have long recommended rubrics. Use of rubrics promotes
learning and improves instruction partly because it makes foundational concepts
explicit (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007). Research shows the use of a common rubric in
multisection writing courses increased the quality of feedback (Dixon & Moxley,
2013).
Sadly, rubrics may be too vague to be useful to learners (Hyland, 2007). Furthermore,
in an insightful review of the research on rubrics for writing instruction, Sundeen
(2014) wrote, Although we may believe that it is a given that rubrics elements are
explicitly taught to students prior to beginning a writing task, the literature does not
support this assertion (p. 84). If I assign a low value/score for tone or organization on
a rubric with feedback on my students draft email, I assume she understands the concepts well enough to discern their relevance to improving her document. If I have not
taught her about reader-focused tone or bottom-line organization because I assume she
entered my classroom with the relevant conceptual knowledge, I have probably made
a mistake.
Explanations of feedback, including its conceptual foundations, influence an immediate performance and also translate to learning that influences future performances
(Ellis, 2009; Nelson & Schunn, 2009). To explain concepts like reader-focused tone or
bottom-line organization, many instructors refer students to outside sources (e.g.,
handbooks, etc.). Unfortunately, one writing handbook author lamented their inherent
limitations (Howard, 2002). To be comprehensive, handbooks and usage guides must
limit the amount of information they provide about any one concept; this has resulted
in what some have labeled reductive rhetoric (Gold, 2008). In the best of cases, my
student writer would find a definition and a brief example for a concept like bottomline organization in a handbook. While this might be sufficient to remind the student
of concepts she has already learned, it will not be enough instruction to help her learn
the conceptual foundations if she has not done so previously.
To summarize, conceptual knowledge about business and professional writing is
assumed, especially in our performance feedback, but not often explicitly taught.
Because those concepts are unclear to students, our feedback is often unclear and
unusable. Rubrics are incomplete solutions to the feedback quality problem because
explanations are critical for many students. Referring to sources like handbooks is an
incomplete solution because their explanatory content is generally more informative
than instructive. To make matters worse, creating those explanations ourselves for
individual student performances requires significant amounts of time, growing exponentially with the number of writers we are coaching. Discussing such conceptual
foundations in our classrooms would be ideal since we know that feedback on individual performances should reinforce what has been covered in the classroom
(Sommers, 1982). The challenge is that the amount of knowledge (both conceptual and
procedural) required to develop into a competent apprentice writer is too vast to talk
about comprehensively in a single college course. In addition, that knowledge is
unevenly distributed among the students in each of our classrooms. Some writers
acquire tacit procedural knowledge of concepts like reader-focused tone or bottom-line

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Business and Professional Communication Quarterly

organization without intention or awareness (Sternberg & Horvath, 1999). As educators, our obligation is to make such knowledge explicit for the other writers. The situation certainly suggests more instruction of the conceptual foundations of our feedback
would be beneficial for business and professional writing students, especially if it
could be delivered outside of class meetings.

Why Use Video to Teach Conceptual Knowledge?

For the reasons noted above, I have created dozens of videos to support my teaching.1
Let me briefly explain how I settled on video as the tool for flipping instruction in
conceptual foundations. Regardless of their discipline or other pedagogical beliefs,
instructors tend to agree that students learn best when first exposure to conceptual
knowledge occurs prior to its use within the classroom (Ben-Hur, 2006; Walvoord &
Anderson, 2009). This has been the impetus for assigning out-of-class readings from
textbooks or other written resources. Sadly, my own students noncompliance with
assigned reading appears to be the norm (Berry, Cook, Hill, & Stevens, 2010; Starcher
& Proffitt, 2011).
Along with reading, the lecture has a long history as a technique for building
conceptual knowledge. It is worth noting that negative comments about lecturing,
for example, in the LectureFail Project (Young, 2012), focus primarily on presenter performance quality: vocal characteristics, nonverbal behaviors, organizational structures, visual aids, and so on (Morton, 2009). With one important
exception, I have rarely lectured about anything in a business/professional writing
classroom, including conceptual knowledge, for as long as 15 minutes. The exception involved an experimental approach with a weekly 50-minute mass lecture
attended by hundreds of students, accompanied by weekly labs/studios with
smaller groups. That time period was the impetus for my own journey into flipping. I began recording my live lectures with Tegrity in 2008 to accommodate
students in the course who wanted to review them when absent, doing homework,
or studying for an exam.
Although the educational success of lecturing is now widely disparaged, the basic
tenets of the flipped classroom as developed within STEM do not include eliminating
them. Instead, lectures covering foundational STEM concepts are made available to
students outside of class meetings, normally as video (Bergmann & Sams, 2012;
Osborne, 2007; Ostler, 2012). Video has been used in education since the 1920s
(Reiser, 2001). Historically, videos most common pedagogic aim in business education has been to enhance student affect, most notably attention arousal or motivation
(Marx & Frost, 1998). However, there is growing evidence that undergraduate business students prefer to view conceptual material via out-of-class video rather than
completing assigned reading or attending live lectures (e.g., DiRienzo & Lilly, 2014;
Schullery, Reck, & Schullery, 2011). For me, the success of video is tied to the fact that
it can deliver a learning scaffold on demand or just in time, when students are engaged
in some activity for which conceptual knowledge is foundational or explanatory
(Campbell, 2012).

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Flipped Classrooms

What Are the Challenges to Flipping Conceptual

Foundations?
Now that I have presented my argument that using video to flip the instruction of conceptual material underlying performance feedback would be a welcome addition to business and professional writing pedagogy, let me document the challenges to doing so.

Challenge 1: Identifying and Developing Conceptual Material

The choice of concepts to flip should be determined by gaps in students knowledge.
One of the most significant gaps in my own students procedural knowledge of business and professional writing shows up in every diagnostic assignmentgetting the
bottom-line message in the right place for workplace readers. Likewise, nearly all of
my students struggle with achieving a businesslike tone. Thus, the conceptual foundations for bottom-line organization and reader-focused tone were priorities for my own
efforts at video development.
Once concepts are identified, you have to develop materials to teach them.
Specialized handbooks (Alred, Brusaw, & Oliu, 2011) or workbooks focused on revision
(Williams & Bizup, 2014) are potential sources. Because I am committed to providing
evidence-based instruction, I have based my videos as much as possible on published
research: for bottom-line organization (e.g., Campbell, Brammer, & Ervin, 1999; Fielden
& Dulek, 1984; Pagel & Westerfelhaus, 2005; Suchan & Colucci, 1989) and readerfocused tone (e.g., Brown & Levinson, 1987; Campbell, Riley, & Parker, 1990; Riley,
1988; Thayer, Evans, McBride, Queen, & Spyridakis, 2010). My own videos supplement a revision workbook that contains explanatory material and exercises based on an
overlapping body of research (Riley, Campbell, Manning, & Parker, 2011).

Challenge 2: Designing and Producing Videos

There are many resources available to address this challenge (e.g., Deakin Learning
Futures, 2014; Telg, 2009), probably including instructional technology experts on
your own campus. The technical tools I have used to create and produce videos are
widely available and relatively low cost because they can be purchased with educational licenses. I have primarily used Prezi Desktop, a cloud-based presentation software, to create the visual components. Camtasia Studio 7.1 was used to record audio
on a laptop computer with a microphone and also to edit the audiovisual recording and
produce the videos as mp4 files, which can be hosted on an institutional site (e.g., a
learning management system) or another website, such as YouTube.
The time required to design and produce instructional videos is significant. Many
instructional designers use estimates from a survey of nearly 4,000 designers conducted by Chapman Alliance, which found each minute of basic (noninteractive)
audiovisual content required between 50 and 125 minutes to create (Chapman, 2010).
Before you begin flipping with video, you should know what the institutional rewards
for your time commitment would be.

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Business and Professional Communication Quarterly

No doubt one of the reasons research has not provided unequivocally positive
results for video lectures in flipped classrooms (DeSantis, Van Curen, Putsch, &
Metzger, 2015) is that designing and producing video is a new skill for faculty.
Instructional designers at one university noted that most videos, like my initial videos
of live lectures, embody a primarily transmissive or didactic approach because they
are relatively straightforward and efficient for teachers and institutions to create
(Thomson, Bridgstock, & Willems, 2014). Thomson etal. (2014) provided four guidelines to making effective educational videos:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Tell (show!) a visual story.

Present with authenticity (requires on-camera confidence and presence).
Keep it short and to the point (average YouTube video is ~4 minutes).
Give context and align purpose outside the video itself.

When I began this flipping journey, my videos reflected only my attempt to be a

good live presenter, which meant managing vocal characteristics, nonverbal behaviors, organizational structures, visual aids, and so on (Morton, 2009). After I realized
my live lectures were not nearly as narrative or as visual as they needed to be to work
as stand-alone videos (Guideline 1), I began planning them differently and recording
them in my office in 2012, gradually replacing the ones recorded live. I attempted to
overcome the limits of my live lectures by framing each video with a story about a
specific document. For example, my video on tone revolves around an email from a
financial services company to customers.
Authenticity took care of itself when I was recording lectures I gave in front of a
live audience (Guideline 2). However, when I began producing video tutorials from
my office, I made a conscious choice not to record my talking head, partly because
of my lack of experience on camera. Instead, I wrote a script in which I spoke to students as if they were present and practiced performing the voice-over before recording
the audio that plays with the animated visual content.
I have room for improvement where video length is concerned (Guideline 3). Over
time, their length has decreasedfrom around 45 minutes for the lectures recorded
live to under 15 minutes for the recorded tutorials, the time limit research suggests is
the maximum for an adult attention span (Middendorf & Kalish, 1996). I have produced one conceptual video with PowToon (also free for educators), which runs in
around 8 minutes. For my next video, I will follow the guidelines by cutting more
content and moving all contextual information out of each video and onto the surrounding webpage (Guideline 4), which should reduce the playing time of each by at
least a couple of minutes.

Challenge 3: Overcoming Resistance

One reason our students lack conceptual knowledge about writing is that explicit
instruction in foundational writing concepts has been a controversial pedagogic choice
for U.S. faculty at all levels since the 1970s (Howard, 2002; Villanueva, 2003). Writing

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Flipped Classrooms

experts have said focusing on grammar or style, for example, is counterproductive

(Hillocks, 1987). Similarly, instructional scaffolding should be provided without
extensive analysis of component skills (Applebee & Langer, 1983, p. 168).
Nevertheless, some business and professional communication scholars do incorporate
a conceptual approach into their pedagogy (e.g., Ortiz, 2013; Schultz, 2013; Yunxia,
2000). The key seems to be recognition that conceptual knowledge is necessary but
not sufficient for gains in procedural knowledge (Parker & Campbell, 1993; Sternberg
& Horvath, 1999).
Partly because most of my students have not learned the conceptual foundations
underlying writing feedback before they enter college, some resist learning them in my
classroom. Many do not automatically concede their own struggles. As other business
and professional writing instructors have noted, however,
We found, ironically, that some of the students who complained the most about the
remedial nature of the exercises were students who did not complete them correctly.
Perhaps not surprisingly, these were also some of the students who produced the weakest
writing in our classes. (Wolfe, Britt, & Poe Alexander, 2011, p. 148)

My experience confirms that those who are most resistant to conceptual material tend
to be the worst writers.
Learning foundational concepts of any sort is not easy or fun. As Ericsson etal.
(1993) explained,
Let us briefly illustrate the differences between work and deliberate practice. During a
3-hr baseball game, a batter may get only 5-15 pitches (perhaps one or two relevant to a
particular weakness), whereas during optimal practice of the same duration, a batter
working with a dedicated pitcher has several hundred batting opportunities, where this
weakness can be systematically explored. . . . In contrast to play, deliberate practice is a
highly structured activity, the explicit goal of which is to improve performance. Specific
tasks are invented to overcome weaknesses, and performance is carefully monitored to
provide cues for ways to improve it further. We claim that deliberate practice requires
effort and is not inherently enjoyable. Individuals are motivated to practice because
practice improves performance. (p. 368)

For motivational purposes, it is crucial that my students deliberate practice with concepts is linked to their future goals or activities. For example, when I return feedback
on my students diagnostic (preinstruction) writing, I use a rubric with links to relevant
videos2 and highlight those I have identified as areas for their personal development as
successful professionals.
For me, resistance from neither my colleagues nor my students has been sufficient
to deter me from offering my students the deliberate practice that is necessary for their
professional success. I have found solace in the work of educational psychologists,
who use empirical evidence to refute the urban legend pervading contemporary education that novices know best what they need and should be in control of their own learning (Kirschner & van Merrinboer, 2013).

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Conclusions
I began this article by clarifying the roots of the flipped classroom within STEM fields
because their disciplinary pedagogy of didactic transmission through lectures has a
distinct history from that of business and professional writing. For flipped classrooms
in STEM disciplines, a focus on procedural knowledge of concepts inside the classroom is an addition to, rather than an inversion of, standard instruction. In contrast,
because of our roots in classical education, business and professional writing pedagogy already focuses on active student participation inside the classroom.
I presented evidence we are wrong to assume our students have the requisite conceptual knowledge to use our feedback on their writing performances. I also noted
that, while useful, rubrics and handbooks are incomplete solutions to the feedback
quality problem. Because discussing all of the relevant, conceptual foundations for
writing in our classrooms is impossible, more out-of-class instruction is warranted.
Thus, building conceptual knowledge through videos also represents more addition to
than inversion of our business and professional writing pedagogy.
I ended with an explication of three challenges to flipping instruction of conceptual
foundations for our business and professional writing students: (a) identifying and
developing conceptual materials to flip, (b) designing and producing instructional videos, and (c) overcoming faculty and student resistance. While the challenges are real,
the potential rewards are great.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

Notes
1.
2.

Many of these videos can be viewed at http://proswrite.com/videos/.

Readers can view a sample at http://proswrite.com/2014/08/18/3-guidelines-for-coachingnovice-workplace-writers/.

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Author Biography
Kim Sydow Campbell is a professor of management communication in the Culverhouse
College of Commerce. As a linguist who studies workplace language, she earned the title of
Kitty O. Locker Outstanding Researcher from ABC. She served as editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Professional Communication for 10 years.

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