Journal of Ship Production, Vol. 19, No. 2, May 2003, pp.

76-83

Elimination of Bowing Distortion in Welded Stiffeners

M. V. Deo* and P. Michaleris t

*Graduate Student, Department of Mechanica/ and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsy/vania, USA.
tAssociate Professor, Department of Mechanica/ and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsy/vania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.

Welding induces residual stresses in welded T-type stiffeners causing bowing (camber) distortion. Reducing the welding heat input or increasing the structural stiffness
reduces or eliminates bowing distortion. However, where the structure geometry and
weld size are fixed because of the design constraints, a transient differential heating
process is effective in reducing bowing distortion. This paper presents an experimental verification and demonstration of transient differential heating for minimizing welding-induced bowing distortion in welded stiffeners. Conventional welding is carried
out to demonstrate bowing distortion and establish a baseline case. Bowing distortion
is eliminated using transient differential heating during welding using the same welding conditions. Residual stress measurements are taken using the blind hole drilling
method, and a comparison of residual stresses for the baseline stiffener and for the
stiffener with transient differential heating is presented.

Introduction

tion or bowing distortion is significant in fabricating T-type stiffeners.

IN THE shipbuilding industry, T-shaped stiffeners are manufactured by "cutting" or "stripping" from standard 1-beams. This
process has several disadvantages. First, considerable amount of
scrap is produced in the process of stripping. Second, flexibility in
the selection of the size and the material for the stiffener is restricted by the availability of the standard I-beams. To achieve
reduction in the overall weight of the ships, use of thinner section
components made of higher strength steel is desirable. Welding of
plates to fabricate stiffeners instead of stripping from standard
I-beams will lead to considerable savings by eliminating the scrap
parts. Furthermore, it will introduce flexibility in the selection of
the material and geometry of the stiffener.
Welding induces residual stresses, which result in distortion due
to buckling, bowing, and angular change, as discussed in detail by
Masubuchi (1980) (Fig. 1). In the case of the fabrication of T-type
stiffeners, the weld line does not coincide with the neutral axis of
the stiffener. When the weld line does not coincide with the neutral axis of the weld structure, longitudinal shrinkage of the weld
metal induces bending moments, resulting in longitudinal bending
distortion of the structure. Therefore, longitudinal bending distor-

Manuscript received by JSP Committee April 2002; revised January 2003;

accepted February 2003.
76

MAY 2003

Residual stress and bowing distortion

During welding, the high temperature at the weld region causes
compressive stress because of the thermal expansion in this region
and restraint by the surrounding metal at lower temperature. The
yield strength of A36 steel is 36 ksi (250 MPa) at room temperature, and it gradually drops with increasing temperature (Michaleris & DeBiccari 1996, Deo et al 2002). The yield stress is low
due to the local high temperatures during welding. Therefore, the
compressive stress in the weld zone exceeds the yield stress at the
corresponding temperature. The material plastifies near the weld,
and compressive plastic strains are produced in this region.
At the completion of the welding cycle, the temperature drops
to room temperature. The stress pattern reverses from compressive
to tensile at locations that have plastified during welding, and
residual stress is developed at the material yield level (at room
temperature) in the weld region. Figure 2 shows the distribution of
residual stress in the web of the stiffener. High longitudinal tensile
stresses at the weld region cause longitudinal bending or bowing
of the stiffener. Away from the weld, residual stress is compressive in equilibrium with tensile stress at the weld region. Again at
the upper edge of the web, the stresses are tensile. These tensile
stresses are caused by longitudinal bending distortion.

8756/1417103/1902-0076500.41/0

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

7
/

Buckling

Bowing
Fig. 1

Angular

Distortion modes in welding (Vanli & Michaleris 2001)

eners was found to be large as predicted. For a 101.6-mm (4-in.)

flange, 101.6-mm (4-in.) web, 4.76 mm (3/16 in.) thick, 1,219.2
mm (48 in.) long stiffener, the bowing distortion was measured to
be 5.7 mm during the experiments carried out on ASTM AH36
steel using double fillet gas metal arc welding and was predicted
to be 142.25 mm for a 5,880 mm (20 ft) long stiffener (Deo &
Michaleris 2002).

Mitigation of bowing distortion

Fig. 2

Distribution of residual stress in the web of the stiffener

Many investigators (Nagraj Rao et al 1964, Dawes 1965, Alpsten & Tall 1970) studied residual stresses in welded shapes.
Dawes (1965) analyzed residual stresses in welded I-beam connections. Nagraj Rao et al (1964) studied residual stresses in
welded shapes. Sasayama et al (1955) investigated the longitudinal distortion of steel caused in fillet welding of T-bars in low
carbon steel.
Vanli and Michaleris (2001) investigated the distortion of
welded stiffeners with a particular emphasis on the prediction of
bowing, buckling, and angular distortion using the decoupled twoand three-dimensional finite element analysis technique developed
by Michaleris (Michaleris & DeBiccari 1996, Michaleris & DeBiccari 1997, Deo et al 2002). Bowing distortion was predicted in
large magnitude. Deo and Michaleris (2002) verified the two- and
three-dimensional finite element analysis technique for the stiffeners using experimental data. The bowing distortion in the stiffMAY 2003

In shipbuilding, the stiffeners are joined to the panels with fillet

welding along the free edge of the web. Thus, the straightness of
this edge after the stiffener fabrication process is important for the
quality of the fit-up between the stiffener and the panel. However,
because of the large amount of bowing distortion induced by
welding of the stiffeners, it is not possible to use the conventional
welding process for the fabrication of the stiffeners. Reducing the
welding heat input or modifying the structural configuration reduces the welding-induced distortion (Masubuchi 1980, Terai
1978, Michaleris & DeBiccari 1996). However, design considerations impose limits on such modifications.
Masubuchi (1980) proposed "differential heating" for reducing
bowing distortion. This technique involves the creation of a temperature difference between the parts to be welded. The preheated
part cools and contracts more than the part that is not preheated,
resulting in a reduction in bowing distortion. Serotta (1975) conducted experiments to demonstrate reduction in bowing distortion
caused by differential heating. However, this technique requires
preheating of a part before welding can commence. This leads to
longer cycle time, resulting in a reduced production rate. Also, for
longer components, such as stiffeners, this process is not practical,
because preheating a 5,880 mm (20 ft) long part and then welding
it while the entire length of the part is still at a high temperature
is not possible.
Reduction of compressive stress in the weld region during welding will result in the reduction of compressive plastic strains and
residual stresses. Longitudinal tensile strain may be applied during
welding so as to reduce compressive stresses and compressive
plastic strain in the weld region. Over the past 20 years, mechaniJOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

77

cal tensioning (Masubuchi 1980, Terai 1978) and thermal tensioning (Ya et al 1977, Ya et al 1979, Michaleris & Sun 1996, Michaleris et al 1999) have been suggested for controlling welding
residual stress and hence distortion. These tensioning processes
involve generating tensile strain at the weld zone during welding
by either mechanical tensioning or by imposing a preset temperature gradient.
Mechanical tensioning has been studied in detail by the engineers at Kawasaki Heavy Industries (Terai 1978). In this method,
the p.ane! is stretqhed mechanically while it is being welded. When
the stretching load is released after welding, the plate shrinks and
t.h.ere is reduction in the amount of residual stress in the plate. This
method is effective when a thin sheet is welded to a rigid-framed
structure where the plate takes only tensile residual stresses,
whereas the frame takes compressive residual stresses after the
st.retching is removed. However, large forces are needed for
stretching l.arge panels, making the setup heavier. Furthermore,
industrial implementation of this method is impractical, because
the setup will become complex and very large forces will be
needed for large panels.
Effective application of longitudinal tensile strain in the web
plate will result in the elimination of bowing distortion. The longitudinal tensile strain can be applied by mechanical or thermal
tensioning. A mechanical tensioning method is impractical for
industrial implementation because it requires large forces and a
complex setup. Thermal tensioning is efficient, and industrial
implementation of this process is possible because of the localized
heating. Following the work of Deo and Michaleris (2002), a
scheme of side heating the web plate using a moving heat source
to induce tensile strain in the web plate while it is being welded is
proposed in this research (Fig. 6). This process of side heating will
be called transient differential heating. To enable inducing tensile
strain by heating, it is proposed that no tack welds should be
applied to allow the relative movement between the web plate and
flange. This will lead to expansion of the web during welding as
compared to the unheated flange. During cooling, the web will
contract, and therefore it will introduce a bowing distortion on the
stiffener in the negative direction (Fig. 3a) as compared to the
bowing distortion of the welding process (Fig. 3b). Once the transient differential heating is tuned to have equal magnitude but
opposite direction bowing direction, the two distortion modes will
cancel each other, and the stiffener will have zero bowing distortion (Fig. 3c).
Experimental verification of the proposed theory of reduction in
bowing distortion of stiffeners using transient differential heating
of the web plate is carried out in this work. The effect of different
side heating t.emperatures and tack welding schemes on the bowing distortion of the stiffener is studied, Welding conditions, specimen geometry, heating conditions, and the data acquisition
scheme are presented in detail for easy reproduction.

Experimental verification
A double fillet weld on a stiffene_r made up of ASTM A36 steel
is chosen for this investigation. Figure 4 and Table 1 illustrate the
geometry of the stiffener. Both the web and the flange are 4.76
mm (3/16in.) thick, 101.6 mm (4 in.) wide, and 1,219.2 mm (48 in.)
long. Applications of this stiffener in shipbuilding are discussed in
Michaleris and DeBiccari (1996, 1997). Furthermore, as demonstrated in Deo and Michaleris (2002), manufacturing this stiffener
78

MAY 2003

a)

b)

CONVENTIONAL WELDING

TRANSIENT DIFFERENTIAL HEATING

C) ELIMINATION OF BOWING DISTORTION

Fig. 3

Effects of welding and heating on the web plate

A"~
Web

tw

Flange

Bw

__

j
Y

Fig. 4

I__
tF

2B F
Dimensions of the T-type fillet welded stiffener

by welding plates results in significant camber distortion, and

therefore the stiffener is a good choice for demonstrating welding
distortion mitigation techniques. Figure 5 shows the stiffener web
plate held horizontally with screws and rammed down with pneumatic cylinders during welding. The stiffener flange is supported
by a copper plate for rapid postwelding cooling and for avoiding
welding of specimen to the base iron table.

Welding conditions
Constant voltage metal inert gas welding is carried out. Carbon
steel filler metal bare (ER70S-6) welding electrode conforming to
AWS specification A5.18 (Cary 1998, American Welding Society
:2000) of I. 143 mm (0.045 in.) dia is used with a mixture of 75/25
argon and carbon dioxide shielding gas. The welding conditions
are set to give short circuiting transfer mode of the welding (Lincoln Electric 1998). Doublet fillet welds of size 3.97 mm (5/32 in.)
are carried out with dual torches by a gas metal arc welding
JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

Table 1
Bw

101.6 mm (4 in.)

Specimen geometry for all cases

tw

2 B l.

4.76 mm (3/,~, in.)

101.6 mm (4 in.)

................ 7 ' 7 7 7 T r

Length

t~

4.76 mm

(Y,,

in.)

1.219.2 mm (48 in.)

in./min) and an electrical stickout of 19.05 mm (3/4 in.). A gas flow

of cubic .99 m (35 ft) per hour is used for shielding. A push angle
of 15 deg is used between the gun and the vertical plane. In order
to carry out double fillet welding, there is one welding gun on
either side of the stiffener web plate. The guns are 88.9 m m (3.5
inA offset from each other with one gun following the other, as
shown in Figs. 5 and 6. No water or forced air cooling is applied
during or after the welding.

---

Experimental setup
The experimental arrangements and welding conditions for all
the cases are summarized in Table 2 and discussed in detail in this
section.

Case 1: baseline, as welded stiffener

Fig. 5 Experimental setup for double fillet welding
process. Wire feed speed of 8,890 mm/min (350 in./min) at a
travel speed of 381 mm/min (15 in./min) is used to give approximately 200 amperes welding current at 24 volts (Cary 1998,
American Welding Society 2000).
A linear motion device is used for obtaining constant velocity of
welding and for maintaining a constant stickout through the weld.
The travel speed for all welds is maintained at 381 ram/rain (15

In order to establish the baseline data for the amount of residual

stresses and the distortion induced by conventional welding in a
welded stiffener, double fillet welding is carried out using a conventional process in this case. Welding is carried out as per the
welding conditions stated earlier and illustrated in Table 2. The
web and flange plates are tack welded before making a double
fillet weld. Tack welds of approximately 3.97 mm (%2 in.) leg size
and approximately 4.76 mm (3/16 in.) length are applied at both
ends of the stiffener. Figure 5 shows the experimental setup for
this case.

~4

WEL

Fig. 6
MAY 2003

Experimental setup for double fillet welding with side heating (dimensions in inches)
JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

79

Table 2

Case

1
2
3
4
5
6

Welding and heating conditions for all cases

Weld
Travel Speed.
Size,
mm/min
mm (in.) Volts Amps
(in./min)
3.97 PAN
3.97 (%-9
3.97 (%2)
3.97 (%e)
3.97 (%9
3.97 (%:)

24
24
24
24
24
24

200
200
200
20(/
200
200

381 (15)
381 (15)
381 (15)
381 (15)
38I (15)
381 (15)

Whether
Side Heated
No
No
Yes (140 deg C)
Yes (140 deg C)
Yes (125 deg C)
Yes (160 deg C)

2:3S

Whether
Tack
Welded
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No

" 51

Ssse 5

---

?ase

.......

"TP

--

, y"-.

........ ;;----.

..........

I0C

........2
E
qJ
50

Case 2: stiffener welded without tack welds

To identify the effects of tack welds on the amount of bowing
distortion, the welding is performed as per the baseline case (case
1) using the same welding conditions. However, the tack welds are
not applied before the double fillet welds. The same welding setup
as in case 1 is used.

.........

i .........
10

....5eld
Fig 7.

i .........
20

i .........
30

i .........
40

, .........
50

i .........
60

, .........
70

Pos:tion =(rnm)

, .........
80

, .........
93

17;:

: ' e e E:ae

Temperature distribution across the stiffener height

Case 3: welding with side heating (140 deg C) and

tack welds
To investigate the effects of side heating on bowing distortion
and residual stresses induced by welding in a stiffener, in addition
to the setup used for the baseline stiffener welding (case 1), a side
heater is used along with the welding guns. Figure 6 shows the
side heater leading the welding guns. The heater is a 152.4 mm x
25.4 mm (6 in. x 1 in.) rectangular flame heater using propane as
the fuel. The heater geometry is based on the availability of heaters. The leading welding gun follows the heater by 50.8 mm (2
in.). Figure 8 shows the arrangement for welding with side heating. A horizontal distance of 38.1 mm (1.5 in.) is maintained
between the heater and the web plate, and a vertical distance of
38.1 mm (1.5 in.) is kept between the stiffener flange and the
heater. The heater is attached to the same linear motion device as
the welding guns and travels with the same speed. Similarly to the
baseline case, in this case also, the plates are tack welded to each
other before carrying out double fillet welds. Tack welds of approximately 3.97 mm (%2 in.) leg size and approximately 4.76
mm (3A6 in.) length are applied at both ends of the stiffener.
Welding is carried out as per the welding conditions stated
earlier along with side heating. The heater power is set in order to
give 140 deg C peak temperature at the unheated surface of the
web plate. Figure 7 shows the temperature distribution across the
stiffener height when the peak temperature of 140 deg C is obtained.

Fig. 8

Experimental setup for double fillet welding with side heating

Case 5 and case 6: welding with side heating (125 deg C and
160 deg C) without tack welds
To study the tuning effect of the side heating temperature on
bowing distortion in a welded stiffener, welding is carried out
without tack welds on the stiffener with different heater settings.
The heater power is set in order to give 125 deg C peak temperature in case 5 and 160 deg C in case 6 at the unheated surface of
the web plate. The positioning of the heater and the welding conditions in case 5 and case 6 are identical to the previous case.
Figure 7 shows the temperature distribution across the stiffener
height.

Stress, distortion, and temperature measurement

Case 4: welding with side heating (140 deg C) without
tack welds
To study the effect of welding with side heating on a stiffener
where no tack welds are applied, welding is carried out without
tack welds on the stiffener. Figure 8 shows the arrangement for
welding with side heating in this case. The heater power is maintained to give 14(1 deg C peak temperature at the unheated surface
of the web plate. The positioning of the heater, the amount of heat
applied through the heater, and the welding conditions are identical to the previous case.
80

MAY 2003

The blind hole drilling method is used to measure residual

stress. EA-06-062RE-120 rosette strain gauges manufactured by
Micro-Measurements are used. This is a general-purpose constantan grid open-faced strain gauge with 0.03 mm thick flexible polymide backing. The gauge length is 1.5748 mm (0.062 in.). and the
grid centerline diameter is 5.1308 mm (0.202 in.). The gauge has
a 2.032-mm (0.08-in.) diameter hole in the center for the drill to
pass through. Calibration of the gauges is carried out using the
procedure described in the manufacturer engineering data sheet
U059-07 and technical note 503. This procedure fbllows the
JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

guidelines set by ASTM E837, Determining Residual Stresses by

the Hole Drilling Strain Gage Method. A pneumatically driven
drill of 1.524 mm (0.06 in.) diameter is used for producing 1.524
mm (0.06 in.) deep blind holes.
Vernier calipers and a straight edge are used for the distortion
measurement. The welded specimen is placed on a straight edge
with the stiffener flange against the straight edge, and bowing
distortion measurements are taken at different locations on the
stiffener flange.
Temperature measurements are taken by using spot-welded Jtype thermocouples. A National Instruments SCXI 1000 chasis
and multiplexer with cable and PCI6035E DAC board, along with
a National Instruments SCXI 1102, 32 channel thermocouple
module and SCXI 1314 terminal block, are used to record the
temperature readings on a personal computer.

12
...........

24

i ...........

56

i ...........

48

i ...........

XCase 1
~Case 4
ACase 5
eCose 6

"~

Results

200

400

600

800

1000

! 200

1400

Position (ram)

Table 3 summarizes the results for all the cases. Figure 9 illustrates bowing distortion measurements taken using vernier calipers at five points along each stiffener. A graphic symbol is used
to denote the location and magnitude of each measurement. The
symbols are connected with straight lines. However, the stiffeners
have a smooth bowing distortion across the stiffener length, as
illustrated in the photographs of Figs. t0 to 13.

Fig. 9

Bowingdistribution in welded stiffeners

Case 1: baseline, as welded stiffener

Figure 10 shows the stiffener in case 1 after welding. A light
source is kept behind the welded stiffener. The light rays passing
from below the stiffener except at the ends illustrate the bowing
distortion. This stiffener shows both angular and bowing distortion. There is no buckling distortion. A straight edge is used for the
measurement of bowing distortion. The bowing distortion at the
plate mid-span in this case is 5.7 mm. The residual stress measurement is taken by the blind hole drilling method. The longitudinal residual stress in the stiffener at point A in Fig. 4 is measured
to be 130 MPa. Figure 9 illustrates the bowing distortion measurements in case 1. Table 3 lists the amount of residual stress and
bowing distortion in this case.

Case 2: stiffener welded without tack welds

This stiffener shows both angular and bowing distortion. There
is no buckling distortion. The bowing distortion at the plate midTable 3

Bowing of the stiffener in baseline case with conventional

welding (case 1)

span is 5.7 mm. The stiffener welded without tack welds in case
2 shows the same amount of bowing distortion (Figs. 9 and 10).
The residual stress readings are not taken because the bowing
distortion shows no change. Welding without tack welds does not
result in reduction of bowing distortion. Table 3 lists the amount
of bowing distortion in this case.

Results table for all cases

Case

Residual Stress
at Point
A in Fig. 4
(MPa)

Whether
Side Heated

Whether
Tack Welded

Whether
Bowing
Distortion
Present

1
2
3
4
5
6

130
*
*
35
*
*

No
No
Yes (140 deg C)
Yes (140 deg C)
Yes (125 deg C)
Yes (160 deg C)

Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No

Yes (5.7 mm)

Yes (5.7 mm)
Yes (5.2 mm)
No
Yes (3.5 mm)
No (-1.6 mm)

*Measurement not taken because the bowing distortion is present.

MAY 2003

Fig. 10

Case 3: welding with side heating (140 deg C) and

tack welds
The stiffener welded with tack welds and side heating shows
bowing and angular distortion in the stiffener and bending of the
web plate. The amount of bowing distortion is maximum at the
stiffener midspan, and that is 5.2 mm. Due to heating, the web
plate tends to expand. However, the tack welding does not allow
this expansion. As a result, the web plate has buckling distortion
as well. Figure 11 shows the web plate bent out of plane near one
end of the stiffener. The web plate is bent on the end of the
stiffener, which was welded last. Table 3 lists the amount of
bowing distortion in this case.
JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

81

Fig. 13

Fig. 11 Bending of the stiffener web plate in case 3 after welding with
transient differential heating (140 deg C) of tack-welded specimen

Negative bowing of stiffener in case 6 after welding with transient differential heating (160 deg C)

bowing distortion measurements of magnitude zero at all positions

in this case. Table 3 shows the comparison of residual stress and
bowing distortion in different cases. The residual stress in the
stiffener at point A in Fig. 4 is reduced from 130 MPa in conventional welding to 35 MPa in welding with side heating without
tack welds. The tensile stress at the upper edge of the web is the
result of bowing distortion. As the bowing distortion is reduce&
the tensile stress at the upper edge of the web also is reduced.

Case 5: welding with side heating (125 deg C) without

tack welds
The stiffener welded with a side-heating temperature of 125 deg
C shows reduction in bowing distortion as compared to conventional welding. However, the amount of heat input generates a
bowing distortion (Fig. 3a) of not enough magnitude to eliminate
the welding bowing distortion (Fig. 3b) completely. The net bowing distortion at the plate mid-span in this case is 3.5 nun. Figure
9 graphically shows the bowing distortion measurements in case 5.
Residual stress readings are not taken because the bowing distortion is not completely eliminated. Table 3 lists the amount of
bowing distortion in this case.

Case 6: welding with side heating (160 deg C) without

Fig. 12 Elimination of bowing distortion in welded stiffener in case 4
after welding with transient differential heating (140 deg C) of the specimen without tack welds

Case 4: welding with side heating (140 deg C) without

tack welds
Side heating of the web plate of the stiffener while welding
without tack welds induces no bowing distortion. Figure 12 shows
the stiffener after welding with side heating and no tack welding.
The stiffener after welding and cooling down has no bowing distortion. The residual stress is measured using the blind hole drilling method. The longitudinal residual stress in the stiffener at
point A in Fig. 4 is measured to be 35 MPa. Figure 9 shows
82

MAY 2003

tack welds
Figure 13 shows the stiffener in case 6 after welding. The stiffener in this case bows in the opposite direction after welding with
side heating at 160 deg C. A light source is kept behind the welded
stiffener. The light rays passing from below the stiffener ends
illustrate the bowing distortion in the opposite direction. As opposed to the bowing in case 1 where the stiffener center was lifted
due to bowing, the stiffener ends are lifted due to bowing in this
case. Maximum bowing distortion occurs at the stiffener ends
instead of at the stiffener midspan. The amount of bowing distortion at the stiffener ends is 1.6 mm. Residual stress readings are
not taken because the bowing distortion is not eliminated. Overheating overcompensates for the welding bowing distortion and
leads to bowing in the opposite direction, which is not desired
JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

either. Table 3 lists the amount of bowing distortion in this case.

Figure 9 shows the bowing distortion measurements in case 6
graphically.

Conclusions
This paper has presented a technique for the elimination of
welding-induced bowing distortion in welded T-type stiffeners by
transient differential heating using a moving heat source side heating the stiffener web plate. This resulted in the elimination of
bowing or longitudinal bending distortion.
Bowing distortion of large magnitude in welded T shapes
is caused by off neutral axis high residual tensile stress at the
welding zone.
Bowing distortion can be completely eliminated by transient differential heating using a moving heat source heating
the stiffener web plate during welding.
Relative longitudinal movement between the web and
flange due to heating during welding is needed for the application of transient differential heating. Therefore, tack welds
cannot be used.
Using the correct heater power is very important for the
elimination of bowing distortion. Overheating of the web will
lead to negative bowing, and underheating of the web plate will
result only in reduction o f b o w i n g distortion instead o f c o m plete elimination.
T h e r e is significant reduction in residual stress in the w e b
plate o f the stiffener w e l d e d w i t h o u t tack w e l d s and with side
h e a t i n g as c o m p a r e d to the stiffener w i t h o u t side heating.
T h e p r o c e s s o f transient differential heating can be easily
i m p l e m e n t e d in the industry for the fabrication o f stiffeners as
o p p o s e d to s t e a d y - s t a t e differential heating.

Acknowledgments
This work was funded by Office of Naval Research award
number N000140010645. Experimental work was made possible
by a donation of two Powerwave 455 STT welders by the Lincoln
Electric Company.

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